GEC 3

The Contemporary World

MIDTERM Coverage

Prepared by:
Luanne C. Salise
Richard Garcia
Mikael Dominik Abad
Joreann Domingo
Todd Coddy Aguilario
Arianne Ucag
College of Arts and Sciences
Chapter 2: History, Theories and Ideologies of Globalization
In This Lesson

 Discuss the periodization of globalization by considering when globalization began.

 Compare and contrast the three waves of globalization.
 Differentiate the competing theories of globalization.

Lesson 1: History of Globalization

Globalization is not a new phenomenon because there have been many instances in the periods in
history when there were contacts between diverse individuals and countries. However, the pace of
globalization has accelerated significantly over the last three decades. To know more about the
history/theories of globalization, read the ensuing articles in this lesson.
A Brief History of Globalization
World Economic Forum by Peter Vanham

When Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba in 2018 announced it had chosen the ancient city of
Xi’an as the site for its new regional headquarters, the symbolic value wasn’t lost on the company: it
had brought globalization to its ancient birthplace, the start of the old Silk Road. It named its new
offices aptly: “Silk Road Headquarters”. The city where globalization had started more than 2,000
years ago would also have a stake in globalization’s future.

Alibaba shouldn’t be alone in looking back. As we are entering a new, digital-driven era of
globalization – we call it “Globalization 4.0” – it is worthwhile that we do the same. When did
globalization start? What were its major phases? And where is it headed tomorrow?

This piece also caps our series on globalization. The series was written ahead of the 2019
Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum in Davos, which focuses on “Globalization 4.0”. In
previous pieces, we looked at some winners and losers of economic globalization, the environmental
aspect of globalization, cultural globalization and digital globalization. Now we look back at its history.
So, when did international trade start and how did it lead to globalization?
Silk roads (1st century BC-5th century AD, and 13th-14th centuries AD)

People have been trading goods for almost as long as they’ve been around. But as of the 1st
century BC, a remarkable phenomenon occurred. For the first time in history, luxury products from
China started to appear on the other edge of the Eurasian continent – in Rome. They got there after
being hauled for thousands of miles along the Silk Road. Trade had stopped being a local or regional
affair and started to become global.

That is not to say globalization had started in earnest. Silk was mostly a luxury good, and so
were the spices that were added to the intercontinental trade between Asia and Europe. As a
percentage of the total economy, the value of these exports was tiny, and many middlemen were
involved to get the goods to their destination. But global trade links were established, and for those
involved, it was a goldmine. From purchase price to final sales price, the multiple went in the dozens.
The Silk Road could prosper in part because two great empires dominated much of the route. If trade
was interrupted, it was most often because of blockades by local enemies of Rome or China. If the
Silk Road eventually closed, as it did after several centuries, the fall of the empires had everything to
do with it. And when it reopened in Marco Polo’s late medieval time, it was because the rise of a new
hegemonic empire: the Mongols. It is a pattern we’ll see throughout the history of trade: it thrives
when nations protect it, it falls when they don’t.
Spice routes (7th-15th centuries)

The next chapter in trade happened thanks to Islamic merchants. As the new religion spread
in all directions from its Arabian heartland in the 7th century, so did trade. The founder of Islam, the
prophet Mohammed, was famously a merchant, as was his wife Khadija. Trade was thus in the DNA
of the new religion and its followers, and that showed. By the early 9th century, Muslim traders
already dominated Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade; afterwards, they could be found as far
east as Indonesia, which over time became a Muslim-majority country, and as far west as Moorish
Spain.

The main focus of Islamic trade in those Middle Ages was spices. Unlike silk, spices were
traded mainly by sea since ancient times. But by the medieval era they had become the true focus of
international trade. Chief among them were the cloves, nutmeg and mace from the fabled Spice
islands – the Maluku islands in Indonesia. They were extremely expensive and in high demand, also
in Europe. But as with silk, they remained a luxury product, and trade remained relatively low
volume. Globalization still didn’t take off, but the original Belt (sea route) and Road (Silk Road) of
trade between East and West did now exist.

Age of Discovery (15th-18th centuries)

Truly global trade kicked off in the Age of Discovery. It was in this era, from the end of the
15th century onwards, that European explorers connected East and West – and accidentally
discovered the Americas. Aided by the discoveries of the so-called “Scientific Revolution” in the fields
of astronomy, mechanics, physics and shipping, the Portuguese, Spanish and later the Dutch and the
English first “discovered”, then subjugated, and finally integrated new lands in their economies.

The Age of Discovery rocked the world. The most (in)famous “discovery” is that of America by
Columbus, which all but ended pre-Colombian civilizations. But the most consequential exploration
was the circumnavigation by Magellan: it opened the door to the Spice islands, cutting out Arab and
Italian middlemen. While trade once again remained small compared to total GDP, it certainly altered
people’s lives. Potatoes, tomatoes, coffee and chocolate were introduced in Europe, and the price of
spices fell steeply.
Yet economists today still don’t truly regard this era as one of true globalization. Trade certainly
started to become global, and it had even been the main reason for starting the Age of Discovery.
But the resulting global economy was still very much siloed and lopsided. The European empires set
up global supply chains, but mostly with those colonies they owned. Moreover, their colonial model
was chiefly one of exploitation, including the shameful legacy of the slave trade. The empires thus
created both a mercantilist and a colonial economy, but not a truly globalized one.

First wave of globalization (19th century-1914)

This started to change with the first wave of globalization, which roughly occurred over the century
ending in 1914. By the end of the 18th century, Great Britain had started to dominate the world both
geographically, through the establishment of the British Empire, and technologically, with innovations
like the steam engine, the industrial weaving machine and more. It was the era of the First Industrial
Revolution.

The “British” Industrial Revolution made for a fantastic twin engine of global trade. On the one hand,
steamships and trains could transport goods over thousands of miles, both within countries and
across countries. On the other hand, its industrialization allowed Britain to make products that were
in demand all over the world, like iron, textiles and manufactured goods. “With its advanced
industrial technologies,” the BBC recently wrote, looking back to the era, “Britain was able to attack a
huge and rapidly expanding international market.”

The resulting globalization was obvious in the numbers. For about a century, trade grew on average
3% per year. That growth rate propelled exports from a share of 6% of global GDP in the early 19th
century, to 14% on the eve of World War I. As John Maynard Keynes, the economist, observed: “The
inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products
of the whole Earth, in such quantity as he might see fit, and reasonably expect their early delivery
upon his doorstep.”

And, Keynes also noted, a similar situation was also true in the world of investing. Those with the
means in New York, Paris, London or Berlin could also invest in internationally active joint stock
companies. One of those, the French Compagnie de Suez, constructed the Suez Canal, connecting
the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean and opened yet another artery of world trade. Others built
railways in India, or managed mines in African colonies. Foreign direct investment, too, was
globalizing.
While Britain was the country that benefited most from this globalization, as it had the most capital
and technology, others did too, by exporting other goods. The invention of the refrigerated cargo
ship or “reefer ship” in the 1870s, for example, allowed for countries like Argentina and Uruguay, to
enter their golden age. They started to mass export meat, from cattle grown on their vast lands.
Other countries, too, started to specialize their production in those fields in which they were most
competitive.

But the first wave of globalization and industrialization also coincided with darker events, too. By the
end of the 19th century, the Khan Academy notes, “most [globalizing and industrialized] European
nations grabbed for a piece of Africa, and by 1900 the only independent country left on the continent
was Ethiopia”. In a similarly negative vein, large countries like India, China, Mexico or Japan, which
were previously powers to reckon with, were not either not able or not allowed to adapt to the
industrial and global trends. Either the Western powers put restraints on their independent
development, or they were otherwise outcompeted because of their lack of access to capital or
technology. Finally, many workers in the industrialized nations also did not benefit from globalization,
their work commoditized by industrial machinery, or their output undercut by foreign imports.

The world wars

It was a situation that was bound to end in a major crisis, and it did. In 1914, the outbreak of World
War I brought an end to just about everything the burgeoning high society of the West had gotten so
used to, including globalization. The ravage was complete. Millions of soldiers died in battle, millions
of civilians died as collateral damage, war replaced trade, destruction replaced construction, and
countries closed their borders yet again.

In the years between the world wars, the financial markets, which were still connected in a global
web, caused a further breakdown of the global economy and its links. The Great Depression in the
US led to the end of the boom in South America, and a run on the banks in many other parts of the
world. Another world war followed in 1939-1945. By the end of World War II, trade as a percentage
of world GDP had fallen to 5% – a level not seen in more than a hundred years.

Second and third wave of globalization

The story of globalization, however, was not over. The end of the World War II marked a new
beginning for the global economy. Under the leadership of a new hegemon, the United States of
America, and aided by the technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution, like the car and the
plane, global trade started to rise once again. At first, this happened in two separate tracks, as the
Iron Curtain divided the world into two spheres of influence. But as of 1989, when the Iron Curtain
fell, globalization became a truly global phenomenon.

In the early decades after World War II, institutions like the European Union, and other free trade
vehicles championed by the US were responsible for much of the increase in international trade. In
the Soviet Union, there was a similar increase in trade, albeit through centralized planning rather
than the free market. The effect was profound. Worldwide, trade once again rose to 1914 levels: in
1989, export once again counted for 14% of global GDP. It was paired with a steep rise in middle-
class incomes in the West.
Then, when the wall dividing East and West fell in Germany, and the Soviet Union collapsed,
globalization became an all-conquering force. The newly created World Trade Organization (WTO)
encouraged nations all over the world to enter into free-trade agreements, and most of them did,
including many newly independent ones. In 2001, even China, which for the better part of the 20th
century had been a secluded, agrarian economy, became a member of the WTO, and started to
manufacture for the world. In this “new” world, the US set the tone and led the way, but many
others benefited in their slipstream.

At the same time, a new technology from the Third Industrial Revolution, the internet, connected
people all over the world in an even more direct way. The orders Keynes could place by phone in
1914 could now be placed over the internet. Instead of having them delivered in a few weeks, they
would arrive at one’s doorstep in a few days. What was more, the internet also allowed for a further
global integration of value chains. You could do R&D in one country, sourcing in others, production in
yet another, and distribution all over the world.

The result has been a globalization on steroids. In the 2000s, global exports reached a milestone, as
they rose to about a quarter of global GDP. Trade, the sum of imports and exports, consequentially
grew to about half of world GDP. In some countries, like Singapore, Belgium, or others, trade is
worth much more than 100% of GDP. A majority of global population has benefited from this: more
people than ever before belong to the global middle class, and hundreds of millions achieved that
status by participating in the global economy.

Globalization 4.0

That brings us to today, when a new wave of globalization is once again upon us. In a world
increasingly dominated by two global powers, the US and China, the new frontier of globalization is
the cyber world. The digital economy, in its infancy during the third wave of globalization, is now
becoming a force to reckon with through e-commerce, digital services, 3D printing. It is further
enabled by artificial intelligence, but threatened by cross-border hacking and cyber-attacks.

At the same time, a negative globalization is expanding too, through the global effect of climate
change. Pollution in one part of the world leads to extreme weather events in another. And the
cutting of forests in the few “green lungs” the world has left, like the Amazon rainforest, has a
further devastating effect on not just the world’s biodiversity, but its capacity to cope with hazardous
greenhouse gas emissions.

But as this new wave of globalization is reaching our shores, many of the world’s people are turning
their backs on it. In the West particularly, many middle-class workers are fed up with a political and
economic system that resulted in economic inequality, social instability, and – in some countries –
mass immigration, even if it also led to economic growth and cheaper products. Protectionism, trade
wars and immigration stops are once again the order of the day in many countries.

As a percentage of GDP, global exports have stalled and even started to go in reverse slightly. As a
political ideology, “globalism”, or the idea that one should take a global perspective, is on the wane.
And internationally, the power that propelled the world to its highest level of globalization ever, the
United States, is backing away from its role as policeman and trade champion of the world.
It was in this world that Chinese president Xi Jinping addressed the topic globalization in a speech in
Davos in January 2017. “Some blame economic globalization for the chaos in the world,” he said. “It
has now become the Pandora’s box in the eyes of many.” But, he continued, “we came to the
conclusion that integration into the global economy is a historical trend. [It] is the big ocean that you
cannot escape from.” He went on to propose a more inclusive globalization, and to rally nations to
join in China’s new project for international trade, “Belt and Road”.

It was in this world, too, that Alibaba a few months later opened its Silk Road
headquarters in Xi’an. It was meant as the logistical backbone for the e-commerce giant along the
new “Belt and Road”, the Paper reported. But if the old Silk Road thrived on the exports of luxurious
silk by camel and donkey, the new Alibaba Xi’an facility would be enabling a globalization of an
entirely different kind. It would double up as a big data college for its Alibaba Cloud services.
Technological progress, like globalization, is something you can’t run away from, it seems. But it is
ever changing. So how will Globalization 4.0 evolve? We will have to answer that question in the
coming years. (Vanham 2019)

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-globalization-4-0-fits-into-the-history-of-globalization/

Lesson 2: Theories of Globalization

Here are some theories and different perspectives about globalization. In general, globalization
is sharing of culture, money, products, between countries that is happening because of international
trade, and advances in transportation and communication. You might think that globalization is a
recent development but really international trade has influenced changes across borders for
centuries. Silk and spice trade routes through East Asia that began as early as the 1st century BCE,
introduced different cultures and linked the economies of different nations. Now, let us discuss some
theories of globalization.

1. The World-System Theory by Immanuel Wallerstein

World Systems Theory posits that there is a world economic system in which some countries
benefit while others are exploited.
Immanuel Wallerstein developed World Systems Theory and its three-level hierarchy: core,
periphery, and semi-periphery.
 Core countries are dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor
and raw materials.
 Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped
industry.
 Semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.
 World Systems Theory suggests that wealthy countries benefit from other countries and exploit
those countries’ citizens. This model recognizes the minimal benefits that are enjoyed by low status
countries in the world system. The theory originated with sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, who
suggests that the way a country is integrated into the capitalist world system determines how
economic development takes place in that country.
According to Wallerstein, the world economic system is divided into a hierarchy of three types of
countries: core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral. Core countries (e.g., U.S., Japan, Germany) are
dominant, capitalist countries characterized by high levels of industrialization and urbanization. Core
countries are capital intensive, have high wages and high technology production patterns and lower
amounts of labor exploitation and coercion. Peripheral countries (e.g., most African countries and low
income countries in South America) are dependent on core countries for capital and are less
industrialized and urbanized. Peripheral countries are usually agrarian, have low literacy rates and
lack consistent Internet access. Semi-peripheral countries (e.g., South Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, Brazil,
India, Nigeria, South Africa) are less developed than core nations but more developed than peripheral
nations. They are the buffer between core and peripheral countries.
Core countries own most of the world’s capital and technology and have great control over
world trade and economic agreements. They are also the cultural centers which attract artists and
intellectuals. Peripheral countries generally provide labor and materials to core countries. Semi-
peripheral countries exploit peripheral countries, just as core countries exploit both semi-peripheral
and peripheral countries. Core countries extract raw materials with little cost. They can also set the
prices for the agricultural products that peripheral countries export regardless of market prices,
forcing small farmers to abandon their fields because they can’t afford to pay for labor and fertilizer.
The wealthy in peripheral countries benefit from the labor of poor workers and from their own
economic relations with core country capitalists.
11th Century World System: In the 11th century, international production and trade was dominated by the exchange of silk, and thus countries
along the silk route were the dominant participants in the “world-system. ” Today, with vast communications and transportation technology, virtually
every society participates in the world-system as either a source of raw materials, production, or consumption.

2. The World Is Flat, The End of History, The Clash of Civilizations and The Coming
Chaos

Since the end of the Cold War, there have been fierce debates about the direction of world
politics and the world economy. Globalists focus on numerous integrative organizations such as the
UN, WTO, World Bank, International Monetary Fund. NAFTA, NATO and the EU, global MNC
activities, the rise of tens of thousands of NGOs and increased cross-cultural influences. However,
Barber’s Jihad vs. MacWorld and Friedman’s Lexus and the Olive Tree point out that there is also a
counter tendency for traditional cultures to resist the homogenizing effects of globalization and to
preserve local power, customs and lifestyles. Traditional local bosses have re-emerged in Yugoslavia,
Afghanistan and many other countries and affirmations of local culture are everywhere.
There is plenty of evidence for both tendencies. Countering all the integration is the fact that
53 of the 56 wars between 1990 and 2000 were civil wars, with local populations in Sudan,
Yugoslavia, Chechnya and other regions trying to separate from central governments. This is not to
mention Britain leaving the European Union and many other peaceful movements for local autonomy,
such as in Quebec, Scotland, Wales, Catalonia and Northern Italy.
As for global vs. local culture, many Iranians exchange text messages on the Internet,
watch forbidden cable TV shows produced by the Iranian community in the U.S., and wear sexy
western fashions at private parties. However, the Iranian government does its their best to resist
these outside influences, with government thugs harassing couples who hold hands, women whose
scarves show too much hair, or young people with ‘decadent’ clothing or hairstyles. Indian MTV has
rap music and sexy dancing, while militant Hindus enforce traditional culture by threatening people
who celebrate Valentine’s Day and killing people accused of eating beef. In Pakistan, the government
has sophisticated nuclear weapons, while mobs kill people accused of insulting the Koran. The second
and third generations of immigrants in many countries are torn between the culture of their ‘native’
land and the culture where they grew up. Some immigrant children start high-tech companies.
Others adopt militant Islam and carry out suicide attacks. Sometimes a blend is achieved. Many
marriages are now semi-arranged, with both parents and children having input.
Thomas Friedman's book The World is Flat looks at how globalization is now being driven by
technology, education and government policy (in contrast to Ricardo's theory of Comparative
Advantage, which emphasized climate, natural resources, capital and labor). Furthermore, Friedman
points out that the increased importance of these new factors means that any country, most recently
China and India, can develop very rapidly and pose challenges to the West. Indian and Chinese
engineers and computer scientists not only work cheaper - many have equal or superior skills to their
Western counterparts. Microsoft’s software development office in Beijing has filed more patents than
any other part of the company.
Samuel Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations says that the world’s different civilizations
(eight or nine of them, depending on the analysis) have basic differences in values, and thus will
always be in conflict. Critics point out that there has been just as much conflict within Huntington’s
civilizations (e.g. WWI and WWII in Europe, Sunnis vs. Shiites in the Muslim world) as between them,
and that ‘different’ civilizations such as Confucianism and Christianity also share many values such as
hard work, thrift and family.
In The End of History and the New Man, Francis Fukuyama claimed that the post-Cold
War era of globalized capitalism and prosperity would also inevitably bring democracy, improving the
political and economic life of the people it touches.
“What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period
of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's ideological
evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human
government."
It hasn’t exactly worked out that way. New dictators rose and communist leaders reinvented
themselves as nationalists and stayed in power. Strongmen were elected in Turkey, Poland, Hungary,
the Philippines and Brazil. Elections installed radical Islamic governments in Egypt and Gaza and
dictators like Venezuela’s Chavez and Russia’s Putin.
After being elected, Putin took over the media, set new election rules to exclude opponents,
made regional governors appointed instead of elected, and took over most of the large corporations
in the Russian economy, not to mention arresting and killing opponents. So much for the inevitability
of free market capitalism and democracy.
Similarly, in 1913 the Chinese government’s Document Number 9 explicitly rejected Constitutional
rights, the rule of law, free elections, the free press, free speech and other civil liberties. Since 2013,
Xi Jin Ping has jailed critics and their lawyers, closed or taken over the media, increased censorship,
required study of Communist ideology and increased support for government-owned corporations.
Not very democratic in spite of some capitalism.
In The Coming Chaos, Robert Kaplan is pessimistic on both politics and economics. Like
Friedman, he sees part of the world as globalizing and modernizing, but he points out that much of
Africa, the Middle East, South and Southwest Asia, the Andean nations and Central America remain
poor, violent, corrupt and misgoverned. There are so-called failed states, where the government is
corrupt and ineffective. In Somalia, the so-called government only controls a few square blocks of the
capitol city of Mogadishu, a multi-sided civil war rages in the rest of the country, and piracy operates
openly from its coastal cities. In Afghanistan, former President Hamid Karzai had so little power
outside the capitol that he was referred to as the Mayor of Kabul, and Taliban violence and massive
corruption at all levels of government continue today. Unfortunately, there are many other examples.
In the age of modern travel and communications, it is easy for violence from these areas to
spill over into the successfully globalized part of the world. In The Pentagon’s New Map, military
theorist Richard Barnett acknowledges the split and sees the U.S. role as helping to stabilize and
integrate these areas by giving them military assistance.

3. THE NETWORK SOCIETY BY MANUEL CASTELLS

A network society is a society whose social structure is made of networks powered by
microelectronics-based information and communication technologies.
This new economy is:
1. Informational, knowledge-based;
2. Global, in that production is organized on a global scale; and
3. Networked, in that productivity is generated through global networks of interaction.
The Internet constructs a new symbolic environment, global in its reach, which makes “virtuality
a reality”. Castells argues that globalization is a network of production, culture, and power that is
constantly shaped by advances in technology, which range from communications technologies to
genetic engineering.
Globalization represents a new ‘age of information’.
 The development of new information technology (IT), in particular, computers and the Internet,
representing a new technological paradigm and leading to a new ‘mode of development’ that
Castells terms ‘informationalism’.
Informationalism refers to a technological paradigm that replaces and subsumes the
previous paradigm of industrialism (Castells 1996). From metallurgy to transportation,
industrialism was marked by a revolution in materials engineering triggered by the Industrial
Revolution. Moreover, Informationalism is connected with the information revolution that begins
after World War II, covering developments associated with computer science and its various
expressions in electronics and telecommunication networks.

DISTINCT FEATURES OF THE NEW SYMBOLIC ENVIRONMENT

1. SPACE OF FLOWS, in which informational flows bring physical spaces closer through networks
2. TIMELESS TIME in which technology is able to manipulate the natural sequence of events, and
3. REAL VIRTUALITY based on a hypertext reality and global interconnection which bends space
and time relations.
CENTRAL THEME (Global Network Society)
The division of the world into those areas and segments of population
 switched on to the new technological system
 and those switched off or marginalized digital divide

For Castells, the advancement of the Information Age does not necessarily mean that the world
has become flat; rather, with technological advance, he argues, come new global forms of exclusion
and inclusion, fragmentation and integration.

4. THEORIES OF SPACE, PLACE AND GLOBALIZATION

4.1. TIME-SPACE DISTANCIATION BY ANTHONY GIDDENS
Giddens defines time-space distanciation as ‘the intensification of worldwide social
relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped
by events occurring many miles away and vice versa’ – social relations are ‘lifted out’ from
local contexts of interaction and restructured across time and space (1990: 64).

4.1.1. GLOBAL RISK SOCIETY (Anthony Giddens)

In Runaway World, Giddens provocatively argues that globalization has led to the creation of a
“global risk society.”
 Human social and economic activities, especially in modernity, produce various risks such as
pollution, crime, new illnesses, food shortages, market crashes, wars, etc., and societies have
become more responsible for managing these risks that their activities intentionally or, more
often than not, unintentionally produce.

4.2. ‘TIME-SPACE COMPRESSION’ BY DAVID HARVEY

 Time-space compression is the process whereby time is reorganized in such a way as to reduce
the constraints of space, and vice-versa.
 Time–space compression refers to the way the acceleration of economic activities leads to the
destruction of spatial barriers and distances.

5. THEORIES OF GLOBAL CULTURE BY TOMLINSON 1999; NEDERVEEN

PIETERSE 2004
There are three main bodies of theory regarding the effects of globalization on local culture:
1. homogenization,
2. hybridization and
3. heterogeneity or polarization.
1. Homogenization Theory
Homogenization is the name given to the process
whereby globalization causes one culture to consume
another. Moreover, Homogenization theories see a global
cultural convergence and would tend to highlight the rise of
world beat, world cuisines, world tourism, uniform
consumption patterns and cosmopolitanism
(Appadurai).

2. Hybridization
Hybridization occurs when people mix cultural forms, genres
or styles to create something new.

3. Heterogeneity or polarization
Heterogeneity approaches see continued cultural
difference and highlight local cultural autonomy, cultural
resistance to homogenization, cultural clashes and
Burundi drummers and dancers
polarization, and distinct subjective experiences in New Zealand of
globalization.

6. THE GLOBAL VILLAGE by Marshall McLuhan

His insights were revolutionary at the time, and fundamentally changed how everyone has
thought about media, technology, and communications ever since.
McLuhan chose the insightful phrase "global village" to highlight his observation that an electronic
nervous system (the media) was rapidly integrating the planet -- events in one part of the world could
be experienced from other parts in real-time, which is what human experience was like when we lived
in small villages.
The late Marshall McLuhan, a media and communication theorist, coined the term “global
village” in 1964 to describe the phenomenon of the world’s culture shrinking and expanding at
the same time due to pervasive technological advances that allow for instantaneous
sharing of culture (Johnson 192).
Moreover, McLuhan's second best known insight is summarized in the expression is "the
medium is the message", which means that the qualities of a medium have as much effect as the
information it transmits.

7. MCDONALDIZATION THEORY BY GEORGE RITZER

McDonaldization theory is defined as “the process whereby the principles of the fast-food
restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society and the world”
 (Ritzer, 1993:19).
The Four Main Dimensions of McDonaldization
1. Efficiency - The optimum method of completing a task. The rational determination of the best
mode of production. Individuality is not allowed.
2. Calculability - Assessment of outcomes based on quantifiable rather than subjective criteria.
In other words, quantity over quality. They sell the Big Mac, not the Good Mac.
3. Predictability - The production process is organized to guarantee uniformity of product and
standardized outcomes. All shopping malls begin to look the same and all highway exits have
the same assortment of businesses.
4. Control - The substitution of more predictable non-human labor for human labor, either through
automation or the deskilling of the work force.

8. GLOCALIZATION BY ROLAND ROBERTSON

Roland Robertson’s concept of glocalization suggests that the global is only manifest in the local.
GLOCALIZATION means that ideas about home, locality and community have been extensively
spread around the world in recent years, so that the local has been globalized, and the stress upon the
significance of the local or the communal can be viewed as one ingredient of the overall globalization
process (Robertson 1995). In addition, “Glocalization” is a more specific concept coined by Roland
Robertson in 1992. To him, as global forces interact with local factors or a specific geographic
area, the glocal is being produced.

In political institutions, Benjamin Barber provided the alternate of McWorld – the “jihad”, it refers
to the political groups engaged in an intensification of nationalism and that leads to
greater political heterogeneity throughout the world.

9. SCAPES by ARJUN APPADURAI

“Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy”
Arjun Appadurai (1990) Landscapes or Dimensions of Cultural Flows
1. Mediascapes are about the flows of image and communication.
2. Ethnoscapes are concerned with the flows of individuals around the world.
3. Ideoscapes deal with exchanges of ideas and ideologies.
4. Technoscapes refer to flows of technology and skills to create linkages between organizations
around the world.
5. Financescapes relate to the interactions associated with money and capital.
Appadaurai uses the suffix SCAPE to connote the idea that these processes have fluid, irregular,
variable shapes end

C. IDEOLOGIES OF GLOBALIZATION by Manfred B. Steger

Ideologies of globalization: market globalism, justice globalism, religious globalisms’
investigates the ideologies underlying globalization, which endow it with values and meanings.
Market globalism advocates promise a consumerist, neoliberal, free-market world. This ideology is
held by many powerful individuals, who claim it transmits democracy and benefits everyone.
However, it also reinforces inequality, and can be politically motivated. Justice globalism envisages
a global civil society with fairer relationships and environmental safeguards. They disagree with
market globalists who view neoliberalism as the only way. Religious globalisms strive for a global
religious community with superiority over secular structures.

Suggested reading:
http://socialsciences.people.hawaii.edu/publications_lib/JPI%20Ideologies%20of%20globalization%2
0%20final.pdf