Cu 31924031257243

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME
FROM THE
SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND
THE GIFT OF
Henrg W. Sage
1891
A text-book of materia medica
,. 3 1924 031 257 243

olin.anx
The original of tliis book is in
tine Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in

the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031257243
A TEXT-BOOK
^'
y.
OF
MATERIA MEDICA
INCLUDING LABORATORY EXERCISES IN THE
HISTOLOGIC AND CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF DRUGS
PHARMACEUTIC AND MEDICAL SCHOOLS AND FOR

HOME STUDY
ROBERT A. HATCHER, PH.G., M.D.

a
Instructor in Pharmacology, Cornell University Medical School, New York; Formerly
Professor of Materia Medica and Vegetable Histology, Cleveland School of Phar-
macy ; and Demonstrator of Pharmacology, Western Reserve University
TORALD SOLLMANN, M.D.

Associate Professor of Pharmacology and Materia Medica in the Medical
Department of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
IfllusttatcJ)
PHILADELPHIA, NE'W YORK, LONDON

W.^B. SAUNDERS AND COMPANY
J904
T
Copyright, 1904, by W. B. Saunders & Company.
Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England.
ELECTROTYPED BY PRESS OF
WESTCOTT & THOMSON, PHILADA. W. B, SAUNDERS & COMPANY.
PREFACE.
The following pages were written with the object of

popularizing the " Laboratory Method " in the study of
Organic Materia Medica. There can no longer be any
doubt as to the general superiority of the objective method
over the didactic in the teaching of natural sciences. Ac-
quaintance at first-hand has innumerable advantages over
that acquired at second-hand from a teacher or text-book.
In many cases it is absolutely impossible to evoke a correct
picture of the object orphenomenon by these second-hand
methods but, even when this can be done, a personal ac-
;
quaintance is much more impressive and interesting.

Whilst these remarks apply to the study of all natural
science, they have a special force in the case of Materia
Medica. The almost proverbial dryness of this subject can
be traced directly to the neglect of objective study. Materia
Medica cannot help but become interesting when the student
leaves the monotonous descriptions of the text, and goes
directly to the specimens of the drugs ; when he observes
the underlying simplicity and the endless variety of adapta-
tions in the gross and microscopic structures and when, by
;
the application of chemic tests, he sees before him the won-

derfully numerous and complex products of the activity of
those tiny laboratories, the cells.
As the experiment of basing the instruction in Materia

Medica entirely on laboratory work had never been tried, as
far as Ave know, we introduced it gradually and tentatively

at the Cleveland School of Pharmacy. The result was most
10 PREFACE.
gratifying from the start. The students not only showed a

greater interest, but they obtained a very much better grasp
of the subject ; so that they could apply their knowledge to
the allied subjects of pharmacy and chemistry.
It would, therefore, seem that the desirability of labora-
tory instruction is limited only by its practicability. In

this respect, we found the difficulties much less than we had
anticipated. We were rather surprised to learn that an
overwhelming proportion of the essential facts of Materia
Medica can be covered by experiments so simple that they
can be tried by students without other help than the written
directions, and with the simple apparatus to be found in every
chemical laboratory or drug store. By carefully eliminating
non-essentials, it was also found that the new method of in-
struction demanded but little more time than the old.
The only real difficulties which we encountered were due
to the novelty of the work. In elaborating this method
of teaching, we have felt at times as if we were treading
virgin soil. We found no single book which gave the
necessary information in convenient compass ; and none at
all which gave the exercises adapted to students. This
is true particularly of the chemic work. The facts were
scattered promiscuously through many books, and we were
obliged to collect them, to construct from them sufficiently
simple experiments, and to test these. In some cases we
were obliged to invent new methods and reactions. We sin-
cerely hope that these pages, by saving this labor to others,
will hasten the introduction of the laboratory method.

Laboratory Instruction in Materia Medica will naturally
be divided into Gross, Microscopic, and Chemic Study, and
we have accordingly divided the book into these three parts.
When the subject is to be studied independently of a teacher,
we would advise taking up the three branches separately, and
PREFACE. 11
in the reverse order to that just given. In class-work, how-

ever, it will be found better to pursue all branches at once, as
their relation can then be pointed out by the instructor.
There is also a considerable amount of information which
cannot be acquired by the direct observation of the student.
This has been inserted in the first part, which also contains a
summary of all the essential data regarding each drug.
The pharmacopoeial description of the drugs is also given.
'
This should be used only for comparison and reference.
Every drug should be studied and described from the speci-

men, according to the directions, before the official description
is consulted. The student's notebook is, therefore, a very
important part of his work. We would also emphasize the
absolute necessity of making accurate, if not artistic, drawings.

The arrangement within each part of the book is that
which our experience has shown most useful. When indi-
vidual drugs are studied, they follow each other in the order
of their relative importance.
In the selection of the exercises and other matter we have
felt ourselves by the time and training at the dis-
limited
posal of the average student of pharmacy or medicine. We
have, therefore, introduced only the most important and the
most typical experiments, and these in the simplest form in
which they would give reliable results. For example, the

identification of drugs has been considered only so far as to
enable the student to ascertain whether or not a given sample

is or is not, let us say, cinchona ; and whether it is adulter-
ated. To those who wish to delve deeper into the subject the
book an introduction which will enable them to

will serve as
work intelligently through the larger compendiums.
New Yokk and Clkveland, August, 1904.
1 United States Phai-macopoeia.

CONTENTS.
PART I.
SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS.

CHAPTER p^^j,
I.Roots ..... .
ly
II. TUBEES, CORMS, BuLBS, AND KhIZOMES . ... 36
Tubei-s, 36— Ehizomes, 40.
III. Woods and Barks ... 53
Woods, 53— Barks, 56.
IV. Leaves, Herbs, and Flowers . . . 72
Leaves, 72— Herbs, 86— Flowers, 97.
V. Pbuitsand Seeds 103
103—Seeds, 117.
Fi-uits,
VI. Drugs other than Plant Organs 130

Miscellaneous Cellular Drugs other than Distinct Plant
—
Organs, 130 Extracts and Inspissated Juices, 135 Sugare, —
144 — —
Gums, 146 Gum Resins, 147 Resins, 150 Balsams, — —
153— Oleoresins, 154— Camphora, 158—Volatile Oils, 160—
Fixed Oils, Fats, and Waxes, 161 Cellular Drugs of Ani-—
—
mal Origin, 165 Animal Secretions and Excretions, 167.
PART II.
PLANT HISTOLOGY.
Introduction and General Technic
I. . . 174
The Cell and its Contents
II. . . . . 187
HI. Special Morphology of Cells Parenchymatous Cells : . 200
IV. Special Morphology of Cells (continued) Prosenchyma- :
Tous Cells and Tubes . 221

V. Tissues and Organs . . . . . ... ... 239
VI. Histology of Some Important Drugs 247
—
Roots, 247 Stems (Ehizomes), 252 —Barks, 259 —Leaves,
261—Fruits and Seeds, 263.
VII. HisTOLOQTC Study of Powdered Drugs 267
Introductory, 267— General Study of Powders, 268 Identi- —
fication of Powdera in Groups of Three, 270 Adultera- —
tions, 272 —
Scheme for the Identification of Unknown
Powders, 274— Exercises, 277.
13
14 CONTENTS.
PART III.
CHEMIC EXERCISES IN MATERIA MEDICA.

CHAPTER PAfiE
I. Intkoductory . . . . . 287
Introduction, 281 — Classification,
282 Apparatus and Eea- —
gents, 283 — Determination of Moisture and Ash, 284.
II. Constituents for the Most Paet Soluble in Water, but
Insoluble in Alcohol and Similar Solvents 287
Carbohydrates, 287— Saponins, 295 —Proteids, 296— Fer-
ments, 298
III. Constituents for the Most Part Soluble in Water and
Alcohol, but Insoluble in Fat Solvents 302 . . .
Allcaloids, 302— Neutral Principles, 307—Tannins, 308— Or-

ganic Acids, 310 — Coloring-inatter, 314.
IV. Constituents Soluble in Alcohol, Insoluble in Water . 323
—
Eesins, 323 Cathartic Kesins, 324 Phlobaphenes, 325— Bal- —
—
sams, 326 Oleoresins, 327 Gum Eesins, 328 Volatile — —
328—Camphoi's, 331.
Oils,
V. Constituents Mostly Insoluble in Alcohol and Water . 333

Waxes, 333— Fixed Oils or Fats, 334.
VI. Examination of an Unknown Drug for its Proximate
Constituents . ... . . 339
VII. Chemic Examination of Some Important Alkaloidal
Drugs .... 345 . . .
Cinchona, 345 — Opium, 348 — N ux Vomica, 350 — Drugs Con-

taining Cafleine, 351 —
Ipecac, 352 Aconite, 353 — — Hy-
drastis, 353 —
Belladonna, 354 Coca, 355. —
VIII. Drugs Containing Glucosids 357
Digitalis, 357 — Strophanthus, 358 —Uva Ursi, 358 — Santon-
ica, 359 — Cantharides, 359— Glycyrrhiza, 360.
IX. Drugs Containing Resinous Principles 362
Indian Cannabis, 362— Guaiac, 362— Aloes, 363— Jalap, 364—
Rhubarb, 365 — Senna-emodin Principles, 367 —Frangula
and Ehamnus Purshiana, 368.
X. Drugs Containing Aromatic Acids, Volatile Oils, Resins,
or Fats 369
Balsam of Peru, 369— Balsam of Tolu, 369— Copaiba, 370—
—
Capsicum, 370 Benzoin, 371 Cinnamon, 372 Cubeb, — —
372— Buchu, 373—Cod-liver Oil, 373.
APPENDIX.
Reagents for Histology . . 375
Posological Table .... . 381
Glossary of Medical Terms . . 393
Index . . . . . ... 395
A TEXT-BOOK
OF
MATERIA MEDICA
PART I.
SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS.
CHAPTER I.
ROOTS.
The most concisely defined as that part of the
root is
plant axis stem being the other part) which bears

(the
neither leaves nor any leaf modifications. It usually con-
stitutes the underground portion, its office being to absorb
moisture and salts from the earth and to conduct them
toward the leaves ; and, further, to maintain the plant in a
fixed position. In addition to this it may, in special cases,
perform other functions, such as serving as a storehouse for
reserve material. This is especially conspicuous with tuber-
ous roots, but occurs to a lesser degree with many ordinary
roots. On the other hand, rhizomes which are really —
—
underground stems often perform a part of the office of
roots in that they serve to maintain the plant in a fixed
position.
In describing roots ^ the following points for observation
will be noticed, as a rule ; additional points may be of impor-
tance in special cases : The macroscopic examination of
roots will show that they branch irregularly ; that they vary
greatly, not only in size, but in shape ; in color, both exter-
nally and internally in texture, as is shown by density and
—
;
fracture the latter varying from brittle and sharp to fibrous

and elastic in taste, being bitter, sweet, acid, or insipid,
;
etc. ; in odor. Even the macroscopic examination shows

much which the microscopic brings out in detail ; thus we
• The blank form given on 18 p. is strongly recommended to be used by
the student with the drug in hand.
2 It
1 18 BOOTS.
to
8
S
Is
Si
e =0
=0
ft.
8
1.2 '^
o
<S eq &ii a 8
^
BELLADONNA RADIX. 19
see by naked-eye observation whether the bark is thick or

thin, whether the central cylinder is woody or composed of
soft tissue. The naicroscope shows the nature of cells com-
posing these parts. (For histology see p. 242.)
The following roots are official
Belladonna.
20 ROOTS.
ing medullary rays in the thicker roots, except in the layer near the bark
nearly inodorous taste sweetish, afterward bitterish and strongly acrid.
;
" Boots which are tough and woody, breaking with a splintery fracture,
should be rejected likewise the hollow stem-bases which are sometimes
;
present."— U. S. P.
Study and desoribe as suggested on p. 17. Particularly

note that it should not be woody (absence of bast-fibers in
bark).
Chief Constituents. —
Atropine, hyoscyamine, a little bella-
donniae, hyoscine, and other alkaloids. The alkaloids are
found mostly in the bark.
Therapeutic Use. —
The isolated alkaloids are much more
frequently employed than are preparations of the root.
Atropine internally or locally dilates the pupil, i. e., is a
mydriatic, —
the dilatation persisting for some days hence the
;
derivative homatropine is often preferred, because of its briefer

action. Also used to stimulate the higher nerve-centers ; in
asthma, to suppress sweating, salivation, or catarrhal dis-
charges, and to quicken the pulse. Commonly used in con-
nection with morphine as a corrective.' Locally in various
neuralgias. As a corrective with various vegetable purga-
tives.
Hyoscine and hyoscyamine are employed occasionally in
the excitement of insanity. Liniment of belladonna is also
used externally for pain.
—
Average Dose. 0.06-0.2 gm.^ (1-3 gr.) of belladonna
root, always in liquid form or extract. Owing to its varia-
bility, only assayed preparations should be used internally.
Of atropine or hyoscyamine, 0.0005—0.002 gm. (tyo~F2 §^-)'
Of hyoscine, 0;'0004-0.0006 gm. (yfo-y-J-^ gr.).
Of fluid extract, 0.06-0.12 c.c. (1-2 min.).
Of tincture, 0.6 c.c. (10 min.).
Symptoms of Poisoning and First Aid. —
Dryness of the
throat apt to occur early, with consequent difficulty in
is
swallowing and speaking ; thirst and burning in the throat

pupils widely dilated and not contracted by exposure to
' A"Glossaiy of Medical Terms" is appended to the end of this vol-

ume ; should be freely consulted by the student.
it
^ Since the dosage is usually approximate, the exact equivalent of metric
quantities is not always given.

RHEUM. 21
strong light ; the vision is impaired, as if a film which one

attempts to wipe away were over the eyes ; skin very red
there may be nausea ; the patient becomes excited and passes
into delirium, but tliis stage will hardly have been reached
before a physician can be summoned if the case is seen early,
and pharmacists have to do with emergencies rather than with
subsequent treatment ; giddiness, stupor, and paralytic symp-
toms succeed if a fatal termination is impending. The inter-
ference by pharmacists is usually limited to reassuring the
attendants and giving an emetic and an alkaloidal precipi-
tant (tannin) if discovered before the onset of symptoms.
Small doses of pilocarpine —
0.01 gm. (^ gr.) —
may be given,
and the further treatment turned over to a physician, since
there is little danger of any immediate fatal ending. In the
eye, physostigmine counteracts the action of atropine. In
suspected belladonna or atropine poisoning it should not be
forgotten that a drop of the urine placed in the eye of a cat
affords a ready and simple means of detection through the
ensuing dilatation of the pupil.
RHEUM.-Rhobatfa,
The root of Eheum officinale Baillon (Nat. Ord. Polygo-
nacese).
The botanic source of rhubarb was long a matter of specu-
lation, to the present time no one competent to
and even up
describe the plant has ever seen it growing in its native
region.
Habitat. —
Rhubarb is indigenous to the central and west-
ern portions of the Chinese Empire, in Thibet, and in Chinese
Tartary. The variety known as Russian rhubarb, formerly
found in commerce, also called crown rluibarb, came over-
land through Russia, and was subjected to governmental
inspection in the latter country, which maintained a monopoly
of the trade. The high reputation gained in this way caused
the name to remain in use long after the importation by that
route ceased. Turkish rhubarb was also designated as such
because it came into commerce through Turkey. East India
(shipped through Indian ports) or Chinese rhubarb is the
kind now generally seen in commerce. Attempts to cultivate

22 ROOTS.
the plant in Europe have not resulted in producing a good

quality of the root.
—
Description. " In cylindric, conic, or flattish segments, deprived of the
dark-brown corky layer, smoothish or somewhat wrinkled, exteiTially cov-
ered with a bright yellowish-brown powder, marked with white, elongated
meshes, containing a white, rather spongy tissue, and a number of short,
reddish-brown or brownish-yellow striae compact, hard fracture uneven
; ;
internally white, with numerous red, irregularly curved and interrupted

medullary rays, which are radially pai-allel only near the cambium line ;
odor somewhat peculiar, aromatic; taste bitter, somewhat astringent."

U, S. P.
Stxidy and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note

odor and color.
Adulteration. —
The rhubarb found in cubes, fingers, or
transverse slices is usually genuine, and good uncut roots are
readily obtainable ; but the powder is very often adulterated.
The microscope is the best means of detecting this sophistica-
tion. Turmeric may be detected by percolating the powder
with chloroform, dropping the percolate upon borax and dry-
ing, then moistening w'ith hydrochloric acid ; an orange color
results if turmeric is present.
Chrysophanic acid, emodin, rhein (all
closely related chemically and constituting the cathartic prin-
ciples of the root), bitter resins, erythroretin, phaeoretin, and
aporetin, tannin (rheotannic acid), starch, etc., calcium oxalate
(in notable quantities), etc. (see p. 365).
Therapeutic Use. —Rhubarb belongs to the group of drugs
which produce catharsis by reason of the irritation which
they cause in the intestine, a fact which should be borne in
mind when inflammation already exists. Rhubarb is also
astringent because of its rheotannic acid this principle is
;
said to be destroyed by torrefaction. The purgative action

is exhibited in about eight hours.
Average Dose. —0.3-1.5 gm. (5-22 gr.). The official

preparations of rhubarb are more numerous than those of any
other vegetable drug, affiarding a wide range of choice for
administration.
IPECACUANHA-Ipecac.
The root of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha (Brotero), A. Richard
(Nat. Ord. Rubiacese).
OLYGYRRHIZA. 23
Habitat. —Northern part of South America.
Desaiption. — " About 10 cm. long and 4 or 5 mm. thick mostly simple,
;
contorted, dull grayish-brown or blackish, finely wrinkled closely and ;
irregularly annulated, and often transversely Assured bark thick, brittle,

;
brownish, easily separated from the thin, whitish, tough, ligneous portion
odor slight, peculiar, nauseous taste bitterish, acrid, nauseating." U. S. P.
; — ;
Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note

the very thick bark, no medullary rays, no bast-fibers, no
vessels.
Striated ipecac is longitudinally wrinkled but not annu-
lated undulated ipecac does not show the close annulation

;
white ipecac has a porous wood (vessels). The stems are

sometimes found to constitute nearly 10 per cent, of the root.
The alkaloids, emetine and cephaeline,
are the active principles ; a third alkaloid, psychotrine, is
present in small amounts ; ipecacuanhic acid (related to the
tannin of coflPee), resin, much starch, and a few bundles of
raphides of calcium oxalate.
Emetic in large doses ; stomachic, nau-
seant, and expectorant in smaller doses. Very minute doses
combined with calomel lessen the nausea caused by that drug.
Also used in dy.sentery.
—
Average Dose. As emetic, 0.05—0.10 gm. (-f— l-^- gr.); in
the form of syrup, 0.3—2 c.c. (5-30 min.), frequently re-
peated, for children for an adult, 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) of
;
powder or the fluid extract in warm water as nauseant, ;
0.01-0.05 gm. (^—1 gr.), repeated as required as expectorant, ;
same as preceding, less frequently repeated.
GLYCYRRHIZ A,- Glycyrrhiza—Liquorice Root.
The root of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn6, and of the variety

glandulifera (Waldstein et Kittaibel), Regel et Herder (Nat.
Ord. Leguminosse).
Habitat. —
Southern Europe, also cultivated to some extent
in the United States.
Description.— " In long, cylindric pieces, from 5 to 25 mm. thick, longitu-

dinally wrinkled, externally grayish-brown, warty internally tawny-yellow ;
;
pliable, tough ; fracture coai-sely fibrous ; bark rather thick wood porous,
;
but dense, in narrow wedges ; medullary i-ays linear ; taste sweet, somewhat
acrid."—U. S. P.
24 ROOTS.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. The under-

ground stem has a pith, but otherwise resembles the root.
Chief Constituents. — Glycyrrhizin, glycyramarin (bitter),
starch.
Ther-apeutia Use. —Flavor,
demulcent and expectorant.
Its preparations, the syrup and the fluid extract, are exten-
sively used for masking the taste of quinine.
Note that the compound liquorice powder does not owe its
laxative properties to liquorice.

Average Dose. —2-3 gm. (30—45 gr.) in syrup or fluid
extract.
SENEGA,—Senega.
The Linu6 (Nat. Ord. Polygaleae).
root of Polygala Senega
Habitat. — Its name
its use by the Seneca In-
indicates
dians, hence indigenous to the United States, rather widely
distributed. Southern senega (the ofiicial variety) comes from
the region south of Lake Erie and east of the Mississippi
River and Missouri.
Description. — " About 10 cm.

long, witli a very knotty crown, and spread-
ing, tortuous branches, keeled when
dry, fleshy and round after having been
soaked in water externally yellowish-gray or brownish-yellow ; bark thick,
;
whitish within, inclosing an irregular, porous, yellowish wood ; odor slight,

but unpleasant taste sweetish, afterward acrid." U. S. P.
; —
knotty crown, keel, color, and taste.
Chief Constituents. —A glucosidal saponin called polygalic
acid and senegin by different investigators ; true polygalic
acid is present and differs slightly from senegin ; a little vola-
tile oil ; neither starch nor tannin.
Therapeutic Use. —Nauseant, expectorant, emetic (in large
doses).
—
Average Dose. ^While the dose of senega is usually stated
as 0.3-1 gm. (5-15 gr.), it is usually employed in smaller
amounts for its expectorant action given in syrup. Various
;
species of polygala have been substituted.

Anumber of roots and rhizomes, including ginseng, cypri-
pedium, valerian, and others have been found admixed, due
to carelessness in collecting.
GENTIANA- TARAXACUM. 25
GENTIANA.—Gentian.
Tlie root of Gentiana lutea Linn^ (Nat. Ord. Gentianese).
Habitat. — Central and southern Europe, especially in the
mountainous portions.
Description. —
" In nearly cylindric pieces or longitudinal slices, about
25 mm. thick, the upper portion closely annulate, the lower portion
longitudinally wrinkled ; externally deep yellowish-brown internally ;
lighter; somewhat flexible and tough when damp; rather brittle when
dry fracture uneven the bark rather thick, separated from the somewhat
; ;
spongy meditullium by a black cambium line odor peculiar, faint, more prom-
;
inent when moistened taste sweetish and persistently bitter." TJ. S. P.

; —
Study and descrihe as suggested on p. 1 7. Especially note
the odor, taste, and irregular dark circle, corresponding to
the junction of bark and central cylinder (cambium).
Gentiopicrin (bitter principle of the
root) and gentisin (resembling tannin in its reaction with
ferric chlorid). No starch.
Belongs to the simple bitters, mainly
useful for stimulating digestion and improving the appetite.
Average Dose. —
1—2 gm. (15—30 gr.). Mostly used in the
form of the solid or "fluid extract.
TARAXACUM.—Taraxac«m.—Dandelion.
The root of Taraxacum officinale Weber (Nat. Ord. Com-
positse), gathered in autumn.
Habitat. —
Growing widely in Europe and naturalized in
North America.
Description.—" Slightly conical, about 30 cm. long and 1 or 2 cm. thick
above, crowned with several short, thickish heads, somewhat branched, dark
brown, longitudinally wrinkled when dry breaking with a short fracture,
;
showing a yellowish, porous central axis, suiTOunded by a thick, white bark,

containing numerous milk-vessels arranged in concentric circles inodorous, ;
bitter."— U. S. P.

thickness of bark, dark circles due to lacticiferous vessels in
bark. Absence of medullary rays. -
Taraxacin (crystalline, bitter, soluble
in water and alcohol). In the spring the root contains uncry-
stallizable sugar, which is largely replaced in autumn by
inulin (more than 20 per cent.). (For extraction of inulin,
see p. 288.) No starch.
26 ROOTS.
Therapeutio Use. —
To improve the digestion, which it
deranges if its use be prolonged.
Average Dose. —
5 gm. (75 gr.), usually given in liquid
form or as solid extract.
PYRETHRUM.—Pyrethmm—Pellitofy.
The root of Anacyclus Pyrethrum (Linn6) De Candolle
(Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —Neighborhood of the Mediterranean Sea.
Description. — " From 5 to 10 cm. long, and

1 to 2 cm. thick, somewhat fusi-
form, nearly simple, annulate above, wrinkled below externally dark gray-
;
ish-brown internally brownish- white ; fracture short bark rather thick, con-
; ;
taining two circles of resin-cells, and surrounding the slender wood-bundles

and medullary rays, the latter having about four circles of shining resin-
cells ;inodorous, pungent, and very acrid." —
U. S. P.

two circles in the bark and four in the central cylinder,
formed by resin receptacles. Medullary rays and wood
bundles about equal.
Chief Constituents. —Acrid resins and fixed oils ; very large
percentage of inulin. No starch.
T/ierapeutio Use. — Sialagogue, irritant. Little used by
educated physicians.
—
Average Dose. 2—4 gm. (30-60 gr.),
LAPPA.— Burdock.
The Arctium Lappa Linn6, and of some other spe-
root of
cies ofArctium (Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —
Europe, and widely scattered as a troublesome
weed in North America.
Description. —
" About 30 cm. or more long and, in its thickest portion,
from 1 to 2 cm. thick nearly simple, fusiform, fleshy, longitudinally wrinkled,
;
crowned with a tuft of whitish, soft, hairy leaf-stalks gi'ayish-brown, inter-

;
nally paler fmcture somewhat horny bark rather thick, the inner part
—
; ;
and the wood radially striate, the parenchyma free from starch ôften with
cavities lined with white remains of tissue odor feeble and unpleasant
;
taste mucilaginous, sweetish, and somewhat bitter." —

U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 17.

Mucilage, inulin, etc. Practically all
soluble in hot water.
APOCYNUM—STILLINGIA. 27
Therapeutic —Very
Use. little action ; used in domestic
practice as an addition to purgative mixtures.
—
Average Dose. 4 gm. (60 gr.), in liquid form.
APOCYNUM.—Canadian Hemp.
The root of Apocynum cannabinum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Apo-
cynacese).
Habitat. —The United States.
Desci-ipti-on.
— "Long, cylindric, somewhat branched, 5 to 10 mm. thick,
gray or brownish-gray, longitudinally wrinkled and transvereely fissured
brittle;fracture short, white the bark rather thick
; the wood porous, ;
spongy, with delicate, medullary ravs inodorous taste bitter, disagree-

; ;
able."—U. S. P.

Note. —Apocynum androssemifolium is very commonly sold
in place of the above. For detection, see microscopic exami-
nation.
Resin, apocynin, apocynein (probably
representing the activities of the root), tannin, and starch.
As a cardiac tonic and diuretic (like dig-
italis).
Average Dose. —0.25
gm. (4 gr.). As emetic, 1-2 gm.
(15—30 gr.) in warm water.
STILLINGIA.—Staimgia.— Queen's Root.

The root of Stillingia sylvatica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Euphor-
biacese).
Habitat. —The southern part of the United States.
Description.—" About 30 cm. long, and nearly 5 cm. thick, subcylindric,

slightly branched, compact, wrinkled, tough, grayish-brown, breaking with
a fibrous fracture, showing a thick bark and porous wood, the inner bark
and medullary rays having numerous yellowish-brown resin-cells ; odor
peculiar, unpleasant taste bitter, acrid, and pungent."
; U. S. P. —
Chief Constituents. — Pungent resin ; fixed and volatile oils,
gum, tannin, and starch.
Therapeutic Use. —Used,
particularly in domestic medi-
cine, as an addition to purgative mixtures ; also as a nau-
seant and emetic.
28 BOOTS.
Average Dose. —
1 gm. (15 gr.); as emetic, 2—5 gm. (30—
75 gr.), but not often employed for this purpose.
SUMBUL—Sumbal.
Tiie root of Ferula Sumbul (Kauffmann) Hooker filius
(Nat. Ord. UmbelliferEe).

Habitat. —Eastern Siberia and central Asia.
Descnption. — " In
transverse segments, varying in diameter from about
2 to 7 cm. and in length from 15 to 30 mm. light, spongy, annulate or lon-
, ;
gitudinally wrinkled bark thin, brown, more or less bristly fibrous the
; ;
interior whitish, with numerous brownish-yellow resin-dots and irregu-

lar easily separated fibers odor strong, musk-like taste bitter and bal-
; ;
samic."— U. S. P.

spongy texture and odor.
Resin, to which the musk-like odor
is due very little bluish volatile oil, several acids, etc.
;
As a nerve-stimulant and in hysteric
conditions. Name of " musk root " from its odor, and use
as a substitute for that drug.
Average Dose. — 1 gm. (15 gr.) preferably in extract or fluid
extract.
PHYTOLACCAE RADIX.—Phytolacca Root —Poke Root.
The root of Phytolacca decandra Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Phyto-

laccacese).
Habitat. —
North America, very widely distributed ; also
introduced into Europe.
Description. —
" Large, conic, biunched, and fleshy mostly in transverse ;
or longitudinal slices, wrinkled, grayish, hard fracture fibrous, the wood-

;
bundles in seveiul distinct, concentric circles inodorous taste sweetish and

; ;
acrid."— U. S. P.

the numerous concentric layers of wood-wedges.
Chief Constituents.—E,esin, a volatile acid, starch, tannin,
and mucilage. The active principle is not known.
Therapeutic —Popularly used
Use. in rheumatism. Large
doses are emetic.
Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.).
ALTHÂ—CALUMBA. 29
ALTHAEA.—Althaea.— Marshmallow.
The root of Althaea officinalis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Malvaceae).
Habitat. —
Europe, and naturalized in the United States
found occasionally in the salt marshes of the Atlantic sea-coast.
Description. —
" In cylindric or somewhat conic pieces, from 10 to 15 cm.
long, 10 to 15 mm. in diameter, deeply wrinkled deprived of the brown,
;
corky layer and small roots externally white, marked with a number of cir-
;
cular spots, and of a somewhat hairy appearance from the loosened bast-
fibers; internally whitish and fleshy. It breaks with a short, granular, and
mealy fracture, has a faint, aromatic odor, and a sweetish, mucilaginous
taste."— U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Young bella-

donna root may be accidentall}' admixed, but lacks the
numerous bast-fibers found in marshmallow. Especially note
the hairy-looking bast-fiber groups on the surface of the
peeled root very mucilaginous taste
; and mass of bast-
;
fibers left in mouth after chewing.

Chief Constituents, —
Mucilage and starch, both very abun-
dant, together constituting two-thirds of the dried root;
sugar, pectin, and small amount of asparagin.
Therapeutic Use. —Demulcent. Used in confectionery.
Average Dose. —Ad libitum, preferably used in syrup.
CALUMBA.— Calumfaa.— Colamfao.

The root of Jateorhiza palmata (Lamarck) Miers (Nat.
Ord. Menispermacese).
Habitat. —
East Africa.
Description. —
" In nearly circular disks, 3 to 6 cm. in diameter, externally
greenish-brown and wrinkled internally yellowish or grayish-yellow,
;
depressed in the center, with a few interrupted circles of projecting wood-

bundles, distinctly radiate in the outer portion fracture short, mealy odor
; ;
slight taste mucilaginous, slightly aromatic, very bitter."

; —
U. S. P.

yellowish color of clean pieces (due t« berberine) ; also the
projecting' points of wood-fibers in the central portion.
Chief ConMituents. —
Berberine (yellow alkaloid), columbin
(white), starch, etc. No tannin. Alcohol extracts medicinal
properties and leaves the inert constituents behind.
Therapeutic Uae. —
One of the simple bitters, the value
being enhanced by the absence of tannin.
30 BOOTS.
Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.), best in form of

tincture.
GELSEMIUM.—Gebemiam.—Yellow Jasmine.
The rhizome and roots of Gelsemium sempervirens (Linn6)
Persoon (Nat. Ord. Loganiacese).
Habitat. —
Southern part of the United States.
Description. — " Cylindric, long, or cut in sections, mostly from 5 to 15 mm.
and occasionally 3 cm. thick, the roots much thinner externally light yel-
;
lowish-brown, with purplish-brown, longitudinal lines tough fracture ; ;
splintery bark thin, with silky bast-fibers, closely adhering to the pale
;
yellowish, porous wood, which has fine, meduUaiy rays, and in the rhizome
a thin pith odor aromatic, heavy taste bitter." U. S. P.
; ; —
the hard yellow wood, wedge-shaped medullary rays ; jessa-
mine odor wiry rootlets.
;
Chief Constituents. —A
volatile oil ; several alkaloids, of
which the most important is gelseminine ; resin, and starch.
The action of gelseminine very closely
resembles that of eoniine and nicotine ; applied locally to the
eye, it causes dilatation of the pupil. Gelsemine somewhat
resembles strychnine in its action, though very much weaker.
Gelseminine acts as an antipyretic, depressing the action of
the heart. It has been recommended in a very great variety
of complaints, but is not used extensively by physicians.
—
Average Dose. 0.3—0.6 gm. (5-10 gr.), as fluid extract
or tincture. Gelseminine, 0.0005—0.002 gm. {yyts~t^ SÔ"
PAREIRA.—Pareira.—Pareira Brava.
The root of Chondodendron tomentosum, Ruiz et Pavon

(Nat. Ord. Menispermacese).
Habitat. — Brazil.
Description. —
" In subcylindric, somewhat tortuous, pieces, about 10 to 15
cm. long, vaiTing in thickness from 2 to 10 cm. externally dark brownish-
;
gray, with transverse ridges and fissures and longitudinal furrows internally ;
pale brown, and, when freshly cut, having a waxy luster bark thin wood ; ;
porous, in two or more somewhat irregularly concentric circles, with rather

large medullary rays, and no distinct central pith inodorous; taste bitter."
;
— U. S. P.

the exceedingly hard wood ; waxy luster when cut ; con-
KRAMEBIA —INULA. 31
centric circles in the wood ; vessels distinctly visible to the

naked eye. One was found to yield much less
false pareira
fat than the official (8 per cent, in the latter). The micro-
scopic examination and the pharmacopeial descriptions suffice
to exclude sophistications.
Chief Constituents. —An alkaloid, fat, starch, and tannin.
Pareira is classed among the simple
bitters and is also used as a diuretic.
—
Average Dose. 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) in infusion or fluid
extract.
KRAMERIA.— Krametia.— Riatany.
The Krameria triandra Ruiz et Pavon, and of
root of
Krameria Ixina Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Polygalese).
Habitat. —
Northern and northwestern part of South
America.
Description. —
" From 1 to 3 cm. thick, knotty and several-headed above,
branched below, the branches long bark smooth or, in the thinner pieces,
;
scaly, deep rust-brown, 1 to 2 mm. thick very astringent, inodorous wood

; ;
pale brownish-red, tough, with fine medullary rays, nearly tasteless.

"The root of Krameria Ixina (Savanilla rhatany) is less knotty and
more slender, and has a dark purplish-brown bark, about 3 mm. thick."
U. S. P.
color and marked astringency and toughness of root.
Tannin (20 per cent, krameriotannic
acid — differing somewhat in their reactions for the two
species), coloring-matter (somewhat reddish), and starch.
Astringent, especially in diarrhea.
Average Dose. —
^0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.), in liquid form or
extract.
EMULA.—Inula.—Elecampane.
The root of Inula Helenium Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —
Europe and extensively in the United States.
Deseription. —
" In transverse, concave slices or longitudinal sections, with
overlapping bark, externally wrinkled and brown flexible in damp weather
;
when dry, breaking with a short fracture internally grayish, fleshy, slightly
;
radiate, and dotted with numerous shining, yellowish-brown resin-cells free ;
from starch odor peculiar, aromatic taste bitter and pungent." TJ. S. P.
;
; —
Study and describe as suggested on p. 1 7. Especially note
odor, camphoraceous and orris-like.
32 BOOTS.
—
Chief Constituents. Little vqlatile oil, resin, and bitter
principle.
—
Therapeutic Use. Irritant.
Average Dose. — 2-8 gm. (30-120 gr.).
ASCLEPIAS.—Asclepia5.—Pleurisy Root.
The root of Asclepias tuberosa Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Asclepi-

adeae).
Habitat. —The eastern part of the United States.
Description.— "Root large and fusifom, dried in longitudinal or trans-

verse sections, from 2 to 15 cm. long, and about 2 cm. or more in thickness ;
the head knotty, and slightly but distinctly annulate, the remainder longi-
tudinally wrinkled externally orange-brown, internally whitish
; tough, ;
and having an uneven fracture bark thin and in two distinct layers, the
;
inner one whitish ; wood yellowish, with large, white medullary rays. It
is inodorous, and has a bitterLsh, somewhat acrid taste." —
U. S. P.

the dense, thin outer portion of bark of orange color, and
the white inner bark.
—Resin,
Chief Constituents. bitter principle.
—One of synonyms
TherapeuliG Use. its indicates its popu-
lar employment for pleurisy.
BRYONIA.— Bryonia.—Bryony.
The root of Bryonia alba, and of Bryonia dioica Linn4
(Nat. Ord. Cucurbitacese).
Habitat. —Central and southern Europe.
Description. —"In transveree sections about 5 cm. in diameter, the bark
gray-brown, rough, thin, the central portion whitish or grayish, with nu-
merous, small, projecting wood-bundles arranged in circles and radiating
lines fracture short inodorous taste disagreeably bitter."
; ; ; —
U. S. P.

the thin sections of very white, or yellowish, root of large
diameter.
Chief Constituents. —Bryonin, a bitter glucosid.
Therapeutic Use. —Emmenagogue and drastic cathartic,
used with other purgatives.
—
Average Dose. 0.5—4 gm. (8-60 gr.).
RUMEX—SARSAPARILLA. -33
RU]VffiX.—Romex.— Yellow Dock.

The Rumex
root of crispus Linii6, aud of some other
species of Rumex (Nat. Ord. Polygonacese).
Habitat. — Europe and abundant in the United States.
Description. — "From 20 to 30 cm. long, about 10 to 15 mm. thick, some-
what fusiform, flesby, nearly simple, annulate above, deeply wrinkled
below externally rusty brown, internally whitish, with fine, sti-aight, in-
;
terrupted, leddlsb, medullary luys, and a rather thick bark fracture short
;
—
odor slight, peculiar taste bitter and astringent." U. S. P.
;

Chief Gonstituentn. —
Tannin, chrysophanic acid.
Astringent and laxative, somewhat re-
sembling rhubarb, to which, however, it is inferior.
Average Dose. —
1-4 gm. (15—60 gr.).
S ARSAPARILLA.- Sarsaparilla.
The root of Smilax officinalis Kunth Smilax medica ;
Chamisso et Schlechtendal Smilax papyracea Duhamel

;
and of other undetermined species, of Smilax (Nat. Ord.

Liliacese).
Habitat. —
Mexico, Central America, northern part of
South America, and the West Indies. The different com-
mercial varieties are packed in characteristic bundles.
Description. —
" About 4 or 5 mm. thick, very long, cylindrical, longitudi-
nally wrinkled, externally grayish-brown or orange-brown interaally show-
;
ing a whitish and mealy, or somewhat horny, cortical layer, surrounding a

circular wood-zone, the latter inclosing a broad pith nearly inodorous
;
taste mucilaginous, bitterish, and acrid.

" The thick, woody, knotty, ihizome, if present, should be removed."
U. S. P.
8tudy and describe as suggested on p. 17.

Saponins (glucosids), considerable con-
fusion existing in regard to their nomenclature the least ;
active is termed smilacin or parillin starch, and raphides

;
of calcium oxalate.
It is very little employed by intelligent
physicians, but popularly regarded as a remedy in conditions
attended with eruptions of the skin.
Average Dose. —
2 c.c. (30 min.) of the fluid extract or its
equivalent in syrup.
34 ROOTS.
UNOFFICIAL ROOTS.'
Where Chief Tlierapeutio
Name. Found. Constituent. Use. Dose.
Abrus India. Glycyrrhizin. Demulcent.

(A. precatorius).
Alkanna (Alkanet) Europe. Coloring- To color prep-
{A. tinctoria). matter. arations.
Angelica Europe. Resin, volatile Carminative, 2 gm. (30 gr.).
(Archangelica offici- oil. stomachic
nalis).
Angelica United Resin, volatile Carminative, 2gm. (SOgr.).
Atropurpurea. States. oil. stomachic.
Apocynum Northern Resin and bit- Cathartic. Igm. (1,5 gr.).
Audrosaemifolium. United ter principle.
States.
Armoraeia (Horserad- Europe. Volatile oil. Irritant. Externally.
ish)
(Cochlearia).
Baptisia (Wild Indigo) United Acrid prin- Cathartic. 1 gm. (l.'i gr.).
(B. tinctoria). States. ciple.
Berberis (Barberry) Europe. Berberine. Simple bitter. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
(B. vulgaris).
Ceanothus United Tannin. Astringent. 2 gm. (30 gr.).
(C. Americanus). States.
Cichoria (Chicory) Europe. Bitter prin- Simple bitter. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
(C. iutybus). ciple.
Euphorbia Eastern Resins. Emetic. 1 gm. (15 gr.).
Ipecacuanha. United
States.
Euphorbia corallata. United Resins. Emetic. 1 gm. (15 gr.).
States.
Frasera (American Co- United Bitter prin- Simple bitter. 2 gm. (30 gr.).
lumbo) States. ciple.
(P. Walteri)
(F. Carolinensis).
Pyrethrum Germani- Germany. Acrid resin Irritant. 2 gm. (30 gr.).
cum and bitter
(Anacyclus offici- principle.
nalis).
Hemidesmus (Indian East India, Sapotoxin. Alterative. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
Sarsaparilla)
(H. Indicus).
Heuchera (Alum Root) United Tannin. Astringent. 2 gm. (30 gr.).
(H. Americana). States.
Hydrangea United Resin. Diuretic. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
(H. arboreacens). States.
Imperatoria (Master- Europe. Volatile oil, Stimulant. 2 gm. (30 gr.).
wort) acrid prin-
(I. Ostruthium). ciple.
Ipomcea pandurata United Resm. Cathartic. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
(Wild Jalap). States.
Laserpitium (White Gen- Central Bitter prin- Simple bitter. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
tian) Europe. ciple.
jL. officinale).
Levisticum Southern Volatile oil. Carminative. 2 gm, (30 gr.).
(L. officinale). Europe.
Methysticum South Sea Acrid resin. Stimulant. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
(Piper M.). Islands.
' The unimportant drugs given in the tables following the official are
considered very briefly, and certain facts should be borne in mind thus, :
the dose given is the' ordinary maximum dose, though not necessarily near
the poisonous further, it should be remembered that emetic drugs in gen-
;
eral may be used as expectorants, irritants for diuretics, astringents for

tonics, etc.
UNOFFICIAL ROOTS. 35
CHAPTEK II.
TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES.

Tubers are underground stems, devoid of leaves, and serv-
ing as storage receptacles. The terms tuber and tuberous
root are so often used indiscriminately that either term may
be employed. Jalap and aconite, the only official tubers, are
sometimes called roots (jalap being defined as a tuberous
root by the United States Pharmacopoeia, aconite as a root
by the Tubers and corms are likewise closely re-
British).
lated morphologically. A
corm is defined as a thickened
underground stem partaking of the characters of both a
tuber and a bulb. This, too, is often inaccurately termed
root ; colchicum, the only official example, being called col-
chici radix. A bulb consists of very fleshy leaves, closely
crowded together, and infolding the base of the stem.
TUBERS.
JALAPA.— Jalapa.
The tuberous root of Ipomoea Jalapa Nuttall (Nat. Ord.
Con vol vulacese)
Much confusion has existed with regard to the generic
name of the plant yielding this drug
; it has been variously
attributed to Convolvulus, Mirabilis, Exogonium, and, finally,

Ipomoea.
Habitat. —Eastern Mexico.
Desa-iption. —" Napiform, pyriforra, or oblong, varying in size the large
;
roots incised, more or wrinkled, dark brown, with lighter-colored spots

less
and shoi't, transverse lidges hard, compact, internally pale grayish-bi-own,
;
with numerous concentric circles, composed of small resin-cells fracture

;
resinous, not fibrous ; —

odor slight, but peculiar smoky and sweetish taste ;
—
sweetish and acrid." U. S. P.

36
ACONITUM. 37
the dense, hard, dark, globular tubers, not collapsed nor

light in weight ; smoky odor.
Tampico jalap often closely resembles the genuine in ap-
pearance, but is usually longer, smaller, somewhat collapsed,
and lacks the transverse scars always found upon the official.
Mirabilis Jalapa is detected by microscopic examination (see
p. -256). Fusiform jalap yields a resin wholly soluble in

ether. Other false jalaps or substitutions are different in
shape, lighter of weight, or have less resin, or more which is
ether-soluble.
Chief Constituents. —Two resins — jalapin, soluljle in ether ;
and convolvulin, insoluble in ether ; the latter is present in

much the larger proportion ; both are found in the official
resin of jalap. The two resins are present in quantities vary-
ing from 12 per cent, to more than 20 percent. Much sugar,
some starch etc., are also present.
" On exhausting 100 parts of jalap with alcohol, concentrating the tinc-
ture to 40 parts, and pouring it into water, a precipitate of resin should be
obtained which, when washed with water and dried, should weigh not less
than 12 parts, and of which not over 10 per cent, should be soluble in
ether."— tJ. S. P.
Hydragogue cathartic its action is
;
greatly increased by being combined with potassium bitar-

trate. Considerable nausea attends its use, which may be
obviated by treating the powder or resin with ether (remov-
ing the jaiapin) without impairing its cathartic action. It
forms an efficient purgative to be used after oleoresin of
aspidium, the copious stool helping to sweep away the loos-
ened parasite. Jalap acts in about three hours this should ;
be taken into account in timing its administration.

—
Average Dose. 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.), in the compound
jalap powder (jalap and potassium bitartrate [1-4 gm.
(15-60 gr.)]). It is often given with calomel. Of the
resin, 0.06-0.3 gm. (1-5 gr.). The extract is somewhat
weaker, and is given in doses of from 0.12-0.5 gm. (2-8 gr.).
ACONITUM.—Aconite.
The tuber of Aconitum Napellus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Ran-
unculacese).
38 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES.
Habitat. —
Central and southwestern Europe, the Himalaya
Mountains, and Siberia. Cultivated as an ornamental plant
in Europe and the United States.
—
Description. ^"Frora 10 to 20 mm. thick at the crown; conically con-
tracted below ; from 50 to 75 mm. long, with scare or fragments of radicles
dark brown externally whitish internally ; with a rather thick bark, the
;
central axis about seven-rayed without odor taste at first sweetish, soon
; ;
becoming acrid, and producing a sensation of tingling and numbness, which

lasts for some time." —U. S. P.

the conical tubers, very hard, dense ; tingling sensation upon
chewing (cautiously) ; the seven rays or points in the pith.
Substitutions. —A European aconite has but five rays in the
pith and is Japanese and Chinese
globular-ovate in shape.
aconites often show a (may be seven-
circular or elliptic pith
rayed), napiform or elongated tubers. An Indian aconite is
not acrid when chewed, pith and shape of tuber differing
from the official. Another Indian species is exceedingly
acrid and poisonous, containing principally pseudaconitine.
Aconite owes its action to a number
of alkaloids, of which aconitine is the most important. Com-
mercial aconitiue consists of true aconitine, pseudaconitine,
aconine, pseudaconine, and picraconitine, in such variable
proportions that its strength varies enormously. Even the
so-called pure aconitines are not identical. Crystalline aconi-
tine is exceedingly poisonous, the maximal dose being 0.0003
gm. (-j^Tj- gi"-)- None of these alkaloids are suited for in-
ternal use. The total alkaloids present in the tuber consti-
tute about 0.07 per cent. Resin and sugar are present.
Aconitine and pseudaconitine are regarded by F. Mandelin
as the most virulent of all vegetable or mineral poisons. All
parts of the aconite plant are poisonous.
Aconite is used in certain fevers, as in
colds and in facial neuralgia. Locally in neuralgias and in
rheumatism, producing local irritation followed by anesthesia.
—
Average Dose. 0.06—0.12 gm. (1—2 gr.), preferably in
tincture (U. S. P., 0.03 to 0.3 c.c. =
i to 5 min.) diluted
largely with water. Of the extract, 0.006—0.015 gm. (y^^-
^ gr.). As previously stated, the alkaloids should not be
COLCHICI RADIX. 39
used internally, and, indeed, have no advantage over the

fluid extract or liniment for external use.So many fatalities
have occurred through the use of and its action is
aconite,
so rapid, that pharmacists should know the more prominent
symptoms of poisoning by it and the first aid to be extended.
Very large doses have proved almost instantly fatal. In dan-
gerous doses, tingling in the mouth and throat is first noticed,
becoming more extended saliva flows freely burning pain
; ;
in the stomach, with nausea and attempts to vomit or vomit- ;
ing and diarrhea. The pulse at different stages is slow and

feeble, or exceedingly rapid and irregular; anesthesia suc-
ceeds the burning pain ; the pupils are usually dilated ; the
skiu becomes cold ; convulsions often occur. This train of
symptoms may begin at once and rarely after an hour, death
occuring in from two to six hours.
The first aid, pending the arrival of the physician, consists
in the administration of emetics and strong tea and brandy,
and in the local application of heat, hot-water bags, etc.
COLCHia RADIX.— Colchicam Root.
The corm of Colchicum autumnale Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Lili-

acese.
Habitat. —Europe.
Description. '•—About 25 mm. long, ovoid, flatfish, and with a groove on
one side externally brownish and wrinkled; interaally, white and solid
; ;
often in transverse slices, reniform in shape, and breaking with a short,

mealy fracture inodorous taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid."
;
;
U. S. P.
tStudy and describe as suggested on p. 17.

CAte/" Constituents. — Colchicine (not crystallizable) 0.5 per
cent. ; colchiceine (crystalline) ; the latter is obtained from
the former by heating with dilute mineral acids ; starch,

resin, etc.
Mainly in gout and rheumatism. Its
action resembles that of aconite, but it produces, in addition,
violent intestinal irritability. It is dangerous because of
itsuncertain toxicity.
Average Dose. —
0.1-0.5 gm. (2-8 gr.) in tincture, wine,
or extract ; of colchicine, 0.0005 gm. (yig gr.), but of no
advantage over the preparation of the conn. The symptoms
of poisoning by colchicum are slow to appear and cannot be
controlled. Unless the poisoning is discovered before the
advent of the symptoms, the pharmacist is not called upon to
interfere ; in the former event prompt emesis and alkaloidal
precipitants are useful. Pains in the abdomen, vomiting, and
diarrhea occur.
SCILLA.—SquilL
The bulb of Urginea maritiraa (Linn6) Baker (Nat. Ord.
Liliacese), deprived of dry, membranaceous outer scales,
its
and cut into thin slices, the central portions being rejected.
—
Habitat Southern Europe.
Description. —
" In narrow segments, about 5 cm. long, slightly trans-
lucent, yeUowish-white or reddish, brittle and pulvei-izable when diy,
tough and flexible after exposure to damp air inodorous taste mucilagin-
; ;
ous, bitter and acrid." —U. S. P.

Chief Constituents. — Scillitoxin, scillain, and scillipicrin
(acting upon the heart), scillin, sinistrin, mucilage, raphides
of calcium oxalate.
Squill iu large doses resembles digitalis
in its action upon the heart, but it is much more frequently
used as a nauseant, expectorant, and diuretic.
Average Dose. —
0.3 gm. (5 gr.) in syrup as an expectorant
or up to 0.6 gm. (10 gr.) as a nauseant.
RHIZOMES,
Rhizomes, often incorrectly called roots, are stems which
have come to simulate roots to some degree in that they are
partly or wholly subterranean. Monocotyledenous rhizomes
present a diiFerent histologic structure from that of their
roots ; but in Dicotyledons there is less difference between
them. In either case they may be recognized as stems by
the presence of leaf bases or by their remaining scars.
Among the rhizomes are classed a number of drugs consist-
ing of the rhizome, together with a number of rootlets, the
latter at times even predominating over the former in actual
RHIZOMES. 41
weight (cypripedium). Several of the rhizomes are charac-

terizedby few or many saucer-shaped depressions or scars,
marking the site from which overground stems had sprung.
These may occur only near the nodes, or they may be so
crowded as nearly to cover that surface of the organ. Occa-
sionally the rootlets spring from the entire surface of the
rhizome, but they are usually much more numerous upon the
under side, and often most dense near the nodes. The rhi-
zome of but one fern is official. All the official rhizomes
excepting ginger are found growing in the United States.
Rhizomes are to be studied very much after the manner in-
dicated on p. 17 for describing roots. Particularly notice
the rootlets, whether they are few or numerous, very small or
medium in size, whether wiry or not ; their distribution,
equally about the rhizome or mostly upon the lower surface,
whether along its entire length, as in cypripedium, or aggre-
gated mainly at the nodes, as in podophyllum. The sheath-
ing leaf-bases and the saucer-shaped depressions marking the
point from which the overground stem rose are also to be con-
sidered ; the latter may be very numerous or few.
The following rhizomes are official
Podophyllum. Caulophyllum.
Valerian. Menispermum.
Sanguinaria. Leptandra.
Geranium. Ginger.
Serpentaria. Calamus.
Spigelia. Triticum.
Hydrastis. Veratrum viride.
Cimicifuga. Cypripedium.
Arnica. Convallaria.
Aspidium.
The following medicinal rhizomes are not official
Aletris. Asclepias incarnata.

Aralia nudicaulis. Bistort.
Aralia racemosa.. Black hellebore.
Asarum. Carex arenaria.
Asclepias cornuti. Chamselirium.
Collinsonia. Nymphsea.
Curcuma. Polygonatum.
Dioscorea. Skunk cabbage.
Florentine iris. Smilax China.
Galanga. Tormentilla.
Geum rivale. Trillium.
Geum urbanum. Triosteum.
Gillenia. Xanthorrhiza.
Zedoary.
PODOPHYLLUM.-PodophyIIam—May Apple.
The rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum Linn6
(Nat. Ord. Berberidese).
Habitat. —
North America pretty generally ; also reported
as growing in Japan.
Description. —
" Of horizontal growth, consisting of joints about 5 cm. long,
flattish cyUndric, about 5 mm. thick, but somewhat enlarged at the end,
which has a circular scar on the upper side, a tuft of about ten, nearly simple,
fragile roots on the lower side, and is somewhat branched laterally smooth
;
or somewhat wrinkled, oi'ange brown, internally white and mealy, with a

circle of small wood bundles pith large nearly inodorous taste sweetish,
:
—; ;
somewhat bitter and acrid." U. S. P.

the saucer-shaped scars at nodes ; orange color.
Podophyllotoxin and picropodophyllin
(found in the official resin), a green oil, and a resin ; starch.
Therapeutic. Use. —
Hydragogue cathartic (should be com-
bined with other cathartics).
—
Average Dose. 0.3-1.2 gm. (5—20 gr.) ; of the extract,
0.12-0.6 gm. (2-10 gr.) ; of the official resin, 0.008-0.03
gm. (f4 gr.).
VALERIANA.—Valerian.
The rhizome and roots of Valeriana officinalis Linn6 (Nat.
Ord. Valerianese).
Habitat. —Europe and naturalized in the United States,
growing in damp woods and yielding a larger rhizome with
many large rootlets, or in high dry land, yielding a smaller
rhizome and few rootlets. Authorities differ as to their rela-
tive value.
SANGUINARIA—OEBANIUM. 43
Description.—" Ehizome from 2 to 4 cm. long and 1 to 2 cm. thick,

upright,_subglobular or obconic, truncate at both ends, brown or yellowish-
brown, internally whitish or pale brownish, with a narrow circle" of white
wood under the thin bark. Roots numerous, slender, brittle, brown, with a
thick bark, and slender, ligneous cord. Odor peculiar, becoming stronger
and unpleasant on keeping taste caraphoraceous and somewhat bitter."
;
U. S. P.

Chief Constituents.— Yohtile oil, several acids (the prin-
cipal one is valerianic), tannin, resin, a glucosid, etc.
Therapeutic Use. —Sedative in hysteria (prohably associ-
ated with the odor).
Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.), in elixir or tincture.
SANGUINARIA.—Sanguinarla.— Bloodroot.
The rhizome of Sanguinaria canadensis Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Papaveracese), collected in the autumn.
Habitat. —
United States.
Description. —
"Of horizontal growth, about -5 cm. long and 1 cm. thick,
cylindric, somewhat branched, faintly annulate, wrinkled, reddish-brown
fracture short, somewhat waxy, whitish, ^^'ith numerous small, red resin-
cells, or of a nearly uniform, brownish-red color bark thin odor slight
; ;
taste persistently bitter and acrid." —

U. S. P.

the red color.
Sanguinarine, chelerythrine, protopine,
berberine. Sanguinarine is white, but yields red salts ; resins
are also present.
Nauseant expectorant. Sanguinarine
resembles opium somewhat in its action.
Average Dose. —
0.06-0.3 gm. (1-5 gr.) in form of tinct-
ure or syrup.
GERANIUM.— Geranium.— CranesfailL

The rhizome of Geranium maculatum Linne (Nat. Ord.
Geraniacese).
Habitat. —North America.
Description. — " Of horizontalgrowth, cylindric, 5 to 7 cm. long; about
1 cm. thick ; rather sharply tuberculated, longitudinally wrinkled, dark
brown ; fracture short, pale reddish-brown bark thin wood-wedges yel-
; ;
44 TUBERS, COBMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES.
lowish, small, forming a circle near the cambium line medullary rays ;
broad central pith large roots thin, fragile

; ; inodorous taste strongly
; ;
astringent."— U. S. P.
the tuberculated appearance ; astringent taste.
Chief Constituents. —Tannin (very abundantly in April),
col or i n g-matter.
Therapeutic Use. — Astringent.
Average Dose. — gm. (30
2 gr.).
SERPENTARIA.—Sefpentaria.—Virginia Snafceroot.
The rhizome and roots of Aristolochia Serpentaria Linng

and of Aristolochia reticulata Nuttall (Nat. Ord. Aristolochi-
aceje).
Habitat. —Rather widely in the United States, the two
species having a somewhat different range.
Description. —" The rhizome is about 25 mm. long, thin, bent on the ;
upper side with approximate, short stem-bases on the lower side with
;
numerous, thin, branching roots about 10 cm. long dull yellowish-brown,

;
internally whitish the wood-i-ays of the rhizome longest on the lower side
;
odor aromatic, camphoraceous taste warm, bitterish, and caraphoraceous.

;
" The roots of Aristolochia reticiUata are coarser, longer, and less inter-
laced than those of Aristolochia Serpentaria." —
U. S. P.

Chief CoThstituents.— Volatile oil, resin, aristolochine (bit-
ter), and usual inert constituents.
Therapeutic Use. —Belongs to the astringent bitters tonic.
Average Dose. —1—2 gm. (15-30 gr.) as tincture or fluid
;
extract.
SPIGELIA.—Spigelia.—Pinfcroot.
The rhizome and roots of Spigelia marilandica Linn6
(Nat. Ord. Loganiacese).
Habitat. —
The" official name and the' synonym, Carolina
pink, indicate the region to which it is indigenous, growing
south westward to Texas.
Note. —
Phlox Carolina is also known as Carolina pink.
Description. —" Of horizontal growth, about 5 cm. or more long, 2 or 3
mm. thick, dark purplish-brown, bent, somewhat branched, on the upper
side with cup-shaped scare ; on the lower side with numerous, thin, brittle,
lighter-colored roots, about 10 cm. long; the rhizome internally with a
whitishwood and a pith which is usually dark-colored or decayed ; odor
somewhat aromatic, taste .sweetish, bitter, and pungent." U. S. P. —
HYDRASTIS— CIMICIFUG A. 45

Chief Constituents.
loid, etc.
— Volatile oil, resins, a volatile alka-
Therapeutic Use. —Vermicide.

Also somewhat poisonous,
causing dilatation of the pupil.
—
Average Dose. 2-6 gm. (30-90 gr.) as fluid extract or in
syrup.
HYDRASTIS—Hydrastis.—Golden Seal.
The rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis Linn6

(Nat. Ord. Eanunculacese).
Habitat. —
The United States, more abundantly in the
North and West.
Description. —
" Rhizome about 4 cm. long and 6 mm. thick oblique, ;
with short branches, somewhat annulate and longitudinally wrinkled ex- ;
ternally brownish-gray fracture short, waxy, bright reddish-yellow, with a

;
thickish bark, about ten narrow wood-wedges, broad medullary rays, and
large pith. Eoots thin, brittle, with a thick, yellow bark and subquadiun-
gular, woody center. Odor slight taste bitter." U. S. P.
; —
the yellow color powder still brighter yellow.
Chief Constituents.
;
—Berberine (with its salts, bright yel-

low), hydrastine (white, yielding hydrastinine by oxidation),
canadine (resembling morphine in its action, but present in
too small amount to be of use), resin, and starch.
Useful internally in hemorrhage, locally
fn catarrhal conditions, hydra.stinine being preferable. Bitter
stomachic.
Average Dose. —
2-6 gm. (30-90 gr.) as fluid extract or
tincture. Hydrastine or hydrastinine, 0.02o gm. (|- gr.).
CIMiaFUGA.—Cimicifoga.— Black Snakeroot.
The rhizome and roots of Cimicifuga racemosa (Linne),

Nuttall (Nat. Ord. Ranunculacese).
Habitat. —
Canada, southward to Florida, and through the
Middle "West of the United States.
Description. — " The rhizome of horizontal growth, hard, 5 cm. or more
is
long, about 2.5 mm. numerous stout, upright or curved branches,

thick, with
terminated by a cnp-shaped scar, and with numerous wiry, brittle, obtusely
quadrangular roots, about 2 ram. thick the whole brownish-black, of a
;
slight but heavy odor, and of a bitter, acrid taste.

46 TUBERS, COBMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES
" Ehizome and branches have a smooth fmcture, with a rather large _pith,
surrounded by numerous sublinear, whitish wood-rays, and a thin, firm bark.
The roots break with a short fiucture, have a thick bark, and contain a lig-
neous cord expanding into about four rays." U. S. P. —
Cliief Constituents. —
Tannin and bitter principle, probably
a glucosid, resins, etc.
Therapeutic Use. It — is classed among the astringent bitters.
Average Dose. —0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.) as tincture or fluid
extract.
ARNICAE RADIX- Arnica Root.

The rhizome and roots of Arnica montana Linn6 (Nat.
Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —
Europe and in the mountainous parts of the
northwestern United States.
Description. —" Ehizome about 5 cm. long, and 3 or 4 mm. thick ex- ;
ternally brown, rough from leaf-scars internally whitish, with a rather

;
thick bark, containing a circle of resin-cells, suiTounding the short, yellow-

ish wood-wedges, and large, spongy pith. The roots numerous, thin, fragile,
grayish-brown, with a thick bark containing a circle of resin-cells. Odor
somewhat aromatic taste pungently aromatic and bitter."^ U. S. P.
; —
Volatile oil ; acrid resin.
Irritant, vulnerary.
Average Dose. — gm. (30
2 gr.).
CAULOPHYLLUM.—CattIophyllum.—BIae Cohosh.
The rhizome and roots of Caulophyllum thalictroides

(Linn6) Michaux (Nat. Ord. Berberidacese).
Habitat. —
The eastern part of the United States.
Desmption.—" Ehizome of horizontal growth, about 10 cm. long, and
about 6 to 10 mm.thick, bent on the upper side with broad, concave stem-
;
scare and short, knotty branches; externally grayish-brown, internally

whitish, tough, and woody. Eoots numerous, matted, about 10 cm.^ long,
and 1 mm. thick, rather tough nearly inodorous taste sweetish, slightly
; ;
bitter and somewhat acrid." — U. S. P.
Sttidy ajid describe as suggested on p. 17.

Chidf Constituents. — Resins, saponin.
Therapeutic Use. —Emmenagogue.
Average Dose. —2 gm. (30 gr.).
MENISPERMUM^ZINGIBER. 47
MENISPERMUM.—Menispefmum.—Yellow PariHa— Canadian

Moonseed.
The rhizome and roots of Menispermuni canadense Linne

(Nat. Ord. Menispermacese).
Habitat. —United States.
Description. — " Ehizome several feet long, about 5 mm. thick, brown or
yellowish-brown, somewhat knotty, finely wrinkled longitudinally and beset
with numerous thin, rather brittle roots fracture tough, woody internally
; ;
yellowish, the bark rather thick, the wood-rays broad, porous, and longest
on the lower side pith distinct. Nearly inodorous taste bitter." U. S. P.
; ; —
Berberine, menispine.
Alterative.
Average Dose. —4 gm. (60 gr.).
LEPT ANDRA. —Leptandra.— Culver's Root.
The rhizome and roots of Veronica virginica Linn§ (Nat.

Ord. Scrophuiarinese).
Habitat. —
Eastern and middle western parts of the United
States.
Description. —"Of horizontal growth, from 10 to 15 cm. long, and about

5 mm. thick, somewhat flattened, bent, and branched, deep blackish-brown,
with cup-shaped scars on the upper side, hard, of a woody fracture, with a
thin, blackish bark, a, hard, yellowish wood, and a large, purplish-brown,
about six-rayed pith i-oots thin, wrinkled, very fragile inodorous taste
; ; ;
bitter and'feebly acrid."— U. S. P.

Leptandrin (not the leptandrin of the
eclectics), resin, saponin, etc.
Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic.
Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15—60 gr.) as extract. Of the
impure resin (the leptandrin of the eclectics), 0.1-0.25 gm.
(2-4 gr.).
ZINGIBER.—Ginger.
The rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Nat. Ord. Sci-
taminese).
Habitat. —
Hindustan and cultivated widely in tropic and
subtropic countries, as in the West Indies.
Description. — "About 5 to 10 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, and 4 to 8
mm. thick, flattish, on one side lobed or clavately branched deprived of
;
the corky layer ;
pale buff-colored, striate, breaking with a mealy, rather
fibrous fracture, showing numerous small, scattered resin-cells and fibro-
vascular bundles, the latter enclosed by a nucleus sheath ; agreeably aro-
matic, and of a pungent and warm taste." U. S. P. —
Varieties. —Jamaica, often covei-ed with a white powder
(lime), usually in handsomer pieces, yielding a yellowish
powder and a lighter tincture ; African, from which the
corky layer has not been removed, hence called " coated,"
externally brownish in color East India, scraped upon the
;
flat surface, the lobes not rounded as the Jamaica.
A pungent and volatile oil and resin
(found in the oleoresin). These and starch are more abun-
dant in the East Indian ginger, in which Konig found more
than 45 per cent, of starch. Alcohol or ether extracts the
medicinal constituents.
Therapeutic Use. —Flavor, carminative, and stimulant; it
also produces sneezing when the powder is snuffed up the

nostrils. Used also in confectionery.
Average Dose. —
0.5-2 gm. (8—30 gr.) usually as tincture, ;
2-4 (30 min. to 1 fl. dr.) ; of the oleoresin, 0.1-0.3 c.c.

C.C.
(2-5 min.), properly diluted.
CALAMUS.— Calamos.— Sweet Flag.
The rhizome of Acorus Calamus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Aroi-

dese).
Habitat. —Europe and North America in swampy or wet
places. A variety found in India, where it is ver'y highly
is
esteemed. Collected after or before the growing season.

Description. —
"In sections of various lengths, unpeeled, about 2 cm.
broad, subcylindric, longitudinally wrinkled on the upper surface iliarked
;
with leaf-scars forming triangles, and on the lower surface with the cii'cular
scars of the rootlets in wavy lines externally reddish-brown, somewhat
;
annulate from remnants of leaf-sheaths ; internally whitish, of a spongy

texture, breaking with a short, corky fracture, showing numerous oil-cells
and scattered wood-bundles, the latter crowded within the subcircular endo-
derm. It has an aromatic odor and a strongly bitter taste." TJ. S. P. —
that the corky external covering should be present.
TBITICUM—VERATBUM VIRIDE. 49
—
Cliief Constituents. Volatile oil, resin, acorin (bitter), and
starch.
Therapeutic Use.—Aromatic flavor, stimulant, and carmin-
ative. Treated with forms an
syrup, it agreeable confection.
Average — 1—4 gm. (15—60
Dose. gr.).
TRmCUM.—Triticum.— Couch-grass.
The rhizome of Agropyrum repens (Linn6) Beauvois
(Nat. Ord. Gramineee), gathered in the spring and deprived
of the roots.
Habitat. —Europe, widely in the northern part of the
United States.
Description. —
" Very long and creeping, about 2 mm. thick as met with
;
in the shops, cut into sections about 1 cm. long smooth, but wrinkled
;
hollow in the center, straw-yellow inodorous; taste sweetish." U. S. P.

; —
Several sugars, mucilage.
Diuretic.
Average i)ose.— Of the fluid extract, 2-4 c.c. (30-60 min.)
of the decoction, ad libitum.
VERATRUM VIRIDE.—Veratrum Viride.—American Hellebore.

The rhizome and roots of Veratrum viride Solander (Nat.
Ord. Liliacese).
Habitat. — Georgia, northward in swamps and wet ground.
Description. —
" Rhizome upright, obconic, simple or divided, from 3 to 8
cm. long, and 2 to 4 or 5 cm. thick, externally blackish-gi-ay, internally
grayish-white, showing numerous short, irregular wood-bundles. Roots
emanating from all sides of the rhizome, numerous, shriveled, light yellow-
ish-brown, about 10 to 20 cm. long, and 2 mm. thick. Inodorous, but
strongly sternutatory when powdered; taste bitterish and very acrid."
U. S. P.

Several alkaloids, jervine, rubijervine,
veratroidine, pseudojervine, cevadine, and proto-veratrine,
differing in color reactions with the strong acids. (Commer-
cial (the official) veratrine consists of a mixture of alkaloids,
usually obtained from cevadilla seed.) Resin and starch are
also present.
Therapeutic Use. —Emetic and cardiac depressant, reduces
temperature (slows the heart and reduces blood-pressure,
closely resembling aconite in the main).
Average Dose. —
0.05—0.1 gm. (1—2 gr.) usually in tincture.
The alkaloid veratrine or cevadine is not fitted for internal
use ; the oleate (2 per cent.) and the ointment (4 per cent.)
are used externally in neuralgia for their local irritant action.
Symptoms of poisonincf resemble those of aconite, and the
first aid is such as would be used in the case of aconite poi-
soning i. c, external application of heat, and stimulating
and diuretic drinks.
CYPRIPEDIUM.—Cypripedium.—Ladies Slipper.
The rhizome and roots of Cypripedium pubescens Swartz,

and of Cypripedium parviflorum Salisbury (Nat. Ord. Or-
chidese).
Habitat. —The several species of Cypripedium are indige-
nous to the swampy regions of the United States.
Description. —
"Of horizontal growth, bent, 10 cm., or less, long; from 3
to 5 mm. thick on the upper side beset with numerous circular, cup-shaped
;
scars closely covered below with simple, wiry roots, varying from 10 to 15
;
cm. in length brittle, dark-brown, or orange-brown fracture short, white

; ;
odor peculiar, heavy taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat pungent."

:
U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggessed on p. 17.

Chief Constituents.— Tô resins, a little volatile oil, bitter
principle, which is probably a glucosid, and in which the
medicinal properties probably reside.
Antispasmodic.
Average Dose. —0.5—1 gm. (8-15 gr.).
CONVALLARIA—Convallaria.
The rhizome and roots of Convallaria majalis Linn6 (Nat.
Ord. Liliacese).
Habitat. —
Europe and probably the United States. In
this country it is cultivated, and grows wild where it has
escaped from cultivation.
Deaeription. —
" Of horizontal growth and somewhat branched, about 3
mm. thick, cylindric, wrinkled, whitish, marked with few circular scars at ;
the annulate joint with about eight or ten long, thin roots ; fracture some-
ASPIDIUM. 51
what fibrous, white odor peculiar, pleasant

; ; taste sweetish, bitter, and
—
somewhat acrid." U. S. P.

Convallamarin, convallarin (glucosids,
the latter possessiug saponin-like properties (foams), repre-
senting the medical properties of the drug).
Resembles digitalis in its action upon
the heart —
slows and strengthens the beat.
—
Average Dose. 0.3 gm. (5 gr.) in tincture.
ASPIDIUM—Aspidium—Male-fern.
The rhizome of Dryopteris Filix-mas Schott, and of Dry-
opteris marginalisAsa Gray (Nat. Ord. Filices).
Habitat. —Widely distributed in the north temperate zone.
Description. — " From 5 to 1 5 cm. long, 10 to 25 mm. in thickness, and,
together with the closely imbricated, dark-brown, roundish, and slightly
curved stipe-remnants, 50 to 75 mm. in diameter densely covered with ;
brown, glossy, transparent, and soft, chaffy scales internally pale-green,

;
rather spongy; vascular bundles, about ten (Dryopteris Filix-mas) or six

(Dryopteris marginalis) in number, arranged in an interrupted circle;
odor slight, but disagreeable taste sweetish, acrid, somewhat bitter, astrin-
;
gent, and nauseous.

" The chaffj together with the dead portions of the rhizome and stipes,
should be removed, and only such portions as have retained their green
color should be used." —
U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially

note the greenish color and peculiar odor and taste.
Aspidium rigidum is larger and thinner and has but îx
vascular bundles.
Aspidium athamanticuin is thicker and more dense than
the oificial. The rhizomes of otlier indigenous forms are often
substituted.
Chief Constituents. — Volatile and fixed oils, resin, filicic
acid (all found in the oleoresin, which represents the medic-

inal action of the drug) ; little starch.
Therapeutic Use. — Teniafuge.

Average Dose. —The
oleoresin is almost universally used
this should be shaken before dispensing. Of the oleoresin,
2—4 c.c. (30-60 niin.), taken after fasting or a carefully regu-
lated diet, and to be followed by a brisk cathartic. A dose
of 25 c.c. of the oleoresin has proved fatal.
52 TUBERS, CO RMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES.
UNOFFICIAL RHIZOMES.
CHAPTEE III.
WOODS AND BARKS.

The official woods usually occur in commerce in fragments,
chips, or coarse powder. The macroscopic description will
embrace the shape and size of the pieces, odor, taste, and color,
with any other readily noticeable properties, such as tinging
the saliva, great density (as in case of guaiac), etc.
The following woods are official
Quassia. Guaiacum.
Hsematoxylon. Dulcamara.
Red Saunders.
Among the unofficial woods are Gouania and Sandalwood.
QUASSIA.—Quassia.
The wood of Picrsena excelsa (Swartz) Lindley (Nat. Ord.
Simarubese).
Habitat. —Jamaica.
Description. —
"In billets of various sizes, dense, tough, of medium hard-
ness, porous,with a minute pith and narrow, medullaiy rays inodorous
;
and intensely bitter. In the shops it is usually met with in the form of
chips or raspings of a yellowish-white color. —
U. S. P."
Study and describe as suggested above. Especially note

that Surinam quassia is distinguished microscopally (see p.
257) by having narrower medullary rays.
Quassin (bitter principle) represents
the medicinal virtues of the wood, mucilage, resin, etc.
Therapeutic Use. — Tonic, belongs to the simple bitters.
Its continued use deranges the digestion.
Average Dose. —Turnedwood cups of quassia have been
used ; they are with cold water, which rapidly acquires
filled
an intensely bitter taste ; after standing half an hour, 100 to
200 c.c. of the water are taken. Dose, 0.15-0.3 gm. (3-5
gr.), in infusion or tincture; of the extract, 0.1 gm. (2 gr.).
5.S
54 WOODS AND BARKS.
HAEMATOXYLON.—Haematoxylon.— Logwood.
The heart-wood of Hsematoxylon campechianum Linn6
(Nat. Ord. Leguminosae).
Habitat. —
Central America, introduced into the West
Indies.
Description. —
" Heavy, hard, externally purplish-black, internally brown-
ish-red, and marked with iiTegular, concentric circles, splitting irregularly
odor faint, agreeable taste sweetish, astringent.
; When chewed, it colors
the saliva dark pink.
" Logwood is generally met with in the form of small chips or coarse
—
powder of a dark brownish-red color, often with a greenish luster." U. S. P.

Tannin, hsematoxylin, or heematin
(note that hsematin of blood is wholly different).
Astringent, but almost exclusively as a
dyewood.
—
Average Dose. 2-4 gm. (30—60 gr.).
SANTALUM RUBRUM.—Red Saunders.

The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Leguminosse).
Habitat. —
Ceylon and southern India.
Desaription. —
"A hard, heavy, dark reddish-brown, coaraely splintery
wood, deprived of the light-colored sap-wood usually met with in chips,
;
or as a coaree, iiTegular, brownish-red powder, nearly inodorous and nearly
" Red saundere does not impart any red color to water when macerated
with it."—U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on

p. 53.
Santalin or santalic acid is the red
coloring principle.
Not used medicinally. Used in pharmacy for coloring
tinctures.
GUAIAa LIGNUM.—Guaiacam Wood.

The heart-wood of Guaiacum officinale LinnS and of
Guaiacum sanctum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Zygophyllese).
Habitat. —West Indies and northern South America.
DVLCAMABA — IIKOFFICIAL WOODS. 55
Description. — " Heavier than water, hard, brown or greenish-brown, resin-

ous, marked with irregular, concentric circles, surrounded by a yellowish
alburnum, splitting irregularly when heated, emitting a balsamic odor
;
taste slightly acrid.

" Guaiacum wood is geneiuUy used in the form of raspings or turnings,
which should be gi-eenish-brown, containing few particles of a whitish color,
and should acquire a dark bluish-green color on the addition of nitric acid."
— U. S. P.

Resin (U. S. P.), 20 to 25 per cent.,
consisting of a number of resin acids. The resin exudes
through inci.sions in the bark, but the wood is usually heated
and the exuding resin absorbed in rags. Impurities often
amount to 30 per cent., consisting of vegetable tissues.
According to recent investigations, the wood owes its action
to a saponin.
—Has long had
Therapeutic Use. a reputation as an altera-
tive in syphilis now but
and rheumatism, but is little used.
Average Dose. —Of 0.5—2.0 gm. (30
the resin, gr.).
DULCAMARA.— Dalcamara.— Bittersweet.

The young branches of Solanum Dulcamara Linn§ (Nat.
Ord. Solanacese).
Habitat. —
Europe, naturalized in the United States.
Descriptinn.—" About 5 mm. or less, thick, cylindric, somewhat angular,

longitudinally striate, more or less warty, usually hollow in the center, cut
into short sections. The thin bark is externally pale greenish or light
greenish-brown, marked with alternate leaf-scars, and internally green the ;
greenish or yellowish wood forms one or two concentric rings. Odor slight
taste bitter, afterward sweet." —
U. S. P.
Stud}/ and describe as suggested on p. 53.

—
Chief Constituents. dulcamarin, a
Resin, glucosid, and an
alkaloid.
Therapeutic — Use. Alterative.
Average Dose. — 4-8 gm. (1-2 dr.).
UNOFFICIAL WOODS.
Gouania, a native of the West Indies, contains a bitter
principle but is little used.
Sandalwood, obtained from India, is mainly important be-
56 WOODS AND BARKS.
cause of the volatile oil obtained from it. The oil is much
used in the treatment of gonorrhea.
BARKS.
The term bark has been defined botanically as that portion
of a root or stem lying outside of the cambium circle. Since
Monocotyledons have no such cambium as that found in
Dicotyledons, they have no true bark (see p. 242). Official
barks may comprise all or any of the layers of the true bark ;
thus the official elm bark is limited to the inner portion of the
true bark ; hence we shall see that the official descriptions do
not always correspond to the botanic descriptions of the same
barks. Externally the color depends upon the presence or
absence of lichens or upon what portion may actually consti-
tute the outer surface ; similarly the inner surface may have
portions of the outer wood adherent, as is often seen in aspido-
sperma and in viburnum.
Most of the barks are found growing in the United
official
States, but several of the more important, such as cinchona,
mezereum, quillaja, and cinnamon are imported.
The macroscopic description of barks embraces the follow-
ing points Whether the whole bark or only the inner part
:
is present shape and size of pieces, more especially thickness,

;
and whether flat or quilled ; color of outer and inner sur-

faces and of the surface shown upon breaking ; nature of
fracture ; odor taste. ;
The following barks are official

Cinchona. Cotton-root bark.
Cascara sagrada. Euonymus.
Frangula. Quillaja.
Pomegranate. Elm.
Wild cherry. Ceylon cinnamon.
Viburnum opulus. Cassia cinnamon.
Viburnum prunifolium. Saigon cinnamon.
Xanthoxylum. Sassafras.
White oak. Juglans.
Rubus. Cascarilla.
Mezereum. Aspidosperma.
CINCHONA — CINCHONA RUBRA. bl
The following medicinal barks are not official
Angustura. Liriodendron.
Azedarach. Magnolia.
Berberis. Myrica.
Black oak. Nectandra.
Canella. Piscidium.
Cinnamodendron. Prinos.
Condurango. Simaruba.
Cornus. White ash.
Goto. Willow.
Erythrophlceum. Wintera.
CINCHONA.— Cinchona.
The bark of Cinchona Calisaya Weddell Cinchona offici-
;
nalisLinn6 and of hybrids of these and of other species of

;
Cinchona (Nat. Ord. Rubiacese), yielding, when assayed by

the process given in United States Pharmacopoeia, not less
than 5 per cent, of total alkaloids and at least 2.5 per cent,
of quinine.
CINCHONA RUBRA— Red Cinchona.
The bark of Cinchona Succirubra Pavon (Nat. Ord.

Rubiacese), containing not less than 5 per cent of its peculiar
alkaloids.
More than thirty species of cinchona are usually recog-
nized, and nearly twenty yield their peculiar alkaloids in suf-
ficient amounts to be of importance.
Besides those specifically mentioned under the name Cin-
chona, —viz., Cinchona Calisaya and Cinchona officinalis, and
the red cinchona under the title of Cinchona rubra, the phar-
macopoeia recognizes under the former title (not under the
latter) any species of cinchona yielding by the method of
assay there prescribed not less than 5 per cent, of its pecu-
liar alkaloids, and not less than 2.5 per cent, of quinine.
Habitat. —
The various species of cinchona are indigenous
to South America, the genus showing a much wider distri-
bution than do most of the species. They are found upon
the slopes of the Andes Mountains, in fairly high altitudes.
58 WOODS AND BARKS.
from Bolivia in the south, through the entire length of Peru,
across Ecuador, the United States of Columbia, and into
Venezuela, through nearly thirty degrees of latitude, or about
2000 miles. They are usually confined to the eastern slopes
of the mountains, owing to a much greater rainfall upon that
side or to too low a temperature upon the western. Though
much moisture is necessary, free drainage is equally essential
for the best development of the alkaloids. The Calisaya
bark, according to Markham, was originally limited to the
region of northern Bolivia, while the equally valuable red
bark was found only near Quito, in a more restricted terri-
tory-
While the habitat of cinchona is of great historic interest,
and the student will find the articles upon this subject in the
dispensatories very entertaining, almost all the cinchona bark
now used comes from cultivated trees. Space forbids more
than the mention of thrilling adventures and self-sacrificing
experienced by those who sought to secure seeds and cuttings
for cultivation elsewhere, but great honor is due the men to
whose efforts we owe the cinchona plantations in India,
Ceylon, Java, West Africa, and elsewhere. Some years since
it was estimated that there were in the world some 75,000,000
cultivated cinchona trees, of which India and Ceylon had

about half of the total, and Java about 30,000,000.
Collection. —
The natives of the South American countries,
where the cinchona flourished, collected the bark with an
utter disregard of the future, so that at the present time the
bark would be practically unobtainable but for the cultivated
sources. The native collectors were organized into small
companies for the long and hazardous journey across the
mountains. The trees were cut down, and even the roots
taken up, every portion of the bark being removed this was ;
dried and transported on the backs of animals to the sea-

shore.
Several methods of collection are in vogue in the cinchona
plantations of India and Java, dependent upon the richness
of the yield, the age of the trees, etc. " Mossing " consists
in removing vertical strips of bark and covering the denuded
surface to exclude the light ; this causes an increased alka-
CIXCHONA RUBRA. 59
loidal richness in the bark, which is quickly renewed. After

the removal of mossed bark, that which develops in its
place is called renewed bark. "Coppicing" is practised
where the alkaloidal yield is poor this consists in cutting ;
the trees down, but leaving a stump from which shoots spring
up later the whole plant is uprooted. " Shaving " consists
;
in removing only a portion of the bark, leaving the vitality

of the tree unimpaired. Mossing requires skilled labor,
whereas coppicing does not.
Description. — ''
In quills or incurved pieces, varying in length, and usu-
ally 2 or 3, or sometimes 5 ram. thick the outer surface covered with a gray
;
or brownish-gray cork, usually slightly wrinkled, marked with transverse, and

also with intersecting, longitudinal fissures (C. Calisaya), and sometimes
with scattered wai-ts and slight longitudinal ridges inner surface light ;
cinnamon-brown, very finely striate fracture short and granular in the

;
outer layer, and finely fibrous in the inner layer powder light brown or;
yellowish-brown odor slight, somewhat aromatic taste bitter and some-

; ;
what astringent." U. S. P.—

Red Cinchona :
Description. —
In quills or incurved pieces, varying in length, and from
''
2 to 4 or 5 mm. thick the outer surface covered with a grayish-brown

;
cork, more or less rough from warts and longitudinal warty ridges, and
from few, mostly short transverse fissures inner surface more or less deep
;
reddish-brown and. distinctly striate; fracture short fibrous in the inner

layer powder reddish-brown odor slight taste bitter and astringent."
;
; ;
U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. Formerly the

high price of cinchona bark led to its very frequent adul-
teration, but at the present time cinchona bark, far richer in
its peculiar alkaloids than is required by the pharmacopoeia,
is easily obtainable from all reputable dealers, hence the sub-
ject of assaying is more important than the gross character-

istics. Cuprea bark obtained from various species of Remijia
has been largely substituted for cinchona ; it contains quinine,
but no cinchonidine ; its fracture does not present the pro-
jecting fibers seen in the true ; it sinks in water and presents
histologic characters by which it may be distinguished from
the true cinchona.
Chief Constituent'i. —
Quinine is by far the most important
coustituent of cinchona, of which it exceptionally constitutes
as much as 13 per cent, under cultivation (obtained from
Cinchona Ledgeriana). The important constituents of cin-
60 WOODS AND BARKS.
chona are considered on page 345. It may be here remarked
that three other of its alkaloids — cinchonidine, cinchonine,
and quinidine — are official as alkaloids or salts. Including
these, various investigators name some forty-three alkaloids
as existing in the bark, ofwhich thirty-five are regarded as
actually existing preformed and the remaining eight due to
decomposition of some of those preexisting. In addition to
the alkaloids, kinic, kinovic, and cinchotannic acids are
present, mostly combined with the alkaloids. Cinchotannic
acid is a combination of tannin and the red coloring-matter
of the bark. Upon heating a little bark containing the cin-
chona alkaloids in a sealed tube, a red, tarry distillate forms
in the upper part (Grahe's test). A
large number of the
alkaloids are isomeres of quinine, of quinamine, or of cin-
chonine. The evaporated mother liquid is a brown, amor-
phous extract, still containing some alkaloids, and is called
chinoidine.
Except for its astringent action, cin-
chona is very nearly represented by its alkaloids. Individual
cases may require the use of one in preference to another, but
in the main, quinine represents the medicinal virtues of the
bark, hence its uses will be detailed. The other alkaloids
possess similar properties to a somewhat less degree.
Fever: —Quinine is a powerful antipyretic in very large
doses, but, owing to its disagreeable effects in such quantities,
it has been almost entirely superseded as a mere antipyretic
by the coal-tar preparations, acetanilid, etc. In malarial
fever, however, quinine recognized as a specific, destroying
is
the parasites if given about two hours previous to the time

of sporulation, which is known by the onset of the chill.
Colds. —In their incipiency colds are often treated success-
fully with quinine combined with other agencies.
Tonic. —Since
quinine acts as a simple bitter, it may be
given as a tonic and stomachic, being inferior in this respect,
however, to some others, since it impairs digestion on con-
tinued use.
It has been used in a great variety of complaints, —neu-
ralgia, enlargement of the spleen, etc., — its effectiveness bieing
often due to the condition to which the complaints are secon-
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA—FBANQULA. 61
dary. Large doses of cinchona or its alkaloids produce the

condition termed cinchonism, characterized by headache, ring-
ing in the ears, etc. Cinchona may be deprived of its astrin-
gency by detannation with iron or albumin. Powdered cin-
chona is often used in tooth-powders.
—
Average Dose. Of the bark, 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.), in
tincture, fluid extract, infusion, elixir, or extract. These
have very seldom any advantage over the alkaloids, which
are more conveniently taken. Of quinine, as an antipyretic,
1 gm. (15 gr.) or more; as malarial fever antidote, 0.6 gm.
(10 gr.), repeated once two hours before time of anticipated
chill; for colds, 0.1-0.3 gm. (2-5 gr.); as tonic, 0.1-0.2
gm. (2-3 gr.).
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.-CascaraSagfada.
The bark of Rhamnus Purshiana De Candolle (Nat. Ord.
Rhamnacese).
Habitat. —
Pacific coast of the United States and south-
eastern British Columbia, and eastward to Rocky Mountains.
Description. —
"In quills or curved pieces, about 3 to 10 era. long, and
about 2 mm. thick outer surface brownish-gray and whitish the young
; ;
bark having numerous, rather broad, pale-colored warts; inner surface

yellowish to light brownish, becoming dark brown by age; smooth or finely
striate ;fracture short, yellowishj in the inner layer of thick bark some-
;
; —
what fibrous inodorous taste bitter." U. S. P.

Cascai-in (emodin principle), bitter
resins, etc.
Cathartic. Should be kept two years
before being used, since the fresh bark is emetic.
Average I)ose.—2-S gm. (30-120 gr.) as fluid extract, or
preferably as bitterless (so-called tasteless) liquid preparation.
FRANGULA.— Frangda.— Bacfcthorn.

The bark of Rhamnus Frangula Linng (Nat. Ord. Rham-
ne£e), collected at least one year before being used.
Habitat. —
Europe, northern Asia, and northern Africa.
/)escn)o((om.— "Quilled, about 1 mm. thick; outer surface giuyish-brown,

or blaokisk-brown, with numerous small, whitish, transveraely elongated
62 WOODS AND BARKS.
lenticels ; inner surface smooth, pale brownish-yellow fracture in the
;
outer layer short, of a pui-plish tint; in the inner layer fibrous and pale
yellow; when masticated, coloring the saliva yellow; nearly inodorous;
taste sweetish and bitter."—U. S. P.

Frangulin (rhamnoxanthiii) is taste-
less when pure ; it belongs to the emodin compounds. Tannin
and a bitter principle are also found. If frangula has been
kept less than a year, it produces nausea and vomiting.
Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic.
Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15—60 gr.) as fluid extract or
extract.
GRANATUM.— Pomegranate.
The bark of the stem and of the root of Punica Granatum
Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Lythrariese).
Habitat. —
India, China, and southwestern Asia cultivated ;
in West Indies and other tropic or subtropic countries.
Description. —
" In thin quills or fragments, from 5 to 10 cm. long, and
from 1 to 3 mm. thick ;outer surface yellowish-gray, somewhat warty, or
longitudinally and reticulately ridged the stem-bark often partly covered
;
with blackish lichens ; the thicker pieces of the root-bark more or less scaly
externally inner surface smooth, finely striate, grayish-yellow fracture
; ;
short, granular, greenish-yellow indistinctly radiate

; inodorous ; taste
;
astringent, very slightly bitter." — U. S. P-.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. The barks

of Berberis vulgaris and of Buxus sempervirens are some-
times substituted ; neither contains tannin.
Pelletierine (volatile oily alkaloid),
tannin (punicotannic acid), and several alkaloids allied to
pelletierine. Pelletierine may disappear from the bark, owing
to its volatility, upon long keeping. About 15 per cent, of
ash is present.
Used against tapeworm.
Average Dose. —
As in the case of other taeniafuges, fasting
or limited diet precedes the administration of the drug, and
it should be used in connection with a purgative. Dose 15
gm. (225 gr.) of the bark in an emulsion or other liquid
form. Pelletierine is equally eifective, but it is stated that
the dose usually given is too small —
0.5—1.0 gm. (8—15 gr.)
FRUNUS VIRQINIANA— VIBURNUM OPULUS. 63
of the sulphate or tannate may be given. The tannate

causes less nausea than the sulphate.
PRUNUS VIRGINIANA. -Wild Cherry.

The bark of Prunus serotina Ehrhart (Nat. Ord. Eosaceae),
collected in autumn.
Habitat. —Widely distributed through the United States.
Description. — " In curved pieces or irregular fragments, 2 mm. or more

thick, outer surface greenish-brown or yellowish-brown, smooth, and some-
what glossy, marked with transverse scars if the bark is collected from old
;
wood and deprived of the corky layer, the outer surface is nut-brown and
uneven ; inner surface somewhat striate or fissured. Upon maceration in
water it develops a distinct bitter-almond odor its taste is astringent, aro-
;
matic, and bitter.

" The bark of the very large and of the very small branches is to be
rejected."— U. S. P.

note the odor and taste of hydrocyanic acid upon chewing.
Hydrocyanic acid (about 0.14 per
cent, in October, — at which time it should be collected,
(one-third as much
the spring), tannin, bitter principle.
in
The hydrocyanic acid does not exist preformed in the bark,
but is developed when moistened, through the action of a
ferment similar to, if not identical with, emulsin, acting upon
a glucosid-amygdalin.
Wild cherry is mainly used as a flavor,
and in cough, for which its virtues depend upon the hydro-
cyanic acid. It is also a tonic. Heat should be avoided in
all preparations or mixtures containing wild cherry.
•
Average Dose. —
2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) in syrup or fluid
extract. Prussic acid is more employed medicinally ; the
dilute (the official), (2 per cent.) is used in doses of 0.6-0.2
c.c. (1—4 min.).
VIBURNUM OPULUS.—Vifaornom Opoltis.-Viburnum (Pharm. 1880).

—Cramp Bark.
The bark of Viburnum opulus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Capri-

foliacese).
Habitat. —Canada and northern part of the United States.
64 WOODS AND BARKS.
—
Description. "In flattish or curved bands, or occasionally in quills,
sometimes 30 cm. long, and from 1 to 1.5 mm. thick outer surface ash-
;
gray, marked with scattered, somewhat transversely elongated warts of a

brownish color, due to abrasion, and more or less marked with blackish dots,
and chiefly in a longitudinal direction with black, irregular lines or thin
ridges underneath the easily removed corky layer of a pale brownish or
;
somewhat reddish-brown color the inner surface dingy white or brownish

;
;
fi-acture tough, the tissue separating in layera inodorous taste somewhat

; ;
astringent and bitter."— U. S. P.

Chief GonstUumts. —
Valerianic acid, viburnin (bitter), and
tannin.
Therapeutic Use. —The name cramp bark indicates one of
the uses to which the bark has been put. Used in uterine
disorders attended with pain and in threatened abortion.
Average Dose. —
2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.).
VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.—Black Haw.

The bark of Viburnum prunifolium Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Caprifoliaceae).
Description.— " In thin pieces or quills, glossy purplish-brown, with scat-

tered warts, and minute black dots when collected from old wood, grayish-
;
brown ; the thin, corky layer easily removed from the green layer ; inner
surface whitish, smooth ; fracture short inodorous, somewhat astringent and
;

—
Chi^ Constituents. Valerianic acid, resins (one identical
with viburnin), tannin.
Therapeutic Use. — Used much like viburnum opulus.
Average Dose. —2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.).
XANTHOXYLUM. -Xanthoxylum.—Pricfcly Ash.

The bark of Xanthoxylum americanum Miller, and of
Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rutacese).
Habitat. —
The northern prickly ash grows in the eastern
part of the United States and northward to Canada ; the
southern prickly ash having a somewhat more southerly range.
Description.—" Xanthoxylum americanum (northern prickly ash) is in

curved or quilled fragments about 1 mm. thick outer surface brownish-
;
qUERCUS ALBA. 65
gray, with whitish patches and minute, black dots, faintly furrowed, with
some brown, glossy, straight, two-edged spines, linear at the base, and about
5 mm. long inner surface whitish, smooth
; fracture short, non-fibrous,
;
green in the outer and yellowish in the inner layer; inodorous; taste bit-
terish, very pungent.
"
Xanthoxylum Oiava-JSercvMs (Southern Prickly Ash) resembles the
preceding, but is about 2 mm. thick, and is marked by many conical, corky
projections, sometimes 2 cm. high, and by stout, brown spines, rising from
a corky base.
" Xanthoxylum should not be confounded with the bark of Aralia spinosa
Linn^ (Nat. Ord. Araliacece), which is nearly smooth externally, and beset
with slender prickles in transverse rows." U. S. P. —
Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. The bark of
Aralia spinosa, which is occasionally admixed, is nearly
smooth, but shows transverse rows of prickles.
Chief Constituent. —
An acrid resin, acrid green oil, and
berberine.
Thei-apeutie Use. — Diuretic, sialagogue, and simple bitter.
The name " toothache tree " indicates its employment in that
aifection.
Average Dose. —0.5—1.0 gm. (8—15 gr.) as fluid extract.
The powdered bark is sometimes placed in carious teeth.
QUERCUS ALBA.— White Oafc.
The bark of Quercus alba Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Cupuliferse).

Habitat. —North America, more abundantly in the middle
United States.
Description. — " In
nearly flat pieces, deprived of the corky layer, about
5 mm. thickpale brown
;
inner surface with short sharp, longitudinal
;
ridges ; tough of a coaree, fibrous fracture, a faint, tan-like odor, and a

;
strongly astringent taste.

" As met with in the shops it is usually an irregularly, coarse, fibrous
powder, which does not tinge the saliva yellow.'" U. S. P. —
note that the strong odor of tan develops on moistening.
.Chief Constituents. —
Tannin (quercitannic acid, only about
7 per cent, in the spring) and several ether soluble substances
of little importance.
Therapeidic Use. —
Astringent.
Average Dose. —2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.).
5
66 WOODS AND BARKS.
RUBUS.-Rubus.— Blackberry.
The bark of the I'oot of Rubus villosus Aiton, Riib.us
canadensis Liun6, and Rubus trivialis Michaux (Nat. Ord.
Rosacefe).
Habitat. —
Rubus trivialis in the southern States, the others
widely in the United States.
—
Description. " In thin, tough, flexible bands, outer surface blackish or
blackish-gray, inner surface pale brownish, sometimes with strips of whitish,
tasteless wood adhering ; inodorous ;tasie strongly astringent, somewhat

Chi^ —Tannin
Constituents. (nearly 20 per cent.), villosin
(bitter glucosid).
—Astringent.
Therapeutic- Use.
Average Dose. — gm. 2 (.30 gr.).
MEZEREUM.—Mea;ereum.
The bark of Daphne Mezereum Linne and of other species
of Daphne (Nat. Ord. Thymel£eacege).
Habitat. —
Daphne Mezereum in northern Europe Daphne ;
Gnidium in France, in the Pyrenees.

—
Description. " In long, thin bands, usually folded or rolled into disks
outer surface yellowish or brownish-yellow, with transverse scare, and minute,
blackish dots, underneath of a light greenish color inner surface whitish,
;
silky bast in transverse layers, very tough ; inodorous taste very acrid."
; ;
— U. S. P.

Acrid resin, representing the activi-
ties of the bark daphnin, etc.
;
Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, sialagogue ; externally rubefa-

cient.
Average Dose. —0.2 gm. (3 gr.).
GOSSYPn RADICIS CORTEX.— Cotton-root Barfc.
The bark of the root of Gossypium herbaceum Linn6 and

of other species of Gossypium (Nat. Ord. Malvaceae).
Habitat. —Subtropic portions of Asia and Africa ; culti-
vated in the southern United States, Egypt, and India,
EUOMWrS—QUTLLAJA. 67
Description. —
" In thin, flexible bands or quilled pieces outer surface
;
brownish-yellow, with slight, longitudinal ridges or meshes, small, black,

circular dots, or short, transverse lines, and dull, brownish-orange patches,
from the abrasion of the thin cork inner surface whitish, of a silky luster,
;
finely striate bast-Abel's long, tough, and separable into papery layers
;
—
inodorous taste very slightly acrid and faintly astringent." IJ. S. P.
;

Chief Constituents, —
Several resins, tannin, etc. Deterio-
rates on keeping.
Oleum Gossypii Semiuis (U. S. P.) This is expressed
:
from the seeds, but may be mentioned here. It is of pale-

yellowish color, without odor, of a bland taste. Upon
exposure to the air it becomes gummy ; if deprived of
the substance producing this, it is said to form an excellent
substitute for linseed oil in the arts. Cotton-seed oil is
mainly used for the adulteration of, or in place of, olive oil.
(Of the root-bark), emmenagogue and
ecbolic, though of uncertain efficiency.
Average Dose. —
2—4 gm. (30—60 gr.) as fluid extract.
EUONYMUS.—Euonymus.—Wahoo.
The bark of the root of Euonymus atropurpureus Jaquin
(Nat. Ord. Celastrinese).
Habitat. —
The United States.
Description. —
" In quilled or curved pieces, from 2 to 5 mm. thick outer
;
surface ash-gray, with blackish patches, detached in thin and small scales
inner surface whitish or slightly tawny, smooth fracture smooth, whitish,
;
the inner layere of a laminated appearance nearly inodorous taste sweet-

; ;
ish, somewhat bitter and acrid." —U. S. P.

Chief Constituents. — Resins, euonymin (not the euonymin
of the eclectics, bitter), starch, acids, etc.
Laxative and diuretic.
Average Dose. —
2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.).
QUILLAJA.—Q«aiaja.—QdiUaia (Pharm. 1880)—Soap Bark.
The inner bark of Quillaja Saponaria Molina (Nat. Ord.

Rosaceae).
Habitat. —^Western part of South America.
68 WOODS AND BARKS.
Description. — " Flat, large pieces, about 5 mm. thick outer surface ;
brownish-white, often with small patches of brown cork attached, otherwise

smooth; inner surface whitish, smooth; fracture splintery, checkered with
pale-brownish bast-fibers imbedded in white tissue inodorous taste per- ; ;
sistently acrid ;the dust very sternutatoi'y. The infusion of Quillaja foams
like soap-water." —
U. S. P.

Ohief Constituents. —
Sapotoxin, saponin (2 per cent.), etc.
Therapeutic Use. —Almost exclusively a as detergent.
Useful in washing silks. Irritant ; sternutatory.
ULMUS.—Elm.—Slippery Elm.
The inner bark of Ulmus fulva Michaux (Nat. Ord. Urti-
cacese).
Habitat. — North America, especially abundant in the west-
ern United States.
Description. — " In flat pieces, varying in length and width, about 3 mm.
thick, tough, pale, brownish-white, the inner surface finely ridged fracture ;
fibrous and mealy the transverae section delicately checkered ; odor slight,
;
peculiar; taste mucilaginous, insipid." —U. S. P.

Mucilage, only traces of starch.
Demulcent and emollient.
—
Average Dose. Ad libitum, mostly externally.
ONNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM.—Ceylon Qnnamon.—

Cinnamomum (Phartn. 1880).
The inner bark ofthe shoots of Cinnamomum zeylanicum

Breyne (Nat. Ord. Laurineae).
Habitat. —Cultivated in Ceylon.
Description. —" Long, closely rolled quills, composed of eight or more

layers of bark of the thickness of paper pale yellowish-brown outer sur-
;
;
face smooth, marked with wavy lines of basl>-bundles inner surface striate
;
fracture short-splintery odor fragrant ; taste sweet and warmly aromatic."

—
;
U. S. P.

Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, mucilage, and only traces
of starch.
Therapeutic Use. —Carminative.
Average Dose. —
2 gm. (30 gr.).
GINNAMOMUM SAIOONICUM—JUGLANS. 69
CEMNAMOMUM SAIGONICUM—Saigon Cinnamon.

The bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum
(Nat. Ord. Laurinese).
Habitat. —
China.
Description. —
" In quills about 15 cm. long, and 10 to 15 mm. in diam-
eter, the bark 2 or 3 mm. thiclc outer surface gray or light grayish-brown
;
with whitish patches, more or less rough from numerous warts and
some transvei-se ridges and fine longitudinal wrinkles the inner surface
;
cinnamon-brown or dark brown, granular and slightly striate fracture ;
short, granular, in the outer layer cinnamon-colored, having near the cork
numerous whitish striae forming an almost uninterrupted line odor fi'ar ;
grant; taste' sweet, waimly aromatic, somewhat astringent." —

U. S. P.

Volatile oil, little starch, much mu-
cilage.
Therapeutic Use. —Carminative mostly used
; in flavoring.
Average Dose. —0.5-2 gm. (8-30
gr.) as tincture.
Cassia cinnamon resembles the above in all essentials.
SASSAFRAS.—Sassafras.
The bark of the root of Sassafras variifolium (Salisbury)
O. Kuntze (Nat. Ord. Laurinese).
Habitat. —North America, from Canada southward.
T>escription. —
" In irregular fragments, deprived of the gray, corky layer;
bright rust-brown, soft, fragile, with a sliort, corl^y fracture the inner sur-
;
face smooth strongly fragrant taste sweetish, aromatic, and somewhat

; ;

Volatile oil, tannin, sassafrid, etc.
Oleum Sassafras (U. S. P.), a volatile oil distilled from sassa-
fras, a yellowish to reddish liquid with the characteristic odor
of sassafras. Specific gravity, 1.07 to 1.09.
It has been recommended for a variety
of complaints. Useful as a carminative. The oil may be
employed in carious teeth, to cauterize the nerve. The hot
infusionis employed as a diaphoretic.
Average Dose. —
2—4 gm. (30—60 gr.).
JUGLANS.—Joglans.—Butternat.
The bark of the root of Juglans cinerea Linne (Nat. Ord.
Juglandacese), collected in autumn.
70 WOODS AND BARKS.
Description. — "In flat or curved pieces, about 5 mm. thick; the outer
surface darlc gray and nearly smooth, or deprived of the soft cork and deep
brown ;the inner surface smooth and striate transverse fracture short,
;
delicately checkered, whitish and brown odor feeble; taste bitter and ;
—
somewhat acrid." ij. S. P.

—
Chief Constituents. Niicin, fixed oil.
—
Tlier'apeut'w Use. Cathartic.
CASCARILLA.— Cascarilla.
The bark of Croton Eluteria Bennett (Nat. Ord. Euphor-
biacese).
Habitat. —The Bahama Islands.
Description. —" In quills or curved pieces about 2 mm. thick, having a

grayish, somewhat fissured, easily detached, corky layer, moi'e or less coated
with a white lichen, the uncoated surface being dull brown, and the inner
surface smooth. It breaks with a short fracture, having a resinous and
radially striate appeai-ance. When burned, it emits a strong, aromatic,
somewhat musk-like odor ; its taste is warm and very bitter." —U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested onp. 56.

Volatile oil, cascarillin (bitter), resin.
It was believed to possess virtues re-
sembling those of cinchona ; while it may be a febrifuge, it
has no specific action upon the malarial fever parasite.
ASPIDOSPERMA.—Aspidosperma.—Quebracho.
The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco Schlechtendal
(Nat. Ord. Apocynacese).
Habitat. —The Argentine Republic.
Description. —" In nearly flat pieces, about 1 to 3 cm. thick the outer ;
surface yellowish-gi'ay or brownish, deeply iissured inner surface yellowish-

;
brown or reddish-brown, distinctly striate fracture displaying two sharply

;
defined strata, of about equal thickness, and both marked with numerous
whitish dots and striiK arranged in tangential lines the fracture of the ;
outer, lighter colored layer rather coareely granular, and that of the darker
colored, inner layer short-splintery inodorous taste very bitter and slightly
; ;
—
aromatic." U. S. P.
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL BARKS. 71

—A
Chief Constituents. number of alkaloids, tannin.
—
Therapeutic Use. Bitter and used in Asthma.
TAE
CHAPTER IV.
LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS.

Leaa'es are defined as stem appendages, mere expansions
of stem tissues. All the official leaves are obtained from
Dicotyledons (as are also those leaves included in official
herbs).
They are macroscopically considered with reference to
whether they are simple or compound/ whether petiolate or
sessile, shape (outline), and size their margins (entire, toothed
;
or lobed) texture (thin and fragile or thick and leathery)

; ;
surface (smooth or hairy and nature of hairs, when present) ;
shape of apex and base ; venation in all its bearings ; color,

above and beneath (often lighter beneath) ; whether dotted
or not (pilocarpus, with pellucid dots) besides these points
;
there are to be noted odor and taste. (See blank on p. 73.)

The following leaves are official :
Digitalis. Sage.
Uva ursi. Hamamelis.
Pilocarpus. ~ Chimaphila.
Eucalyptus. Eriodictyon.
Coca. Rhus toxicodendron.
Belladonna. Buchu.
Stramonium. Senna.
Hyoscyamus. Matico.
Tobacco. Chestnut.
The following medicinal leaves are not official
Aconite. Boldo.
American senna. Chekan.
Bay. Cherry laurel.
Benne. Coltsfoot.
' Compound leaves appear to be simple, since their leaflets become sepa-
rated in handling.
72
LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 73
Eî
s
->H IS Srj
g^g^ î^^l-^^|:
I a o s
8 ?i4
2
74 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS.
Comptonia.
Conium.
DIGITALIS. 75
in water than in alcohol. It dilates the blood-vessels. Two

other glucosids, digitin and digitoflavon, have little action.
Digitalin, digitalein, and digitoxin yield decomposition prod-
ucts differing in action from themselves. Digitoxin thus
yields toxiresin, and digitalein and digitalin yield digitali-
resin, both of the decomposition products acting like picro-
toxin. This change occurs if the leaves be stored damp ; it
also occurs in old infusions, hence only fresh infusions should
be used (see p. 357).
Two distinct substances have been sold under the name of
digitalin —
French digitalin, prepared by Homolle, soluble in
2000 parts of water, and German digitalin, fairly soluble in
water. The leaves also contain about 5 per cent, of fat (re-
moved by percolation with petroleum ether) ; and a little of a
principle blackening with ferric chlorid.
Therapeutic Use, —Used in heart affections as "cardiac
tonic " and vasoconstrictor, for slowing and strengthening the
heart-beat and constricting the blood-vessels. Through these
actions it causes in suitable cases an absorption of dropsical
fluids and an increased flow of urine. The infusion is pre-
ferred for the diuretic, the tincture for the cardiac, effects.
(It is absolutely criminal to make the infusion by diluting
the fluid extract or tincture, since alcoholic and watery solu-
tions contain the active principles in quite different relative
proportions).
If digitalis is injected into a frog, the heart is slowed and
finally stops, being contracted into a small white mass ; this
action is utilized in identifying the poison and in the physio-
logic assay.
Poisoning by digitalis is shown by nausea, vomiting, diar-
rhea, and a hard, rapid pulse. It may occur from small
doses if these are long continued. The treatment pending the
arrival of a physician consists in emetics.
It may not be amiss to state that there are few drugs more
potent for harm unless used under the direction of an intelli-
gent physician.
—
Average Dose. 0.06-0.15 gm. (1-2 gr.) in fluid extract or
infusion. Of the extract, 0.015 gm. {\ gr.). Defatted tinc-
ture, made from leaves previously percolated with petroleum
ether, is preferable. The digitalis principles are but little
used in pure state. Of digitoxiu, 0.0003-0.0006 gm. {^^—
yj-g- gr.) ; digitalein and digitalin in about three times that
amount.
UVA URSI.—Uva Ursi.—Bearterry.

The leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi (Linn6) Sprengel
(Nat. Ord. Ericaceae).
Habitat. —North America and northern Europe, in sandy,
dry places.
Description. — " Very short-stalked, obovate or oblong-spatulate,
coriaceous,
from 15 to 20 mm.
long, and 5 to 8 mm. broad, obtuse, slightly revolute on
the margin, upper surface with depressed veins lower surface distinctly ;
reticulate odor faint, hay-like

; taste strongly astringent, and somewhat
;
bitter.—U. S. P.

note the thick, tough epidermis, preventing exhaustion by
decoction unless thoroughly bruised.
CJiief Constituents. —
Tannin, ursone, arbutin, ericolin, etc.
(see p. 358).
Therapeutic Use. — Astringent, diuretic, and antiseptic to
the urinary passages.
Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.) in decoction or fluid
extract.
PILOCARPUS.—Pilocarpus.—JaborandJ.
The leaflets of Pilocarpus Selloanus Engler (Rio Janeiro
jaborandi), and of Pilocarpus Jaborandi Holmes (Pernam-
buco jaborandi) (Nat. Ord. Eutacese).
Habitat. — Brazil.
Description.—" About 10 to 15 cm. long, and 4 to 6 cm. broad, short-

stalked, oval or ovate-oblong, entire and slightly revolute at the margin,
obtuse and emarginate, unequal at the base ; dull green, coriaceous, pellucid-
punctate, mostly smooth ; when bruised, slightly aromatic ; taste somewhat
bitter and pungent." —U. S. P.

Chi^ Constituents. —The alkaloids pilocarpine and pilo-
carpidine represent the medicinal activities of the drug
jaborine and jaboridiue resemble atropine in their action.
Pilocarpidine is an oxidation product of pilocarpine, and
jaboridine that of jaborine. Various investigators have found
EUCALYPTUS— COCA. 77
widely varying amounts of pilocarpine in the leaves, but the

average is about 0.5 per cent. A
volatile oil is also present.
Pilocarpus, or the alkaloid pilocarpine,
is a powerful diaphoretic and sialagogue, hence the drug is
used in a variety of complaints demanding sweating, in

dropsy, fevers, etc.
—
Average Dose. 0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.) in fluid extract;
owing to the nauseous taste and the uncertain strength of
fluid extract the alkaloid is greatly to be preferred. Of the
pilocarpine, 0.005-0.02 gm. s"
(yV" S^-)-
EUCALYPTUS-Eacalyptas.
The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus Labillardiere (Nat. Ord.
Myrtacese), collected from the older parts of the tree.
Habitat. —
Australia ; introduced into many subtropic
regions.
Description. — " Petiolate, lanoeolately scythe-shaped, from 15 tx) 30 cm.

long, rounded below, tapering above, entire, leathery, grayish-green, glan-
dular, feather-veined between the mid-rib and marginal veins odor strongly
;
oamphoraceous ; taste pungently aromatic and somewhat cooling, bitter, and


note the scythe shape ; not heart-shaped at base.
Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil (mainly eucalyptol), 6 per
cent., much tannin, resin.
Therapeutic Use. —Recommended
in treatment of malarial
fevers,but testimony in regard to its value is very conflicting.
Carminative. The volatile oil is useful as an antiseptic spray
in the throatand nose.
Average Dose. —
2-8 gm. (30-120 gr.) as fluid extract or
elixir for carminative ; of the oil, 0.6—2 c.c. (8—30 min.)
for inhalation or spray.
COCA.—Coca.—Erythrorylon (Pharm. 1880).
The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca Lamarck (Nat. Ord.

Linese).
Habitat. —Eastern slopes of Andes, from Peru southward.
Description. — " N'arying between ovate, lanceolate, and obovate-oblong,

and from 2 to 5 or 7 cm. in length ; shortrpetiolate, entire, rather obtuse or
emarginate at the apex, slightly reticulate on both sides, with a prominent
midrib, and on each side of it a curved line running from base to apex ;
odor slight and tea-like taste somewhat aromatic and bitter. When chewed,
;
it temporarily benumbs the lips and tongue." U. ci. P. —

note the two lines parallel to mid-rib (not always easily seen)
benumbing sensation when chewed.
Ohief Constituents. —
The alkaloid cocaine represents the
activities of the drug. Hygrine, tannin (cocatannic acid).
Therapeutic Use. —Coca is cultivated andused by the
natives much as tea, coiFee, and other similar stimulants are
taken in civilized countries. Cocaine is a local anesthetic of
great value. It dilates the pupil, but not so widely as atro-
pine. Internally, it is a stimulant.
Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.) in infusion (little
used) of cocaine, 0.008-0.06 gm. (-i— 1 gr.).

; Hypodermi-
cally, 1 to 2 per cent, solutions are employed ; locally, upon
mucous surfaces, 2 to 10 per cent, solutions.
BELLADONNAE FOLIA.—Belladonna Leaves.
The leaves of Atropa Belladonna Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Sola-

nacese).
Habitat, chief constituents, and therapeutic use same as root
(see page 19).
Desaipticm. — " Leaves from 10 to 15 cm. long, from 5 to 10 cm. broad,
broadly ovate, equilaterally narrowed into a petiole, tapering at the apex,
entire on the margin, smooth, thin, the upper surface brownish-green, the
lower surface gi-ayish-gi-een, both surfaces whitish-punctate odor slight ;
taste bitterish, disagreeable." —

U. S. P.

—
Average Dose. 0.03-0.2 gm. (J-3 gr.).
STRAMONH FOLIA.— Stramonium Leaves.
The leaves of Datura Stramonium Linu6 (Nat. Ord. Sola-

nacese).
Habitat. —Asia ; distributed very widely through the world.
Description. — " About 1-5 cm. long, petiolate, dark gi-e_en, smooth, ovate,
pointed, unequal, especially at the base, coarsely and sinuately toothed
thin, brittle, and nearly inodorous taste unpleasant, bitter, and nauseous,"
;
—U. S. P.
HYOSCYAIIUS- TAB A CUM. 79

Daturine (a mixture of alkaloids,
mainly hyoscyamine), atropine, and hyoscine.
Therapeutic use and average dose similar to belladonna.
HYOSCYAMUS—Hyoscyamus.—Henbane.
The leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger Linn6
(Nat. Ord. Solauacese), collected from plants of the second
year's growth.
Habitat. —Europe and Asia, widely in the United States.
Desci-ipHon. —
" Leaves ovate, or ovate-oblong, up to 25 cm. long and 10
cm. broad sinuate-toothed, the teeth large, oblong, or triangular grayish-
;
;
green, and, particularly on the lower surface, glandulai--hairy midrib

;
prominent nowera nearly sessile, with an um-shaped, five-toothed calyx,

;
and a light yellow, pui'ple-veined corolla odor heavy, narcotic taste bitter
; ;
—
and somewhat acrid." TJ. S. P.

Hyoscyamine, hyoscine.
Resembles belladonna, but weaker.
Preferable to belladonna in insomnia.
—
Average Dose. 0.1-0.5 gm. (2-8 gr.) hyoscine (dose, ;
0.0003 gm. (^-i-j^ gr.) as somnifacient and antispasmodic in

nervous diseases.
TABACUM.—Tobacco.
The commercial, dried leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum Linn6
(Nat. Ord. Solanacese).
Habitat. —Tropic America ; widely cultivated.
Description.—" Up to 50 cm. long, oval or ovate-lanceolate, acute, entire,
brown, friable, glandulai^hairy, of a heavy, peculiar odor, and a nauseous,
bitter, and acrid taste."— TJ. S. P.

Nicotine alone interests us here. This
is a volatile, liquid, oxygen-free alkaloid. It is colorless and
nearly odorless when fresh, but acquires a brown color and
disagreeable odor upon exposure to the air.
Tobacco is mainly of interest through
its popular use, and the poisoning to which this has given
rise. It was formerly used as a parasiticide and in intestinal

obstructions ; these uses have been abandoned on account of
the toxicity of the alkaloid, which is much greater than is
popularly supposed.
GAULTHERIA— Gaoltfaeria.—'Wintergreen.
Leaves of Gaultheria procumbens Linn§ (Nat. Ord. Eri-
caceae) (unofficial, yields Oil of Gaultheria, IJ. S. P.).
;

Chief Constituents.— Volatile oil, 0.5 per cent. ; arbutin,
ericolin, ursone, resins, tannin.
Oleum OaulthericB (U. S. P.) is distilled from the leaves.
It consists almost entirely of methyl salicylate (CHjC^HjOj),
and cannot be distinguished from oil of betula. Specific
gravity, 1.175 to 1.185.
Oleum Betulce Volatile (U. S. P.) is obtained by distillation
from the bark Betula lenta (sweet birch). It does not require
separate consideration, being practically identical with oil of
gaultheria.
The oil of gaultheria and the oil of
betula yield natural salicylic acid and are used in the treat-
ment of rheumatism, etc. They are also used for flavoring.
SALVIA.—Salvia.—Sage.
The leaves of Salvia officinalis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Labiatse).
Habitat. —Southern Europe, extensively cultivated.
Description. —
''
About 5 cm. long, petiolate, ovate-oblong, obtuse or sub-
acute at the apex, rounded or somewhat heart-shaped at the base, finely
crenulate, thickish, wrinkled, grayish-green, soft-hairy, and glandular
beneath, odor aromatic taste aromatic, bitterish, and somewhat astrin-
;
gent."— U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on page 72.

Tannin, volatile oil.
Therapeutic Use. — Astringent. Used as a seasoning agent
in cookery.
Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (1 5-60 gr.).
HAMAMELIS.—Hamamelis.—Witch-hazel.
The leaves of Haraamelis virginiana Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Hamamelacese), collected in autumn.
CHIMAPRILA —ERIOmCTYON. 81
Habitat. —Throughout the United States.
-Desmpfebn.— " Short-petiolate, about ]0 cm. long, obovate or

oval,
Bhghtly heait-shaped and oblique at the base, sinuate-toothed,
thickish,
nearly smooth inodorous taste astringent and bitter."— U.
; ; S. P.

Tannin, trace of volatile oil.
Astringent, externally in skin-diseases.
The distilled extract of witch-hazel is used as a mild counter-
irritant in bruises, sprains, etc. It owes a large part of its
action to the alcohol.
Average Dose. —4 gm. (60 gr.) in fluid extract or decoction.
CHIMAPHILA.— Chimaphila.—Pipsissewa.
The leaves of Chimaphila umbellata (Linn6) ISTuttall (Nat.
Ord. Ericaceae).
Habitat. —North temperate zone in both hemispheres.
Description. — "About
5 cm. long, oblanceolate, sharply sen-ate above,
wedge-shaped, and nearly entire toward the base coriaceous, smooth, and
;
dark green on the upper surface. It is nearly inodorous, and has an astrin-
gent and bitterish taste." U. S. P.—
Chief constituents, therapeutic use, and average dose are
much like uva ursi.
ERIODICTYON.—Eriodictyon.
The leaves of Eriodictyon glutinosiim Bentham (Nat. Ord.
Hydrophyllacese).
Habitat. —
California.
Description. —
" Oblong-lanceolate, 5-10 cm. long, acute at the apex, and
below narrowed into a short petiole, the margin sinuately toothed to nearly
entire upper surface green, smooth, and covered with a brownish resin
;
;
lower surface reticulate and minutely white-tomentose odor somewhat aro-

;
—
matic taste balsamic and sweetish." U. S. P.
;

Ân acid resin (forms insoluble com-
pounds with quinine), little volatile oil, etc.
Useful in masking taste of bitter sub-
stances for which an aromatic syrup is employed. Has been
recommended in coughs, but the testimony is conflicting.
82 LEAVES, BEJRBS, AND FLOWERS.
Average Dose. —2-4 gm. (30—60 gi\) as fluid extract or
syrup.
RHUS TOXICODENDRON —Rhus Toxicodendron—Poison Ivy.
The fresh leaves of Rhus radicans Lmii6 (Nat. Ord. Ana-

cardiese).
Desa-iption. — " Long-petiolate, trifoliate ; the lateral leaflets sessile or
nearly about 10 cm. long, obliq uely ovate, pointed the terminal leaflets
so, ;
stalked, ovate or oval, pointed, with a wedge-shaped or rounded base the ;
leaflets entire and glabrous, or variously notched, coarsely toothed or

lobed, more or less downy when dry, papery and brittle inodorous
; ;
tastesomewhat astringent and acrid.

" The fresh leaves abound with an acrid juice, which darkens when
exposed to the air, and, when applied to the skin, produces inflammation
and swelling. The leaves should, therefore, not be touched with bare hands.
"Rhus Toxicodendron should not be confounded with the leaves of
Ptelea trifoliata Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rutaceae), which are similar in appear-
ance, but have all the leaflets sessile." —
U. S. P.

Toxicodendrol (fixed oil, exceedingly
irritant), (volatile, formerly erroneously
toxicodendric acid
thought to be the active principle), tannin, etc.
Formerly used in paralysis. Irritant
and rubefacient. Little used. Mainly of toxicologic interest.
Local poisoning is treated with a plaster of Castile soap or
by washing with a saturated alcoholic solution of lead acetate.
Avoid ointments, which spread the poison.
BUCHU—Bttcha.
The leaves of Barosma betulina (Thunberg) Bartling et
Wendland, and Barosma crenulata (Linn6) Hooker (Nat. Ord.
Eutacese).
Habitat. —South Africa.
Desa-iption. — "About 15 mm. long, roundish-obovate with a rather
wedge-shaped base, or varying between oval and obovate, obtuse, crenat*
or serrate, with a gland at the base of each tooth, dull yellowish-green,
thickish, pellucid-punctate odor and taste strongly aromatic, somewhat
;
mint-like, pungent, and bitterish." —

U. S. P.

Volatile oil, 1.5 per cent, from short
SENNA. 83
buchu, 0.5 per cent, from the long resin and considerable ;
mucilage. Diosphenol (Cj^HjÔ^) gives a black-green color

with ferric chlorid.
Therapeutic Use. —Stimulant, diuretic.
Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15-30 gr.), best as infusion.
SENNA.— Senna.
The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia Delile (Alexandria senna)
and of Cassia angustifolia Vahl (India senna) (Nat. Ord.
Leguminossa).
Habitnt. —
The Alexandria senna is indigenous to the
country south of that city (Egypt, etc.) ; the India senna,
to India, Arabia, and parts of Africa.
Description. —" Alexandria senna consists of leaflets about 25 mm. long,

and 10 mm. broad, lanceolate,
or lance-oval, subcoriaceous, brittle, i-ather
pointed, unequally oblique at the base, entire, grayish-green, somewhat
pubescent, of a pecular odor, and a nauseous, bitter taste.
" It should be free from stalks, and from Argel leaves (the leaves of
Solenostemma Argel Hayne, nat. ord. Asclepiadeai), which are frequently
present these leaves are thicker, one-veined, wrinkled, glaucous, and even
;
at the base.
" India senna consists of leaflets
from 3 to 5 cm. long, and 10 to 15 mm.
broad lanceolate, acute, unequally oblique at the base, entire, thin, yellow-
;
ish-green or dull green, nearly smooth ; odor peculiar, somewhat tea-like

taste, mucilaginous, bitter, and nauseous.
" It should be free from stalks, discolored leaves, and other admixtures."
— U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. The East India

or Tinnevelly (long senna) is much longer than the Alexan-
dria (short senna). Especially note the uneven base, and the
anastomosis of veins near margin.
Argel leaf is often added fraudulently to the Alexandria
senna at the port of shipment it resembles senna somewhat,
;
but is easily distinguished by having an even base and a less

distinct and different venation.
Coriaria poisonous ; it shows three veins running from
is
base to apex (rarely mixed with senna).

Tephrosia is emarginate at the apex.
Chief Con.stifueiits. —
Cathartic acid (a glucosid, purgative),
chrysophanic acid, emodin, a bitter resin causing griping
may be removed by percolating the powdered leaves with
alcohol (see p. 367).
Cathartic.
Average Dose. —
5—15 gm. (1-4 dr.) in infusion. Much
used in the compound infusion of senna (senna, manna, mag-
—
nesium sulphate, and fennel) of this infusion, 30-60 c.c.
(1-2 fl. oz.) repeated until effective.
MATICO.—Matico.
The leaves of Piper angustifolium Ruiz et Pavon (Nat.
Ord. Piperacese).
Habitat. — Central America.
Description. — " From 10 to 15 cm. long, shorfr-petiolate, oblong-lanceolate,
apex pointed, base unequally heart-shaped, margin very finely crenulate,
tessellated above, reticulate beneath, the meshes small, and the veins densely
brownish-hairy aromatic, spicy, and bitterish." U. S. P.
; —
the tessellated appearance of upper surface, the veins appear-
ing as if embedded in the parenchyma.
Chief Constituents.
Therapeutic Use.
——
^Volatile oil, tannin, resin.
"Vulnerary, styptic, and in gonorrhea.
—
Average Dose. 4 gm. (60 gr.).
CASTANEA.—Castanea.—Chestnut.
The leaves of Castanea dentata (Marshall) Sudworth (Nat.
Ord. Cupuliferse), collected in September or October, while
still green.
Habitat. —Found widely in the north temperate zone.
Description. — " From
15 to 25 cm. long, about 5 cm. wide, petiolate,
oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, mucronate, feather-veined, sinuate-serrate,
smooth odor slight taste somewhat astringent." U. S. P.
; ; —
Chief Constituent. Tannin. —
Astringent ; it has also attained consid-
erable popularity in domestic practice in the treatment of
whooping-cough, for which the infusion is commonly em-
ployed.
Average Dose. —4-8 gm. (60 to 120 gr.).
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL LEAVES. 85
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL LEAVES.

86 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLO WEBS.
Name.
MENTHA PIPERITA.
The following medicinal herbs are not official
Agrimony. Hyssop.
Balmony. Life-everlasting.
Beech drop. Mayweed.
Bitter polygala. Mitchella.
Blessed thistle. Monarda.
Bugle weed. Motherwort.
Buttercup. Origanum.
Cactus. Pansy.
Catnip. Partbenium.
Ditany. Plantain.
Drosera. Potentilla.
Erigeron. Sabbatia.
Evening primrose. St.John's-wort.
Figwort. Serpyllum.
Frostwort. Sweet clover.
Galium. Willow herb.
Golden-rod. Wormwood.
Gold thread. Yarrow.
Ground ivy. Bladderwrack.
Hardback. Maiden-hair.
Helenium. Arbor vitae.
Red cedar.
MENTHA PIPERITA-Peppermint.
The leaves and tops of Mentha piperita Smith (Nat. Ord.

Labiatse).
Habitat. —
Cultivated in ancient times by Egyptians, now
widely scattered and cultivated.
Description. —
" Leaves about 5 cm. long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate,
acute, sharply serrate, glandular, nearly smooth, the few haire containing
crystals of menthol in one or more thin cells branches quadrangular, often
;
purplish flowers in terminal, conical spikes, with a tubular, fine-toothed,

;
often purplish calyx, a purplish four-lobed corolla, and four short stamens
—
odor aromatic taste pungent and cooling." U. S. P.
;

^Volatile oil (1 per cent., variable),
yields menthol. Menthol, called solid oil of peppermint.
occurs as white needles, having somewhat the odor of pepper-
mint, and a sliarp taste. It is liquefied by chloral hydrate,
forming a syrupy liquid. Tannin, etc., are also present.
Therapeutic Use. —Carminative, stimulant, flavor.
Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15-60 gr.). The oil is some-
times employed dropped upon sugar in drop doses ; of the
spirit (10 per cent, of the oil) 1 c.c. (15 min.) diluted ; of
the water, 20 c.c. (J oz.) or more.
MENTHA VIRIDIS -Spearmint.

The leaves and tops of Mentha viridis Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Labiatte).
Habitat. —
Europe and Asia, cultivated, and wild in Canada
and the United States.
Deseriptwn. —" Leaves about 5 cm. long, subsessile, lance-ovate, acute,
serrate, glandular, nearly smooth ; branches quadrangular, mostly light-
green flowers in terminal, interrupted, narrow, acute spikes, with a tubular,
;
sharply five-toothed calyx, a light purplish, four-lobed corolla, and four

rather long stamens odor aromatic ; taste pungent." U. S. P.
; —
Volatile oil, resin, etc.
Therapeutic use and average dose much like peppermint.
LOBELIA.—Lobelia.
The leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Lobeliacese), collected after a portion of the capsules have
become inflated.
Habitat. —United States and Canada.
Description. — " Leaves alternate, petiolate, the upper ones sessile, ovate or
oblong, about 5 cm. long, irregularly toothed, pubescent, pale green;
branches hairy, terminating in long racemes of small, pale blue flowers,
having an adherent flve-toothed calyx, which is inflated in fruit, a bilabiate
corolla, and five united stamens odor slight, irritating taste mild, aftei^
; ;
—
ward burning and acrid." U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on page 86. Especially

note the presence of inflated capsules (should be gathered
after their development).
Chief Constituents. —Lobeline (acrid volatile alkaloid),
lobelic acid, resin, etc.
Therapeutic Use. —Emetic,—but not so good as apomor-
MELISSA—EBDEOMA. 89
phine or ipecac, —
expectorant. The action of lobeline closely
resembles that of nicotine. Poisonous.
—
Average Dose. 0.05-0.5 gm. (1-8 gr.) as fluid extract or
tincture. Fatal poisoning by lobelia, though rare, has
occurred. Treatment consists in stimulation and application
of warmth, much like that of aconite-poisoning.
MELISSA.—Melissa.— Balm.
The leaves and tops of Melissa officinalis Linn6 (Nat.
Ord. Labiatse).
Habitat. —
Neighborhood of the Mediterranean natural- ;
ized in the United States.
Description. —
" Leaves about 5 cm. long, petiolate, ovate, obtuse, rounded,
or subcordate at the base, crenate, somewhat hairy, glandular; branches
quadrangular flowers in about four-flowered cymules, with a tubular, bell-
;
shaped, five-toothed calyx, a whitish or purplish bilabiate corolla, and four

stamens fragrant, aromatic somewhat astringent and bitterish." U. S. P.
; ;
—
Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, J per cent. ; bitter prin-
ciple.
Therapeutic use and average dose are like those of pepper-
mint.
HEDEOMA.—Hedeoma.—Pennyroyal.
The and tops of Hedeoma pulegioides (Linn6) Per-
leaves
soon (Nat. Ord. Labiatse).
Habitat. —
United States, growing widely.
Description, — " Leavesopposite, short-petioled, about 12 mm. long,
oblong-ovate, obscurely serrate, glandular beneath branches roundish-
;
quadrangular, hairy flowers in small, axillary cymules, with a tubular-

;
ovoid, bilabiate and five-toothed calyx, and a pale blue, spotted, bilabiate
corolla, containing two sterile and two fertile, exserted stamens; odor
strong, mint^like taste warm and pungent."
; U. S. P. —
Chief Constituent. — ^Volatile oil (the active emmenagogue
principle).
Therapeutic Use. —Diaphoretic, emmenagogue (action of
volatile oil similar to that of tansy, but milder), carminative.
Average Dose. —
1-4 gra. (15-60 gr.). Of the volatile oil,
0.06-0.3 c.c. (1-5 min.).
90 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLO WEBS
MARRUBIUM—Marrubiom.- Horehound.
The leaves and tops of Marrubium vulgare Linn6 (Nat.
Ord. Labiatse).
Habitat. —Europe and Asia; naturalized in the United
States.
Description. —
" Leaves about 25 mm. long, opposite, petiolate, roundish-
ovate, obtuse, coarsely crenate, strongly rugose, downy above, white-hairy
beneath branches quadrangular, white, tomentoae flowers in dense, axil-
; ;
lary, woolly whorls, with a stiffly ten-toothed calyx, a whitish, bilabiate

corolla, and foui- included stamens aromatic and bitter." U. S. P.
; —
Marrubiin (bitter principle), little
volatile oil, tannin, etc.
Therapeutic Use. —Stimulant, tonic.
Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15-30 gr.) in infusion.
SCUTELLARIA.—Scutellaria.—ScwIIcap.
The herb of Scutellaria lateriflora Linn6 (Nat. Ord. La-
biatse).
Habitat. —United States, widely distributed.
Description. — "About 50 cm. long, smooth ; stem quadrangular, branched ;
leaves opposite, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong,

seiTate flowei-s in axillary, one-sided racemes, with a pale-blue corolla and
;
bilabiate calyx, closed in fruit, the upper lip helmet-shaped ; odor slight;
taste bitterish."—U. S. P.

Bitter principle (glucosid).
Stomachic, tonic.
Average Dose. —
0.5-4 gm. (8—60 gr.).
EUPATORIUM.—Eopatoriom.—Thoroughwoft.
The leaves and flowering-tops of Eupatorium perfoliatum
LinnS (Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —
Widely through the United States and Canada.
Description. —
" Leaves opposite, united at the base, lanceolate, from 10 to
15 cm. long, tapering, crenately serrate, rugosely veined, rough above,
downy and resinous-dotted beneath flower-heads corymbed, numerous,
;
with an oblong involucre of lance-linear scales, and with from ten to fifteen
white florets, having a bristly pappus in a single row odor weak and aro-
;
—
matic taste astringent and bitter." U. S. P.
;
QRJNDELIA — TANACETUM. 91
Study and describe a.s suggested on p. 86.
Eupatorin (bittei-), volatile oil, etc.
Simple bitter, stomachic.
Average Dose. —
2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.).
GRINDELIA.-Grin(felia.
The leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia robusta Nuttall,

and of Grindelia squarrosa Dunal (Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —
Widely in the United States, the two species
(not perfectly characterized) somewhat diifering in their range.
Description. — " Leaves about 5 cm. or less long, varying from broadly
spatulate or oblong to lanceolate, sessile or clasping, obtuse, more or less
sharply serrate, often spinosely toothed, or even lanciniate-pinnatifid, pale
green, smooth, finely dotted, thickish, brittle heads many-flowered, sub-
;
globular or somewhat conical the involucre hemispheric, about 10 mm.

;
broad, composed of numerous imbricated, squarrosely tipped or spreading

scales; i-ay-florets yellow, ligulate, pistillate disk-florets yellow, tubular,
;
perfect ; pappus consisting of two or three awns of the lengths of the disk-
florets odor balsamic taste pungently aromatic and bitter." U. S. P.
; ; —
(7/iief Constituents. —Resin, volatile oil.
Therapeutic Use. —Stimulant to bronchial and respiratory
tract (coughs, asthma). Also as a lotion in ivy-poisoning.
Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.) as fluid extract.
TANACETUM.—Tansy.
The leaves and tops of Tanacetum vulgare Linng (Nat.
Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —
Asia and Europe, naturalized in the United
States.
Description.
—
" Leaves about 15 era. long, bipinnatifid, the segments
oblong, obtuse, serrate or incised, smooth, dark green, and glandular flower- ;
heads corymbose, with an imbricated involucre, a convex, naked receptacle,

and numerous yellow, tubular florets ; odor strongly aromatic ; taste pun-
gent and bitter."— U. S. P.

—
Cliief Constituents. Volatile oil (active principle), tanacetin
(bitter), resin, etc.
Therapeutic —Emmenagogue
Use. (not safe), stimulant.
Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.) in infusion.
CHIRATA.— Chsrata.
The entire plant Swertia Chirata Hamilton (Nat. Ord.
Gentianefe).
Habitat. —Northern India in mountainous regions.
Description. —" Boots
nearly simple, about 7 cm. long stem branched,
;
nearly 1 meter long, slightly quandrangalar above containing a nari-ow

;
wood-circle and a large yellowish pith. Leaves opposite, sessile, ovate,

entire, flve-nerved. Flowers numerous, small, with a foui'-lobed calyx and
corolla. The whole plant smooth, pale brown, modorous, and intensely

Ophelic acid (bitter), chiratin, nearly
or quite free from tannin.
Simple bitter.
—
Average Dose. 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) in fluid extract or
tincture.
CANNABIS INDICA.—Indian Cannabis.—Indian Hemp.
The flowering tops of the female plant of Cannabis sativa

Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Urticacese), grown in the East Indies.
Habitat. —
Asia only that collected in India is recognized.
;
Only that grown at an altitude of 6000 feet or more exudes

the resin considered as most valuable ; the domestic plant is
practically devoid of activity.
Description. —
" Branching, compressed, brittle, about 5 cm. or more long,
with a few digitate leaves, having linear-lanceolate leaflets, and numerous,
sheathing, pointed bracts, each containing two small, pistillate flowers,
sometimes with the nearly ripe fruit, the whole more or less agglutinated
with a resinous exudation. It has a brownish-green color, a peculiar, nar-
cotic odor, and a slightly acrid taste." —
U. S. P.

Volatile oil, resins (cannabinol). The
latter is the active part of the drug. It has an oily consist-
ence and reddish color. By exposure to the air it is oxidized
to a black, inactive pitch. This deterioration occurs in the
plant on keeping.
Narcotic little used by educated physi-
;
cians produces greater hallucination than any other narcotic.

;
—
Average Dose. 0.06—0.6 gm. (1—10 min.) in fluid extract
or tincture. Of the extract, 0.015—0.03 gm. (j^ gr.).
8C0PARIUS—CHELID0NIVM. 93
SCOPARIUS.—Scoparfos.— Broom.
Thetops of Cytisiis Scoparius (Linn6) Link (Nat. Ord.
Leguminosse).
Habitat. —Europe, western Asia ; naturalized in the United
States.
Description. —
"In thin, flexible, branched twigs, pentangular, winged,
dark green, nearly smooth, tough, usually free from leaves odor peculiar;
when bruised ; taste disagreeably bitter." — U. S. P.

Sparteine (liquid alkaloid), scoparin
(neutral principle), volatile oil, tannin, etc.
Therapeutic Use. —Scoparius and its alkaloid have been
used like digitalis, from which, however, they differ in that,
while they slow the heart, they weaken it, causing slower
circulation. The diuretic action of broom is due to scoparin,
and not to sparteine.
Average Dose. —
1—4 gm. (15-60 gr.). Of sparteine sul-
phate, 0.006-0.12 gm. (^2 gr.).
PULSATILLA—PuIsaUfla.
Pulsatilla and of Anemone pratensis
The herb of Anemone
Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Ranunculacese), collected soon after flow-
ering.
It should be carefully preserved, and not be kept longer
than one year.
Habitat. —
Europe, western. United States.
Description. —
" Leaves radical, petiolate, silky-villous, twice or thrice
deeply three-parted or pinnately cleft, with linear, acute lobes, appearing
after the large, purple flowers; inodorous, very acrid." U. 8. P. —
note that it should not be kept longer than one year.
Acrid substance from which anemonin
is obtainable.
Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, mydriatic, poisonous.
Average Dose. — 0.5 gm. (8 gr.).
CHELIDONIUM.—CheIidonium.—Celandine.
The entire plant, Chelidonium majus Linne (Nat. Ord.
Papaveracese).
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL HERBS.
Name.
USUALLY CLASSED AS LEAFY TOPS. 95
Name.
Habitat. —Europe, naturalized in the United States.
Description. — "Koot
several-headed, branching, reddish-brown; stem
about 50 cm. long, light green, hairy leaves about 15 cm. long, thin, peti-
;
olate, the upper ones smaller and sessile, light green, on the lower side
glaucous, lyrate-pinnatifid, the pinnaa ovate-oblong, obtuse, coarsely crenate
or incised, and the terminal one often three-lobed ; flowers in small, long-
peduncled umbels with two sepals and four yellow petals capsule linear, ;
two-valved and many-seeded. The fresh plant contains a saffron-colored

milk-juice, and has an unpleasant odor and acrid taste." U. S. P.—
Study and describe a,s suggested on p. 86. Especially
note tHe unpleasant odor of the fresh plant.
Chelerythrine (sanguinarine), chelido-
nine, chelidoxanthine, berberine.
Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic, narcotic.
CHONDRUS. — Chondr«s.—Irish Moss. —Carragheen.

Chondrus crispiis Stackhouse, and Gigartina mamillosa
J. Agardh (class Algse).
Habitat. —
Âtlantic Ocean, collected from the coast of Ire-
land and of Massachusetts.
Description. —
"Yellowish or whitish, homy, translucent, many-times
forked when softened in water cartilaginous shape of the segments vary-
; ;
ing from wedge-shaped to linear at the apex emarginate or two-lobed. It

;
has a slight seaweed odor and a mucilaginous, somewhat saline taste.

" One part of it boiled for ten minutes with 30 pai-ts of water yields a
solution which gelatinizes on cooling, and is not colored blue by iodine T.
S."— U. S. P.

note the spore vessels embedded in frond or somewhat raised
in Chondrus mamillo.sus.
Chief Constituents. —Gummy substances, forming a jelly
upon boiling and cooling and sea-salts. ;
Demulcent, nutrient (always used as a
decoction).
CETRARIA.—Cetfaria.— Iceland Moss.

Cetraria islandica (Linn6) Acharius (class Lichens).
Habitat. —
High latitudes, or high altitudes of central
Europe.
SABINA. 97
Description. —" From 5 to 10 cm. long, foliaceous, irregularly branched

into fringed and channeled lobes, brownisli above, whitish beneath, and
marked with small, depressed spots brittle and inodorous when softened
; ;
in water, cartilaginous, and having a slight odor ; its taste is mucilaginous

and bitter.
" It should be freed from pine leaves, mosses, and other lichens, wliich
are frequently found mixed with it." U. S. P. —
Study and describe as suggested ou p. 86.
Lichenin, 70 per centr., resembling
starch, forming mucilage with water, cetraric acid, bitter
principle.
Therapeutic Use. —Demulcent, slightly nutritive.
Average Dose. —Ad libitum.
SABINA.—Savine.
The tops of Juniperus Sabiua Linn§ (Nat. Ord. Coniferse).
Habitat. ——Grows extensively in the north temperate zone.
Description. " Short, thin subquadrangular branchlets leaves rather ;
dark green, in four rows, opposite, scale-like, [about 2 mm. (j'j inch) long],
appressed, imbricated, ovate-lanceolate, more or less acute, on the back with
a shallow groove containing an oblong or roundish gland odor peculiar ;
terebinthinate taste nauseous, resinous, and bitter."— U. S. P.

;

the exceedingly minute leaves, and that the branchlets are
four-sided (compare with Arbor Vitse).
Volatile oil, resin.
Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, emmenagogue.
Ave^-age Dose. —0.5-1 gm. (8-15 gr.).
FLOWERS.
A
flower normally consists of four sets of phyllomes the :
calyx, composed of sepals ; the corolla, composed of petals

the male organs, the stamens, composing the androecium, and
the female organs, the pistils, composing the gynseciura.
The sepals are usually green, and more nearly approach
ordinary leaves than do the other sets. The petals are usually
bright colored but not green the stamens and pistils are not
;
usually conspicuous, and in the dried official flowers are of

little macroscopic importance, as a rule.
In describing flowers,^ the following points are considered :
' The blank form given on p. 104 may be used to describe floweiB.
7
Whether fully opened or only buds (cloves unexpanded)
what parts are present the size, shape, and color of petals
;
and sepals. In crocus only the stigmas are official, and in

such a case the smaller organs are, of course, taken more
into account. Some of the flowers are so broken that little,
except general size, odor, color, and taste can be observed
without a magnifying-glass.
The following flowers are official
Santonica. Calendula.
Kousso. Matricaria.
Pale rose. Anthemis.
Eed rose. Arnica.
Cloves. Sambucus.
The following medicinal flowers are not official
Hollyhock. Mullein.
Lavender^ Orange.
Linden. Pyrethrum.
Mallow. Red poppy.
Safflower.
SANTONICA.—Santonica.—Levant Wormseed.
The unexpanded flower-heads of Artemisia paucifiora
Weber (Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —Turkestan.
Desa-iption. —
"From 2 to 4 mm. long, oblong-ovoid, obtuse, smooth,
somewhat glossy, grayish-green, after exposure to light brownisli-green,
consisting of an involucre of about 12 to 18 closely imbricated, glandular
scales with a broad midrib, inclosing four or five rudimentary florets odor ;
strong, peculiar, somewhat camphoraceous taste aromatic and bitter."

;
U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested above.

Santonin (active constituent), 2 per
cent., volatile oil, 2 per cent.
Anthelmintic. Santonin produces yel-
lowness of vision and may produce carmine-red urine if
alkaline. Overdoses have proved fatal.
Average Dose. —
1—4 gm. (15-60 gr.). Of Santonin,
0.03—0.12 gm. (J to 2 gr.) for children, in lozenges, often
combined with calomel.
CUSSO-CAB YOPHYLL US. 99
Treatment for Poisoning : Emetic and stimulants, as in

aconite poisoning.
CUSSO.—Kousso— Brayera (Pharm. J880).
The female inflorescence of Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce)

Gmelin (Nat. Ord. Rosacese).
liubilat. —Abyssinia.
Description. —
"In bundles, rolls, or compressed clustei's, consisting of
panicles about 25 cm. long, with a sheathing bract at the base of each
branch the two roundish bracts at the base of each flower, and the four or five
;
obovate, outer sepals are of a reddish color, membranous, and veiny; calyx
top-shaped, hairy, inclosing two carpels or nutlets; odor slight, fragrant,
—
and tea-like taste bitte-r, acrid, and nauseous." U. S. P.
;

Kosotoxin (active principle, neutral),
resin, much tannin.
Thei-apeutiG Use. — Taenifuge, less as vermifuge. Male
flowers are emetic and useless as taenifuge.
Average Dose. — 10—20 gm. (2J— 5 dr.).
CARYOPHYLLUS. -Cloves.
The unexpanded flowers of Eugenia aromatica (Linn6)
O. Kuntze (Nat. Ord. Myrtaceae).
Habitat. —The Molucca Islands ; cultivated in the West
Indies, Sumatra, and Cayenne.
Description. —
"About 15 mm. long, dark brown, consisting of asubcylin-
dric, solid,and glandular calyx-tube, terminated by four teeth, and sur-
mounted by a globular head, formed by four jictals, which cover numerous
curved stamens, and one style. Gloves emit oil, when scratched, and have
a strong aromatic odor and a pungent, spicy taste." —
U. S. P.
Studi/ and describe as suggested on p. 98.

Chief ConstituenU. —
Volatile oil (mostly eugenol and eu-
genic acid), 18 per cent, tannin, gum, caryophyllin (tasteless),
eugenin, vanillin.
Stimulant, carminative, flavor. The
oil is used iu carious teeth to cauterize the nerve.
Average Dose.—0.3-0.5 gm. (5-8 gr.). Of the oil, 0.06-
0.3 c.c. (1-5 mm.).
Cloves, which have been subjected to distillation are often
sold ; they float upon water, whereas the official will sink.
CALENDULA.—Calendala.— Marigold.
The florets of Calendula officinalis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Com-
positse).
Habitat. ——Europe ; cultivated.
Deseription. " Florets mm. long, linear and strap-shaped, deli-
about 12
cately veined in a longitudinal direction, yellow or orange-colored, three-
toothed above, the short hairy tube inclosing the remnants of a filiform
style terminating in two elongated branches odor slight and somewhat
;
heavy taste somewhat bitter and faintly saline." U. S. P.

; —
Chief Constituents.^ — Bitter principle, calendulin, volatile
oil, resin.
Therapeutic Use:- —Stomachic.

ROSA CENTIFOLIA.-PaIe Rose.
The petals of Eosa centifolia Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rosacese).
Habitat. ——Western Asia. The cultivated rose is used.
Description. " Boundish-obovate and retuse, or obcordate, pink, fragrant,
sweetish, slightly bitter, and faintly astringent." U. S. P. —
Mucilage, tannin, very little volatile
oil (none of the official oil of rose).
Carminative and as perfume.
Average Dose. —
2—4 gm. (30—60 gr.).
ROSA GALLICA.—Red Rose.

The petals of Rosa gallica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rosacese),
collected before expanding.
Habitat. ——
Western Asia ; extensively cultivated.
Deseription. "Usually in small cones, consisting of numerous imbri-
cated, roundish, retuse, deep purple-colored, yellow-clawed petals, having a
roseate odor and a. bitterish, slightly acidulous, and distinctly astringent
taste."—U. S. P.
—
Chi^ Constituents. Mucilage, trace of volatile oil, tannin.
Tlierapeutic Use —
Tonic and astringent ; perfume.
Average Dose. —
1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.).
MATRICARIA.—Matricaria.— German Chamomile.

The flower-heads of Matricaria Chamomilla Linn6 (Nat.
Ord. Corapositse).
ANTHEMIS—ARNICJi: FLORES. 101
Habitat. ——Europe, extensively cultivated.

Description. " About 15 to 20 mm. broad, composed of a flattish, imbri-
cate involucre, a conic, hollow, naked receptacle, which is about 5 mm.
high, about lifteen white, ligulate, reflexed ray-florets, and numerous yellow,
tubular, perfect disk-floi-ets without pappus ; strongly aromatic and bitter.
" The similar flower-heads of Anthemis arvensis Linne, and Maruta
Cotula De Candolle (Nat. Ord. Compositse), have conic, solid, and chafly
receptacles." —U. S. P.

Anthemic acid (bitter), antheraidin
(tasteless), | per cent, of a blue volatile oil, becoming greeu
with age.
Carminative, stimulant, emmenagogue.
Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.).
ANTHEMIS.—Anthemis.—Chamomile.
The flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis LinnI (Nat. Ord.
Compositse), collected from cultivated plants.
Habitat. —-Europe, cultivated.
Descnplion. — " Heads subglobular, about 2 cm. broad, consisting of an
imbi'icated involucre, and numerous white, strap-shaped, three-toothed
florets, and few or no yellow tubular disk-florets, insei-ted upon a chafTy,
conic, solid receptacle. It has a strong, agreeable odor, and an aromatic,
bitter taste."— U. S. P.

Volatile oil, blue or green, about 1
per cent. ; bitter principle, anthemene (tasteless).
Therapeutic use and average dose like matricaria.
ARNICAE FLORES.—Arnica Flowers.
The flower-heads of Arnica montana Linn6 (Nat. Ord.

Compositse).
Habitat. —Mountainous districts of Europe and the United
States and in Siberia.
Description. —"Heads about 3 cm. broad, depressed-roundish, consisting
of a scaly involucre in two rows, and a small, nearly flat, haiiy receptacle,
bearing about sixteen yellow, .strap-shaped, ten-nerved ray-florets, and nu-
merous yellow, five-toothed, tubular disk-florets, having slender, spindle-
shaped achenes, crowned by a hairy pappus. Odor feeble, aromatic ; taste
bitterandacrid."— U. S. P.

Arnicin (acrid), resin.
Therapeutic -Use. — Irritant and vulnerary ; little used in-
ternally.
Average Dose. —Mostly externally as tincture.
SAMBUaJS.-Sambocas.— Elder.
The flowers of Sambucus canadensis Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Caprifoliacese).
Description. — " The

flowers, when fresh, about 5 mm. broad, and after
drying shriveled calyx superior, minutely five-toothed corolla originally
;
;
cream-colored, after drying pale brownish-yellow, wheel-shaped and five-

lobed, with five stamens on the short tube odor peculiar taste sweetish,
; ;
somewhat aromatic and bitterish.

" The peduncles and pedicels of the inflorescence should be reiected."—
U. S. P.

Volatile oil, resin.
Carminative and as perfume in soaps.
Average Dose. —
4 gm. (60 gr.).
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL FLOWERS.

CHAPTER V.
FRUITS AND SEEDS.
FRUITS.
The fruit consists of the ripened ovary, together with what-
ever parts of the flower persist and share in its development.
In describing a fruit there should be noted its classifica-
' :
tion (berry, etc.) whether the ripe or unripe fruit is collected

; ;
its size and shape presence or absence of the stem base

;
texture of outer layers and of the inner portion (exocarp,

mesocarp, etc.) ; seed contents ; color, odor, and taste.
The following fruits are official :
Cubeb. Vanilla.
Pepper. Coriander.
Hops. Conium.
Phytolacca. Fennel.
Rhus glabra. Caraway.
Prune. Anise.
Raspberry. Lemon (peel).
Pimenta. Bitter orange (peel).
Capsicum. Sweet orange (peel).
Colocynth. Tamarind.
Cassia fistula. Fig.
Cardamon. Chenopodium.
Illiciiim.
The following medicinal fruits are not official :
Bael. Cumin.
Buckthorn. Dill.
Cashew. Mulberry.
Carrot. Myrobalan.
Celery. Parsley.
Ceratonia. Rose.
Cocculus Indicus. Saw-palmetto.
Juniper.
1 See blank p. 104.
103
1104 FRUITS AND SEEDS.
CO
e 8
Si
=0
Hi
S
!S1
O ti
=0 Co
•ri «i
+i ^
^1-
*JO
f
I ^ O III ^'^
a
^
CUBESA—HUMULUS. 105
CUBEBA— Cufaeb.
The unripe fruit of Piper Cubeba Linne (Nat. Ord. Piper-
acese).
Hahikvt. —— Java, Sumatra, Borneo ; cultivated.
Description. " Globular, about 4 or 5 mm. in diameter, contracted at
the base into a rounded stipe about 6 or 8 mm. long, reticulately wrinkled,
blackish-gray, internally whitish and hollow odor strong, spicy taste aro- ;
—
;
matic and pungent." U. S. P.

Cubeb should not be mixed with the nearly inodorous luchis or stalks.
Study and desaribe as suggested on p. 103.

Volatile oil, resin, eubebic acid (act-
ive),cubebin (inactive). The oleoresin represents the medic-
inal activities of the drug.
—
Therapeutic Use. Ûrinary disinfectant, stimulant, also in
bronchitis.
Average Dose. — 2—4 gm. (J— 1 dr.). Of the oleoresin or
oil, 0.3-1.2 c.c. (5-20 min.).
PIPER.—Pepper.—Black Pepper.
The unripe Piper nigrum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Piper-
fruit of
acese).
Habitat. —
East Indies, particularly the Malabar or west-
ern coast of the Madras presidency of India; cultivated in
tropic countries.
Description. —
" Globular, about 4 ram. in diameter, reticulately wrinkled,
brownish-black or grayish-black, internally lighter, hollow, with an unde-
veloped embryo odor aromatic; taste pungently spicy." U. S. P.
; —
Study and describe as suggested on 103. p.
Volatile oil (devoid of pungency),
piperine, 6 per cent, (nearly tasteless, but developing pun-
gency when dissolved), chavicin (pungent resin).
Irritant, stimulant, carminative. Used
mostly as a condiment.
—
Average Dose. 0.1—1 gm. (1—15 gr.). Of the oleoresin
0.05-0.1 cc. (1-2 min.).
HUMULUS.—Hops.
The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Ur-
ticacese).
Habitat. —Widely distributed in the north temperate zone ;
cultivated.
Description. —
" Ovate, about 3 cm. long, consisting of a thin, hairy, un-
dulated axis, and many obliquely ovate, membranous scales, in the upper
part reticulately veined, and toward the base parallel-veined, glandulai', and
surrounding a subglobular achene color of the scales greenish, free from
;
reddish or brownish spots odor aromatic taste bitter and slightly astrin-
; ;
gent."— U. a
P.

Chief Constituents. —Much resin, little volatile oil, choline,
asparagin, tannin, etc. The glandular powder, lupulin, rep-
resents the activities of the hops and is almost exclusively
employed.
Therapeutic Use. —Tonic and hypnotic.
Average Dose. —2—20 gm. (J— 5 dr.).
PHYTOLACCA.E FRUCTUS.—Phytolacca Fruit.—Phytolaccae Bacca

(Pharm. J880) ; Poke Berry.
The fruit of Phytolacca decandra Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Phy-

tolaccacese).
Habitat. —United States and Canada; naturalized in
Europe.
Description. — "A
depressed-globular, dark-purple, compound berry,
about 8 mm. composed of ten carpels, each containing one
in diameter,
lenticular, black seed juice purplish-red ; inodorous taste sweet, slightly
;
;
acrid."— U. S. P.

Coloring-matter, sugar, gum, etc.
The active principle is not well known.
It is only used in domestic medicine.
In moderate doses it acts as an emetic and cathartic. It is
further said to have a marked action upon the glandular
structures. Used in obesity.
Average Dose. —0.5—1 gm. (8—15 gr.).
RHUS GLABRA.—Rhus Glabra.

The fruit of Rhus glabra Linne (Nat. Ord. Anacardiese).
Habitat. —United States and Canada.
Description. —
" Subglobular, about 3 mm. in diameter, drupaceous, crim-
son, densely hairy, containing a roundish-oblong, smooth putamen ; inodor-
ous ; taste acidulous.". —U. S. P.
ANAMIRTA—PIMENTA. 107

Chief Condituents. —
Malic acid (acid malates), tannin.
Therapeutio Use. — Refrigerant, astringent.
ANAMIRTA.— Coccultis Indicas.—Fish Berry.
The fruit of Anamirta paniculata (unofficial ; considered

here because it yields picrotoxin).
Habitat. —
India.
Picrotoxin is found in the seeds. Two
inert alkaloids, menispermine and paramenispermiue.
Therapeutic Use. —Decoction
used externally to kill ver-
min. Rarely used internally. Convulsant.
Average dose of picrotoxin, 0.001 gm. (gL gr.) or less.
PRUNUM.—Prune.
The dried fruit of Prunus domestica Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Rosacese).
Habitat. —Asia ; extensively cultivated.
Description. — "Oblong or subglobular, about 3 cm. long, shrivelled,
blackish-blue, glaucous the sarcocarp brownish-yellow, sweet, and acidu-
;
lous putamen hard, smooth, or irregularly ridged the seed almond-like

;
;
in shape, but smaller, and of a bittei--almond taste." —

U. S. P.

Much sugar, pectin, malic acid.
Laxative and nutritive.
RUBUS IDAEUS.—Raspberry.
The fruit of Rubus idreus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rosacete).
Habitat. —Europe and Asia ; cultivated and wild in many
countries.
Chief Constituents. — Sugar, pectin, and citric and malic
acid.
Therapeutic ZTse. — Refrigerant, nutritive, flavor.
Needs no description.
PEVIENTA.—Pimenta.—Allspice.
The nearly ripe fruit of Pimenta officinalis Lindley (Nat.
Ord. Myrtacese).
Habitat. —Northern part of South America and some of

the West Indies, particularly Jamaica.
Description.—" About 5 mm. in diameter, nearly globular, crowned with
the short, four-parted calyx or its remnants, and a short style brownish or ;
brownish-gray, granular and glandular, two-celled each cell containing one

;
brown, plano-convex, roundish-reniform seed odor and taste pungently

;
aromatic, clove-like." —
U. S. P.

—
Chief Constituents. ^Volatile oil (contains eugenol), 3 to 4
per cent., resin, tannin, etc.
Therapeutic Use. —Stomachic, carminative. Seldom used
in medicine, but frequently as a spice.
Average Dose. —0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.).
CAPSICUM.—Capsicttm.—Cayenne Pepper.—African Pepper.
The fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum Blume (Nat. Ord. Solan-

acese).
Habitat. —Probably indigenous to Central America ; cul-
tivated extensively.
Description. —
" Oblong-conic, from 10 to 20 mm. long, supported by a
cup-shaped, five-toothed calyx, with
flattish, a red, shining, membranous,
and tiunslucent pericarp, inclosing two cells, and containing flat, reniform,
yellowish seeds attached to a thick, central placenta. It has a peculiar
odor and an intensely sharp taste." U. S. P. —
Chief Cov.stituents. -^Capssiicm (pungent), volatile oil, and
resins. The oleoresin represents its activities.
Stimulant," rubefacient, carminative,
condiment.
—
Average Dose. 0.05—0.5 gm. (1-8 gr.). Of the oleoresin,
0.015-0.05 c.c. (i-1 min.).
COLOCYNTmS.— Colqcynth.
The fruit of CitruUus Colocynthis Shrader (Nat. Ord.
Cucurbitacese), deprived of its rind.
Habitat. —Indigenous toTurkey and neighboring coast,
also found elsewhere in Europe and in South Africa.
Description. — " From 5 to 10 cm. in diameter globular white or yel-
;
;
lowish-white ; light, spongy; readily breaking into three wedge-shaped

CASSIA FISTULA — CARDAMOMUM. 109
each containing, near the rounded surface, many fiat, ovate, brown
pieces,
seeds ; ; —
inodorous taste intensely bitter." U. S. P.
The pulp only should be used, the seeds being separated and rejected.

Colocynthin (bitter, active principle),
0.6 per cent., yields colocynthein by decomposition, also
active ; resin ; no starch.
Therapeutic Use. —Hydragogue, cathartic. Overdoses are
poisonous.
Average Dose. —0.1-0.5 gm. (2—8 gr.).
CASSIA FISTULA.— Cassia Fistula.— Purging Cassia.
The fruit of Cassia Fistula Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse).

Habitat. — East India ; naturalized elsewhere in tropics.
Description. —
"Cylindric, 40 to 60 cm. long, nearly 25 mm. in diameter,
blackish-brown, somewhat veined, the sutures smooth, forming two longitu-
dinal bands; indehiscent, internally divided tiunsversely into numerous
cells, each containing a reddish-brown, glossy, flattish-ovate seed imbedded
in a blackish-brown sweet pulp odor resembling that of prunes."
; —
U. S. P.

Chief Constituents.— Consists of one-third pulp, of which
more than half is sugar ; pectin, mucilage.
Therapeutic Use.— Laxative.
Average Dose. — 5-10 gm. (1-2 J dr.).
CARDAMOMUM.— Cardamom.
The fruit of Elettaria repens (Sonnerat) Baillon (Nat. Ord.
Scitaminese).
Habitat. —Malabar cgast of India ; cultivated.
Description.—" Ovoid or oblong, from 10 to 15 mm. long, obtusely tri-

angular, rounded at the base, beaked, longitudinally striate of a pale buff
;
color, three-celled, with a thin, leathery, nearly tasteless pericarp and a

central placenta. The seeds are about 4 mm. long, reddish-brown, angular,
rugose, depressed at the hilum, surrounded by a thin, membranous arillus,
—
and have an agreeable odoi-and a pungent, aromatic taste." TJ. S. P.

Volatile oil, 4 to 5 per cent, fixed
oil, starch, ash, 6 per cent. The seeds constitute nearly four-
fifths of the fruit.
Therapeutic Use. —Carminative, stomachic.
Average Dose. —0.3-1.5 gm. (5-25 gr.) in tincture or

compound tincture.
The Malabar alone appears to answer the official require-
ments. Ceylon cardamom is longer, yields more than twice
as much ash. Siam and Java cardamom are nearly globular.
Other varieties are variously winged.
VANILLA— Vanifla.
The fruit of Vanilla planifolia Andrews (Nat. Ord. Or-
chidese).
Habitat. —Eastern Mexico.
Description.—" From 15 to 25 cm. long, and about 8 mm. thick, linear,
narrowed and bent or hooked at the base, rather oblique at the apex,
wrinkled, somewhat warty, dark-brown, glossy-leathery, one-celled, and con-
taining a blackish-brown pulp, with numerous minute seeds, and more or
less acicular crystals odor and taste peculiar, fragrant."— U. S. P.
;

Vanillin, 1.7 to 2.7 per cent., volatile
oil, fixed oil, resin, sugar, mucilage (more abundant in cheaper
beans).
Therapeutic Use. —Carminative, aphrodisiac, but not much
used medicinally ;mostly as a flavoring.
Avei-age Dose. —0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.).
The fruit is collected before ripening, the color and aroma
are developed by fermentation (sweating).
CORIANDRUM.— Coriander.
The fruit of Coriandrum sativum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Um-
belliferse).
Habitat. —Europe and Asia ; naturalized in the United
States ; cultivated.
Description. —Globular about 4 mm. in diameter crowned with the

; ;
calyx-teeth and stylopodbrownish-yellow, with slight, longitudinal ridges

;
the two mericarps cohering, inclosing a lenticular cavity, and each furnished
on the face with two oil-tubes odor and taste agreeably aromatic.
;

Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, yellowish, J to 1 per
cent., fixed oil, etc.
CONIUM. IJl
Oleum Coriandri (U. S. P.) is a volatile oil distilled from

coriander. It has the characteristic odor of the fruit. Specific
gravity, 0.870 to 0.885. All the aromatic Umbelliferse yield
votatile oils which scarcely require separate extended con-
sideration. Oil of anise has a specific gravity of 0.980 to
0.990 ; oil of fennel not less than 0.960 ; oil of caraway,
0.910 to 0.920.
Therapeutic Use. —Aromatic, carminative.
Average Dose. —0.6-2 gm. (10—30 gr.).
CONIUM.—Coniam— Hemlock.
The full-grown fruit of Conium maculatum Linne (Nat.
Ord. Umbelliferse), gathered while yet green.
Habitat. —
Europe and Asia naturalized in the United
;
States.
Description. —" About 3 mm. long

broadly ovate laterally compressed
; ;
grayish-green often divided into the two mericarps, each with five crenate
;
ribs, without oil-tubes, and containing a seed which is grooved on the face :
odor and taste slight.

" When triturated with solution of potassium or sodium hydrate, conium
gives off a strong, disagreeable, mouse-like odor." U. S. P. —
Chief Constituents. —Volatile oil, ^ per cent,
coniine
(liquid alkaloid, colorless, becoming brown), several other
alkaloidal principles. The odor of coniine is very charac-
teristic.
Therapeutic Use. — Narcotic, sedative, antispasmodic. Con-
iine reseml)le8 nicotine both physically and chemically, as
as well as in its action. Conium is celebrated as being the
poison by which Socrates was put to death. Plato has accu-
rately described the symptoms of the poison exhibited by
Socrates. It causes incoordination of the muscles, with anes-
thesia, death being sometimes preceded by convulsions. , The
action of pure coniine in fatal doses is very rapid, but less so
than that of nicotine. The treatment of coniine poisoning
consists in giving alkaloidal antidotes with stimulation.
Average Dose. —
0.06-0.3 gm. (1—5 gr.). as fluid extract.
Of Coniine, 0.002-0.005 gm. (^Vr? gi"-)-
FOENICULUM.—Fennel.
The fruit of Fceuiculuni capillaceum Gilibert (Nat. Ord.
Umbelliferse).
Habitat. — Europe and Asia, in the neighborhood of the
Mediterranean Sea, and in Germany ; cultivated.
Descnplion. —
" Oblong, nearly cylindric, slightly curved, from 4 to 8
nun. long, brownish or greenish-brown readily separable into the two
;
prominent mericarps, each with five light brown, obtuse ribs, four oil-tubes
on the back, and two or four oil-tubes upon the flat face; odor and taste
aromatic, anise-like." —
U. S. P.

The German is smaller than the Roman. Bitter fennel
collected from the wild plant grown in France is smaller than
the official.
Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 2 to 6 per cent. ; fixed

oil.
Therapeutic Use. —Carminative, stimulant.

Average Dose. —0.5—2 gm. (8—30 gr.).
CARUM.— Caraway.
The fruit of Carum Carvi Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Umbelliferse).
Habitat. ——Asia ; cultivated.
Description. " Oblong, laterally compressed, about 4 or 5 mm. long, usu-
ally separated into the two mericarps, which are curved, narrower at both
ends, brown, with five yellowish, filiform ribs, and with six oil-tubes. Cara-
way has an agreeable odor, and a sweetish, spicy taste." U. S. P. —
Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 5 per cent. ; fixed oil,
resin.
Therapeutic ?7se.^Carminative, stimulant, flavor.
Average Dose. — 0.5—2 gm. (8—30 gr.).
ANISUM.—Anise.
The fruit of Pimpinella Anisum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Um-
belliferse).
Habitat. —Asia and southern Europe.
Description. —
" About 4 or 5 ram. long, ovate, compressed at the sides,
grayish, finely haiiy, and consisting of two mericarps, each with a flat face,
and five light brownish, filiform ridges, and about fifteen thin oil-tubes,
which can be seen in a transverse section by the microscope. It has an
agreeable, aromatic odor, and a sweet, spicy taste." U. S. P. —
LIMONIS CORTEX. 113

that the mericarps are united. Italian anise is often con-
taminated with conium, which has its mericarps commonly
separated.
Volatile oil, 2 to 3 per cent. ; fixed oil.
Therapeutio ?7se.— Carminative, stimulant, flavor.
Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.).
LIMONIS CORTEX.—Lemon-Peel.
The rind of the recent fruit of Citrus Limonum Risso
(Nat. Ord. Rutaceaj).
Habitat. —Asia; .extensively cultivated in subtropic and
tropic countries.
—
" In narrow, thin bands or in elliptic segments, with very
Description.
spongy, white, inner layer adhering to them outer surface deep
little of a ;
lemon-yellow and ruggedly glandular odor fragrant taste aromatic and

; ;
bitterish.
The spongy inner layer usually present in the segments should be re-
moved before the lemon-peel is used." U. — S. P.

Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil.
Oleum lAmonis (U. S. P.) is obtained by expression from

the fresh lemon-peel. It should be kept in well-stoppered
from light. This is a pale-
bottles in a cool place, protected
yellow, limpid liquid, of the odor of lemon-peel, and of an
aromatic, bitter taste. Specific gravity, 0.858 to 0.859,
soluble in alcohol and fat solvents. Oil of lemon is often
mixed with an equal volume of alcohol, which leaves a
stratum above, protecting it against becoming terebinthinate.
Where this is used it should be shaken vigorously and twice
as much of the mixture taken as of the volatile oil required.
The lower layer consists partly of alcohol.
Oleum Bergamotlce (U. S. P.) is similarly obtained from
the fresh rind of Citrus Bergamia. It is a green oil, used in
perfuming.
The peel and volatile oil are used for
flavoring.
Turpentine may be detected by method given in Part III.,
p. 330,
114 FBUITS AND SEEDS.
AURANTn AMARA CORTEX.—Bitter Orange-Peel.

The rind of the fruit of Citrus vulgaris Eisso (Nat. Ord.
Kutacese).
Habitat. —
Asia ; cultivated about the Mediterranean Sea,
the southern United States, California, and elsewhere.
Description.— "In narrow, thin bands, or in quarters; epidermis of a

dark brownish-green color, glandular, and with very little of the spongy,
white, inner layer adheiing to it it has a fragrant odor, and an aromatic,
;
bitter taste."—U. S. P.

Cliief Constituents. — Volatile oil, hesperidin (bitter), resin,
etc.
Oleum Aurantii Cortiois (U. S. P.) is obtained by expres-
sion from the fresh peel of either the bitter or the sweet
orange. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a
cool place. Pale yellowish liquid, of the odor of orange-
peel, and bitter taste iffrom the bitter orange-peel. Specific
gravity, 0.850.
Oleum Aurantii Florum (U. S. P.) may be considered in
this place. It is obtained by distillation from the fresh
flowers of the bitter orange. It should be kept in well-
stoppered bottles, protected from the light. Specific gravity,
0.875 to 0.890. In contact with a saturated solution of
sodium bisulphite it assumes a handsome and permanent pur-
plish-red color.
Therapeutic Use. —Orange-peel is an aromatic bitter. The
peel and the oil of the peel are used in flavoring. Oil of
orange-flower (oil of neroli) is mainly used in perfumery.
AURANTn DULQS CORTEX.-Sweet Orange-Peel.
The rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium Linn6

(Nat. Ord. Eutacese).
Habitat. — Subtropic countries.
Description. — "Closely resembling bitter orange-peel, but having an
orange-yellow color. It has a sweetish, fiugi'ant odor, and an aromatic,
slightly bitter taste."— U. S. P.

TAMAEINDUS^FICUS. 115
Chief Constituent. —Volatile oil.

Therapeutic Use. —Aromatic.
TAMARINDUS—Tamarind.
The preserved pulp of the fruit of Tamarindus indica
Linu§ (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse).
Habitat. —
East Indies and other tropic regions natural- ;
ized in the West Indies.
Description. "
— A
reddish-brown, sweet, subacid, pulpy mass, containing
strong, somewhat branching fibers, and polished, brown, flattish-quadran-
gular seeds, each inclosed in a tough membi-ane taste sweet and refresh-
;
ingly acidulous." —
U. S. P.
Chief Constituents. — Citric acid, 9 per cent.; tartaric, 1 .5

per cent. malic acid
; : sugar or molasses is added to the pulp
usually.
Therapeutic Use. — Refrigerant, laxative.
Average Dose. —
20 gm. (5 dr.).
West Indian tamarinds are usually found in our market.
A bright iron surface (clean spatula or needle) left in contact
with tamarind pulp for thirty minutes should show no red-
dish coating (absence of copper).
FICUS.—Fig.
The fleshy receptacle of Ficus Carica Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Urticacese), bearing fruits upon its inner surface.
Habitat. —Western Asia ; extensively cultivated in sub-
tropic countries.
Description. —
" Compressed, of irregular shape, fleshy, brownish or yel-
lowish, covered with an efiiorescence of sugar of a sweet, fruity odor, and
;
a very sweet, mucilaginous taste. When softened in water, figs are pear-
shaped, with a scar or short stalk at the base, and a small, scaly orifice at
the apex ; hollow internally ; the inner surface covered with numerous
yellowish, hard achenes." —
U. S. P.
The real (botanic) fruit constitutes but a small part of the

official fig.
Sugar, 60 per cent. ; cellular tissue,
15 per cent. ; water, 15 per cent.
Therapeutic Use. —Demulcent, laxative, dietetic.
116 FJiUITS AND SEEDS.
CHENOPODIUM.—Chenopodium.—American Wownseed.
Thefruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn6, var. an-
thelminticum, Gray (Nat. Ord. Chenopodiacese).
Habitat. —
Tropic North America, naturalized in the United
States.
Description. —
" Nearly 2 mm. in diameter, depressed-globular, glandular,
dull greenish or brownish, the integuments friable, and containing a lenticu-
lar, obtusely-edged, glossy, black seed. It has a peculiar, somewhat terebin-
thinate odor, and a bitterish, pungent taste." —
tJ. S. P.
and describe as suggested on p. 103.

Stridy
Volatile oil, wholly representing the
medicinal virtues of the drug.
Anthelmintic. The oil is to be pre-
ferred usually mixed with castor oil.
Average Dose. —2-3 gm. (30-45 gr.). Of the oil, 0.3-

1 c.c. (5-15 min.).
ILLICIUM.— Illiciam.— Star Anise.
The of Illicium verum. Hooker filius (Nat. Ord.

fruit
Magnoliacese).
Habitat. —
Chinese Empire. A
closely allied species is
found in the southern United States.
Description. — " The
fruit is pedunculate and consists of eight stellately
arranged which are boat-shaped, about 10 mm. long, rather woody,
cai-pels,
wrinkled, straight-beaked, brown, dehiscent on the upper suture, internally
reddish-brown, glossy, and containing a single, flattish, oval, glossy, brown-
ish-yellow seed odor anise-like taste of the carpels sweet and aromatic,
; ;
and of the seeds oily.

" Star-anise should not be confounded with the very similar but poi-
sonous fruit of Illicium anisatum Linn^ (Illicium religiosum Siebold),
the carpels of which are more woody, shriveled, and have a thin, mostly
—
curved beak, a faint, clove-like odor, and an unpleasant taste." U. S. P.

the boat-shaped capsules, each with its glossy seed.
Volatile oil (20 per cent, of seeds,
very little in capsules), resin. The volatile oil is very simi-
lar to the official oil of anise.
Carminative and stimulant. Mostly
for flavoring. Fruit rarely used, the oil being employed.
SEEDS. 117
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL FRUITS.

their thickness, texture, covering (hairy or smooth), mark-

ings, raph^. The embryo, its size and position ; the albumin,
its texture and nature (oily, mealy, etc.). Besides this, the
odor, taste, and color should be observed.'
The following seeds are official
Nux vomica. White mustard.

Strophanthus. Black mustard.
Bitter almond. Staphisagria.
Sweet almond. Linseed.
Physostigma. Nutmeg.
Pumpkin-seed. Stramonium.
Cacao. Colchicum.
The following medicinal seeds are not official
Abrus. Hyoscyamus.
Areca. Ignatia.
Benne.
NVX VOMICA. 119
occur in the endosperm. Loganin (glucosid), fat, and proteid

are also present (see p. 351). Strychnine is obtained princi-
pally from ignatia bean.
Strychnine may be taken as represent-
ing the medicinal action of nux vomica brucine resembles
;
strychnine, but is weaker. Strychnine exerts its principal

action upon the spinal centers, leading to its employment in
a variety of complaints. It is often spoken of as a nerve
stimulant, since it tones up the nervous system. It is useful
in paralysis due to functional disorders, not where due to
organic disease of the cord. It raises the pressure of the
blood when that is abnormally low, hence it is employed in
shock. It may be used as a simple bitter.
Fatal poisoning by strychnine is by no means rare. If
taken by the mouth, the length of time which will elapse
before the symptoms occur depends largely upon the condi-
tion of the stomach (quickly if it be empty, slowly if it be
full) —
usually in from fifteen minutes to half an hour. The
most noticeable symptoms are nervousness, with muscular
twitchings, or in very large doses the first symptom may be a
convulsion with a cry, not of pain, but due to spasmodic
contraction of the muscles of respiration. The patient has
characteristic convulsions, which are at first clonic (jerking),
then tonic (rigid) ; the head will bedrawn backward and the
body raised, the patient resting on head and heels clonic ;
spasms again occur and then an intermission. This is re-
peated until recovery or death takes place. Consciousness is

preserved, and much pain is felt during the convulsions.
The greatest immediate danger in strychnine-poisoning con-
sists in the spasms of the respiratory muscles and fixation of
the chest, with stoppage of breathing.
Treatment must be prompt to be effective, and perhaps in
no case is the pharmacist more apt to be called upon than in
cases of strychnine-poisoning, and upon his promptness may
depend the life of the patient. From 20 to 30 C.c. (5 dr.
to 1 of 0.5 per cent, solution of potassium perman-
oz.)
ganate, largely diluted,may be given if the patient is seen
in time ; this will be more effective if the stomach is nearly
empty than if full. Ten drops of compound solution of
iodine diluted with a half-glass of water may be used to form

the insoluble strychnine iodid. Emetics may be used before
the convulsions appear, including alkaloidal precipitants,
tannin, or iodine in the water given in the emetic. Tea and
coffee must not be used, though they contain tannin, since
they also contain caffeine. Chloral seems to lessen the con-
vulsions, as does chloroform, but these may prove more dan-
gerous than the strychnine in the hands of the unskilful.
During convulsions artificial respiration may be employed.
In the intermission, noise, jarring, or any exciting influence
should be avoided, as the slightest disturbance serves to bring
on a convulsion.
—
Average Dose. 0.03-0.3 gm. (J-5 gr.) in tincture; of
strychnine, 0.001-0.003 gm. (-g-V-^tr S''-)-
STROPHANTHUS.—Strophanthtis.
The seed of Strophanthus hispidus De CandoUe (Nat. Ord.
Apocynacese), deprived of its long awn.
Habitat. —
Tropic portions of Africa, Seuegambia, and
Guinea.
Description. —
" About 15 mm. long and 4 or 5 mm. broad, oblong^lan-
ceolate, flattened and obtusely edged, grayish-green, covered with appressed,
silky hairs, one side with a ridge extending into the attenuated, pointed
end ; kernel white and oily, consisting of a straight embryo, having two thin
cotyledons, and surrounded by a thin layer of perisperm ; nearly inodorous
taste very bitter.
"A decoction prepared with 1 part of the seed and 10 parts of water has
a brownish color, and is not changed in appearance on the addition of
—
iodine T. S., ferric chlorid T. S., or potassium mercuric iodid T. S." U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. Inert seeds of

other species of Strophanthus were formerly often substituted,
containing no strophanthin or other glucosid.
(Jiief Constituents. —
Strophanthin (glucosid), kombic acid.
Most of the commercial strophanthin consists of pseudo-
strophanthin, which is much more active than strophanthin
it is found in the seeds of Strophanthus komb6. Strophan-
thin is seldom used.
Resembles digitalis in its action.
—
Average Dose. Of the tincture (5 per cent.), 0.3-0.6 C.c.
(5—10 min.).
AMYGDALA AMABA. 121
AMYGDALA AMARA—Bitter Almond.

The seed of Primus Amygdalus, var. amara, DeCandolle
(Nat. Ord. Kosacese).
Habitat. —
Western Asia; naturalized about the Mediter-
ranean Sea.
—
Description.' ''About 25 mm. long, oblong-lanceolate, flattish, covered
with a cinnamon-brown, scurfy testa, marked by about sixteen lines emana-
ting from a broad soa-r at the blunt end. The embryo has the shape of the
seed, is white, oily, consists of two plano-convex cotyledons, a short radicle
—
at the pointed end, and has a bitter taste." U. S. P.

Chief Coyistituents. —Fixed oil, 45 per cent. proteid, 25
;
per cent. amygdalin, 2 to 3 per cent. emulsin (ferment).

; ;
Oleum AmygdalcB Expressum (U. S. P.) is obtained by

expression from bitter or sweet almond. It should be kept in
well-stoppered bottles in a cool place. This is a clear, pale
straw-colored, or colorless oil, little odor and of a mild nutty
taste. Specific gravity 0.915 to 0.920. Slightly soluble in
alcohol, soluble in usual solvents of fixed oils. It solidifies
with nitric acid and water. Expressed oil of almond is used
in the official ointment of rose-water.
Oleum AmyffdalcB Amarce (U. S. P.) is obtained from the
bitter almond (not from the sweet) by maceration with water
and subsequent distillation. About 1 per cent, of volatile
oil is obtained from the seeds. The glucosid amygdalin
is split up by the ferment emulsin, in the presence of mois-
ture, into glucose, oil of bitter almond, hydrocyanic acid, and

benzaldehyde. About one-fourth as much hydrocyanic acid as
oil of bitter almond is formed. This oil depends for its medic-
inal virtues principally upon the contained hydrocyanic acid.
Poisoning by the oil produces symptoms of hydrocyanic-
poisoning, /. e., vertigo, mental dimness, headache, and palpi-
tation ; convulsion and coma coming on with extreme quick-
ness. Treatment consists in prompt evacuation of the stomach,
emetics or tickling the throat with feather, mustard, etc., and
hydrogen peroxide, stimulation with caffeine (coffee and tea),
artificial respiration maintained as long as the heart beats.
Artificial oil of bitter almond is often substituted for the
genuine. It is free from hydrocyanic acid.
122 FRVrm AND SEEDS.
Acidum Hydrocyanicwn Bilutum (U. S. P.) is usually ob-

tained from combination as a cyanide.
its It has been suffi-
ciently considered under oil of bitter almond, except for the
use and dose.
Therapeutic Use. — The seeds are sedative. The volatile
oil is sedative and largely used as a flavoring in the bitter
almond water. The fixed oil is demulcent and emollient.
—
Average Dose. The seeds are not used in this state. Of
the volatile oil, 0.035 C.c. (0.5 min.). Of 2 per cent, hydro-
cyanic acid, 0.06-0.2 C.c. (1-3 min.).
AMYGDALA DULCIS.— Sweet Almond.

The seed of Prunus amygdalus, var. dulcis, De Candolle-
(Nat. Ord. Rosacese).
Description. — "Closely resembling the bitter almond (see Amygdala
Amara), but having a bland, sweetish taste, free from rancidity.
" When triturated with water, it yields a milk-white emulsion, free from
the odor of hydrocyanic acid." U. S. P. —
Study and describe as suggested on p. 11 7.
Fixed oil, 50 per cent. proteid, 25 ;
per cent. emulsin no amygdalin.

; ;
Demulcent used in emulsion flavored ;
with bitter almond.
PHYSOSTIGMA.—P{iysostigma.— Calabar Bean.
The seed of Physostigma venenosum Balfour (Nat. Ord.

Leguminosse).
Habitat. —Western Africa.
Description. — ''
About 25 to 30 mm. long, 15 to 20 mm. broad, and 10 to
15 mm. thick oblong, and
; somewhat reniform ; testa granular, chocolate-
brown, with a broad, black groove extending over the entire length of the
convex edge embryo with
; a shoi't, curved radicle, and two large, white,
concavo-convex cotyledons ; inodorous; taste bean-like." U. S. P. —
Study and describe as suggested on p. 11 7.
Chief Constituent'!. —
Eserine or physostigmine, 0.1 per
cent. ; Aqueous solutions of physostig-
calabarine, eseridine.
mine readily decompose and turn red. The alkaloid should
not be exposed to the air.
The action of calabarine resembles
strychnine. The action of physostigma depends upon physos-
PEPO— THEOBR OMA. 123
tigmine and less upon eseridine, which is similar but weaker.

The principal use of physostigmine is in ophthalmic prac-
tice,causing contraction of the pupil. Not only in this but in
its systemic action physostigmine is antagonistic to atropine.
Symptoms of poisoning by physostigma or its alkaloids
show contracted pupil (pin-head size), there is nausea and
vomiting, palpitation, slow pulse, death preceded by convul-
sions. Antidote, usual alkaloidal precipitants, and bella-
donna or atropine.
—
Average Base. 0.06-0.12 gm. (1-2 gr.) in tincture. Of
physostigmine 0.0005-0.002 gm. (yio-^V g""-)-
PEPO.—Pumpkin Seed.
The seed of Cucurbita Pepo, Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Cucurbi-

tacese).
Habitat. —Probably America, widely cultivated.
Description. — " About

2 cm. long, broadly-ovate, flat, white or whitish,
nearly smooth, with u, shallow groove parallel to the edge containing a ;
short, conical radicle and two flat cotyledons inodorous taste bland and
; ;
oily."— U. S. P.

Fixed oil, 20 to 40 per cent. ;
pro-
teids, starch.
Tlierapeutic Use. — not
Tsenifuge, used alone, but in con-
junction with other tsenifuges.
Average Dose. — 15-30 gm. (|-1 oz.).
THEOBROMA. - Cacao.
(Unofficial, yields oil of theobroma and theobromine).
Seeds of Theobroma Cacao Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Sterculiacese).

Habitat. —
Mexico and Central America.
Fixed oil, 50 per cent, (cacao butter),
starch and proteids, little caffeine; a glucosid, yielding 1.5
to 4:. 5 per cent, of theobromine.
Oleum Theobromatis (U. S. P.) is obtained from the seeds
by expression, is a yellowish-white solid, of faint agreeable
odor. Specific gravity 0.970 to 0.980. Soluble in usual fat
solvents. Oil of theobroma is sometimes adulterated with
paraffin. If 1 gra. of the oil be dissolved in 3 C.c. of ether
12-t FRUITS AND SEEDS.
at 17° C, the tube placed in water at 0° C, it should not

become turbid nor deposit a granular mass in less than three
minutes, and melts again to clear liquid at 15° C.
The ground seed when flavored and
sweetened constitutes chocolate cacao consists of the pow-
;
dered seeds deprived of part of this oil. The fixed oil, the
official oil of theobroma, is used as emollient, and is impor-
tant pharmaeeutically as the base for suppositories, since it
melts at about the body-temperature. Theobromine resem-
bles caffeine in its action. The salicylate is used as an effec-
tive diuretic.
Average Dose. —Of theobromine, 0.5-1.5 gm. (8-22 gr.).
SESJAPIS ALBA.—WUte Mustard.
The seed of Brassica alba (Linn4) Hooker filius et Thomp-

son (Nat. Ord. Cruciferse).
Habitat. —
Asia and southern Europe ; cultivated.
Description. —
" About 2 mm. in diameter, almost globular, witb a circu-
lar hilum testa yellowish, finely pitted, hard ; embi70 oily, with a cui'ved
;
radicle and two cotyledons one folded over the other ; free from starch
—
inodorous ; taste pungent and acrid." U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested onp. 117.

Fixed oil, 25 per cent. ; mucilage (in
the testa), proteids, sinalbin (by decomposition yields an
acrid volatile oil), sinapin sulphocyanid.
Therapeutic —Emetic,
Use. rubefacient, condiment.
Average Dose. —4 gm. (60 gr.) in warm water as emetic.
SINAPIS NIGRA.—Black Mustard.
The seed of Brassica nigra (Linn6) Koch (Nat. Ord. Cru-

ciferse).
Habitat. —Same as white mustard.
Description. — " About
1 mm. in diameter, almost globular, with a circu-
lar hilum testa blackish-brown or grayish-brown, finely pitted, hard em-
; ;
bryo oily, with a. cuiTed radicle and two cotyledons, one folded over the
other free from starch inodorous when dry, but when triturated with
; ;
water, of a pungent, penetrating, irritating odor taste pungent and acrid."

;
— U. S. P.
Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. Turnip- and

STAPHISA GRIA. 1 25
rape-seed are larger and darker in color than black mustard-

seed.
Chief Constituents. —Fixed oil, 25 per cent. ; mucilage,
proteids, sinapin sulphocyanid, sinigrin, or potassium myron-
ate. Sinigrin is a glucosid, splitting into volatile oil of mus-
tard, potassium salt, and sugar.
Oleum Sinapis Volatile (U. S. P.), formed when the ground
seeds are brought into contact with water, is exceedingly pun-
gent and determines the activity of the seed. The oil is too
irritating to be used pure, but is a valuable addition to lini-
ments and is used as the spirit (2 per cent.).
Therapeutic use and average dose similar to white mustard.
Mustard-paper or Mustard-plaster is made from the black
mustard seeds which have been previously exhausted of the
fixed oil by benzin, made into a paste, and spread upon
paper ; this is used after dipping it in lukewarm water by
applying to the surface for from fifteen minutes to one hour.
Mustard-Poultice is made by forming a paste of equal parts
of mustard and flour with water, spreading on linen, and
applying warm. The plaster secures a deeper action than
the paper.
STAPHISAGRIA.— Staphisagria.—Stavesacre.
The seed of Delphinium Staphisagria Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Ran unculacese).
Habitat. —Neighborhood of the Mediterranean Sea.
Description. — " About 5 mm. long, 3 or 4 mm. broad, flattish-tetrahedralj

one side convex, brown or brownish-gray, with reticulate ridges, containing
a whitish, oily albumin and a straight embryo ;nearly inodorous taste ;
bitter and aci-id."— U. S. P.
Study and describe "zs suggested on p. 117.

Chi^ Constituents. — Alkaloids, 1 per cent., including del-
phinine (very poisonous), delphinoidine, delphisine. Staph-
isagrin is a mixture of amorphous bases ; delphinine and
delphisine are crystalline.
Therapeutic Use. —Emetic and poisonous, resembling aco-
nite in its action. Not used by educated physicians.
internally
Externally in tincture or ointment for pediculi.
LINUM.—Linseed.—Flaxseed.
The seed of Linum usitatissimum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Liuese).
Habitat. —Probably in the Caucasus; widely cultivated
since prehistoric times.
Description. —
" About 4 or 5 mm. long, oblong-ovate, flattened, obliquely
pointed at one end, brown, glossy, covered with a transparent, mucilaginous
epithelium, which swells considerably in water the embryo whitish or pale
;
greenish, with two large, oily, planoconvex cotyledons, and a thin peri-
sperm; inodorous; taste mucilaginous, oily and bitter." U. S. P. —
Chief Gonsfituents. — Fixed
35 per cent, (from the
oil,
endosperm and embryo); mucilage, 15 per cent, (from the

testa), proteids,linamarin (resembling amygdalin), resin, etc.
Linseed of great commercial importance.
oil is It has a
specific gravity of 0.930 to 0.940. It is a yellow, limpid
liquid of bland taste. Soluble in alcohol. It should be ob-
tained by expressing the seed cold ; when expressed with
heat the oil is darker in color and has a strong odor and
acrid taste. By exposure in thin layers it dries to a glass-
like solid.
Therapeutic Use. —The unbroken
seed, macerated in water,
yields a mucilage which
used as a demulcent.
is The oil is
used as a purgative in veterinary medicine ; in man it is used
only externally. The liniment (lime liniment), known as
Carron oil, is frequently used for minor burns. The ground
seeds are often used as a poultice, the " meal " being formed
into a soft mass with hot water and this spread between layers
of cheese-cloth.
MYRISTICA.—Nutmeg.
The seed of Myristica fragrans Houttuyn (Nat. Ord. My-
risticaceae), deprived of its testa.
Habitat. —Molucca Islands ; cultivated in Sumatra and the
West Indies.
Description. —
" Oval or roundish-ovate, about 25 mm. long, light brown,
reticulately furrowed, with a circular scar on the broad end internally pale
;
brownish, with dark oiunge-brown veins and a fatty luster ; odor strongly
aromatic ; taste aromatic, warm, and somewhat bitter." —U. S. P.
RICINUS—CROTON TIOLIUM. 127
Wild nutmeg is longer, less aromatic. A false nutmeg

from Torreya californica, is smooth and terebinthinate.
Volatile oil, 2 to 8 per cent. ; fixed
25 per cent. ; starch, proteids.
oil (solid),
Stimulant, stomachic, mainly as condi-
ment.
Average Dose. —0.5-1.5 gm. (8-25 gr.).
RICDMUS.—Castor Bean (Unofficial).
The seed of Eicinus communis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Euphor-

biacese).
Habitat. —India ; widely cultivated.
Fixed oil, 50 per cent. ; ricin (poison-
ous, not present in castor oil).
Oleum Ricini (U. S. P.) is obtained by cold expression of
the seeds. Colorless, slight but disagreeable odor. Soluble
in an equal volume of alcohol and in 3 volumes of a mixture
of 19 volumes of alcohol and 1 volume of water. Specific
gravity of 0.950 to 0.970.
Seeds are dangerously poisonous. The
oil is a valuable purgative.
Average dose of the oil, 8—30 c.c. (J— 1 fl. oz.). This disa-
greeable oilmay be conveniently given to children if poured
into soda-water having an abundant stiff foam. It should
not be poured down the side of the glass, nor should the child
know it is being administered.
CROTON TIGLIUM.—Croton Bean (Unofficial).
The seeds of Croton Tigllum LinnS (Nat. Ord. Euphor-

biacese).
Habitat. —India and Philippine Islands.
Chief Constituent.—Fixed 50 per oil, cent, of the kernels.
Therapeutic Use. — The seeds are poisonous.
Oleum Tiglii (U.
S. P.) is a powerful purgative ; externally,
rubefacient. Overdoses are dangerous.
Average dose of the oil, 0.01—0.15 c.c. (^2 drops), in
bland oil or emulsion. Externally in liniments.
STRAMONn SEMEN.— Stramoniam Seed.
The seed of Datura Stramonium Linii6 (Nat. Ord. Sola-

nacese).
Description. —
"About 4 ram. long, reniform, flattened, pitted, and wrinkled
testa dull brownish-black, hard, inclosing a cylindric, curved embryo, im-
bedded in a whitish, oily, perisperm of an unpleasant odor when bruised,
;
—
and of an oily and bitter taste." U. S. P.

—
Chi^ Coristituents. Fixed oil, 25 per cent. ; resin. Al-
kaloids similar to those of leaves.
Therapeutic wse and average dose as in leaves.
COLCHia SEMEN.— Colchicum Seed.
The seed of Colchicum autumnale Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Lilia-

cese).
Description. —
" Subglobular, about 2 mm. thick, very slightly pointed at
the hilum reddish-brown, finely pitted, internally whitish very hard and
—
; ;
tough inodorous taste bitter and somewhat acrid." U. S. P.

; ;

Fixed oil, 6 per cent. Medicinal con-
stituents as in corm, except the seed are somewhat poorer in
colchicine.
Therapeutic use and average dose as in the corm.
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL SEEDS. 129
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL SEEDS.

CHAPTEE YI.
DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
Miscellaneous Cellalat Drugs other than Distinct Plant
Organs.
Under this head may be classed the following official drugs :
Ergot. Lupulin.
Nutgall. Lycopodium.
Sassafras pith. Starch.
Corn silk. Mace.
Purified cotton. Saffron.
Kamala.
The following medicinal drugs of this class are not official
Agaric, surgeon's. Laminaria.
Agaric, white. Penghawar Djambi.
Cornsmut. Sago.
Cowage. Tapioca.
Goa-powder. Yeast.
ERGOTA.—Efgot.—Efgot of Rye.
The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea (Fries) Tulasne (class
Fungi), replacing the grain of rye, Secale cereale Linn§ (Nat.
Ord. Graminese). The drug is sometimes called Secale cor-
nutum.
Ergot should be only moderately dried. It should be
preserved in a closed vessel, and a few drops of chloroform
should be dropped upon it from time to time to prevent the
development of insects.
When more than one year old it is unfit for use.
Habitat. —
In the inflorescence of rye and other grains.
Description. —" Somewhat fusifomi, obtusely triangular, usually cuiTsd,
about 2 or 3 cm. long and 3 mm. thick ; three-furrowed, obtuse at both ends,
purplish-black, internally whitish with some purplish striae, breaking with
a short fracture odor peculiar, heavy, increased by trituration with potas-
;
sium or sodium hydrate T. S. taste oily and disagi-eeable,

;
130
OALLA. 131
" Old ergot, which breaks with a shaip snap, is almost or entirely devoid
of a pinkish tinge upon the fracture, is hard and brittle between the teeth,
—
and is comparatively odorless and tasteless, should be rejected." U. S. P.
Study and describe its physical characters.

The constituents of ergot have been
the subject of many investigations. Kobert and Jacoby
agree upon the presence of ergotinic acid (nitrogenous glu-
cosid, with a sapotoxin action) and cornutine (alkaloidal,
probably a mixture having a convulsaut action). Kobert
attributes the gangrene action to sphacelinic acid (non-nitro-
genous, resinous), which is, according to Jacoby, a mixture
of chrysotoxin and secalintoxin. Chrysotoxin is a com-
pound of the resin, sphacelotoxin, the real active constituent,
with another resin, ergochrysin ; secalintoxin is composed of
sphacelotoxin and an inactive alkaloid, secaline. These prin-
ciples are very unstable, and powdered ergot spoils rapidly,
while even the entire drug should not be used when more
than a year old.
Ergot is an ecbolic, and constricts the
blood-vessels. its greatest usefulness in controlling
It finds
the hemorrhage occurring at child-birth, but it is also used in
other forms of internal hemorrhage, for instance, that of the
lungs. It should be used only under the supervision of a
physician. Overdoses cause dangerous symptoms — ^gangrene,
among others.
Average Dose. —2-4 gra. (30-60 gr.), in fluid extract.
GALLA.-NutgaII.
An excrescence on Quercus lusitanica Lamarck (Nat. Ord.

Cupuliferse), caused by the punctures and deposited ova of
Cynips Gallse tinctorise Olivier (class Insecta order Hymen-;
op tera).
Habitat. —
Basin of the Mediterranean Sea.
—
Description. " Subglobular, 1 or 2 cm. in diameter, more or less tuber-
culated above, otherwise smooth, heavy, hard often with a cii-cukr hole
;
near the middle, communicating with the central cavity ; blackish olive-
green or blackish-gray fracture granular, gi'ayish in the center a cavity
; ;
containing either the partly developed insect, or pulverulent remains left by

it; neatly inodorous, taste strongly astringent.
" Light, spongy, and whitish-colored nutgall should be rejected."—U. S. P.
132 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT OEOANS.
Especially note the color, weight, tubercles, and the smooth

surface between tubercles.
Chief GoTistituents. —
Tannin, 50 per cent, (gallotannic acid);
mucilage, resin, etc. (see p. 308).
Astringent, but little used medicinally,
tannin and gallic acid being employed instead.
SASSAFRAS MEDULLA.—Sassafras Pith.

The pith of Sassafras variifolium (Salisbury) O. Kuntze
(Nat. Ord. Laurinese).
Habitat. —
(See bark of sassafras).
Description. —" In slender, cylindric pieces, often curved or coiled, light,
spongy, white, inodorous, and insipid." — TJ. S. P.

Mucilage.
Therapeutic Action. —
Demulcent.
ZEA.—Zea. — G)m-5ilk.
The styles and stigmas of Zea Mays Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Graminese).
Habitat. —America ; widely cultivated.
Description.—" Thread-like about 15 cm. long and 0.5 mm. broad,
;
yellowish or greenish, soffr«ilky, finely hairy, and delicately veined longi-

tudinally inodorous taste sweetish."
; ; —
U. S. P.

—
Chief Constituents. Sugar, mucilage, oil, resin, maizenic
acid, etc.
Therapeutic — Use. Diuretic.
Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.) in fluid extract.
GOSSYPIUM PURIFICATUM.— Purified Cotton.—Gossypittm (Phatm.

J880).— Absorbent Cotton.
The hairs of the seed of Gossypiura herbaceum Linn6 and
of other species of Gossypium (Nat. Ord. Malvaceae), freed
from adhering impurities, and deprived of fatty matter.
Habitat. —
Cultivated in warm countries.
Description. —
Sufiiciently well known ; examine micro-
scopically.
LVPTJLINVM—AMYLUM. 133
Chief Constituents. — Consists of nearly pure cellulose,

fixed oil and having been removed
salts in the process of
purification not more than 0.8 per cent.
; ash. Soluble in
ammoniated oxid of copper.
LUPULINUM.—Lupalin.
The glandular powder separated from the strobiles of
Humulus Lupulus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Urticacese).
Description. — " Bright brownish-yellow, becoming yellowish-brown, resin-
ous, consisting ofminute gi-anules, which, as seen under the microscope,
are subglobular, or rather hood-shaped, and reticulate aromatic and bitter."
;
— U. 8. P.
For habitat, chief constituents, therapeutic use, and average

dose see Humulus, 105. p.
See histology, p. 206.
LYCOPODIUM.—Lycopodium.
The spores of Lycopodium clavatum Linn6 and of other
species of Lycopodium (Nat. Ord. LycopodiaceEe).
Habitat. —In northern latitudes.
Desmption.—" A fine powder, pale yellowish, very mobile, inodorous,

tasteless, floatingupon water and not wetted by it, but sinking on being
boiled with it, and burning quickly when thrown into a flame. Under the
microscope the spores are seen to be spbero-tetrahedral, the surfaces marked
—
with reticulated ridges, and the edges beset with short projections." U. S. P.
Fixed oil, nearly 50 per cent, (only
obtained by rupturing the spores) ; other constituents unim-
portant.
Externally as dusting-powder. Phar-
maceutically as dusting-powder for pills and suppositories.
AMYLUM.—Starch.
The fecula of the seed of Zea Mays Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Graminese).
Description. — "In
irregular, angular masses, which are easily reduced to
a fine powder white, inodorous, and tasteless insoluble in ether, alcohol,
;
;
or cold water. Under the microscope appearing as granules, nearly uni-

form in size, more or less angular in outline, with indistinct striae and with
—
a distinct hilum near the center." U. S. P.
134 DEUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
In addition to the official, starches obtained from wheat,
barley, and other grains are important as food. Sago is a
globular, pearly grain obtained from Metroxylon Sagu, a
palm tapioca is from the rhizome of Manihot utilissima
;
arrowroot is obtained from several species of Maranta.

Starch will be considered in Part III., p. 294.
Nutrient and as dusting-powder.
MACIS—Mace.
The arillode of the seed of Myristica fragrans Houttuyn
(Nat. Ord. Myristicaceae).
Habitat. —Molucca Islands ; cultivated.
Description. — " In narrow bands, 25 mm. or more long, somewhat branched
and lobed above, united into broader bands below ; brownish-orange ; fatty
when scratched or pressed ; odor fragrant, taste waim and aromatic."
U.S. P.
^Volatile oil, fixed oil.
Stimulant, mainly as flavoring.
CROCUS.—Saffron.
The stigmas of Crocus sativus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Iridese).
Habitat. —Asia ; the best comes from cultivation in south-
western Europe.
Description. —
" Separate stigmas, or three, attached to the top of the
style,about 3 cm. long, flattish-tubular, almost thread-like, broader and
notched above orange-brown odor strong, peculiar, aromatic taste bittei^
; ; ;
ish and aromatic." —

U. S. P.
Study and describe its physical characters. Especially

note the notched upper surface and the orange-red color.
The yellowish styles should not be present. For detection
of adulteration see page 273.
—
Chief Constituents. Coloring-matter, mucilage, etc.
—
Therapeutic Use. Diaphoretic and very mild sedative ; its
main use is as a coloring agent in pharmacy and cookery.
Average Dose. —0.5—2 gm. (8-30 gr.).
KAMALA.—Kamala.— Rottlefa (Ptiarm. J870).
The glands and from the capsules of Mallotus philip-

hairs
pinensis (Lamarck) Mueller Arg. (Nat. Ord. Euphorbiacese).
EXTRACTS AND INSPrSSATED JUICES. 135
Habitat. —Southeastern Asia.

Description. — " A granular, mobile, brick-red or brownisb-red powder, in-
odorous and nearly tasteless, imparting a deep red color to alkaline liquids,
alcohol, ether, or chloroform, and a pale-yellow tinge to boiling water.
Under the microscope it is seen to consist of stellately arranged, colorless
hairs, mixed with depressed-globidar glands containing numerous red, club-
—
shaped vesicles." U. S. P.
Examine microscopically and describe.

Resins of different physical characters
red coloring matter.
Tsenifuge.
Average Dose. —
4-8 gm. (60-120 gr.).
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL CELLULAR DRUGS.

136 DBUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
The following are not official':
Curare. Gutta-percha.
Eucalyptus gum. Mouesia.
OPIUM.— Opium.
The concrete, milky exudation obtained by incising the
unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Papaveracese), and yielding, in its normal, moist condition,
not less than 9 per cent, of crystallized morphine when assayed
by the process given in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
Habitat. — Western Asia cultivated.
;
Description. —" In irregulai- or subglobular cakes, with the remnants of

poppy leaves and fruits of a species of Eumex adhering to the surface
plastic or of a harder consistence ; chestnut-brown or darker, and somewhat
shining ; internally showing some teare and fragments of vegetable tissue.
—
It has a shai'p, narcotic odor and a peculiar, bitter taste." U. S. P.
Especially note the odor and taste, presence of fragments

of poppy leaves and many fruits,- and the consistence. The
line made by drawing a fragment across paper is interrupted.
Opium is extremely liable to adulteration with a great
variety of substances, including extracts (leaves an uninter-
rupted line on paper) ; sand (falls to the bottom if the pow-
dered opium is shaken with chloroform) ; starch or starchy
substances (iodine reaction and microscopic examination)
shot, fragments of metal, etc.
The following test, adapted from Hager, will detect the
commoner sophistications. Take a thin slice through the
middle of the cake, knead it well, and take from this a few
grams, dry on water-bath until pulverizable (loss of weight
shows moisture, should not be more than 16 per cent.). Of
this powdered opium take 2 gm., heat with 25 C.c. of distilled
water with agitation, and set aside ; brownish-yellow, muci-
laginous, but not thick, supernatant liquid (absence of gums
and starch). Dilute the solution with four volumes of dis-
tilled water and filter through weighed iilter (filtrate sherry
colored ; extracts would render it darker), filtrate has an acid
'
In order that a number of short tables may be avoided, the unofficial
extracts, sugare, i-esins, etc., will be considered in one table (p. 172).
OPIUM. 137
reaction (chalk or basic substances would render it neutral or

alkaline). To 40 4 Co.
C.c. of this filtrate evaporated to
add 10 90 per cent, alcohol (at once or after an hour
C.c. of
a copious precipitate would indicate dextrin, gums, or salts).
Another portion of the filtrate (not concentrated) should not
give a precipitate nor change of color with solution of potas-
sium ferrocyanid (salts of metals). The undissolved portion
remaining upon the filter, washed and dried (at 110° F.)
should weigh not more than 0.9 gm'. The ash from crude
opium should not exceed 4.5 per cent., or 6 per cent, from
powdered opium. The powdered opium placed upon chloro-
form floats, but sinks in carbon disulphid, coloring the liquids
but little when shaken ; impurities, sand, and starch will fall
to the bottom of the chloroform.
Opium contains a number of alkaloids,
of which by far the most important is morphine. Crude
opium is required to yield, by the pharmacopoeial method of
assay, not less than 9 per cent, of morphine, powdered and
deodorized opium from 13 to 15 per cent. Should a given
opium exceed or fall below these figures, it may be made to
conform to the requirements by the admixture of a corre-
sponding amount of another specimen which is poorer or
richer in morphine. Morphine is soluble in 4350 parts of
water ; the sulphate is soluble in 21 parts. The amount of
codeine present in opium varies from 0.1 to 0.7 per cent., and
the amount of narceine is equally variable in addition, opium
;
contains thebaine, narcotine, papaverine, and other alkaloids,

meconic and lactic acids, gums, resins, fats. Neither starch
nor tannin is present.
The action of opium may be regarded
as that of itsmost important alkaloid, morphine, which will
be considered in this place. The typical effect of morphine
upon man is to produce quiet, drowsiness, and then sleep, and
coma if the dose be sufficient, or only the first if it be small.
Sometimes almost pure excitement results, and frequently it
precedes the narcotic action. In the frog large doses of mor-
phine produce convulsions, but these art not seen in man,
since death results from the narcotic action before the con-
vulsant action has had time to occur. Respiration is dimin-
138 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
ished in frequency, but increased in the volume of individual
respirations with small doses, but rendered "shallow" and
irregular in overdoses. The pupil is contracted (of import-
ance only in the diagnosis of morphine-poisoning). It acts
as an aphrodisiac because of its effects upon the imagination.
Nausea and vomiting are common results of the action of
morphine. Moderate doses cause constipation, but very large
doses cause bloody stools.
Upon the foregoing effects of morphine is based its use in
a great variety of conditions, among which may be noted :
—
The relief of pain in this morphine holds a position which
is unique ; for this purpose the local application is without
effect: it should be given internally or hypodermatically.
Insomnia if the wakefulness be due to pain, morphine acts
:
by relieving pain ; but if insomnia is due to nervousness,

little good will result from morphine. Diarrhea most forms
•
:
of diarrhea are promptly benefited, and, upon the other hand,

the constipation of lead colic is cme of the few instances
where it may be used in such a condition. Cough it should :
not be used when the secretion is abundant; it quickly

affords relief in acute attacks of asthma, combined with
ipecac in the official powder of ipecac and opium ; it is
useful as a diaphoretic in the beginnings of colds. It is

used in diabetes, for which codeine long enjoyed a special
reputation.
Repeated use of morphine or opium is certain to induce
the terrible condition of chronic opium-poisoning. Prescrip-
tions containing these drugs should never be refilled without
the order of the physician. (The same holds for cocaine,
cannabis indica, chloral, or the hypnotics.)
Codeine is used for the same conditions as morphine.
It should be borne in mind that the usual rules for com-
puting the dose for children, based upon that for adults, does
not hold in the case of opium and its alkaloids, for the very
young and the old are very susceptible to its action. Denarco-
tized opium has the advantage of causing less nausea. This
is often said to be due to the removal of the narcotine, but
this is rather doubtful. Apomorphine may be considered

OMUM. 139
here,though not a coDstituent of opium ; it is obtained by

heating morphine with hydrochloric acid in sealed tubes. It
is a most efficient emetic, in tlie dose of 5—10 milligrams
—
{y2 g- gr.) hypodermically. Solutions of apomorphine rap-
idly undergo decomposition, with the development of a green
color.
Fatal poisoning by opium or morphine is of such frequent
occurrence that pharmacists should be familiar with the more
characteristicsymptoms and the first aid. The first symp-
toms noticed are giddiness, confusion, and stupor, terminating
in complete insensibility. The respiration is slow, the eyes
are closed, the pupils are small and do not expand when
the eyes are closed ; the face is red. The face later becomes
pale and clammy, the lips livid, and the breathing noisy,
or stertorous and slow, and the pulse weak. Convulsions
may precede death. The symptoms usually appear within a
few minutes after taking the poison, and death occurs in
from two to twelve hours. Symptoms more or less resemb-
ling the above may result from alcoholism, but the breath
will usually smell of the liquor in case of opium (but not
;
of morphine), the characteristic odor of opium may be de-

tected in the breath. Where but one pupil is small, the
other being normal, apoplexy is to be suspected. Alcoholism
will show dilated pupils, which occurs with opium-poisoning
only just before death.
The fir-st aid consists in evacuating the poison by emetic
or stomach-pump, regardless of whether or not it was given
by the mouth, since it is excreted into the stomach. The
patient must be kept awake at all hazards and in motion if
possible ; electric shocks, dashing cold water upon the face,
strong tea, coffee, or caffeine ; keep the patient warm (rub
after using cold water) ; use artificial respiration if the breath-
ing ceases or the patient becomes blue about the lips ; potas-
sium permanganate should be given in doses of 1 gm. (15
gr.) dissolved in water.
Average Dose. —
For an adult the dose of powdered opium
is0.015-0.12 gm. (J-2 gr.), in powder, pill, or tincture.
Of morphine, 0.008-0.015 gm. (i-i gr.) Of codeine, 0.015-
140 DRUOS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
0.1 2 gm. (^-2 gr.). The following preparations are used,
with dose given :
Tincture of opium, 1 C.c. (15 min.).

Paregoric, 8 C.c. (2 dr.).
Dover's powder, 0.8 gm. (10 gr.).
Apomorphine (emetic only), 0.006 gm. (^ gr.).
GUARANA.—Gaatana.
A dried paste chiefly consisting of the crushed or pounded
seeds of Paullinia Cupaua Kunth (Paullinia sorbilis Martius
Nat. Ord. Sapindacese).
Habitat. —
Brazil.
—
Descnption. "Subglobular or elliptic cakes, or cylindric sticks, hard,
dark reddish-brown fracture uneven, somewhat glossy, pale reddish-brown,
;
showing fragments of seeds invested with blackish-brown integuments odor ;
slight, peculiar, resembling that of chocolate ; taste astringent and bitter.

—
" It is partly soluble in water, and in alcohol." U. 8. P.
Study and describe.

Caffeine, 5 per cent. tannin, gum,
;
resin, volatile oil. Caffeine occupies a sort of intermediate

position chemically between alkaloids and neutral principles,
being feebly basic (see p. 351).
Guarana is useful mainly because of its
caffeine, which is widely used in the shape of tea, coffee,
mat6 (Paraguay tea), guarana, cola, and the nearly allied
theobromine in cacao, by many races of people. Caffeine will
be considered here somewhat in detail. It is the type of a
group of convulsant drugs nearly related in their action to
strychnine. Caffeine specially acts upon that part of the
brain concerned with the intellect, so that thoughts flow more
freely and the mind acts more quickly. Wakefulness is a
conspicuous symptom. Small doses strengthen the respira-
tion and heart and raise the blood-pressure, but not so much
as does strychnine. Small doses increase the capacity for
muscular exercise, while larger doses diminish it, the latter
also causing palpitation (weakening) of the heart. very A
large dose will produce convulsions. Caffeine acts as a diu-
retic, increasing the amount of urine and the total quantity
of its solid constituents by a stimulation of the cells of the
LACTUCARIUM—ALOE BARBADENSIS. 141
kidney, not by any effect it may have upon the circulation.

In tea and coffee the action of the caffeine is supported by
the volatile products (oil or empyreumatic substances). Both
tea and coffee contain tannin, but of different kinds. That
of tea is a strong precipitant of many metals and alkaloids,
and is, therefore, a good chemic antidote for many poisons.
The tannin of coffee lacks this action almost completely.
Caffeine, in the shape of tea and coffee, is a ready and efficient
antidote in cases of poisoning by opium (morphine) and other
narcotics, or whenever stimulation is required. Too much
stress cannot be laid upon its value in such cases.
—
Average Dose. Of guarana, 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.) in fluid
extract. Of caffeine, 0.15-0.25 gm. (3-5 gr.), or of the
citrated (50 per cent, caffeine), 0.3—0.5 gm. (5—8 gr.).
LACTUCA.RIUM.—Lactacariom.
The concrete milk-juice of Lactaca virosa Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Compositfe).
Habitat. —Europe ; cultivated.
Description. — " In sections of planoconvex, circular cakes, or in irregular,

angular pieces, externally grayish-brown or dull reddish-brown, internally
\i(hitish or yellowish, of a waxy lustre; odor heavy, somewhat narcotic;
taste bitter."—U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note the odor and taste.

Resin, gum, a principle the nature of
which has not been determined, and a waxy substance consti-
tuting about 50 per cent. ; precipitates upon addition of water
to alcoholic tincture. Removed by macerating with benzin.
Therapeutic Use. — Mildly narcotic.
—
Average Dose. 0.6—4 gm. (10-60 gr.) in syrup. (Maisch
gives up to 8 gm.).
ALOE BARBADENSIS.—Barbadoes Aloes.— Curagao Aloes.
The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe vera (Linn6)

Webb (Nat. Ord. Liliacea).
Habitat. —
Aloe vera grown in the island of Barbadoes.'
'
No aloes is now exported from the island of Barbadoes. This aloes is
probably grown in the island of St. Vincent.
Description. —
" In hard masses, orange-brown, opaque, ti-anslucent on the
edges fracture waxy or resinous, somewhat conchoidal ; odor safFron-iike
;
taste strongly bitter.

" Mixed with alcohol and examined under the microscope it exhibits
numerous crystals. Mixed with nitric acid it acquires a red color.
" Barbadoes aloes is not colored, or acquires only a light bluish-green
tint on being mixed with sulphuric acid and blowing the vapor of nitric
—
acid over the mixture (difference from Natal aloes)." U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Chief Constituents. —Barbaloin, 12 per cent. ; resin, emodin,
etc. (see p. 363).
Laxative or drastic purgative, according
to the dose. Emmenagogue.
—
Average Dose. As a laxative, 0.12-0.3 gm. (2-5 gr.)
as purgative, 0.5—1 gm. (8-15 gr.), in pills, preferably with
soap as excipient.
ALOE SOCOTRINA.—Socotrine Aloes.
The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe Perryi Baker

(Nat. Ord. Liliacese).
It probable that other species of aloes than that men-
is
much of the aloes

tioned in the pharmacopoeial definition yield
found upon the market.
Habitat. —
Island of Socotra, East Africa.
So much doubt exists in regard to the various species
yielding aloes and their habitat that it may be sufficient to
remember that South Africa, East Africa, and the West
Indies supply most of the various kinds of aloes.
Description. —
" In hard masses, occasionally soft in the interior, opaque,
yellowish-brown, orange-brown, or dark ruby-red, not greenish, translucent
on the edges; fracture resinous, somewhat conchoidal. When breathed
upon, it emits a fragrant, saffron-like odor. Taste peculiar, strongly bitter."
Study and describe.

Socaloin, differing somewhat from bar-
baloin ; constituents otherwise much as in case of Barbadoes
aloes.
Therapeutic use and average dose similar to Barbadoes aloes.
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZM—ELASTICA. 143
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZAE-Extract of Glycyrrhiza —

(See Glycyn-hiza.
This an aqueous extract in which ammonia-water is used

is
in extracting. Usually found in commerce, in sticks about

six inches in length and half an inch in diameter. Too well
known to require further description.
CATECHU.— Catechu.
An extract prepared from the wood of Acacia Catechu
(Liun6 Willdenow (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse).
fil.)
Habitat. —
India and Farther India.
Description. —
" In irregular masses, containing fragments of leaves, dark
brown, brittle, somewhat porous and glossy when freshly broken. It is
nearly inodorous, and has a strongly astringent and sweetish taste." U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Tannin (catechu-tannic acid), 40 per
cent. ; catechin in variable amount, little quercitin, and much
mucilage, catechu red, 2 per cent, of ash.
Ther-apeutio Use. —
Astringent, mostly externally.
—
Average Dose. 0.1-0.3 gm. (2-3 gr.).
KINO.—Kino.
The inspissated juice of Pterocarpus Marsupium Roxburgh
(Nat. Ord. Leguminosse).
Habitat. —
East Indies.
Description.—" Small; angular, dark brownish-red, shining pieces, brittle,
in thin layers, ruby-red and transparent, inodorous, very astringent and
sweetish, tinging the saliva deep red.
" Soluble in alcohol, nearly insoluble in ether, and only slightly soluble
in cold water."— U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note the adhesiveness on

chewing, tinges saliva.
Kino-red, tannin (kino-tannic acid).
Astringent.
—
Average Dose. 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.).
ELASTICA,—India-mfabef.— Caoatchouc
The prepared milk-juice of various species of Hevea (Nat.
Ord. Euphorbiaceae), known in commerce as Para rubber.
144 BBUOS OTHER THAN PLANT OBQANS.
Habitat. —
Caoutchouc is principally obtained from Bi'azil
(Para rubber) and India.
Description. —
" In cakes, balls, or hollow, bottle-shaped pieces, exter-
ternally to brownish-black, internally brownish or of lighter tint
brown
very elastic insoluble in water, diluted acids, or diluted solutions of
;
alkalies soluble in chloroform, carbon disulphid, oil of turpentine, benzin,

;
and benzol."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Chief Constituents. — Consists mainly of a hydrocarbon,
CjuHg^. Combined with 10 per
cent, of sulphur it yields
vulcanized rubber, used in various instruments (syringe bulbs,
etc.) ; with 50 per cent, of sulphur it constitutes the well-
known hard rubber so extensively used in the arts.
Pharmaceutic Use. —
Rubber is used in making the official
mustard-paper and in the commer'cial manufacture of plasters.
SUGARS.
The following Saccharine substances are official
Sugar. Sugar of milk.

Manna. Honey.
The following are not official.
Grape-sugar. Molasses.
SACCHARUM.—Sugar.—Cane-sogar.
The refined sugar (CjjH^jOjj = 341.2) obtained from Sac-
charum officinarum Linn6 and from various species or varie-
tiesof Sorghum (Nat. Ord. Graminese) ; also from one or
more varieties of Beta vulgaris (beet) Linn6 (Nat. Ord.
Ch enopodiacese)
Habitat. — Sugar-cane, Saccharum officinarum, is indige-
nous to southern Asia cultivated extensively in Cuba, Louis-
;
iana, and Hawaii.

Sorghum is produced in considerable amounts in Kansas.
Sugar beet is raised in enormous quantities in Germany
and in France, and to some extent in the United States.
The uses of sugar are too well known to require descrip-
tion (see p. 290).
MANNA—SACCHARVM LACTIS. 145
Ultramarine blue is sometimes added to whiten sugar in the

presence of traces of brownish, uncrystallizable substance.
The syrup deposits an unsightly precipitate upon standing
if ultramarine be present. It is said to favor fermentation.
MANNA. -Manna.
The concrete, saccharine exudation of Fraxinus Ornus
Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Oleacese).
Habitat. —From Turkistan through southern Europe.
DescripUon. — The United States Dispentaitoiy luentions the following
varieties Flake manna, the purest, said to come from the upper incisions
:
upon the trunk, the lower incisions, yielding inferior varieties, is in irregular,
unequal pieces, often several inches long, resembling stalactites rough, ;
light, porous, brittle, wliitish or yellowish-white, and frequently conforming

to the shape of the trunk, that surface being soiled with impurities or with
bark fragments show a crystalline or granular fi-acture.
;
Common manna : The

juice concretes more slowly, falling to the ground,
becomes more or lessmixed with impurities whitish or yellowish frag-
;
ments, similar to the preceding, but much smaller mixed with a soft, vis-
;
cid, non-crystalline, brownish matter, identical with

fat manna.
Fat manna: The juice concretes still more slowly, falling down the
trunk into excavations at its base. A soft, viscid mass, few crystalline
fragments, and of a brown or yellowish-brown color, full of impurities.
The Pharmacopoeia directs that this manna should be rejected.
Study and describe. Large flake, the finest ; small flake,

smaller pieces. Sorts, brownish, sticky, agglutinated, small
tears.
Chief Constituents. — Mannite
(CgHjÔ,.) up to 90 per cent,
for the best large flake manna
obtained in prismatic crystals
;
if the manna be dissolved in boiling alcohol and allowed to

cool. Glucose and mucilage abundant in the poorer kinds or
" sorts."
Therapeutic Use. —Laxative.
Average Dose. — 10—25 gm. (J-1 oz.).
SACCHARUM LACTIS. -Sugar of Milk.
A peculiar, crystalline sugar {G^^^-fi^^ + H2O = 359.16),

obtained from the whey of cow's milk by evaporation, and
purified by recrystallization.
Habitat. —
Mainly obtained as a by-product in the dairies
of Switzerland and the United States.
10
Study and dcucrihe. Note fine, gritty particles, sweetish
taste, solubility.
It reduces alkaline solution of copper tartrate ; soluble in
6 parts of water, producing a non-syrupy liquid.
Therapeutic Use. —Largely used in pharmacy as a diluent
in triturates, etc. Also somewhat laxative and diui-etic.
MEL.— Honey.
A saccharine secretion deposited in the honey-comb by the
bee. Apismellifica Linn6 (class Insecta ; order Hymeuoptera).
Habitat. —The honey-bee is extensively raised and is often
found wild.
Description. —
" A
syrupy liquid of a light yellowish to a pale yellowish-
brown color, translucent when fresh, but gradually becoming opaque and
crystalline, having a characteristic, aromatic odor and a sweet, faintly acrid
taiite."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.

It consists of a syrupy solution of
dextrose and levulose, with traces of cane-sugar and dextrin-
like substances, with particles of wax accidentally present.
Therapeutic Use. —Used in preparation of official honeys,
confections, etc.
GUMS.
Acacia and Tragacanth are official.
ACACIA.— Acacia.— Gam Arabic.
A gummy exudation from Acacia Senegal, Willdenow

Habitat. —
Eastern and western Africa.
Description. —
" In roundish tears of various sizes, or broken into angular
fi'agments, with a glass-like, sometimes iridescent fi'actui'e, opaque (from
numerous fissures, but transparent and nearly colorless in thin pieces ;
nearly inodorous taste insipid, mucilaginous
; insoluble in alcohol, but
;
soluble in water, forming a thick, mucilaginous liquid.

"Acacia should be slowly but completely soluble in 2 parts of water.
This solution shows an acid reaction with litmus-paper, yields a gelatinous
precipitate with basic lead acetate T. S., ferric chlorid T. S., or concen-
trated solution of sodium borate, and does not reduce alkaline cupric tar-
trate V. S.
" The powder is not colored blue (absence of starch) or red (absence of
dextrin) by iodine T. S."— U. S. P.
GUM-RESINS. 147
Study and describe. The best variety is the Kordofan gum.

Senegal gum is in larger and more transparent pieces of a
brownish tint. A gum obtained from Texas resembles acacia,
but its solution is not precipitated by ferric chlorid, borax,
or lead acetate.
Arabates of calcium, magnesium, and
potassium. Arabic acid is insoluble in water, but swells
with it; on the addition of an alkali, solution occurs (see p.
292).
ITierapeutlc Use. —Demulcent, largely used in preparing
emulsions.
TRAGACANTHA. -Tragacanth.
A gummy exudation from Astragalus gummifer Labillar-
diere and from other species of Astragalus (Nat. Ord. Legu-
minosse).
Habitat. —Western Asia.
Description. — In narrow or broad bands, more or less curved or con-

"
torted, marked by parallel lines or ridges, white or faintly yellowish, trans-
lucent, horn-like, tough, and rendered more easily pulverized by a heat of
50° C. (122° F.)."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Gummate of calcium (not identical
with the arabate), bassorin (swells with water, but does not
dissolve).
Therapeutic Use. —Demulcent and emollient.
ASAFOETIDA—Asafetida.
A gum-resin obtained from the root of Ferula foetida
(Bunge) Regel (Nat. Ord.) Umbelliferse).
Habitat. —
Southwestern Asia.
Description. —
In irregular masses composed of whitish tears, which are
"
imbedded in a yellowish-gray or brownish-gray, sticky mass. The tears,
when hard, break with a conchoidal fracture, showing a milk-white color,
which changes gradually, on exposure, to pink, and finally to brown. It
has a persistent, alliaceous odor, and a bitter alliaceous acrid taste.
" When triturated with water it yields a milk-white emulsion, which be-
comes yellow on the addition of ammonia-water.
" It is partly soluble in ether, and at least 60 per cent, of it should dis-
solve in alcohol."— U.S. P.
Study and describe.

Volatile oil gum, 25 per cent. ; resin,
;
65 per cent.
Iherapeutie Use. —
Antispasmodic (mainly useful in hys-
teria), carminative.
Average Dose. —0.3—1.5 gm. (5-25 gr.), in pill, emulsion,
or tincture.
AMMONIACUM.—Ammoniac.
A gum-resin obtained from Dorema Ammoniacum Don
(Nat. Ord. Umbellifer£e).
Habitat. —
Western Asia.
Description. —
" In roundish tears, from 2 to 6 mm. or more in diameter
externally pale yellowish-brown, internally milk-white, brittle when cold,
and breaking with. a flat, conchoidal, and waxy fracture; or the tears are
superficially united into irregular masses without any intervening, dark-
colored substance. It has a peculiar odor, and a bitter, acrid, and nauseous
taste. "-D. S. P.
Study and describe.

Volatile oil (variable amount) ; resin,
70 per cent. ; gum, 20 per cent.
Therapeutic Use. Stimulant.—
Average Dose. —0.3—1.5 gm. (5—25 gr.).
MYRRHA.-Myrrh.
A gum-resin obtained from Commiphora Myrrha (Nees)
Engler (Nat. Ord. Burseracese). Exuding spontaneously
from the bark.
CAMBOGIA. 149
Habitat. —Southwestern Arabia and neigb boring parts of

Africa.
Description. —" In roundish or irregular tears or masses, dusty, brownish-

yellow or reddish-brown fracture waxy, somewhat splintery, translucent
;
on the edges, sometimes marked with whitish veins odor balsamic taste
; ;
aromatic, bitter, and acrid." —

U. S. P.
Study and describe.

—
Chief Constituents. 2
Volatile oil,4 to per cent. ; resin,
35 per cent. ; gum, 50 per cent.
Therapeutic Use.— Much used
Carminative. as an addi-
tion tomouth-washes.
Average —0.3-2 gm. (5-30
Dose. gr.)
CAMBOGIA.— Gamboge.
A gum-resin obtained from Garcinia Hanburii Hooker
filius (Nat. Ord Guttiferse).
Habitat. —Farther India.
Descri-ption. — " Incylindrio pieces, sometimes hollow in the center, 2 to

5 cm. in diameter, longitudinally striate on the surface fracture flattish-;
conchoidal, of a waxy luster, orange-red in powder, bright yellow inodor-

; ;
ous taste very acrid the powder sternutatory.

; ;
" Gamboge is partly soluble in alcohol and in ether. When triturated

with water, it yields a yellow emulsion and foi-ms with solution of potassium
or sodium hydrate an orange-red solution, from which, on the addition of
hydrochloric acid, a yellow resin is precipitated.
" Boiled with water, gamboge yields a liquid which, after cooling, does '
not become blue with iodine T. S. (absence of starch)." U. S. P. —

Study and describe. Pipe gamboge is in cylindric sticks,
since the milk-juice from which it is obtained is allowed to
run into bamboo tubes to harden.
Especially note the orange-yellow masses become intensely
yellow when finely pulverized they break with shiny sur-
;
faces and are brittle.
Gum, 18 per cent. ; resin (cambogic
acid), 80 per cent, (darker with ferric chlorid, red solution in
alkalies).
Hydragogue cathartic always given in ;
combination with other less drastic cathartics. Also used as

a pigment.
—
Average Dose. Up to 0.3 gm. (5 gr.), but usually much
less.
150 DMUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
SCAMMONIUM— Scammony.
A resinous exudation from the living root of Convolvulus
Scammonia Linne (Nat. Ord. Convolvulaceae).
Habitat. —Western Asia.
Description. —
In irregular angular pieces or circular cakes, greenish-
"
gray or blackish, and breaking with an angular fracture,
intei'nally porous,
of a resinous luster odor peculiar, somewhat cheese-like taste slightly
; ;
acrid powder gray or greenish-gray."

;
U. S. P. —
Study and describe. The best is known as Smyrna scam-
mony. Especially note the greenish color and cheesy odor.
Resin, up to 95 per cent, (consists of
scammonin, identical with jalapin of Ipomoea orizabensis)
gum and usually considerable impurities.
2'herapeutio Use. —
Hydragogue cathartic, always combined
with other cathartics.
Average Dose. —
0.06-0.5 gm. (1-8 gr.).
Impurities. —
Calcium carbonate (should not effervesce when
drug is rubbed with acids), starch (the decoction should not
turn blue with iodine). If the drug is treated with alcohol
and the residue with water, solid impurities, such as vegetable
tissue, etc., remain.
Afactitious scammony made in France and sold as Smyrna
is said to consist of the expressed juice of a plant mixed with
resin and various purgative principles.
RESINS.
The following resins are official :
BENZOIN UM. 151
Description. —
" Grlobular or elongated tears, about the size of a pea,
sometimes covered with a whitish dust, pale-yellow, transparent, having a
glass-like luster, and an opalescent refraction brittle, becoming plastic
;
when chewed of a weak, somewhat balsamic, resinous odor, and a mild

;
terebinthinate taste.
" Ma-stic is completely soluble in ether, and, for the most part, soluble in
alcohol."— U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note Though brittle, : it
becomes plastic when chewed. This sometimes serves to

detect spurious resins.
(Jhief Constitiients. —
Besides the resin, it contains about
2 per cent, of a volatile oil. The resin consists of an alcohol-
soluble portion and an insoluble.
Tlierapeutie Use. —
Carminative. It enters iiito the well-
known dinner pill, combined with aloes. Mostly used as a
varnish.
BENZODMUM.— Benzoin.
A balsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin Dryander
(Nat. Ord. Styracese).
—
Habitat Java, Borneo, and Farther India.
Description. —
" In lumps consisting of agglutinated, yellowish-brown teara,
which are internally milk-white or in the form of a reddish-brown mass,
more or less mottled from whitish teai-s embedded in it. It is almost wholly
soluble in 5 parts of moderately warm alcohol and in solutions of the fixed
alkalies. When heated, it gives off fumes of benzoic acid. It has an agi-ee-
able balsamic odor and a slight aromatic taste." — U. S. P.
Study avd desaribe.

Resins, 75 per cent. ; benzoic acid,
18 per cent. Little volatile oil and sometimes cinnamic acid
(see p. 371) are also present.
Benzoic Acid (U. S. P.) is usually fragrant from the pres-
ence of traces of volatile oil (absent if made from urine), sub-
limable, condensing in needle-shaped crystals or in scales
soluble in about 500 parts of water, very soluble in alcohol
and the solvents of fats, except benzin. It melts at 121.4° C.
when prepared from toluol. It has a lower melting-point
and greater solubility when prepared from benzoin.
—
Tlierapeutie Use. (Benzoin.) Used externally as vulnerary,
antiseptic, and also as expectorant.
Average Dose. —Of benzoin, 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.).
GUAIACUM.
Previously mentioned under guaiacum wood, the medical
properties of which it fully represents.
Description. —" In irregular masses, or subglobular pieces, externally

gi'eenish-brown, internally of a glassy luster, and, in recent Guaiac, usually
reddish-brown, transparent in thin splinters, fusible, feebly ai'omatic, the
odor becoming stronger on heating taste somewhat acrid powder grayish,
;
;
turning green on exposure to air.

Soluble in potassium or sodium hydrate T. S. and in alcohol the alco- ;
holic solution is colored blue on the addition of tincture of ferric

chloride."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.
RESINA. — Resin.—Colophony.—Rosin.
The residue left after distilling off the volatile oil from tur-
pentine.
Its source will be considered under the oleoresin (turpen-
tine).
Description. " — A
transparent, amber-colored substance, hard, brittle,^ pul-
verizable fracture glossy and shallow-conchoidal
; odor and taste faintly
;
terebinthinate. Specific gravity 1.070 to 1.080."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Therapeutic Use. —Mild irritant; its chief pharmaceutic
use is in the preparation of plasters, cerates, and ointments.
ELATERIUM.— Elateriom.
A substance deposited by the juice of the fruit of Ecbal-
lium Elaterium (Linn6) A. Eichard (Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceae)
(unofficial, yields elaterin).
Habitat— Southern Europe ;
cultivated.
Chief Constituents. — 44 per cent., and
Elaterin (U. S. P.),
unimportant constituents. a crystalline, odorless,
Elaterin is
bitter principle, slightly soluble in water, but readily so in

alkalies; precipitated by acids. It wholly represents the
activities of elaterium.
Hydragogue cathartic ; large doses also
cause diuresis. Overdoses cause griping and vomiting and
are very dangerous.
Average Dose. —
Of elaterium, 0.008 gm. (^ gr.) ; of ela-
terin, 0.004 gm. (^ gr.).
BALSAMS. 153
BALSAMS.
Some confusion exists as to the precise meaning of the term
balsam ; in common usage it is applied to a variety of prepa-
rations intended for external use. In the United States
Pharmacopoeia it designates plastic or liquid substances con-
taining aromatic acids and fragrant principles with resins.
The following balsams are official
Peru. Tolu. Storax.
Sweet gum is not official.
BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM— Balsam of Peru.
A balsam obtained from Toluifera Pereirse (Royle) Baillon

Habitat. —
Central America. The bark of the tree is beaten
and scorched to cause the balsam to exude it is absorbed by ;
rags, from which it is separated by hot water and expression.
Description. —'
' A
liquid iiaving a syrupy consistence, free from stringi-
ness or sticlfiness, of a brownish-black color in bulk, reddish-brown and
tiunsparent in thin lay era, of an agreeable vanilla-like, somewhat smoky
odor, and a bitter taste, leaving a peraistent after-taste. On exposure to air
it does not become hard." —
U. S. P.
Study and describe. Note odor, taste, color, and consist-

ence. Specific gravity, 1.135 to 1.150.
Cinnamein, 60 per cent. ; resin, 30
per cent. ; benzoic and cinnamic acids vanillin, ; etc. (see p.
369).
Average Dose. —0.5-2 C.c. (8-30 min.).
BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM.—Balsam of Tolu.
A balsam obtained from Toluifera Balsamum Linn6 (Nat.

Ord. Leguminosse).
Habitat. —
Northern part of Sonth America. Some bot-
anists maintain that the same species which yields balsam of
Peru furnishes the balsam of tolu.
Description. —
''A yellowish-brown, semifluid or nearly solid mass, becom-
ing more brittle when exposed to cold, transparent in thin layers, having an
agreeable odor, recalling that of vanilla, but distinct from it, and a mild
aromatic taste. Readily and completely soluble in alcohol." U. S. P. —
Study and describe. Especially note that it is brittle
when cold, but can be readily molded with the hand ; odor,
taste.
Chief Constitttcnts. —
Resin, containing benzoic acid and
cinnamic acid, free benzoic and cinnamic acids, little volatile
oil.
Flavor, stimulant, mainly in coughs
syrup of tolu furnishes a very popular vehicle for other
expectorants.
Average Dose. —0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.).
STYRAX.-Stotax.
A balsam prepared from the inner bark of Liquidambar
Ord. Hamamelacese).
orientalis Miller (Nat.
Habitat. —
Asia Minor.
Beseripiion. —
"A semiliquid, gray, sticky, opaque ma.ss, depositing on
standing a heavier, dark-brown stratum transparent in thin layere, and
;
having an agreeable odor and a balsamic taste. Insoluble in water, but

completely soluble (with the exception of accidental impurities) in an
—
equal weight of warm alcohol." U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note the consistence, color

of surface and of lower layers after standing ; alcohol dis-
solves out the storax, leaving impurities which may be
strained out.
Styrol, CgHg, benzoic and cinnamic
acids. Impurities amount to- 30 per cent, in many cases.
Therapeutic use and average dose like those of balsam of
Peru.
OLEORESINS.
Oleoresins resemble balsams, but may consist of volatile
oil and resin alone (natural oleoresins), or they may consist
of all the ether-soluble constituents of the drug from which
they are obtained (artificial oleoresins).
The following natural oleoresins are official
Copaiba. Burgundy pitch.
Canada turpentine. Tar.
Turpentine. Oil of cade.
The following are not oificial :
Canada pitch. Elemi. Gurjun.

COPAIBA. 155
COPAIBA.— Copaiba.— Balsam of Copaiba.
The oleoresin of" Copaiba Langsdorffii (Desfontaines) O.

Kuntze and of other species of Copaiba (Xat. Ord. Legumi-
nosse).
Habitat. — Brazil and the northern part of South America
yield the various oleoresins of copaiba recognized by the
Pharmacopceia. Obtained from the enormous lysigenous ducts
by boriug the trees.
Desci-iption.—" A transparent or translucent, more or less viscid, liquid,
of a pale-yellow to brownish-yellow color, having a peculiar, aromatic odor
and a bitter and acrid taste. When copaiba is heated, it should not evolve
—
the odor of turpentine." U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note odor, color, taste.

Copaiba appearing in the urine may be mistaken for
albumen.
Adulteration. — Oil of turpentine (odor on warming), fixed
oils (insoluble in alcohol), gurjnn balsam (warmed to 130° C.
becomes permanently gelatinous).
Oil of Copaiba (U. S. P.), Resin of
Copaiba (U. S. P.), copaivic and other acids, and bitter prin-
ciple. Oil of copaiba constitutes about 80 per cent, of Para
copaiba, the amount varying widely in the same and different
kinds (40 to 80 per cent, in some of the other Brazilian
kinds, and as low as 20 per cent, in Maracaibo). The last
most easily forms the mass of copaiba with magnesia. The
oil has a specific gravity of 0.890 to 0.910, increasing with
age, pale-yellow, characteristic odor, pungent and bitterish

taste. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool
place. Resin of copaiba remains after distilling the oil of the
oleoresin; it is yellowish, brittle, has little odor, and 'taste
of copaiba (see page 370).

Urinary disinfectant, hence used in
gonorrhea. Since it is not known which of the principles is
responsible, but a:ll probably contributing, the oleoresin,
rather than the resin or oil, should be used. Also used as an
application to indolent ulcers for stimulating effect.
Average Dose. — 4-8 C.c. (2-4 dr.).

156 DBUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS— Canada Turpentine— Canada
Balsam ; Balsam of Fir.
A liquid oleoresin obtained from Abies balsamea (Linn6)

Miller (Nat. Ord. Coniferae).
Habitat. —
Canada and northern United States, obtained by
puncturing the oil receptacles in the bark.
Defci-iption. " — A
yellowish or faintly greenish, transparent, viscid liquid
of an agreeable, terebinthinate odor, and a bitterish, slightly acrid taste."
u. a
P.
Study and desmnbe. Especially note the yellowish or

greenish color ; consistence ; slowly dries to a transparent
mass upon exposure.
Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 30 per cent. ; resin, bit-
ter principle.
Therapeutic Use. —Mostly externally as stimulant. Much
used in microscopy for permanent mounting.
TEREBINTHINA.—Turpentine.
A concrete oleoresin obtained from Finns palustris Miller
and from other species of Pinus (Nat. Ord. Coniferfse).
Habitat. —
The Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United
States, particularly in North Carolina.
Description. —"In yellowish, opaque, tough masses, brittle in the cold,

crumbly crystalline in the interior, of a terebinthinate odor and taste."
u. s. p.
Study and describe. Especially note that old oleoresin of

turpentine is quite brittle from evaporation of the volatile
oil ; in some
the fresh is nearly liquid.
ca.ses
Production. —
Recesses are cut into the outer part of the
tree, in which the crude turpentine collects this is dipped ;
out and distilled in alembic stills a small amount is also

;
sent into the markets as the oleoresin.

Oil of turpentine (U. S. P.), 25 per
cent, (sometimes more) resin (U. S. P.), 70 per cent, or
;
more. The volatile oil evaporates spontaneously, leaving

the resin. Oil of turpentine, Cj^Hj^, is a thin liquid, color-
less, and of characteristic odor and taste, both increasing
upon exposure. Specific gravity, 0.855 to 0.870 j boils at
FIX BURGUNDICA—PIX LIQUID A. 157
155° to 170° C.
Reacts with explosive violence with iodiue
or bromine. It should
be kept from exposure to air and
sunlight, as it becomes ozonized and resinous. Redn is the
residue left after distilling oil of turpentine from the oleo-
resin. It is of an amber color, hard, and brittle. Odor and
taste slightly terebinthinate. Specific gravity, 1.070 to 1.080.
Therapeutic Use. —Oleoresin of turpentine is but little em-
ployed in medicine, but is a strong stimulant and is used
externally in felons, etc. Oil of turpentine is used as an
inhalation in bronchial affections ; but for this purpose tere-
bene (prepared from oil of turpentine) is preferable. Exter-
nally it is much used as a counterirritant, undiluted or as an
addition to liniments. It is sometimes used like copaiba as
a urinary disinfectant. Ozonized, by long exposure to air
aud light, it is useful as an antidote in phosphorus-poisoning.
Resin is very important pharmaceutically as a base for oint-
ments, cerates, and plasters. Its medicinal use depends upon
the little volatile oil which it usually contains (see p. 327).
FIX BURGUNDICA.-Borgandy Pitch.
The prepared resinous exudation of Abies excelsa Poiret

(Nat. Ord. Coniferse).
Habitat. —Mountainous regions of southern Europe.
Description. — " Hard, yet gradually taking the form of the vessel in
which it kept brittle, with a shining, conchoidal fracture, opaque or
is ;
translucent, reddish-brown or yellowish-brown, odor agreeably terebinthi-

nate taste aromatic, sweetish, not bitter."
; U. S. P. —
Study and describe.
Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil and resin, amounts vari-
able.
Therapeutic Use. —Resembles turpentine and used as a
plaster base.
FIX LIQUIDA.-Tar.
An empyreumatic oleoresin obtained by the destructive

distillationof the wood of Pinus palustris Miller and of
other species of Pinus (Nat. Ord. Coniferse).
Description. — "Thick, viscid, semifluid, blackish-brown, heavier than

lo8 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS.
water, transparent in thin la yere, becoming granular and opaque with age
odor ernpyreumatic, terebinthinate taste sharp, empyreumatie.
;
" Tar is slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, fixed or volatile oils,
—
and solution of potassium or sodium hydrate." U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note heavier thar. water,

:
odor, and taste. Birch tar, prepared from the wood of

Betuia alba, has the well-known odor of Russian leather.
Tar is an empyreumatie oleoresin con-
taining a great number of substances, including acetic and
other acids, acetone, methylic alcohol, pyrocatechin, naph-
thalin (the official naphthalin is obtained from coal-tar), creo-
sote, and carbolic acids.
Tar is a stimulant used in bronchial
affections as water or syrup. Also used as an antiseptic and
irritant in more concentrated form in skin-diseases, and is
an insecticide.
—
Average Dose. 0.3-1.5 gm. (6-26 gr.). Externally in
ointment or plaster.
OLEUM CADINUM.-OiI of Cade.—Oleum Joniperi Empyreomaticum.

A product of the dry distillation of the wood of Juniperus
Oxycedrus Linne (Nat. Ord. Coniferas).
Habitat. —The Juniperus Oxycedrus is indigenous to the
Mediterranean basin. Though official under the name of oil,
this product closely resembles tar.
Description.— " Abrownish or dark-brown, clear, thick liquid, having a

tarry odor, and an empyreumatie, burning, somewhat bitter taste." —
U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Phenols, resin, etc.
Therapeutic use and average dose are the same as for tar.
CAMPHORS.
This term embraces a number of solid volatile substances
rot strictly characterized chemically. It includes the official
"camphor," having the nature of a ketone, menthol, that
of a secondary alcohol, and thymol, a phenol.
CAMPHORA— THYMOL. 159
CAMPHORA.—Camphor.
(CioHieO = 151.66.)
A stearopten (having the nature of a ketone) obtained from
Cinnamomum Camphora (Linn6) Nees et Ebermaier (Nat.
Ord. Laurinese), and purified by sublimation.
Camphor should be kept in well-closed vessels in a cool
place.
Habitat. —China and Japan, largely from the island of
Formosa.
Description.— " White, translucent masses, of a tough consistence and a

crystalline structure, readily pulverizable in the presence of a little alcohol,
ether, or chloroform having a penetrating, characteristic odor and a pun-
;
gently aromatic taste.

" On
exposure to the air it evaporates more or less rapidly at ordinary
temperatures, and, when moderately heated, it sublimes without leaving a
residue."— U. 8. P.
Study and describe. Especially note that it is little lighter

than water readily sublimable ; burns with a sooty flame.
;
Antispasmodic and stimulant, diapho-
retic, carminative, and intestinal antiseptic.
—
Average Dose. 0.2—1.2 gm. (3—20 gr.), in spirit or water ;
externally in liniments.
THYMOL—ThymoL
(C,„H„0 = 149.66.)
A phenol occurring in the volatile oils of Thymus vulgaris
Linne, Monarda punctata Linn§ (Nat. Ord. Labiatge), and
Carum Ajowan (Roxburgh) Bentham et Hooker (Nat. Ord.
Umbelliferse).
It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.
Obtained by fractional distillation.
Description.— " Large, colorless, translucent crystals of the hexagonal

system, having an aromatic, thyme-like odor, and a pungent, aromatic taste,
—
with a very slight caustic effect upon the lips." U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Wholly volatile ; specific gravity, 1.069; melts at 50° to
160 DRUGS (JT1IE& THAN PLANT ORGANS.
51° C. Slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol
and most fat solvents, alkalies, etc.
Therapeutic Use. — Antiseptic, mainly used externally.
MENTHOL—Menthol.
(C,oH,90H = 155.66).
A stearopten (having the character of a secondary alcohol)
obtained from the ofKcial oil of peppermint (from Mentha
piperita Smith), or from Japanese or Chinese oil of pepper-
mint (from Mentha arvensis Linu6, var. piperascens. Holmes,
and Mentha canadensis Linne, var. glabrata, Holmes ; Nat.
Ord. Labiatse).
Description. — " Colorless,
acicular or prismatic crystals, having a strong
and pure odor of peppermint, and a warm, aromatic taste, followed by a sen-
sation of cold when air is drawn into the mouth." —
U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note the cooling sensa-

tion when inhaled.
Menthol should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool
place.
Therapeutic Use. —Locally as anesthetic in neuralgias.
Rubefacient. Not often internally.
VOLATILE OILS.
These are the odorous principles of flowers. Their char-
Part III., page 328.
acteristics are sufficiently considered in
Most of the volatile oils have been considered in connection
with the drugs yielding them. Their individual considera-
tion belongs to the department of chemistry equally with that
of materia medica.
OLEUM CAJUPUTI.— Oil of Cajuptrt.
A from the leaves of Melaleuca Leu-

volatile oil distilled
cadendron Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Myrtacese).
It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool place.
Habitat. —
East India Islands.
Description.— " Alight, thin, bluish-green, or, after rectification, colorless
liquid, having a peculiar, agreeable, distinctly camphoraceous odor, and an
aromatic, bitterish taste." —
U. S. P.
FIXED OILS, FATS, AND WAXES. 161
Study and denciibe.

Chief Coiwtitumh. —
Cajuputol and hydrocarbons of the
formula C;|,Hjg. A trace of copper is often present this ;
may be detected by shaking with dilute hydrochloric acid and

testing the acid layer with potassium ferrocyanid.
Therapeutic Use. — Eubefacient. Seldom internally.
OLEUM ROSAE — Oil of Rose.
A volatile oil from the fresh flowers of Rosa

distilled
damascena Miller (Nat. Ord. Rosacese).
It should be kept in well-stoppered vials, in a cool place,
protected from light. When dispensed, it should be com-
pletely liquefied by warming, if necessary, and well mixed by
agitation.
Habitat. ——From roses cultivated in the Balkan Mountains.
DescHption. ''
A pale yellowish, transparent liquid, having the strong,
fragrant odor of rose, and a raild, slightly sweetish taste." —
U. S. P.
Study and describe. (See U.

P. for tests for purity.)
S.
Oiief Constituents. —
Volatile oil and a stearopten.
As perfume.
FIXED OILS, FATS, AND WAXES.

These may be properly grouped together, since they diifer
in consistencemore than they do chemically. It has been
deemed expedient to consider some of them in connection with
the crude drugs from which they are obtained (almond, cas-
tor); a few are here considered individually. Some of the
unofficial are included in the table.
OLEUM AMYGDALAE EXPRESSUM. (See Almond.)
OLEUM OLIVAE.—Olive Oil.

A fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of Olea europsea
Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Oleacese).
It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool place.
Habitat. —
The olive is' indigenous to Asia and southern
Europe, most of the olive oil of commerce coming from Italy
and Spain.
The best quality of oil, called virgin oil, is obtained by
n
cold expression, while an inferior grade is gotten by mixing
the pressed cake from this with hot water and again express-
ing. A
very poor quality is obtained by treatment with a
solvent such as carbon disulphid. Olive oil is very fre-
quently adulterated with cotton-seed oil.
Description. —
" A
pale-yellow or light greenish-yellow, oily liquid, having
a slight, peculiar odor, and a nutty, oleaginous "taste, with a faintly acrid
after-taste."—U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Besides olein, the liquid portion, it
contains palinitin, cholesterin, etc.
It is principally used in cooking, also as
laxative and emollient ; externally in liniments.
OLEUiW MORRHUAE— Cod-liver Oil— Oleum Jecoris Aselli.
A fixed oil obtained from the fresh livers of Gadus Mor-

rhuse Linn§ and of other species of Gadus (class Pisces
order Teleostia family Gadida).
;
It should be kept in well-stoppered and perfectly dry bot-

tles.
Habitat. —
North Atlantic Ocean. Obtained on the Nor-
wegian and on the Newfoundland coasts.
Description. — " A pale-yellow, thin oily liquid, having a peculiar, slightly
fishy, but not rancid odor, and a bland, slightly fishy taste." U. S. P. —
Study and describe.
Olein, with little palmitin and stearin,
with traces of bromids, iodids, cholesterin, and alkaloids.
Demulcent, nutritive in wasting dis-
eases.
Average Dose. — 4-16 Co. (1-4 fl. dr.).
ADEPS LANAE HYDROSUS—Hydrous Wool-fat.
The purified fat of the wool of sheep (Ovis Aries Linn6

class Mammalia order Ruminantia), mixed with not more
;
than 30 per cent, of water.

Description. — " A yellowish-white or nearly white, ointment-like mass,
having a faint peculiar odor. Insoluble in watei-, hut miscible with twice
its weight of the latter without losing its ointment-like character.
With
ether or chloroform it yields turbid solutions which are neutral to litmus-
—
paper." U, S. P.
ADEPS-SEVUM. ] 63
Study and describe. Especially note that it is insoluble in

water, and forms a turbid mixture with ether or chloroform.
Consists for the most part of fatty
acids combined with cholesterin instead of with glycerin. It
can be mixed with a large amount of water (see Part III.,
p. 337).
Therapeutic Use. —As an emollient and ointment base.
ADEPS.—Lard.
The prepared internal fat of the abdomen of the pig, Sus
Scrofa Linn6 (class Mammalia ; order Pachydermata), puri-
fied by washing with water, melting, and straining.
Lard should be kept in well-closed vessels, impervious to
fat, and in a cool place.
Habitat, —The hog has been domesticated in many coun-
tries.
Description. — " A soft wljite, unctuous having a faint odor, free

solid,
from rancidity, and a bland taste. Insoluble in water
very slightly soluble
;
in alcohol ; readily soluble in ether, chlorofoiTn, carbon disulphid, or ben-

zin."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Olein, palmitin, and stearin.
Oleum Adipis (U. S. P.) is obtained by cooling the lard to
low temperature and expressing, whereby a much larger pro-
portion of the liquid portion, olein, and correspondingly
smaller portions of the solids, palmitin and stearin, are
obtained.
Therapeutic Use. —Lard and lard oil are mainly useful as
ointment bases.
SEVUM.—Suet.—Mutton Suet.
The internal fat of the abdomen of sheep, Ovis Aries Linn6

(class Mammalia ; order Ruminantia), purified by melting
and straining).
Suet should be kept in well-closed vessels, impervious to
fat. It should not be used after it has become rancid.
Habitat. —
Domesticated in many regions.
—
Descriplion. " A
white solid fat, nearly inodorous, and having a bland
taste when fresh, but becoming rancid on prolonged exposure to the air."
U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Chief Constituents. —Mostly stearin and palmitin, little
olein.
Therapeutic Use. —Used in cerates.
GETACEUM—Spermaceti.
Apeculiar, concrete, fatty substance, obtained from Phy-
seter macrocephalus Linn6 (class Mammalia ; order Cetacea).
Habitat. —
The sperm-whale abounds in the Pacific and
Indian Oceans. The fat from the head is boiled, and when
cooled, spermaceti crystallizes remaining traces of oil are
;
removed by expression. It is then purified.
Description. —" White, somewhat translucent, slightly unctuous masses of

a scaly-crystalline fracture and a pearly luster odorless, and having a bland,
;
—
mild taste. It becomes yellowish and rancid by exposure to air." U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Mostly cetyl palmitate. On saponi-
fication spermaceti yields a monobasic alcohol, cetyl alcohol,
CigHgPH, instead of glycerin.
Used in ointments and cerates.
CERA FLAVA.—Yellow Wax.
A peculiar, concrete substance, prepared by Apis Mel-

lifica Linng (class Insecta order Hymenoptera).
;
The honey is obtained from the comb, which is then melted

in water. White wax is prepared by exposing thin layers to
sunlight.
Description. —
" A yellowish to brownish-yellow solid, having an agreeable,
honey-like odor, and a faint, balsamic taste." U. S. P.—
Study and describe.
Often adulterated (see Part III., p. 334).
Chief Constituent.'i. —
Cerin, C^yHgÔj, 15 per cent.; myricin
(myricyl palmitate), 80 per cent.
Tlierapeutic Use. —
In ointments, cerates, and plasters.
CELLULAR DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. lOo
CELLULAR DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN.

CANTHARIS.— Cantharides.-Spanish FUes.
Cantharis vesicatoria De Geer (class Insecta ; order Cole-

optera).
Cantharides should be thoroughly dried at a temperature
not exceeduig 40° C. (104° F.), and kept in well-closed ves-
sels).
Habitat. —
Spain and other parts of southern Europe
Russia. They are collected by shaking the trees upon which
they feed, mostly belonging to the Oleacese and Caprifoliacese,
in the early morning, and catching the insects as they fall,
upon sheets. They are killed by exposure to the vapors of
boiling dilute vinegar or plunged into the vinegar and quickly
dried.
Description. —
"About 25 mm. long and 6 mm. broad flattish-cylindric,
;
with filiform antennae, black in the upper part, and with long wing-cases and
ample, membiunous, transparent, brownish wings; elsewhere of a shining,
coppery-green color. The powder is grayish-brown, and contains green,
shining particles. Odor strong and disagreeable taste slight, afterward
;
acrid."— U. S. P.
Study and describe. Especially note the green wing cases.

Mylabris cichorii has transverse, orange-colored bands.
Cantharis vittata has longitudinal stripes. They both possess
vesicating powers, equal, or nearly so, to that of the official
cantharides.
Chief Constituents. —Cantharidin (the vesicating principle),
0.7 to 0.9 per cent. ; a gum, fixed oil, chlorophyll. Pure
cantharidin is volatile, slightly soluble in the usual solvents,
except chloroform, and alkalies with the latter it forms
;
cantharidates, but water and alcohol extract it from the insect,
in which it exists in a more soluble combination. It is some-

times difficult to obtain crystallized cantharidin from old
cantharides (see p. 360).
While cantharides possesses aphrodisiac
properties, it is almost exclusively employed for its vesicating
action. It is an acrid poison. Antidote., mucilaginous de-
mulcents, but not fixed oils.
166 DRUGS OTHER 'THAN PLANT ORGANS.
COCCUS.— Cochineal.
The dried female of Coccus cacti Linn6 (class Insecta
order Hemiptera).
Habitat. —Mexico, Central America, and probably West
Indies, reared upon Nopalea coccinellifera and other species
of Nopalea. The females, which are said to be
Cultivated.
several hundred times as numerous as the males, increase .
greatly in size after fecundation ; they are removed from the

plant and killed by heat.
Descnption. —
''About 5 mm. long; of a purplish-gray or pmplish-black
color somewhat oblong and angular in outline ; flat or
; concave beneath ;
convex above ; transveraely wrinkled, easily pulverizable, yielding a dark-

red powder. Odor faint taste slightly bitterish.
;
" On macerating cochineal in water it swells up, but no insoluble powder

—
should be separated." U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Adulteration. —Inorganic salts (increase of ash) fall to
bottom when insects are placed in water.
Carminic acid, 1 per cent. wax and ;
fat, 20 per cent. Not over 5 per cent, of ash, which is

unduly high, is permitted by the United States Pharmacopoeia
(see Part III., p. 320).
Of little medicinal value; pharmaceu-
tically as a coloring-matter.
OVUM (Unofficial).
Egg of Gallus Bankiva, var. Domestica Temminck (class

Aves order; Gallinse).
The shell is antacid, containing calcium carbonate and
phosphate. The white contains about 12 per cent, of albu-

min. The yolk (official) contains vitellin (resembling casein),
16 per cent., and salts, used in glycerite of yolk of egg.
ICHTHYOCOLLA. -Isinglass.
The swimming-bladder of Acipenser Huso Linn6 and of
other species of Acipenser (class Pisces order Sturiones).
;
Habitat. — Caspian and Black Sea, Volga and other rivers.

Description. — " In separate sheets, sometimes rolled, of a horny or pearly
appearance ; whitish or yellowish, semitransparent, iridescent, inodorous,
ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS. 167
insipid ; almost entirely soluble in boiling water and in boiling diluted

alcohol.
" A solution
of isinglass in 24 parts of boiling water forms, on cooling, a
transparent jelly."— U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Numerous forms of gelatine, or isinglass, are found in
commerce. The best Eus.sian isinglass is known as "long
staple," from the size and shape of the swim-bladders, which
have been simply cut open, washed, and dried. American
isinglass is made in New England, and is found in thin rib-
bons of considerable length. Chinese and Japanese isinglass
are prepared from species of Algse. Much of the commercial
gelatine is made from bones, skin, and tendons of cattle.
Gelatin and about 0.5 per cent, of
ash.
Therapeutic Use. — Protective, used in plasters.
ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS.

MOSCHUS.-Musfc.
The dried secretion from the preputial follicles of Moschus
moschiferus Linn6 (class Mammalia order Ruminantia).
;
Habitat. —
The musk deer inhabits the mountains of north-
ern India, Thibet, and is also found in Siberia.
Description. —" In irregular, crumbly, somewhat unctuous grains, dark
reddish-brown, having a peculiar penetrating and persistent odor and a
bitterish taste. It is contained in oval or roundish sacs, about 4 to 5 cm.
in diameter, on one side invested with a smoothish membrane, on the other
side covered with stiff, appressed, grayish haire, concentrically ari-anged
—
around two orifices near the center." U. S. P.
Study and describe.

Chinese or Tonquin musk commands the highest price.
Numerous adulterations and sophistications are practised in- ;
organic matter, sand, lead, etc., are added wholly artificial

;
(except for a little genuine to give odor), and consisting of

dried blood mainly (best detected microscopically). Partly
exhausted musk is often sold.
Ammonia, an acid, cholesterin, fat,
and wax. The principle to which it owes its odor is not
known.
168 ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS.
Stimulant, aphrodisiac. Very little
used medicinally. Mainly in perfumery.

Average Dose. —
0.06-0.6 gm. (1-10 gr.).
PEPSINUM.— Pepsin.
A enzyme obtained from the glandu-
proteolytic ferment or
lar layer of fresh stomachs of healthy pigs, and capable of
digesting not less than 3000 times its own weight of freshly
coagulated and disintegrated egg-albumen when tested by
the process given in the Pharmacopoeia.
If it is desired to use a diluent for reducing pepsin of a
higher digestive power to that required by the Pharmacopoeia,
sugar of milk should be employed for this purpose.
Obtained by macerating the cut and finely chopped mucous
membrane in hydrochloric acid, straining and clarified by
standing. From the clear liquid the pepsin is precipitated
with sodium chlorid the pepsin rises and is skimmed
;
off
and purified by redissolving and precipitating.
Description. —
" A
fine, white, or yellowish- white, amorphous powder, or
thin, pale-yellow or yellowish, transparent or translucent grains or scales,
free from any oflensive odor, and having a mildly acidulous or slightly
saline taste, usually followed by a suggestion of bitterness. It slowly attracts
moisture when exposed to the air." U. S. P. —
Study and describe.
Cliief Constituent. —The true proteolytic (digesting) fer-
ment of pepsin is not known ; it seems to be present in very
small amounts.
As an aid to digestion. For the solu-
tion of diphtheritic or croupous membranes.
Average Dose. —
0.06—0.3 gm. (1-5 gr.) of the pure pepsin.
PANCREATINUM.—Pancreatin.
A mixture of the enzymes naturally existing in the pan-
creas of warm-blooded animals, usually obtained from the
fresh pancreas of the hog (Sus scrofa Linn6 ; class Mam-
malia ; order Pachydermata).
Description. — " A yellowish, yellowish-white, or grayish, amorphous
powder, odorless, or having a faint, peculiar,not unpleasant odor, and a
somewhat meat-like taste," U. — S. P.
THYROWUM SICCUM. 169
Study and describe.

There are present in the pancreatic
juice and in the official pancreatin several distinct ferments,
including trypsin, which acts upon albuminous substances in
an alkaline medium, converting them into peptones (a form
of proteid resulting from digestion) arajlopsin, which con-
;
verts gelatinized starch into sugar (maltose) ; steapsin, which

component acids and glycerin.
separates fats into their
As an aid to intestinal digestion. For
peptonizing milk (see U. S. P. test below). Trypsin has
been used to digest the membrane in diphtheria and mem-
branous croup.
Avemge —0.3—1 gm. (5—15
Test. — " Dose.
If there
gr.).
be added to 100 C.c. of tepid water
contained in a flask 0.28 gm. of pancreatin and 1.5 gm. of
sodium bicarbonate, and afterward 400 C.c. of fresh cow's
milk previously heated to 38° C. (100.4° F.), and if this
mixture be maintained at the same temperature for thirty
minutes, the milk should be so completely peptonized that if
a small portion of it be transferred to a test-tube and mixed
with some nitric acid, no coagulation should occur." U. S. P. —
THYROIDUM SICCUM (Unofficial).
The gland found in the neck of the sheep, dried and pow-
dered.
Description.— Slightly brownish powder, odor and taste meat-like, but

free from putridity deteriorates upon exposure.
;
Chief Constituents. —Thyroiodin or iodothyrin constitutes

the active principle ; it contains iodin, Oswald having
prepared an iodothyrin containing 14 per cent. Commercial
iodothyrin contains 0.03 per cent, of iodin. (The thyroiodin
does not exist in the gland as such, but combined with a
proteid.
Thyroid or iodothyrin is used after the
removal of that gland or in cases where its action is defective.
It has been employed in certain forms of goiter, in obesity,
and in the condition known as cretinism.
Average dose of the dried gland, 0.3—0.6 gm. (5—10 gr.).
SUPRARENAL (Unoffidal).
The dried glands may be macerated in glycerin and the

resulting glycerin extract sterilized by heat, but this is of
very uncertain strength. Preparations of the active prin-
ciple under various trade names —
adrenalin, suprarenin, and
epinephrin —
are found upon the market. The active con-
stituent is an alkaloid possessing the characters of alkaloids
in general, but not precipitating with many of their precipi-
tants. It is not aifected by boiling, but its solutions are said
readily to decompose upon exposure to the air.
Tlierapeutic Use. —
Suprarenal extract is useful whenever it
becomes necessary to secure a quick rise of blood-pressure,
as in shock. Its effects are temporary, and since it is effec-
tive (for this purpose) only when injected intravenously, it is
useful to tide over a temporary depression, but not in chronic
heart affections. It is used locally in the nose and throat in
inflammation of the mucous membranes (colds) and as a
hemostatic.
Average Dose. —
Considerable amounts of a solution of 1
part of the active principle in 100,000 parts of water are
employed. Stronger solutions are employed locally as vaso-
constrictors.
FEL BOVIS.—OxgalL—Fel Taari.
The fresh bile of Bos Taurus Linn6 (class Mammalia;

order Ruminantia).
Description. —
" A browish-green or dark green, somewhat viscid liquid,
having a peculiar, unpleasant odor, and a disagreeable, bitter taste."
u. a P.
Especially note the greenish color and bitter taste.

Water, 85 per cent. solids, 10 per
;
cent. ; consisting of mucin, bile salts and pigments, and

cholesterine. Evaporated to the consistence of an extract, it
constitutes inspissated bile.
Thefapeutic Use. —
Laxative and cholagogue ; but little
used medicinally.
Average dose of the inspissated, 0.3—1 gm. (5—15 gr.).
ANTITOXINS- VACCINE VIRUS. 171
ANTITOXINS.
These are substances generated in the serum of animals
infected with certain diseases, the particular antitoxin gene-
rated in a given case being specific, or neutralizing the toxin
found in the blood during that disease. Thus a horse inocu-
lated with the toxin of diphtheria bacilli develops in its
serum an antitoxin for diphtheria toxin. The disease known
as diphtheria being the result of the presence of this toxin
in the blood, it follows, if the toxin can be destroyed as soon
as generated, the patient is saved from the attack.
Not precisely similar, but analogous to this, would be the
case if we could put into the blood a harmless substance
capable of instantly destroying strychnine the person so
;
treated would then escape injury from an ordinarily fatal

dose of strychnine.
The strength of antitoxins is measured in immunity units,
an immunity unit meaning " the times that quantity of anti-
toxin which will completely protect a two hundred and fifty
gram guinea-pig against ten times the least fatal dose of the
corresponding toxin."
Antitoxin, or, correctly, antitoxic serum, is, like the ordi-
nary serum of blood, a slightly turbid liquid, without odor.
It must be preserved in a cool place and kept carefully sealed
to prevent contamination. The latest date at which the
serum may be used is usually marked upon the label by the
manufacturer.
Diphtheria, pneumonia, tetanus, snake-bite, and bubonic-
plague antitoxins are now prepared. Antitoxins must be
injected subcutaneously, since they are destroyed in the
stomach.
VACCINE VIRUS (Unofficial).
This is a virus obtained from the sores upon a heifer after

inoculation with vaccinia.
Vaccine virus is a slightly turbid liquid, or when this is
spread upon ivory points and dried, it forms a thin glaze or
coating. It is used by scarifying the skin and rubbing the
moistened point upon the scarified surface or the liquid
virus is placed upon it. It is now usually sold in sealed
capillary glass tubes, each tube coutaiuing enough for one

inoculation.
Vaccine virus confers immunity against small-pox for a
variable length of time (-4 to 10 years). Formerly the virus
was often taken from the vaccination sores upon human
beings, but this is no longer practised by physicians.
Virus should be kept in a cool place, carefully protected
against infection.
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL EXTRACTS AND INSPISSATED

JUICES.
Name.
LL\ OFFICIAL EXTRACTS AND INSPISSATED JUICES. 173
RESINS.
Name.
PART II.
PLANT HISTOLOGY.
CHAPTEE I.
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC

INTRODUCTION.
With the constantly increasing importance of the micro-
scope in the examination of vegetable drugs, and particularly
that of powders, it becomes absolutely necessary that the stu-
dent of pharmacy should have an understanding of vegetable
histology. There are many voluminous works treating of mi-
crotechnic and the structure of plants, but, owing to the lim-
ited time which may be devoted to the subject in schools of
pharmacy, these larger works are not suitable for text-books.
It is with the hope of supplying an elementary text-book that
this section has been compiled, with special reference to the
needs of students of pharmacy. The directions which are
given are concise and simple, but sufficient to enable the
student to obtain a working knowledge of vegetable histology.
Those who wish to pursue the subject further will find the
works of Sachs, Zimmerman, Strassburger, Frank, and more
especially the Angewand.ete Pflanzenanatomie, of Tschirch,
as also Kraemer's Botany and Pharmacognosy, of great
assistance.
The student is cautioned against the error of attempting to
use the microscope to the exclusion of other methods, which
for some purposes are to be preferred ; but to use it in con-
nection with other measures for the identification of crude
drugs and powders, sometimes for estimating their approxi-
mate value, for detecting substitutions, and, to a certain
extent, their reactions.
174
lyTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC. 175
In addition to these purposes microscopy aifords much

pleasure in the study of the manifold beauties of plant and
other structures ; at the same time, by giving the student an
added interest in the drugs he handles, it enables him to
acquire other necessary knowledge of them with far greater
ease than is usually possible to the one who sees in his drugs
only so many articles of which he must, perforce, learn certain
facts.
In each of the practical exercises at the beginning of the
course has been found better to supply the student with
it
material prepared for that particular exercise, thus, in sec-

tioning, he should have a drug just right for sectioning, since
bis own preparation may be too hard or too soft. Then he
should be supplied with sections already cut of proper thin-
ness for the exercise of bleaching. The reason for this being
that the beginner is apt to get better results in each exercise
if he starts right than if he must depend upon the faulty
products of previous experiments. When his skill is suf-
ficient to carry out a series of operations he should, of course,
be exercised in doing so.
As a rule, official English names of drugs are used there- ;
fore, aspidosperma, ipecac, etc., refer to that part of the plant

which is official ; thus aspidosperma means the bark of Aspi-
dosperma quebracho. In a few instances it has been deemed
expedient to give the botanic name instead of the official
English.
There is naturally some lack of agreement among authors
as to the significance of certain histologic terms, since some
will limit them more than will others, or a comprehensive
term of an older author will be restricted to certain ele-
ments by a later one. Various classifications of plant tis-
sues have been made that based upon the physiologic func-
;
tion being the more frequently employed, since it leads to

a readier understanding of plant life but tlie main fact
;
for pharmacists to know is the microscopic appearance of

a given drug, so that he may recognize it or detect a sub-
stitution or adulteration. Forms of cells are therefore con-
sidered primarily and function secondarily in the following
pages.
176 JNTMODUCTTOX AXD GENERAL TECHNIC.
THE MICROSCOPE.
While the study of vegetable histology may be said to
begin with a consideration of the cell, brief directions con-
cerning the use of the compound microscope will first be
Kack and pinion

for coarse ad-
justment.
Micrometer
screw for fine
adjustment.
Iris diaphragm
and Abb6 con-
denser.
Screw for focus-

ing condenser.
Pillar.
- Stand.
Fig. 1.— Microscope.
given, sincewe shall employ it throughout the work. The

accompanying diagram (Fig. 1) will enable the student to
learn the names of the various parts of the microscope, and
with these he should at once become thoroughly familiar.
THE MICROSCOPE. 177
The author of a \'()luminous work upon plant anatomy

has said that the only apparatus necessary for this branch of
study are a compound microscope, some needles, a few small
dishes, a scalpel, and two good razors (one hollow ground,
for soft tissues, and one flat, for harder substances). The
microscope should be from a reliable manufacturer and tested
by a competent authority. It should, if possible, include a
good substage condenser and two objectives, giving magnifica-
tions of about 100 and 500 diameters respectively.
While those are the first essentials, we shall find occasion to
use a few other accessories, including reagents, etc., but the
fact remains that when one has a good microscope the other
expenses are trifling.
An ordinary table ^ provided with two or three small drawers
serves best for microscopic work ; it should be low enough to
enable the student to look down into the microscope while
seated without inclining the instrument. Upon the table, or
within easy reach, should "be a stand for reagents ; these
should be few, and kept in small containers, since it is desira-
ble to have only the essential articles upon the worktable,
those less frequently used and all reserve stock being kept in
a locker or other convenient place.
Objects are mounted upon glass "slides" 76 mm. long by
25 mm. wide, and covered with thin discs or cover-glasses.
' Alexander Tsohii'ch, Angewandte PJUmzenanatomie.
^ Anordinary table-top, sand-papered after planing, is given two coats of
the following solution, No. 1, applied hot, the second as soon as the first is
dry. This is followed by two coats of solution No. 2 this is allowed to dry
;
thoroughly (one to two days), sand-papered lightly, and a thin coat of raw
linseed oil is applied, rubbing thoroughly. The table is then washed with
soap and water.
Solution No. 1
Copper sulphate ...
Potassium chlorate . .
.
....
. 1
1
part.
"
Water 8 parts.
BoU for five minutes.
Solution No. 2
Anilin hydrochloi'ate 3 parts.
Water 20 "
or,
Anilin (liquid) 6 parts.
Hydrochloric acid 9 "
Water 50 "
X2
178 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC.
No. 2, circular, 18 mm. in diameter, will be most generally

useful.
The selection of the microscope must depend some-
what upon the means of the purchaser, but true economy
demands a good instrument, even at the cost of greater econ-
omy in accessories. For ordinary work the Continental BA
or AC Microscope, made by Bausch and Lomb, will prove
satisfactory for most purposes, but since the field of microscopy
is practically unlimited, the finer the microscope, the more com-
plete in its appointments, the greater will be its usefulness to

one skilled in its employment and the less to the unskilled.
The prospective purchaser will, therefore, be wise to consider
the extent to which he may reasonably expect to employ the
instrument and the sum he can afford to pay, and be guided
accordingly. Since this work is for beginners, the microscope
mentioned above will suffice. This has a range of magnifica-
tion from about 100 to 500 diameters.
Focusing. —A mounted section for this experiment is
furnished by the instructor. Having placed the section on
the slide directly over the center of the opening in the stage,
secure the slide with the spring clips, turn the mirror below
so that a pencil of light is thrown upward upon the section
and through the tube ; with the eye looking through the
tube, this shows as a flood of light replacing semidarkness.
Turn the low-power objective into position, and with the eye
at one side nearly on a level with the stage lower the tube by
means of the coarse adjustment until the front lens is about
one-eighth of an inch from the object; now, with the eye
looking into the microscope, raise the tube with the coarse
adjustment slowly until the object comes into view, then with
the fine adjustment focus more sharply upon the various parts
of the section. Never use the fine adjustment except when the
specimen is already in view. Should the section not come into
view when the objective has been raised a half-inch, the
process should be repeated. Never lower the tube with the
eye to the eye-piece, for fear of injury to the objective or to
the section. The use of the various sizes of diaphragm will
come with practice, transparent specimens requiring less light
than dark ones, high powers more than low.
HISTOLOGIC TECHNIC. 179
Having carefully observed the specimen with the low

power, the tube is raised, the high-power objective placed in
position, and, with the eye to one side, the objective is brought
down until it almost touches the cover-glass ; then with the
eye at the ocular, focus upward with the fine adjustment.
Never focus downward while looking into the microscope.
Beginners invariably seek the greatest possible magnification,
but the lowest power should be used which will give an
intelligible presentation, since high magnification is at the cost
of clearness.
The student should remember that the use of the micro-
scope consists largely in the interpretation of what is seen,
and the capacity for this comes only with practice. He
should, therefore, begin by getting the best idea possible of
the object to be studied and strive to interpret correctly what
he sees ; accurate descriptions with illustra-
for this purpose
tions and the use of a good simple microscope or magnifying-
glass will prove invaluable.
The substage condenser is often useful, but may be dis-
pensed with in the work given in this course.
A fiber of cotton or a human hair may be used for the
next exercise in focusing. Put a fragment an inch in length
upon the slide, add a drop of water, put the cover-glass upon
it, and examine first with the low power, then with the high.
A fiber of cotton appears as a twisted band with thickened

edges, but even this simple structure is not always apparent
to the beginner. By rotating the fine adjustment slowly
back and forth, various levels of the hair or fiber will be
brought successively more sharply into view. Keep both
eyes open when using the microscope. Draw the specimen
under observation. The first attempt may be unsatisfactory,
but improvement is sure to come with successive efforts.
HISTOLOGIC TECHNIC.
Softening or hardening tissues may be necessary
for section-cutting. Fresh succulent substances require little
preparation, but many roots, stems, and barks require soften-
ing ; for this purpose mixtures of water, alcohol, and glycerin
180 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC.
are useful. In general, hard substances, such as jalap, aco-

nite,and most of the barks, are best soaked for some weeks
in a mixture of equal parts of 70 per cent, alcohol and glyc-
erin belladouna, gentian, and such roots in dilute alcohol.
;
It must be borne in mind that various menstrua remove some

of the contents of the cells.
Practical Exercise. —Let each student select a piece of drug

and put it into a one-ounce wide-mouthed bottle with the
appropriate menstruum, properly labeled, and examine it
from time to time to note whether its condition is suitable for

section-cutting or not.
A transverse section is one made across the organ, i. e., at
right angles to the direction of growth (Fig. 2, a).
Fig. 2.—Directions of section : (a) Transverse ; (6) longitudinal ; (c) tangential.
A longitudinal section is one made in the direction of

growth and may be radial or tangential. A radial longitudi-
nal section (Fig. 2, b) passes through the center and the cir-
cumference of the organ in a direction parallel to that of
its growth. A tangential section (Fig. 2, c) passes through
the outer portion only. It follows that these three forms of
sections must give one a view of all sides of cells. These
terms must be borne in mind, since they are constantly used,
a correct interpretation of cell structure often requiring
examination of the three aspects.
Section-cutting' is the process of cutting specimens into
slices suitable for examination.
Practical Exercise. —A
specimen of aspidium, iris, or one
of the roots which has been softened will be furnished by the
instructor. Hold thumb and fore-

the specimen between the
finger of the left hand,and having dropped as much alcohol
on the blade of the razor as it will hold, with the right hand
draw the blade from heel to toe, or push it in the reverse
through the specimen, letting the forefinger support
direction,
and guide the blade. The forearms should rest against a
support. The section remains upon the blade, and should
be removed at once to alcohol or water to prevent air from
getting into the cells.
Very soft substances,such as the pulp of fresh leaves,

may be sectioned by placing them between pieces of pith or
cork.
some practice for one to become expert in sec-
It requires
tion-cutting. In this connection it may be remarked that
microtomes are used when large numbers of thin sections are
to be made.
Bleacllitig' sections renders their structure more readily
discernible. Many tissues are so filled with 'cellular contents
or so colored as to render their examination difficult, and in
that case they require bleaching or clearing i. e., rendering
them transparent.
These processes deprive the cells of certain contents, a fact
which must be borne in mind when examining for these con-
stituents. If the section is to be stained, it may be placed
in the dye after washing in water. (See p. 185.) Bleaching
does not affisct starch or calcium oxalate.
thin section of glycyrrhiza, aspid-
ium, or other drug furnished by the instructor is put into a
few cubic centimeters of solution of chlorinated soda for a
few moments, or until it is seen to become white ; it is then
quickly removed to clear water, and rinsed about for some
minutes to remove the bleaching agent and the gas evolved
in the process ; the latter often remains in the cells for some
time unless the sections are placed in alcohol or hot water.
Prolonged standing in alcohol will remove certain constitu-
ents,and boiling water removes starch.
It will be found that some students will have left their
sections too long in the bleaching fluid, with the result that
they have been partially dissolved ; in such cases the experi-
182 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIO.
ment is repeated after diluting the solution with an equal
bulk of water. Examine the bleached sections at once, after

mounting in water, for gas-bubbles, and again after clearing
of gas.
Mounting' the specimen consists in placing it upon the
slide in a suitable way for examination. It may be a tem-
porary mount only, intended for immediate examination, or
it may be permanent, for preservation.
Temporary mounts are either dry, by simply placing a
specimen upon the slide, or made with water, glycerin, or oil.
Permanent dry mounts may be made by inclosing the speci-
men with a ring of asphalt varnish upon which the cover-
glass is laid this is useful in the case of crystals and objects
;
which would be injured by liquids. Permanevi wet mounts

are very much more commonly made in glycerin jelly or in
balsam, sometimes in glycerin by simply ringing the ordinary
glycerin mount with asphalt after removal of all excess of
glycerin.
Glycerin-jelly will be found by far the most useful and the
simplest in pharmacognosy. The mounts are usually good
for some years, and if ringed with asphalt or shellac varnish,
last for a considerable time. A specimen mounted in
glycerin-jelly may be remounted if, after several years, the
jelly has dried up.
Canada balsam dissolved in chloroform or xylol affords a
permanent mount, good for an indefinite number of years,
but it has the disadvantage of being more troublesome, and
that of rendering very thin sections nearly invisible.
Practical Exercises. For Dry Permanent Mounts. ^With a —
camel's-hair brush put a ring of asphalt or shellac varnish in
the center of the slide, of such size that it will coincide with
the margin of a circular cover-glass. In the center of a
cover-glass put a small drop of alcoholic solution of salicylic
acid and allow the alcohol to evaporate, leaving crystals of
upon the cover-glass place this, specimen side
salicylic acid ;
down, upon the ring, and see that the ring is everywhere in
contact with the glass, so that the cell hermetically sealed.
is
For Glycerin-jelly Mount. —Drop with
a medicine-dropper
'
a little melted but not too hot glycerin-jelly in the center of

the slide, avoiding air-bubbles. Put the specimen furnished

by instructor in water, and holding the cover-glass in a pair
of forceps, pass it under the specimen, at the same time
spreading the latter upon the cover by means of a needle or
camel' s-hair pencil ; lift the cover-glass, touch its edge to a
piece of filter-paper to absorb the excess of water, and place
the cover, specimen side down, upon the jelly ; warm gently
to melt the but avoid too much heat the cover-glass
latter, ;
settles down as the jelly spreads out beneath it. If the right
amount of jelly was used, it will just fill the space beneath the
cover-glass any excess may be scraped off the following day.
;
Canada balsam mounts may be practised or simply dem-

onstrated by the instructor. If the specimen furnished has
been in water, place it in alcohol for some minutes to remove
the water, then in xylol or creosote to remove the alcohol,
and after a few minutes it may be mounted in the drop of
balsam placed upon the slide, the rest of the procedure being
similar to that for mounting in jelly after a day or so the
;
balsam hardens. If the section appears white or opaque, it

shows that water or alcohol remained in the section.
Mounted sections should be labeled with any data desired,
and may be conveniently stored in " Pillsbury " boxes.
Micrometry is the measuring of microscopic objects.
The unit of measurement is the micron (Greek micros =
small, minute, generally abbreviated to the Greek letter mu, /«),
which is the one-millionth part of a meter, or the one-thous-
andth part of a millimeter (^-g-^TS" i°^^)- ^^ ^^ often written
micromillimeter, but that term should be avoided.
Measurements are made by means of an ocular microm-
eter, which consists of a disk of glass upon which a gradu-
ated scale is ruled. This micrometer is placed inside of the
ocular, between the lenses. The value of these lines varies
with the magnification, hence with the objectives and with
the change of tube-length, but not with the change of ocular.
The micrometer must, therefore, be standardized for the con-
ditions under which it is to be used and a card kept at hand
showing the value of the lines under the several conditions.
Standardization requires the use of a stage micrometer and is
performed in the following manner :
184 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TEOHNIG.
Place the ocular micrometer in position, note the tube

length, focus upon the stage micrometer, which has a gradu-
ated scale measuring six millimeters, divided into millimeters,
one space being divided by lines into tenths of a millimeter
(100 microns), and a space beyond this one is divided by
finer lines into hundredths of a millimeter (1 microns each).
When in focus, the lines upon the ocular micrometer appear
above or beneath those upon the stage micrometer. A
com-
parison is made of the two scales, from which the value of
those upon the ocular is fixed. Example : A number 7
objective, 192 mm. tube length (with No. 2 ocular), shows
that ten of the finest lines on the stage micrometer (10 microns
each) correspond to 47 lines upon the ocular micrometer
since the ten lines equal 100 microns, it follows that the 47
lines of the ocular have the same value, or 2.127 microns
each (100 -^ 47 = 2.127).
The ocular micrometer may be standardized less accu-
rately, if the magnification isknown, by placing a sheet of
paper upon a level, with the stage, when, with both eyes
open, the lines are seen as if upon the paper two of them
;
may be traced with a pencil and the actual distance measured

with a rule or tape.
Example Twenty lines upon, the ocular appear upon the
:
paper to measure 18 mm. (No. 3 objective, No. 2 ocular,

192 mm. tube length) or one line upon ocular, to equal 0.9
mm. (18 H- 20 =
0.9). If we know that the magnification,
under above conditions, is 90 diameters, we have 0.9 mm.,
or 900 microns, divided by 90, equal 10. The value, there-
fore, of a line upon the ocular micrometer above is 10
microns.
The above explanation may appear confusing to the begin-
ner, but in practice it will be found easy to follow and the
student should learn early to measure objects.
Practical Exercise. —Standardize a micrometer for the tube
lengths given with degree of magnification found upon. card
accompanying microscope. Write out a card giving value
of lines with different tube lengths and different objectives.
Keep for future reference. If time is limited, the value of
the lines is given by the instructor.
STAINING OF THE CELL-WALL. 185
Measure the diameter of isolated cells, fibers, or crystals

furnished by the instructoT. Measure some of the paren-
chyma cells in podophyllum or aspidium.
STAINING OF THE CELL-WALL.

Constant reference will be made to cellulose and its modi-
fications, cutin, suberin, and lignin, of which cell-walls are
composed. In order that the student may be able to identify
these readily a few simple methods of staining are given here.
The subject is treated somewhat less briefly under the sub-
ject of Reagents. (See p. 376.)
A cell-wall said to be cutinized, suberized, or lignified
is
when cutin, suberin, or lignin is combined with its cellidose.

A cell-wall may be slightly or strongly lignified, containing
little or much lignin (walnut shell is strongly lignified —
65
per cent.).
I. Cellulose. —
(Use a section of sassafras pith). Piit a
few cubic centimeters of iodin solution (No. 19 ^) into a watch-
glass and transfer the section to it for a few minutes then ;
remove it to sulphuric acid (No. 14). The

walls are colored
purple. Put another section into chloro-iodid of zinc (No.
16); this also stains it purple. Repeat these experiments,
using sections of any official root, and note that all parts are
not colored alike.
3. IVignin,^ cutin, and suberin have certain staining prop-
erties in common. For lignin (or lignified tissue) use any
\voody substance, such as a common match-stick ; place in a
very little water, and add a drop of green anilin (No. 5) or
fuchsin (No. 5, a) ; if stirred about, the specimen rapidly
absorbs the color, and if too much has not been added, in a
few moments will leave the water colorless. (For a list of
reagents, staining fluids, and mounting media, with directions
for their use, see p. 375.)
Since the student will frequently find it necessary to sep-
'See List of Eeagents, p. 375.

*Lignin contains a combination of unknown substances, and is not
merely an isomer of starch. It seems probable that a nitroso-compoiind of
an insoluble albumin derivative is responsible for some of its chemic prop-
erties.
186 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC. /
arate cells, the use of Schultze's maceration fluid wiji be given
at once. Into a small vial put h few cubic ceptimeters of
Schultze's maceration fluid (No. 23) and a longitudinal sec-
tion of any official bark or root (cinchona) ; after some hours
(or days) add a large excess of water, rinse, and mount in a
drop of water upon pressing upon the cover-glass with a
;
sliding motion or gently tapping the slide the cells are sepa-
rated. The process may be hastened by diluting the fluid
with a little water and boiling.
For cutin and suberin, which for the moment may be con-
sidered together, a thin section of common cork (bottle stop-
per) may be treated as for lignin. Cutinized, suberized, and
lignified tissues may usually be recognized in sections without
staining.
Lignified tissues may be stained with phloroglucin solution
(No. 21) and hydrochloric acid. Place the section in the
solution of phloroglucin until thoroughly permeated; then
apply a drop of hydrochloric acid; lignified tissue becomes
cherry red.
CHAPTER II.
THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS.
All plants —from the invisible disease-germs to the gigan-
tic forest trees —composed of microscopic units which
are
have somewhat the same relation to the entire plants as bricks
have to the building which they form. These " bricks " are,
however, endowed with life, at least in the early stages of
their existence. They have received the name of " cells,"
because the most easily distinguishable specimens consist of
a sac whose walls resemble the cells in a honeycomb. The
name is, however, misleading in the light of our present
knowledge, for it would perhaps imply that the sac is the
really essential part of the cell. This is by no means the
case. Many cells may be found (especially in animals, which
are made up of cells, just as are plants) which do not contain
any visible cell-wall. The latter is formed by the cell-con-
tents, just as the shell of the snail is formed by the snail.
When the snail dies, the empty shell remains. As the plant-
cells age they also die, leaving behind the empty cell-wall.
This occurs also in drying, so that what is seen in ordinary
drugs is usually the shell, and it is this cell-wall which will
usually be meant by " cell " in this book.
The living and the really essential part of the cell is the
substance inclosed by the wall. It consists mainly of a
viscid, semifluid substance, rich in proteids, called protoplasm.
By careful observation, and particularly by the action of
reagents, it may be seen that it is not homogeneous, but that
it incloses a small, more or less globular body. This is
called the nucleus. Sometimes several of these are present.
The nucleus incloses, in its turn, one or more smaller bodies,
the nucleoli (singular nucleolus). That portion of the proto-
plasm which lies outside of the nucleus is called " cyto-
1S7
188 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS.
plasm " the main structures of the cell are, therefore, from
;
within outward nucleolus, nucleus, cytoplasm, cell-wall.

:
THE CELL-WALL.
Since come to regard the wall as the cell, we may
we shall
consider it and then proceed with the protoplasm and
at once
other cell-contents. The wall is developed from the outer
portion of the protoplasm through a transformation of some
of its substances into cellulose and other kindred matter.
Since its formation belongs rather to plant physiology, we
need not consider it further at this time. The wall of young
cells is composed of cellulose, which we may readily distin-
guish from its modifications, lignin and suberin, by its
remaining unstained by very dilute anilin solution. In fully
developed cells which have lost their protoplasm, becoming
what are termed permanent cells, the wall undergoes certain
further modifications, such as cutinization or suberization and
lignificatio'n. Directions have been given for staining (p.
185). Cellulose and its modifications will be considered
somewhat more in detail when we come to consider the cells
in which they occur.
CELL-CONTENTS.
The protoplasm or plasma is a slightly turbid mass, per-
haps an emulsion or containing a spongy network, and occur-
ring always in semiliquid form while actively functionating
at first it completely fills the cavity of the cell (if we under-
stand by that the space inclosed by the cell-wall), but later
spaces occur in the protoplasmic mass —
the so-called vacuoles
— into which sap gathers, the protoplasm continuing to con-
tract until it forms threads from the inner cell-wall to the
interior. These threads have certain proteid bodies imbedded
in their substance. That portion of the protoplasm outside
the nucleus is sometimes designated as cytoplasm, to distin-
guish it from the portion within the nucleus i]xe, nucleoplasm;
though they have many properties in common, a marked dif-

ference in staining properties is their most familiar point of
dissimilarity.
CELL- CONTENTS.- 189
The nucleus has been shown to consist of a delicate mem-

brane, inclosing the protoplasm or nucleoplasm, which incloses
one or more bodies called nucleoli, or phsmosomes. To the
substance of which they are composed the name pyrenin has
been given.
Centrosomes are extremely minute bodies, not readily de-
monstrable, existing in cells either in the protoplasm outside
the nucleus or within that body. Their physiologic import-
ance is considerable. When it has been said that the proto-
plasm is the most important part of the cell, the term includes
Fig. 3.— Parenchyma cells from the epidermis of the onion: N, Nucleus; m, nucle-
olus; P, protoplasm; S, space left by contraction of protoplasm: W, cell-wall.
the nucleus, which is essential in cell-division, whereas cell

life may exist without cytoplasm.
Practical Exercise. —
Remove a fragment of the skin (epi-
dermis) of an inner scale, of the onion and place it in an
alcoholic solution of iodin (1 per cent.) for a few minutes
then remove it to a little water and rinse it free of the excess
of iodin and mount it in glycerin or water. Examine it with
the low power, then with the high. The membrane is seen
to consist of a number of cells with cellulose walls inclosing
a granular substance ; the protoplasm stained yellowish or
brown ; while near the center of each cell is a small round
body, the nucleus, more deeply stained than the rest. Within
the nucleus are seen several roundish, shining bodies, the
nucleoli. The cell-wall remains unstained and nearly trans-
parent. Note that the cells are separated by single walls

common to both cells (Fig. 3).
Aleurone grains consist of albuminous substances closely
allied to protoplasm, which are often found in seeds. They
comprise a ground substance and its inclosures, the latter
usually including a roundish body called a globoid, consisting
of calcium and magnesium phosphates ; and a crystalloid,
composed of proteid matter. Aleurone bodies vary greatly
in size, some bemg no more than a single micron in diameter,
while others are as much as sixty ; for the most part, how-
ever, they are quite small —
five to ten microns. While they
are very characteristic for the different seeds and in the hands
of the, expert are useful as a means of identification, their
employment for this purpose requires considerable practice.
However, the student may easily perceive a difference in the
Fig. 4.— Aleurone grains : 1, From nutmeg ; 2, from castor bean (after Tsehirch).
typical forms of such as may be found in nutmeg and the

castor bean. The ground substance of most aleurone grains
is soluble in water, the globoid and crystalloid being insoluble.
Proteid matter is considered chemically (p. 296). The amount
is estimated from its nitrogen contents, which constitutes
approximately 16 per cent, of it.

Practical Exercise. —Eemove a very little of the inner por-
tion (êndosperm) of the castor bean with the point of a knife,
and smear upon a slide and add a drop of 50 per cent, glyc-
erin the globoid and the crystalloid may be seen inclosed in
;
the aleurone grain, but if any difficulty is experienced, a small

drop of compound solution of iodin (No. 19) is added,
whereby the proteid is stained brown, the globoid remaining
nnstnined, or the grains may be stained with an alcoholic
solution of eosin (No. 8).
CELL-COifTENTS. 1 9]
Scrape off a very little of the inner portion of nutmeg

upon a slide, add a few drops of olive oil, and place the cover-
glass upon it with a particle of grit under one side so that a
little pressure at one point will cause a movement in the oil
this will cause the grains to roll about as they float in the
liquid ; the crystalloids can often be seen with great distinct-
ness, appearing almost transparent (Fig. 4).
Chlorophyll (Gr. chloros =
green phyllon ;
leaf ) and =
a chemically allied coloring substance, xanthophyll (Gr.
xanthos =yellow), are found in the parenchyme of foliage
and floral leaves ; reference to the presence of chlorophyll
bodies will be made under the subject of Epidermal Cells.
By its presence chlorophyll enables the plant to employ
sunlight in the manufacture of starch from water and carbon
dioxid obtained from the air. These coloring substances are
more appropriately considered spectroscopically (p. 316).
Fixed oils and
fats occur in the protoplasm or as
droplets lying free in the cell
; beyond the fact of their pres-
ence or absence they need not be considered microscopically.
They are particularly abundant in seeds, where they serve as
reserve material. They are considered on p. 334. They
may be detected microscopically by the brown or black color
formed with osmic acid (1 per cent, solution) tannic sub- ;
stances show a similar reaction with this reagent.

Starcli occurs very widely distributed in the vegetable king-
dom ; without concerning ourselves with its physiologic im-
portance it may be mentioned here that the reserve starch is
that which is of such moment in the identification of drugs
and the detection of adulteration. It is formed in the sun-
light only in the presence of chlorophyll, converted into a
soluble form (dextrose) and transferred through the conduct-
ing system to the storage reservoirs.
Starch-grains vary in size, shape, and state of aggregation
according to their source, but they are so typical for a given
plant that they often serve as one of the surest means of
identification. In point of size they vary from an average
diameter of five microns in rice, to nearly a hundred microns in
the larger ones found in potato, and more than half that diam-
eter in calumba. Fig. 5 shows a number of diiferent forms.
Fig. 5.— Microscopic appearance of different starches (uniform magnification)
(Noel) 1, Arrowroot
: 2, raw tapioca; 8, tapioca 4, potato 5, galanga
; 6, East ; ; ;
Indian arrowroot ; 7, sago ; 8, beans ; 9, rye ; 10, wheat ; 11, barley ; 12, Indian corn
13, rice ; 14, oats.
192
CELL-CONTENTS. 193
Tschirch lays great stress upon the value of measurements,

not alone of the length, but of th& breadth as well, in the
identification of the grains, expressing it as follows If a :
grain is 9 microns long and 5 broad, it is expressed as ^

microns, the average of 50 to 100 measurements being taken
for the size of the grain, including the minimal, maximal,
and that occurring most abundantly.
The shape of the granules may be oval, roundish, with
sharp angles, variously elongated, kidney-shaped (in physos-
tigma) globular, or flattened, besides many other forms ; the
shape in a given case being best determined by causing the
grains to roll over and over in a current of liquid ; this may
be done by mounting in water and adding a drop of water to
the edge of a cover-glass, or by applying a drop of water to
the edge while holding a piece of filter-paper to the opposite
side to absorb the excess. Flattened starch-grains will ap-
pear very different if seen edgewise from those seen upon the
flat surface.
Many starch-grains consist of concentric or excentric layers
surrounding a hilum. This can be seen in potato-starch
without treatment, but is made plainer if a drop of dilute
solution of potassa (No. 22) be made to flow under the cover-
glass ; the grains swell rapidly and dissolve, but the layers
are momentarily rendered more distinct. "When the grains
occur separately, the more or less roundish forms predominate,
but when they are densely packed together, mutual pressure
causes them to assume angular shapes, as in rice (Fig. 5).
Starch swells and finally dissolves in boiling water, but is
insoluble in cold alcohol, glycerin, and water.
Iodine is the best reagent for its identification ; it assumes a
violet color ; very dilute solution (J^ per cent.) is preferred,
since stronger solutions turn the grains nearly black.
The importance of starch in pharmacognosy is second to
no other cell-content or tissue element, and in this connection
it is of importance to remember the drugs in which it is
absent or present only to an insignificant extent. Occasion-
ally an approximate idea of the amount present is of value
belladonna root is rich in its peculiar alkaloids, almost pro-
portionately to the abundance of starch or the adulteration
;
13
of a drug, such as elm bark, with any starchy substance is

instantly detected, since that bark is extremely poor in starch.
Naturally the size and the shape of the grains are the
readiest means of identification, but in the numerous drugs
it is not always possible for the student to become familiar
with every form of starch-grain ; in such cases the relative

amounts may also be useful. The state of aggregation is
frequently important, whether the grains are simple or com-
pound (i. e., with one hilum or more than one in a single grain),
and whether the grains are densely packed in certain cells only
or pretty evenly distributed. It will be mentioned under
Medullary Eays what significance may attach to their contain-
ing starch.
Those drugs which are dried by a rather high heat may
have their starch rendered pasty, hence no granules will be
seen, even though starch may be abundantly present (curcuma,
sarsaparilla).
The following measurements of the greatest diameter of
starch-grains from various sources are taken mainly from
Tschirch
Endosperm of rice ... 4.5- 6 microns.
Com endosperm . 10-18 . . ''
Bean cotyledon .... 20-40 "

Wheat endospeim (large) 28-33 " (average)
(small) 6- 7
Jalap tuber 10-55
Glycyrrhiza root. 1.5, 7-29
. . . "
Althsea root . . . 6-20, average, 16 microns.
Potato tuber . 5-145, average of larger,
70 to 100 microns.
The following measurenaents are approximate (Hatcher)

Physostigma . .
CELL-CONTENTS. 195
tion) upon a add a drop of water, and examine ; while

slide,
observing itadd a few drops of very dilute solution of po-
tassa (1 per cent.) to one edge, and apply a piece of filter-
paper to the opposite edge of cover-glass todraw the alkali
underneath. The starch-grains swell rapidly, losing their
shape. Mouut another specimen, and apply a drop of very
dilute solution of iodin (1 :4000), using the same technic as
in the case of potassa ;
grain colored blue. In the same way
examine powdered Jamaica ginger, physostigma, and some
other drugs, ipecac, podophyllum, etc. Measure some of the
largest and some of the smallest grains.
Inulin, which is closely allied to starch, occurs abun-
dantly in the underground portions of the herbs of the Com-
positse. Its consideration belongs rather to the chemic than
to the histologic part of this work. It may be obtained in
Fig. 6.—Inulin.
handsome stellate crystals by putting small pieces of fresh

taraxacum, inula, or pyrethrum root, preferably of the second
year's growth, gathered in autumn, into strong alcohol for
from some days to some months.
An illustration of inulin, which is often copied from Sachs,
represents crystals which were obtained from an aqueous
solution upon standing two months and a half. Fig. 6 is
from taraxacum root gathered in October and kept several
months in alcohol.
Inulin is of wholly secondary importance in the micro-
scopic examination of drugs, since it is not possible to iden-
tify it microscopically except in the rare cases when it is
found in crystals. Iodin has no eifect upon it.
Calcium oxalate is, next to starch, the most widely
distributed solid substance found in the cells of vegetable
drugs. It may occur in any organ or part the vessels, sieve

;
tubes, and epidermis being almost the only tissues in which

they are not found.
The crystals occur singly as the large, needle-shaped crys-
tals, " raphides," of squill ; or in groups, as dense bundles
of small crystals of equal length lying parallel, or in looser
clusters, scattered at random in the cell.
While the typical forms of crystals are easily recognized
e. g. the stellate clusters in rhubarb —
the proof of their identity
in case of doubt lies in their chemic and physical behavior.
They are insoluble in water, acetic acid, or dilute solution of
potassa (the latter causes starch to swell rapidly), soluble in
hydrochloric acid without eifervescence (calcium carbonate is
soluble with effervescence in acetic and hydrochloric acid).
The crystalsoccur in the greatest variety of form and
'
size. The leaf of belladonna, some of the cinchonas, and

other drugs show cells densely packed with exceedingly small
crystals, recognizable as calcium oxalate only by their chemic
behavior, or as crystals by means of the polariscope. These
may measure but a single micron, and the mass appears black
instead of transparent under the microscope, because of the
air-spaces between the crystals, which also interfere with their
recognition. To these dense groups the name crystal-meal is
given ; they are not of frequent importance in pharmacog-
nosy. At the other extreme are the acicular (needle-shaped)
crystals or raphides (Gr. raphis =
a needle), often half a mil-
limeter in length. This shape of crystal, but usually much
smaller (60 to 125 microns in squill), is very much more
frequently found in the Monocotyledons than in the Dicotyl-
edons, though there are numerous instances among the drugs
of the latter (particularly ipecac and Ceylon cinnamon).
Ipecac, because of its high price, is frequently adulterated
the crystals are found in the cortical parenchyma (sparingly)
in bundles of parallel crystals of equal length from 40 to—
50 microns. In Ceylon cinnamon, on the other hand, they
are isolated and exceedingly small.
Typical crystals (Fig. 7) are very abundant in the bark of
^ The consideration of the various systems of crystals belongs to the
science of crystallography, and is beyond the scope of the present work.

CELL-CONTENTS. 197
quillaja (soap-bark), where they may be seen to glitter (with

the naked eye) if a smooth piece of the inner bark be held in
the sunHght. The longitudinal sections show these very
typically arranged in rows, the crystals mostly varying from
75 to 175 microns in length and from 5 to 15 microns in
diameter.
Elm bark shows many small crystals, appearing nearly
brick shaped, and in such abundance that one is apt to
marvel that this drug should yield but little ash.
In many barks the bast-fibers are lined with rows of iso-
lated crystals, each occupying a crystal cell which may indent
the wall of the fiber; this is seen very notably in aspido-
sperma, also occasionally in cinchona.
A B
/r=S=^==.-=
dilute glycerin or glycerin-jelly. Aspidosperma is not easily

sectioned, but a little of thebark may be grated (filed upon
a slide) and examined in dilute glycerin (much better by
diffused sunlight) ; the long (700 microns) narrow cells are
bast-fibers these are seen to be covered with rows of cells,
;
each containing a small crystal that looks to be almost

square. Examine a transverse section of rhubarb for the
—
numerous stellate groups of crystals present more abun-
dantly than in any other official drug.
Calcium carbonate is of very much less importance
than the calcium oxalate. It is found occasionally in the
form of " cystoliths," somewhat resembling in form a bunch
of grapes. Calcium carbonate dissolves in acetic and other
acids with the liberation of carbon-dioxid gas.
Cell-contents found in the sap are usually more ap-
propriately considered chemically ; they will, therefore, be
very briefly touched upon here.
Inulin occurs mostly in solution, but its microscopic detec-
tion depends upon its deposition in crystalline form. (See
p. 195.)
Sugar in different forms, but especially as dextrose or
glucose, is extremely widely distributed. Its recognition in
aqueous infusions or decoctions is extremely easy. (See
Part III., p. 285.) Sugar is seen rarely in crystals in drugs.
Mucilage is recognized by its avidity for water, with which
it swells with great rapidity. A
section of the leaf of buchu
or of the testa of flax-seed placed under the microscope, to
which a drop of water is added, illustrates this. (See Part
III., p. 292.)
Tannin reacts so characteristically with ferric salts that
traces of it may
be detected in aqueous infusions or de-
coctions of the drug. (See Part III., p. 308.) Occasion-
ally globular masses of tannin are found a drop of dilute
;
solution of ferric chlorid causes a black color.

, Alkaloids are with difficulty detected microchemically in
the majority of cases, and they practically never occur in
crystalline form in the drug. The alkaloids of cinchona may
be seen by warming sections in dilute solution of potassium
CELL-CONTENTS. 199
hydrate for a short time and then rinsing quickly in water.

The alkaloids are then seen in crystalline form.
A few alkaloids give color-reactions, but these are usually
obtained more satisfactorily by extraction and treatment of
the tincture. (See Part III., p. 302.)
Coloring-matters often afford valuable clues, either by their
presence or by their chemic behavior. These are often visible
microscopically as the bright yellow of berberine in golden
seal and the red coloring-matter in sanguinaria.
Resins are widely ditributed, often occurring dissolved in
essential oil, or as oleoresins or mixed with gums as gum-
resins. Resin cells are often lined with cork. Resin is
easily recognized in drugs by its characteristic yellowish to
brown color.
Concentrated aqueous solution of copper acetate colors
resin green after some days.
Organic acids are considered chemically in Part III, p. 310.
CHAPTEE III.
SPEC3AL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS.
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS.
Vegetable cells are grouped into two general classes, the

parenchymatous and the prosenchymatous cells. This classi-
fication is convenient, but not easily defined. Parenchymat-
ous cells are in general as broad as long, have blunt ends and
thin walls. Prosenchymatous cells, on the other hand, are
generally longer than broad, have pointed, overlapping ends,
and thick cell-walls.
The cells will be considered in the following order :
Parenchyma (proper).
EpideiTual, including the epidermis and its
appendages, trichomes, stomata, etc. cork.
;
Cambium.
Parenchymatous . Medullaiy rays.
Collenchyma.
Stone.
Endodei-mal.
Wood parenchyma.
Bast>-fibers.
Prosenchymatous . . |
:^-^f-.
Ti-acheids.
Sieve tubes and companion cells.
Laticiferous tubes.
Secretion receptacles.
Parenchymatous tissues^ are composed of cells

usually having thin walls, very often composed of cellulose.
In shape they are roundish or polyhedral, their length, as a
rule, not greatly exceeding their breadth although we shall —
find exceptions to the foregoing. Elongated parenchymatous
cells have blunt ends, not pointed nor overlapping.
—
Parenchyma. The typical parenchyma cell has just
' Tissues are collections of cells serving a similar function.
200
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 201
been described, but there are a number of different forms.

The roundish or somewhat compressed twelve-sided cells are
the most abundant form —
they commonly measure about
100 to 300 microns in diameter. They constitute the greater
part of succulent tissues and the great bulk of many roots
and rhizomes, as podophyllum and ipecac ; here they are some-
what elongated in the direction of the length of the organ,
but retain their nearly circular form when seen in transverse
sections. In the interior of many leaves they are nearly
typically isodiametric (all diameters alike), but near one or
both surfaces they are often somewhat elongated toward the
center of the leaf and are then called "palisade paren-
chyma."
The walls of parenchyma cells are always thin and com-
posed of cellulose, which is an isomer of starch (C^HjÔj).
It will be remembered that this does not stain with anilin ; it
is further characterized by the following properties If treated
:
with iodin and then with sulphuric acid, it is colored purple.

Chloro-iodid of zinc also colors it purple. It is soluble in
concentrated sulphuric acid.
In addition to protoplasm the contents of parenchyma cells
are varied. In the leaf chlorophyll is often present ; in fleshy
roots the protoplasm may have disappeared, and the cell
becomes filled with starch or other carbohydrates.
—
Put a thin section of sassafras pith
Practical Exercise.
into a littlecompound solution of iodin for a few minutes
then remove it to 60 per cent, sulphuric acid the section is
;
colored purple. Put another fragment into freshly prepared

solution of chloro-iodid of zinc and note that it also becomes
purple.
The middle lamella or intercellular substance
is a of the cell-wall which soon develops between cells by
jiart
a modification of the cellulose, from which it differs in certain
particulars. "We have already seen that two young cells of the
onion epidermis are separated by a wall common to both, the
wall separating their parallel sides showing no middle line of
division to indicate that a part of the wall belongs to one cell
and the rest to the other, but the dividing wall is common to
both ; soon, however, a modification of the cellulose takes
202 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS.
place, resulting in the development of the middle lamella, or

plate.
—
Practical Exercise. Mount a thin section of sassafras pith
or of white pine in a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, put
on the cover-glass, and, taking care that none of the acid gets
upon the microscope, examine it with the low power ; the cell-
walls are seen to dissolve rapidly, leaving a network consist-
ing of the middle lamellae —
a similar section should be pre-
viously examined in water or glycerin for comparison.
Epidermal cells include the epidermis, which covers
the green parts of plants and cork cells, which later replace
the epidermis on roots and stems.
The cells of the epidermis are so arranged that they com-
pletely cover the organ upon which they are situated without
leaving any intercellular spaces, except the stomata and water
pores, to be mentioned later. This is important in view of
the function of the epidermis i. e., the protection of the
underlying tissue against undue loss of moisture and against
the entrance of bacteria or other harmful agents.
The outer wall is covered with a layer called the cuticle, a
modification of cellulose caused by the deposition of cutin in
it. This cutin closely resembles suberin, if indeed they are
not identical. The main difference between the cuticle and
cork is that the cuticle is somewhat richer in another sub-
stance, called cerin, a wax-like body deposited with the
cutin. When the outer wall of the epidermis is greatly
thickened, that portion toward the cuticle (if we i-egard the
latter as added to, not a part of, the cell-wall) is itself
usually cuticularized— that is, it has some cutin deposited in
the cellulose. The formation of this layer of cuticle is the
principal function of the cells of the epidermis. Some-
times a colorless protoplasm and nucleus may be seen in the
cell, but in those drugs which are of pharmaceutic interest
these have usually disappeared. The typical epidermal cell

isnearly isodiametrie and quadratic in form ; but in many
stems it is somewhat elongated in the direction of stem
growth, while in many leaves the walls are wavy in outline
and the cells very irregular in shape. In the seed of hyos-
cyamus the epidermal cells have their inner and lateral
walls thickened, whereas the outer is formed by a delicate

cuticle while in jequirity and other seeds, very long, narrow
;
(palisade) cells constitute the epidermis. These are but a few

of the many forms which may be seen, but the typical forms
and those mentioned as occurring in leaves principally interest
us in pharmacognosy.
In the epidermal cells of leaves the nucleus may be fre-
quently seen, but not chlorophyll. In official roots and
rhizomes they usually appear empty.
Examine a cross-section of a eucalyptus
leaf in glycerin the cuticle is seen as the thick layer at the
;
edge of the section (surface of the leaf) ; mount another sec-

tion in air,and while observing it, let a companion drop
a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid upon the slide at
the edge of the cover-glass in such a way as to cause it to
flow underneath. The section rapidly dissolves, with the
exception of the cuticle and that part of the wall which is
cuticularized. (The distinction between the cuticle and
cuticularizcd portion of the wall isperhaps a useless one in
this place.)
Trichomes or Hairs are appendages or outgrowths of
the epidermis (spines, allied formations which have their
origin in sublying tissues, such, for instance, as the prickles
of the rose, etc., belong to a different system). Glandular
hairs, while belonging also to another system, may be con-
veniently included here. Some true trichomes have a ter-
minal cell converted into a secreting organ.
Hairs assume a great variety of form, and since they are
of considerable importance in pharmacognosy, will be con-
sidered somewhat in detail. They are not confined to any
surface, but different plants afford examples of their growing,
even internallv. They occur very abundantly on the sur-
faces of many and seeds, near the tips of roots,
leaves, stems,
upon various floral organs, and on fruits as examples of in-
;
ternal hairs may be mentioned the nuphar. The juice of the

orange and lemon is contained in modified hairs.
Trichomes may be one-celled or many-celled they may ;
be simple straight or curved tubes, or branching and as-

suming an endless variety of forms. They may contain
protoplasm or be filled with air, and in a few cases, as

previously mentioned, they may have secretions formed in
the terminal cells. In other cases they may become strongly
silicified (acquire a glass-like consistence due to the presence
of silica).
They consist of a base, which is usually of a different
form from that of the surrounding epidermal cells some- —
times larger, but usually smaller and of a body, the latter
;
constituting the hair-like portion. Occasionally the epi-

dermal cells immediately surrounding the base of the hair
form radiating lines and differ in shape from those more
remote from it.
Cotton furnishes us with the most familiar example of
vegetable hairs if we observe a single strand under the
;
Fig. 8. —Hairs from various leaves : S, Sage ; M, matico ; D, digitalis.
microscope, it presents appearance of a twisted band

the
with thickened edges. With
these the student should at
once become familiar, because of the frequency with which
he will accidentally encounter them.
Hairs vary widely, not only in size and shape, but also in
the direction of their growth ; usually they are inclined more
or less toward the surface upon which they grow, but they
may stand erect. Several forms of hairs are seen in Fig. 8.
transverse section of sarsaparilla
root will often show unicellular root-hairs, being the only
official root upon which they will be found except near the
tips. Asection of digitalis shows several-celled hairs, and
if these be compared with the scrapiugs from a mullein

leaf, it willbe seen at once how easily the least adulteration
of the former with the latter may be detected. In the case
of the mullein leaf the hairs are larger and freely branching.
Glandular hairs present a somewhat more complicated
structure. The simplest have a superficial resemblance to
the ordinary hair but the terminal cell (it may be unicell-
;
ular) pours its secretion between its outer wall and the
cuticle ; the latter, being raised up, forms a cavity or reser-
voir for the secretion. The substance of the cuticle grows
in extent or suffers a rupture by increased tension in the ;
latter event it has the power of repairing the damage. This

—
form of hair is found widely in belladonna, hyoscyamus,
sage, etc.
In the second case we have a glandular organ consisting
of a number of secreting cells (more accurately speaking,
secerning, from Latin se, aside, and cernere, to separate ; to
sift) supported on a pedicle. Since these become broken in
the course of grinding or even handling drugs, it may be
better to describe their structure in somewhat greater
detail.
The student is again reminded that these hairs are devel-
oped from ordinary epidermal cells. In this case one of the
'
cells becomes divided by a transverse wall into an upper
and a lower, the latter remaining on a level (or nearly so)
with the remainder of the epidermis, and becomes the basal
cell of the glandular hair the upper cell now becomes
;
arched above the level of the epidermis, and in turn is di-

vided transversely, forming a new cell even as it was formed
that immediately above the basal cell constitutes the
pedicle or stalk, while the uppermost is now divided by per-
pendicular walls into a number of secreting cells arranged in
a circle or in two circles, and usually numbering from eight
to twenty. The secretion from these secreting cells, being
poured between their outer walls and the cuticle, separates
the latter, so that it remains attached only at the sides ;
seen from above it has no markings to indicate the number

of underlying cells (Fig. 9). This structure of the glandular
' " Up," in this description, meaning away from the leaf.
206 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OP CELLS.
portion is very clearly seen in the kamala (see practical

exercise following).
This or somewhat modified forms of glandular hairs will
be found almost universally on the herbaceous drugs derived
Fig. 9.— Oil-gland from peppermint b, Basal cell S, secreting

: ; cells ; C, cuticle
E, epidermis (after Tschircli).
from the labiatse they may be intact, or, as previously

;
mentioned, with the glands separated. very thin trans- A

verse section of a peppermint leaf mounted in glycerin
shows this form of glandular hairs.
Fig. 10.—The successive stages in the development of lupulin (gland) a, The :
epidermal cell slightly elevated; 6, the same cell elongated and divided into two;
c, the upper portion has increased in size laterally and divided transversely d, the ;
cells have merely enlarged e, further division /, the cuticle has separated more
; ;
than in e; g, the gland (minus its stalk) (Eauter).
Lupulin consists of somewhat similar glandular structures

the upper glandular portion is usually seen separated from
the pedicle, and resembles somewhat the shell of a tortoise,

assuming the oval shape by pressure. In this case we see

the division of the gland into its component cells. The
separated or intact pedicle also shows a somewhat diiFerent
structure from that already described, consisting of several
cells instead of one.
Kamala consists of simple hairs, together with the
also
glands of glandular hairs, the pedicles being absent.
The glands may be borne upon the summit of an out-
growth of the epidermis.
Sections of aspidium show glandular structures protruding
into internal cavities, but the beginner may not be able to
recognize these.
With a medicine-dropper remove a
little lupulin which has lain for some time in alcohol, and
mount in glycerin ; compare with the description and

Fig. 10, ^.
Examine a very little kamala in alcoholic solution of
potassa. The picture presented is one of great beauty.
The liquid is brightly colored, and in it float the glands,
usually bottom up, so that the secerning cells are distinctly
seen. In those which lie on their sides the cuticle is seen
greatly distended, like a bag, with a nearly clear secretion.
Other forms of hairs are also seen in the field.
Stotnata are properly considered with the epidermal
cells. They are openings (Gr. stoma ^= mouth) through the
epidermis into intercellular spaces beneath. They are usually
oval in shape, and are formed by two cells, called "guard
cells," having convex sides facing each other. Their function
consists in regulating the interchange of air between the inter-
cellular space beneathand the external air, and thus to a certain
extent controlling the amount of moisture lost by evapora-
tion. When seen from above (the leaf lying flat), they are
nearly always of more or less oval shape, but vary somewhat
in size and very greatly in relative number. They occur
on all overground surfaces covered by epidermis, with occa-
sional exceptions in individual cases. They are usually much
more abundant on the lower surfaces of leaves than on the
upper. They are also found on green stems, seeds, etc.
While they present but little variation when seen from
above, they are much more complicated on transverse sections.

Tschirch ' has classified them mainly according to whether
they are raised above or depressed below the level of the
epidermis ; whether the cutinization is strongly or weakly
developed ;, form of outer opening, etc., together with means
of communication with surrounding medium —
a classification
requiring more than an elementary knowledge of histology
for its practical application. Nevertheless, stomata are of
considerable importance in pharmacognosy, their relative
number alone having considerable significance at times, since
their number may be comparable to the number of epidermal
cells on the surface bearing them, or less than a hundredth
part as numerous. (Leaf of Brassica Rapa, 716 per sq.
—
mm. nearly half million per sq. inch.)
Remove a very thin fragment of the
lower surface of any oificial leaf, and examine in dilute glycerin
with a magnification of 500 diameters. If any difficulty
occurs in finding them, examine another piece mounted in
solution of chlorinated soda, or, 'still better, use such a frag-
ment from a leaf which has been lying for some days in a
clearing solution, such as glycerin and alcohol, or solution of
potassa.
In order to form an approximate idea of relative numbers
compare a fragment of the lower surface
in different positions
of a leaf —^hyoscyamus or belladonna—with a fragment taken
from a green stem —
that of a potato if convenient.
Water-pores resemble ordinary stomata, but they have
no means of regulating the size of the opening, which, to-
gether with the underlying intercellular space, is filled with
liquid (usually a considerable amount of calcium salt being
held in solution). They differ further from ordinary stomata
in that they occur at the terminations of veinlets more abun- —
dant at theedges, terminating the teeth. They are usually some-
what larger than the stomata occurring on the same organ.
Cork-cells, when present, have replaced, or soon will
replace, the cells of the epidermis which are unfitted for per-
manent protection and do not usually persist on growing
plants much beyond a year.
^ Angewandte PfianzeTianatomie, p. 434,
PABEXCBYMATOUS CELLS. 209
Just as the cell-walls of the epidermis are in part cutinized

by the deposition of cutin in the interstices of the cellulose,
cork-cells have their walls suberized by the deposition of the
suberin. We may speak of these suberized walls as if they
consisted wholly of suberin, and, in fact, do apply suberin
tests when wishing to examine cells for that modification.
Such cell-walls stain readily with anilin dyes (cellulose does
not) and are liquefied by caustic potassa on heating to boiling.
Typical cork-cells are very easily recognized when occur-
ring in the place of the epidermis, without applying chemic
tests, but, since they are sometimes found in the interior of
barks and powders, it often becomes necessary to apply
in
tests for their identity. Since an understanding of the na-
ture of cork-cell formation will often render its recognition
easier, a brief description of it will be found in the histology
of bark.
Cork-cells of pharmaceutic interest are usually thin-walled
and filled with air ; sometimes with coloring-matter or resin ;
while they may have their outer or inner or both walls thick-
ened ; and when seen in radial sections, they may appear as
parallelograms (approximately) tangentially longer than
broad. They may form a layer from without inward of
—
many cells in thickness usually from two to twenty in offi-
cial roots and rhizomes. A
very important function of cork
is the closure of wounds, made in the tissues of plants by
insects, etc.
Cork cambium or phellogen (Gr., pheUos= cork, and gennao=
I produce), the cells from which cork-cells are formed, should
be considered here, but since they can be more conveniently
treated under the subject of meristematic tissues, it need only
be said for the present that they are actively growing
parenchyma cells destined to produce cork-cells and some-
times other bark-cells.
Place a thin section of cork in water,
add a few drops of green anilin solution, and after five min-
utes rinse in water and examine. Mount another section in
solution of potassa without the cover-glass, and heat over a
flame note that it turns yellow and that drops of liquefied
;
suberin exude.
14
Cambium cells (Fig. 11) are simply actively growing

and dividing parenchyma cells ; the accompanying figure
explains their mode of division with the formation of new
tissue. Cambium cells have cellulose walls.
In Dicotyledonous roots and stems a thin layer of cam-
bium cells is often seen separating the wood from the bark,
being easily recognized by their position and the extreme
thinness and transparency of their walls, together with their
shape, which approximates that shown in Fig. 1 1
In the living plant cambium cells contain protoplasm, a
Pig. 11.— Cells in process of division C, Cambium cell X, xylem (wood) P,

: ; ;
phloem (bark-cells) 1 represents a simple cambium cell which in 2 has increased

;
in width preparatory to dividing into two cells in 3 — one becoming a xylem cell,
the other remaining a cambium these again increase in width in 4, and the cam-
;
bium divides in 5, producing a phloem cell increasing again in thickness in 6 and

;
splitting off another xylem in 7 and another phloem in 8 (partly schematic, after
Tschirch).
nucleus, and nucleoli, but these contents are not seen in the
dried roots and stems.
That cambium which produces cork-cells is mentioned as
corkcambium in connection with cork. Fig. 25 shows the
cambium layer in belladonna.
The so-called cambiform tissues of some authors are com-
posed of certain elements of the phloem, which have been
thus named because of their resemblance to cambium cells
this tissue is found in the inner bark of Dicotyledons, and is
not limited to any one cell form. The cambiform cells of
Nageli and other German authors are elongated, thin-walled,
taper-pointed cells found in the neighborhood of sieve cells
and containing plasma.
Examine a thin transverse section of
gentian : the cambium is distinctly seen as a brownish, wavy

line separating the bark from the wood. Then examine a
section of glycyrrhiza or belladonna, in which the cambium
occupies a similar position but the cells are transparent and
;
have very delicate thin walls.

The pith cells are composed of typical parenchyma,
nearly round or isodiametric, their walls liaving openings or
pores for the passage from cell to cell of the dissolved carbo-
hydrates. Their walls may become thickened or they may
become stored with starch.
Pith is found only in Dicotyledons, though similar cells
occur throughout the roots and stems of Ferns and Mono-
cotyledons. It frequently tends to decay.
Medullary-ray cells serve as a means of commmiica-
tion between the pith (central) and the outer portion of Di-
cotyledonous stems and some roots, forming rows of cells
passing among the woody parts of the plant in straight lines
toward the bark, which they usually penetrate for variable
distances. They may terminate at the cambium line, and
they sometimes occur in the absence of pith.
The cells are usually somewhat elongated in the direction
which the ray takes i. e., from the center toward the circum-
ference. In a transverse section of a stem they usually
appear slightly elongated (parallelograms), thin-walled, and
forming narrow, straight lines radiating like the spokes of a
wheel. Since their function is to afford means of transmit-
ting dissolved material from the pith to the circumference, it
follows they will be absent when the organ is composed almost
wholly of parenchyma through which the material passes easily.
This is often the case in roots. Sometimes they are scarcely
distinguishable from the parenchyma cells about them. This
is especially true where they terminate in the bark. Thus a
cell of a ray at its origin in apocynum measured 10 microns
in diameter and 44 in length, while another at about its ter-
mination in the bark measured nearly 100 microns in diam-
eter by approximately 135 in length. This gives an idea
of the transitional form.
The medullary rays themselves are of more diagnostic
importance than are the individual cells composing them
hence they will be considered more fully than the individual

cells.
The walls of the cells are composed of cellulose and show
numerous pores ; when they are seen in a longitudinal tan-
FiG. 12.— Jamaica quassia. Longitudinal tangential section showing a medul-

lary ray cut across, wood parenchyma separating it from part of another ray: A,
showing the perforated end of a medullary-ray cell B, medullary-ray cell near its
;
middle C, wood parenchyma. Note that the ray is five cells in width at B.
;
gential section (endwise of the cells), the end partitions show

these pores as numerous shining dots, often beautiful by strong
illumination (Fig. 12).
Ordinarily the contents of the cells in actively growing

plants consist of dissolved carbohydrates, but on the cessa-
tion of vegetative activity they become storage receptacles.
In a specimen of asclepias the medullary-ray cells were
so densely packed with starch that they could be more easily
traced by this than by the individual cells, which were, in
fact, almost invisible amid the mass of starch. Obviously
the specimen was not collected in the summer and in certain
;
cases the contents of these cells may furnish a clue as to

whether a drug has been collected at the season of its greatest
medicinal activity or not.
It has been said that the medullary rays grow at right
angles to the direction of the growth of the organ (root
or stem), hence when the transverse section of the ray is
desired, a longitudinal tangential section of the organ is
made.
The height of the medullary rays of the very young stem
equals the length of the internode. They separate the primary
bundles (the woody and fibrous or parenchyma tissues, which
are separated by the primary rays) from each other and con-
nect the pith with the bark. In a longitudinal tangential
section of the stem they are seen to be of equal width at
various levels. These are called primary rays. As the stem
increases in circumference it is obvious that the primary rays
must be carried further and further apart ; to compensate for
this new medullary rays are usually added. These are called
secondary rays. They diifer in shape from the primary rays,
and may be distinguished by the fact that their transverse
section (longitudinal tangential of the stem) presents the ap-
pearance of a pointed ellipse ; or, approximately, that of a
large, thin-walled, broad, and pointed wood-fiber with its
lumen filled with roundish, thin-walled cells.
Such a section shows the number of rows of cells in the ray,
this being very variable ; but for a given plant the limits are
usually sufficiently defined to render the observation important.
In a section of Jamaica quassia (Fig. 12) there were counted
in one ray 5 rows of cells at the center and 18 from top to
bottom, numbering in all 67, and measuring half a millimeter
in length by nearly one-tenth of a millimeter in diameter
while another ray nearby was but a single row in width and
5 in length, measuring 175 by 30 microns.
Despite this irregularity these rays serve to distinguish the
Jamaica from the Surinam quassia, in which the rays are
nearly always one or two rows in width.
In some instances the medullary rays increase in width
toward the circumference of the organ. In a specimen of
gelsemium root a ray at one point near its origin measured
less than 50 microns in width, having but 3 rows of cells,
while about 2J millimeters toward the circumference it meas-
ured more than 225 microns and had increased to 18 cells in
width.
In moderately thin radial longitudinal sections of the outer
portion of stems and the inner part of the bark medullary
rays appear as nearly quadrangular plates composed of more
or less parallelogram-shaped cells overlying other tissues
(Fig. 36).
The rays penetrate the bark to very variable distances in
different plants; in red and yellow cinchona they terminate
about the middle of the bark. Their course in the bark may
be important ; wild cherry they turn almost at right angles
in
to their original course, and become lost after running for
some distance tangentially ; in the bark of cascara sagrada
they converge in the outer bark, while those of frangula tend
to curve somewhat, but do not converge.
In the stems, barks, and some roots of Dicotyledons the
medullary rays are of great importance in pharmacognosy.
The points to be particularly noted are their presence or ab-
sence, whether lignified or not, cell-contents, number of rays,
average and maximum number of rows of cells in rays, their
width and height in longitudinal tangential* sections of the
organ, distance to which they penetrate into the bark, and their
direction at the point of termination, their comparative width,
origin and termination.
Examine a transverse section of gelse-
mium count the number of cells in width in the medullary
;
ray near the center and those in the same ray near the cir-
cumference ; compare with the medullary rays in a transverse
section of lappa, or pyrethrum.
PAHENCBYMATOVS CELLS. 215
Examine a tangential longitudinal section of quassia or

other wood, count the cells in the ray. Examine transverse
sections of frangula, cascara sagrada and pomegranate root
bark, noting particularly the number of rays crossing the
field, their direction, and where they terminate.
CoUenchyma (Gr. colkt =
glue, and egchyma
infusion ; =
the thickening in the angles of the cells is of a glue-like
substance) cells closely resemble ordinary parenchyma, hav-
ing cellulose walls with slit-like pores, which are directed
parallel to the length of the cell ; whereas in bast and wood-
fibers these opeqiiigs or pores are oblique. The distinguish-
ing feature of collenchyma cells consists in a considerable
thickening of the cell- walls at their angles.
They serve as a strengthening layer in many growing Dico-
tyledonous stems. This function is furthered by thickening
in their corners.' Since they occur in growing tissues they
must be able to keep pace with this growth. This they do
by increasing in number (by cell-division) as well as by in-
crease in their own dimensions. To enable them to grow
actively they contain protoplasm. They are considerably
elongated, and have tapering ends which fit into one another
with few or no intercellular spaces. These characters give
them some resemblance to prosenchymatous cells. Collen-
chyma cells are found in the corners of some quadrangular
stems (many of the Labiatse), and they form a layer beneath
the epidermis of many herbaceous stems (not in Monocotyle-
dons) and petioles and midribs of leaves.
Practical Exercise. —Make thin transverse and longitudinal
sections of the stem of peppermint. In the corners of the
stem collenchyma cells are seen to form isolated masses of a
yellowish color.
The beginner is cautioned not to mistake the wood-cells,
which lie near the epidermis, except in the comers, for the
collenchyma. In longitudinal section collenchyma cells are
seen as narrow tubes averaging 15 to 30 microns in diameter
by some ten times that in length. Unless the transverse
sections are cut squarely across or extremely thin, the cells
' Ambi'own found their stability to be little inferior to true bast, but they
are much less elastic than the latter.
will appear to have their walls thickened on all sides. The

petiole of the common grape, in which a layer of about
seven cells in thickness is found, affords an easier demon-
stration.
Collenchyma of minor importance in pharmacog-
cells are
nosy, since they show butlittle diversity of characteristics.
Their presence or absence in a given case may be significant.

Stone-cells (variously termed stone dements, selereids,
solerotio cells, solerenchyma, etc.) tend more to remain of the
approximate shape of ordinary parenchyma than do those
of any other permanent tissue. Nevertheless, they are ex-
ceedingly diversified, and, therefore, afford excellent means
of identifying drugs and detecting adulterations. In general,
stone-cells, as seen in official drugs, are nearly isodiametric,
with walls very much thickened —
often so much so as to
form an almost solid body. The walls are penetrated by
openings called pore-canals.
In addition to the typical, nearly isodiametric stone-cells
(which DeBary called short stone sclerenchym), Tschirch
classifies those of other shapes as macrosclereids (elongated
with blunt ends, seen in seed-coats, etc.) ; osteosclereids (hav-
ing bone-like (rounded) ends) ; and astrosclereids (the many-
branched stone sclerenchym of DeBary) (having star-shaped
formation with cone-like ends). Tea-leaves show some of
these grotesque forms.
The walls are lignified, or infiltrated with another modifi-
cation of cellulose, lignin, in a manner analogous to that of
the formation of cork-cells by subereous infiltration. They
oftenshow a number of concentric rings, as though the walls
were composed of layers. The walls are yellowish, unless
stained by their contents, and are highly refractive to light.
The stone-cells found in official drugs are usually filled
with air, sometimes with resinous matter ; occasionally they
contain starch-grains.
Stone-cells are very widely distributed in mature Dicotyle-
donous plants ; they occur rarely in Monocotyledonous, and
never in Cryptogams. They are particularly abundant in
many barks (wild cherry, asclepias, cinchona), in the coats of
seeds, and in the rinds of fruits.
In the asclepias root they form a dense layer of about a

millimeter in thickness, replacing the epidermis, no other
official root having such a layer.
Typical^ stone-cells may be easily de-
monstrated by rubbing the outer surface of the official ascle-
pias root with a fine file (nail-file of penknife), mounting the
resulting powder in dilute glycerin, warming to expel air
before placing the cover-glass ; a thin section of pomegran-
ate-root bark will show isolated stone-cells. A little powder
of wild-cherry bark, heated for a few minutes with Schultze's
maceration fluid diluted with several times as much water,
shows a variety of ceils which might be classed as either
stone-cells or branching bast-fibers, both being actually pre-
FiG. 13.— stone-cells isolated from asclepias.
sent in more form in addition to these intermediate

typical
types. When examined, the powder presents a puz-
first
zling confusion of cells, but if one has examined the isolated

cells of asclepias and those of pomegranate-root bark in situ
as previously suggested, he will soon be able to distinguish
the stone-cells. The powder is suggested in this case, owing
to the difficulty in making thin sections of the bark even
after prolonged maceration in the usual softening menstrua
(Fig. 13).
Hudodermis, nucleus sheath, protecting sheath, bundle
sheath are some of the names (none of them accurately de-
scriptive) given to a layer of cells found in some of the offi-
cial roots and rhizomes separating the central cylinder from
the cortical portion (sarsaparilla) or inclosing that portion in
which the greater nuQiber of fibrovascular bundles are found

(Monocotyledonous rhizomes).
The cells of the endodermis are usually somewhat elon-
gated in the direction of growth of the root or rhizome.; if
seen in transverse sections, they appear approximately quad-
rangular or isodiametric.
The walls are either cellulose, partly lignified, or partly
suberized, usually thickened on one or more sides. The outer
walls (toward the epidermis) may alone remain thin (ti'iticum,
Fig. 14).
The contents of the cells consist largely of starch or only
of air. Where the walls are thickened, they serve as a me-
chanical support for the central cylinder, and, according to
Fig. 14.— Part of rootlet of triticum, showing Sh, nucleus sheath with thin outer
and thick inner and side walls F, fibers V, vessel.
; ;
Frank, as an epidermal tissue in reserve against the destruc-

tion of the primary bark.
These cells are sometimes of importance in pharmacog-
nosy. The thickening of the walls is then of a special
importance, whether it be the inner wall only or this with
the side walls, or uniform on all sides, as in Honduras
sarsaparilla.
Stain with anilin and examine trans-
verse sections of sarsaparilla root and the rhizomes of cal-
amus or iris, and of triticum. Note the thickening of the
walls of the nucleus sheaths —
whether all walls or only
certain ones are affected. Examine a longitudinal section
of sarsaparilla, noting the length of the cells of the endo-
dermis. Compare those of the nucleus sheath with those
lying just within the epidermis (Fig. 24).
Wood parenchyma belongs rather to the parenchy-

matous than to the prosenchymatous tissues, though they
occasionally terminate in a pointed end, after the manner
of wood-fibers. The wood parenchyma cells are somewhat
elongated, but their lateral diameters are nearly equal, their
walls remaining thin and showing dotted markings similar
to those of dotted vessels (see p. 225).
While the plant is actively growing these cells convey car-
bohydrates in solution, but in winter they serve for the
storage of starch and other substances. Their contents may
serve to indicate approximately the time at which the drug
was collected.
Wood parenchyma cells may be demonstrated in quassia.
A tangential longitudinal section (Fig. 12) shows them about
20 microns in width by from 40 to 100 or more in length.
Here they present the appearance of a thin-walled, flattened
wood-fiber subdivided by transverse walls, the end-cells re-
maining pointed ; this will be understood by reference to the
figure.
show very thin places whereby the
Laterally their walls
fluids passfrom cell to cell, thus forming a line of commu-
nication between the medullary rays, the cells of which they
resemble in general appearance ; that is, when the inter-
mediate (not the pointed) wood parenchyma cells are seen in
longitudinal sections they resemble those of the medullary
ray seen in a transverse section of the wood.
It has been said that these cells present the appearance of
a thin-walled wood-fiber divided by transverse walls ; occa-
sionally the fiber-like form is retained by similar cells which
do not have the cross-walls. These have the function of
wood parenchyma, but the shape of wood-fiber, and have
been designated by the Germans as "substitution cells";
but for our purpose we shall include them under Wood
Parenchyma.
The student may find it difficult at times to distinguish
wood-fiber from wood parenchyma, on the one hand, and
from tracheids on the other ; but the name is of little con-
sequence if he understands the form in any given case.
Examine a tangential longitudinal
section of quassia (mounted in glycerin or glycerin-jelly).

Note the presence here and there of pointed cells which
resemble in appearance the wood-fibers, but have transverse
walls, dividing them into parallelograms (or the end ones
triangular). Note that the walls are frequently perforated,
the openings appearing as slits or interruptions in the cell-
walls, best seen by strong illumination.
CHAPTEE IV.
SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS (Continoed).
PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES.

Peosenchymatous tissues (Gr. pros = to or toward,
egchyma = an infusion) include in general those cells which
are greatly elongated, with pointed ends, usually overlapping,
and possessing greatly thickened walls. The truth of the
following quotation will appeal to the student " How ap-
:
parent and convenient oft the distinction between paren-

chyma and prosenchyma appears, yet how little it can be
sharply drawn." But for the greater part we shall have little
trouble in distinguishing between them.
Prosenchymatous tissues include bast-fibers, wood-fibers,
vessels, and tracheids.
Bast-fibers (bast-cells, hard bast, sclerenchyma fibers,
liber fibers, stereids) are the most elongated of all vegetable
cells, their length in some instances being 4000 times their
width. They are cone-pointed, or taper very gradually to an
exceedingly fine point (flax) sometimes they have more or
;
less rounded ends (mezereon) ; they sometimes fork or branch

at the end. Their walls are usually very much thickened,
so that the lumen is reduced to a fine line (cinchona, glycyr-
rhiza) ; frequently they show canals or pores running from

the lumen to the circumference.
The lumen may extend uninterruptedly from end to end,
as in the silky bast-fibers of mezereon, where it shows a
slight expansion at the ends or it may be interrupted by the
;
extreme thickening of the walls, causing occlusion.

When the fibers occur in dense groups, as in cotton-root
bark and in glycyrrhiza, they are more or less compressed
laterallyby mutual pressure, a transverse section showing
them to be somewhat quadrangular or polyhedral.
221
Frequently they are strongly lignified, as in glycyrrhiza

but sometimes they have cellulose walls (mezereon, stillingia),
or they may be slightly lignified, as in hemp.
Some fibers show node-like appearances, easily seen in
flax (linen) others have analogous formations which appear
;
as bright cross-lines with rather high magnification and strong

illumination. They are seen in those fibers which are slightly
or not at all lignified. When boiled in Schultze's macera-
tion fluidand then rinsed in water, elm and mezereon fibers
tend to break up at these points. The inexperienced student
will hardly find these markings of great aid in pharma-
cognosy.
Immature bast-fibers may contain the usual cell-contents ;
but those found in official roots, rhizomes,and barks are
empty.
True bast-fibers (see Libriform Fibers, p. 223) occur in
the barks of Dicotyledonous roots and stems, and associated
with the woody portion of Monocotyledons. They are of
great importance in pharmacognosy by virtue of their pres-
ence or absence in a given specimen ; the ease with which
their presence is recognized ; their length ; the shape of their
ends ; the presence or absence of markings, such as pore
canals, nodes, or dislocations ; the thickness of their walls
and the nature of composition ; together with their
their
occurrence singly or in groups and their relative numbers.
Unfortunately, these data are not always easily accessible to
the student for each drug, hence we must compare a given
specimen under examination with one of known identity
along the lines indicated.
Cinchona may be identified by the shape of its fibers,
which are some ten times as long as broad, and by their
occurrence in radial lines. Young belladonna root resembles
althsea, but the latter contains numerous bast-fibers and the
former few or none.
Tease apart, in a drop of water, a
fragment of elm, using two needles. If the tissue is teased
in water, the individual fibers tend to separate more readily
than if the tissue is merely wetted and laid upon the slide.
Examine in water. Similarly tease apart and examine a frag-
PROSEJSCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 223
ment of mezereon, and of the outer part of althaea. Take a

flue thread from a linen handkerchief and tease apart in
water. Observe the " nodes " and the very loug tapering
ends. Place a cotton hair beside the linen (flax) fiber for
comparison. Finally stain a fragment of each with very
dilute solution of green anilin, and examine after rinsing in
\\'ater, to see which are lignified (deeply stained). Examine
a longitudinal section of cinchona. Note the pore canals in
the bast-fibers.
Wood-fibers (libriform fibers wood-cells) have been
;
termed by Haberlandt the bast-cells of the wood, because of

their close resemblance to bast-fibers.
In general they are shorter, less flexible, and more fre-
quently branched at the end, and are more strongly lignified
than are the bast. In Dicotyledonous roots and stems they
are found in the woody portion, while the bast is found in
the bark ; but in Monocotyledons the bast and wood are more
intimately associated.
Sarsaparilla (the only official Monocotyledonous root) is
said to contain no bast-fibers, since none occur in the cortical
portion, but its wood-fibers are indistinguishable from bast-
fibers,and, as has been said, may be indifferently called by

either name. The wood-cells of official drugs are usually
empty, or at least contain nothing of interest. What has
been said of the importance of bast-fibers in pharmacognosy
applies to the wood-fibers in a somewhat lesser degree.
Take a fragment of guaiac wood, tease
apart the fibers in water, preferably after they have been
macerated in a mixture of alcohol, water, and glycerin
mount in dilute glycerin and examine. The isolated fibers
are about half a millimeter in length by some 18 microns in
thickness when mounted in dilute glycerin.' They taper
toward either end.
A fragment of quassia teased apart will show fibers very
similar in general appearance, but longer (more than one
'Measurements made in aqueous media may not exactly agree with those
made in such media as cause the tissues to contract, or with those made
upon the intact tissues but in pharmacognosy we nearly always examine
;
tissues in such media.

millimeter —
1050 microns), the diameter being about the
same as that of guaiac. Boil a fragment of guaiao or quassia
in water for a few moments, and make a small section (it
need not be very thin). Stain it with solution of anilin, ac-
cording to previous directions note with what avidity it
;
takes up anilin from the water, leaving the latter colorless.

Vessels (ducts) are formed by rows of cells which be-
come confluent, either by the free perforation or the disappear-
ance of their intervening walls. A
continuous tube is thus
formed. The number of cells which may enter into the forma-
tion of a single vessel is very considerable ; but for the sake
of convenience we shall consider them as single elements.
They serve for the transmission of watery solution from the
roots to the leaves and other remote parts of the plant. They
are found in every part of flowering plants, though they may
be replaced in individual cases by tracheids. Tschirch would
limit the term "vessel "to those in which coalescence has
actually occurred ; but Sachs considers the otherwise identical
elements found in the young part of leaves as properly
included in the term.
The individual cells composing a vessel are usually of
nearly uniform diameter, giving to the latter a cylindric
shape, as in apocynum and aspidium ; but sometimes they
appear constricted at the point of union, the intermediate parts
being expanded much like a barrel (as in glycyrrhiza, Fig.
15, A).
The vessels, when present, are very conspicuous, both in
transverse and in longitudinal sections. In the former they
appear mostly as large circular openings ; in the latter their
length, breadth, and peculiar marking attract the attention.
Sometimes they may be distinctly seen with the naked eye
this is the case in pareira, in which they are found measuring
260 microns in diameter in calumba they are nearly as large.
;
These drugs are both derived from long climbing plants, in

which the vessels are frequently found even exceeding the
figures given.
In other cases the diameter of the vessels may approximate;
that of the neighboring cells ; thus, in apocynum there are
primary vessels of but 20 microns, and others of more than
PROSENCIIYMATOVS CELLS AND TUBES. 225
100 microns, in diameter. The individual segments of a vessel

are sometimes notably longer than broad. This is generally
the case in apocynum. In other cases their length and diam-
eter are approximately equal.
The component parts of a vessel are usually joined in such
a way that the partition is at right angles to the length of the
vessels, but sometimes the parts unite by oblique ends. While
the length and diameter of vessels render them so conspicu-
ous, their value in pliarmacognosy depends not less upon the
sculpturings of their \valls, which give rise to appearances by
which the vessels are known, as spiral, pitted, reticulated, or
Fig. 15.— Vessels : A, Pitted ; B, spiral ; C, double spiral ; D, scalariform.
scalariform. Owing to the importance of these sculpturings,

they will be described somewhat in detail.
Spiral and annular vessels have the thickening in the shape
of spirals and rings deposited upon the inner surface of the
original cellulose of their walls, the deposit being strongly
lignified. There may be a single continuous spiral (Fig. 16, b),
or the spirals may be double, in which case they appear to
cross each other at right angles when both upjêr and under
surfaces are in view at once (Fig. 15, c). In some cases there
are an even greater number of spirals, but they do not interest
us here. Annular vessels have these thickenings deposited
as rings.
By maceration in nitric acid and potassium chlorate the
more ground substance of the original cell-wall may
delicate
be dissolved, the spirals and rings remaining. The former

are often seen in sections, pulled out to some length, owing
to the fact that they are caught by the razor and pulled away
from the more delicate groundwork of the cell (Fig. 16).
Pitted or dotted vessels have minute thin places which
appear as short narrow slits (5 microns in glycyrrhiza).
These look like perforations, but are in reality spaces where
no thickening has appeared ; and since so much more light
penetrates them, they shine by contrast. In glycyrrhiza
(Fig. 15, a) these are quite regularly disposed.
The formation of reticulated and scalariform vessels is simi-
lar to that of the pitted, except that in the scalariform the
thin spaces are longer and are arranged side by side, with great
regularity in aspidium (Fig. 15, t>); hence the name scalari-
form (from L. scalere, a ladder or stair-steps). When these
¥ia. 16.— Section of podophyllum, showing spiral drawn out.
thin places are irregular in lengthand arrangement, variously

overlapping, the vessels are called reticulated. Obviously
there is no sharp distinction among the last three.
In mature tissues vessels are always strongly lignified, and
lignification takes place very early in most cases even the ;
vessels of the delicate stigmas of crocus show this lignifica-

tion.
The vessels in official drugs ordinarily appear empty, con-
taining at most a watery solution ; occasionally they are found
with starch or other substance. In dense woods they often
become entirely filled with resin or other matter.
"Vessels are of the utmost importance in pharmacognosy,
because of the ease with which they are usually recognized
(but it should be remembered that a fragment of a vessel may
not always be distinguishable from a traoheid). In powders
their significant points are their size and the character of
:
FROSENCEYMATOVS CELLS AND TUBES. 227
markings, whether they are united into cylindric tubes or

have their components barrel-shaped whether they unite by
;
right angles or oblique surfaces their relative abundance is

;
of great importance.
Practical Exercise. —Examine a longitudinal section of any
official root except ipecac, after staining with anilin. Exam-
ine a fragment of a thin leaf, such as coca, after heating for a
few moments in saturated alcoholic solution of potassa and
rinsing in water if the vessels are not distinctly visible in the
;
smaller veins, scrape off the epidermis and then examine.

Stain a thin section of squill and compare its vessels with
those found in a longitudinal section of glycyrrhiza, meni-
spermum, or pareira.
Tracheids diifer from vessels in that the individual cells
remain separated and do not fuse. Their walls show mark-
ings and sculpturings like those of vessels. This serves to
distinguish them from wood-fibers, which they resemble
closely in shape. Their ends are usually pointed and over-
lapping.
In some cases, however, the ends are flattened and placed in apposition,
so as to resemble a tube. The resemblance is only supei-ficial, for the parti-
tions persist, communication existing only by means of the openings to be
shortly described or by the thin places which remain when thickening occui-s
over the greater part of the cell-wall. While these formations are there-
fore strictly tracheids, according to the classification of Tschirch their mor-
phologic resemblance to vessels is so close that we shall consider them as
vessels in this work. The so-called spiral vessels of aspidium are an
example.
The length of tracheids, though variable, is comparable to

that of the wood-fibers. In ipecac root, where they replace
both vessels and wood-fibers, they average about half a milli-
meter in length (400 to 500 microns).
—they not only
.
In the Coniferous woods — pine, spruce, etc.

attain to a considerable length (up to four millimeters), but
they have peculiar markings, to which the name "bordered
pits " has been given. These appear as openings surrounded
by rings and consist of flattened or hemispheric thickenings
with an opening in the center (Fig. 17). Two of these occur-
ring in contiguous cells form a hollow sphere with the oppo-
site openings separated by the thin film (torus) of the
original dividing which is ordinarily invis-

cellulose wall,
ible, so that the two seem to have uninterrupted com-
cells
munication. This dividing septum permits watery solutions

to pass freely.
Practical Exercise. —Take several thin longitudinal sections
of a match-stick, boil for a moment in water, or let them lie
in water to expel air-bubbles ; ex-
B amine in water or dilute glycerin.
The tracheids with their circular
markings are very easily seen (any
Coniferous wood answers equally
well). The central woody part of
ipecac root is not easily cut longi-
tudinally, but if sections are at hand,
examine them and notice the differ-
ence in the markings of those tra-
cheids and the ones seen in the pine.
Draw a tracheid and its bordered
pits.
m:
Sieve-tissues or sieve-cells
are closely allied to vessels in that
Fig. 17. —Tracheids, show- they, like the former, are composed
ing the bordered pits: ^,Two
apposed openings, showing
P, torus, and L, middle of a series or row of cells placed end
lamella; B, numerous pits to end and forming tubes of consid-
upon surface of a tracheid.
erable length. The partitions or walls
separating the cells of the sieve-tubes are not absorbed, how-
ever, but are perforated with a great number of minute open-
ings, through which the cell-contents pass from member to
member or through the tube.
Sometimes the partitions separating the parts of the tube
are nearly at a right angle to the direction of the tube (as in
the pumpkin. Fig. 18), but sometimes they are oblique, or
the plates may be upon the sides of adjoining cells. These
openings or sieve-plates never communicate with other neigh-
boring tissues.
Sieve-tubes also differ from vessels in that they never have
the peculiar thickenings (sculpturings) found upon the latter;
—
nor do their walls become lignified ^they further never attain
the conspicuous diameter of ducts ; rarely, in official drugs,
PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 229
having a diameter exceeding 10 to 20 microns (indeed, as

usually seen, they are the collapsed remains of tubes which
are no longer active).
Since sieve-cells serve to conduct certain albuminoid sub-
stances which never traverse the vessels, they
are the essential parts of the phloem (p. 242).
With the coming of winter the pores or
openings in the sieve-plates are partially or
completely closed by a deposition of callus
which is reabsorbed in the spring. In older
tubes solution of the callus fails to occur, and
the tubes become obliterated by pressure of
surrounding tissue.
Sieve-tubes traverse every organ of the
plant. In the roots and stems of Dicotyle-
dons they occur in the bark, but in Mono-
/,
cotyledons they are found associated with
the vessels in masses which may be sepa-
rated in the form of strings ; these are the
fibrovascular bundles, in which their distri-
bution will be further considered. Excep-
tionally in official Dicotyledonous roots (gen-
tian) they occur in the central woody part,
where they may be seen as collapsed cells.
Careful search will show some of the sieve-
plates, by which they may be recognized, in
the neighborhood of some of the vessels.
Practical Exercise. —To demonstrate them,
a longitudinal section of fresh pumpkin stem
is placed in alcohol for a day to kill the proto-
plasm, which is then stained by placing the

section in eosin (No. 8). The stained pro-
toplasm isfound in masses near the sieve- Fig. 18.— Sieve-
tnbes from pump-
plates, and sometimes tlie fine threads may kin stem.
be traced through the pores.
Sieve-tubes show so little variation in different drugs that
they are unimportant in pharmacognosy. In glycyrrhiza the
collapsed cells may be seen abundantly in the bast region,
but in the powder of this drug they become so broken as to
be almost or quite unrecognizable. Indeed, sieve-tubes are

so inconspicuous that they long escaped observation.
When advisable these may simply be demonstrated by the
instructor.
Companion cells, so named because they occur inti-
mately associated with sieve-tubes (being formed at the same
time from the same mother-cell or cambium) and communi-
cate with them by means of minute openings or pores. They
are somewhat narrower than the sieve-tubes, and are not
joined by the sieve-plates into tubes, but remain independent
cells.
Their walls consist of cellulose and remain thin. Their
contents are similar to those of the sieve-tubes, which they
further resemble in function. They may be seen in the sec-
tion of pumpkin stem with the sieve-tubes, but it is not
always easy to distinguish them except in very thin sections.
When the thickened plates are seen in the tubes, they are
easily distinguished by that characteristic and by the greater
diameter of the sieve-tubes.
What has been said of the lack of importance of the
sieve-tubes in pharmacognosy applies with even greater force
to the companion cells, which are mentioned here that the
student may understand, rather than employ, them in the
identification of drugs.
The name companion cells was given the application just
mentioned by Wilhelm, and generally applies to them. Eus-
sow applied the name to wood parenchyma cells associated
with tracheids. Of course, the term is not a scientific one,
but is sanctioned by usage in connection with the cells
accompanying sieve-tubes.
I/aticiferous ^ tissues comprise several kinds of cells or
vegetable elements, principal among them being those in
which a number of cells unite to form tubes, or in some cases
a mesh of communicating cells or tubes. These are called
laticiferous vessels or tubes. Their walls consist of cellulose,
and are never They are usually very thin, but may
lignified.
occasionally be very much thickened. In these vessels the
'Variously written "laticiferous" (L. fato = liquid, and /erre = tobear)
"lactiferous" (L. /ac = niilk) ; and " lacticiferous."
PR08ENCHYMAT0VS CELLS AND TUBES. 231
formation of tubes is analogous to that of spiral and other

vessels of the wood ; but they have the peculiar property of
forming a very free communication (anastomosis) or network
by means of branches sent out in every direction.
Another variety is formed by the extraordinary tubular
development of a cell which freely branches but forms no
anastomosis.
A formation analogous in many respects to laticiferous
vessels consists of cells containing milk-juice, occurring in
rows, but not forming tubes ; such, for instance, are found
among Monocotyledons, in which true laticiferous vessels are
wanting. They may also be seen in the tuber of jalap.
Laticiferous vessels occur in plants of but a few natural
orders, in which they seem to take the place of sieve-tubes.
Though the precise function of the milk-vessels is not known,
Tschirch inclines to the belief that it is partly excretory,
partly conducting or for the carrying of reserve material
and in those plants where they are very well developed the
sieve-tubes, whose function is purely conducting, are either
few or absent.
The laticiferous vessels penetrate to all organs of the plants
in which they are found, intimately associated with or re-
placing sieve-tubes. In the genus Acer (maple), according
to Sachs, the sieve-tubes are transformed into laticiferous ves-
sels, while the same author regards the laticiferous vessels
found in the woody part of arum as metamorphosed spiral
vessels. Since they are usually found in or near the sieve
portion, we look for them in the bark of roots and stems.
The latex is usually white in color, becoming brownish
upon drying. It is an emulsion and consists of a great
variety of substances, very commonly caoutchouc, gums,
resins, sometimes starch, etc. Opium is the latex of the
unripe capsule of Papaver somniferum.
Laticiferous vessels are not very important in pharmacog-
nosy, since they occur in comparatively few official drugs, and
in most of these there are other and more important means
of identification.
A transverse section of taraxacum shows to the naked eye
a number of irregular dark circles in the bark, due to the
system of latieiferous vessels. If a freshly gathered speci-

men of this root be cut into small pieces and put into alcohol
containing a little iodin, the juice is coagulated by the alcohol
and stained brown by the iodin. If sections are made from
these pieces after some time, the tubes appear very distinctly.
Simple latieiferous vessels, not anastomosing, may be seen
in the bark of the official apocynum root or in that of the
very closely allied Apocynum androssemifolium, which is
very commonly sold in place of the official.
Longitudinal sections show their long tubular character
and granular contents. In the transverse sections they may
be recognized by their diameter, which exceeds that of the
parenchyma cells surrounding them ; here their walls are
somewhat thickened.
Boil for a few minutes a tangential
longitudinal section of taraxacum root (or one of the smaller
any other species may be
rootlets of lobelia, the official, or
used entire) in very dilute solution of potassa, one-half per
cent, approximately ; mount the section of taraxacum, or
only of the easily separable bark of the rootlet, in glycerin.
The alkaline solution renders the other tissues clear, and the
latieiferous tubes are seen as irregularly branching brownish
tubes containing granular matter.
Receptacles for secretions and excretions are of more
importance from the physiologic than the anatomic point of
view. In some cases they are of importance in pharmacog-
nosy, such as the oil-spaces in the different fruits of the
Umbellifera, in orange- and lemon-peel, in clove and mace,
in the leaves of eucalyptus and buchu, and in many roots
of the Compositse (see also Cell-contents, pp. 188—199).
They are of considerable interest in connection with the
substances derived from them, as in the case of many vola-
tile oils and oleoresin of copaiba. The latter is contained in
tubes sometimes an inch in diameter and extending the entire
length of the trunk of the tree. In an elementary work of
this character mention can be made of but a few of the many
kinds.
Secretion receptacles and those for excretion may be here
considered together. The term " secretion " is applied to
PROSENCHYMATOVS CELLS AND TUBES. 233
those substances separated by means of certain cells (glands)

from the general mass of cell-contents, and intended for
future use by the plant; and "excretion" to substances
similarly separated, but to be cast off, or at least excluded,
from any part in active processes. But no sharp distinction
can be drawn between them, much less between the cells con-
cerned in their separation as excretory or secretory cells.
Inasmuch as the same tissue may perform different func-
tions, any classification must include tissues which can equally
well be included under more than one head.
Epidermal glands were mentioned in connection with the
epidermis (see p. 202), because they consist of modified epi-
dermal cells ; it is only necessary in this place to call atten-
tion to the fact that they form a part of the system of recep-
tacles for excretion and secretion.
Excretion receptacles are very widely distributed ; most
of the official drugs or other parts of the plants yielding them
have these receptacles in greater or less abundance.
Volatile oil, resin, and mucilage cells usually show the
typical parenchyma form, being more or less roundish in
shape, having cellulose and cork-walls ; or they may con-
sist of pure or nearly pure cellulose, as is the case in the
rhizome of calamus (Fig. 21). They may be distinguished
from the parenchyma surrounding them by being more trans-
parent and notably larger, as in those of calamus just men-
tioned ; or they may be smaller, as in the shell of cardamom ;
in other cases they may show no difference in point of size.
They occur either as isolated cells, in which case they are
usually distributed without order through the tissue of the
organ (as in the rhizome of iris) ; or they may be found in
rows, somewhat resembling laticiferous tubes, but remaining
independent (for example, those occurring in the fruit of
conium).
Certain mucilage cells may be mentioned in this place.
Gums and the nearly related mucilages are either produced
by a transformation of all or a part of the cell-wall into those
substances ; or rarely they may be secreted into special cells,
as in the case of cusso. In most cases mucilage occurs as a
secondary thickening or deposit upon the inner cell-wall or
as the product of the metamorphosis of a part of the wall.

This is seen in the large mucilage cells of elm bark. Secre-
tions and excretions may also be contained in tubes or pas-
sages. These may be formed by the fusion of cells, or they
may be true intercellular spaces. In some cases it is quite
easy to determine by which of these methods they have
arisen. In other cases it is very difficult.
Oil-spaces due to cell fusion and cdêd lysigenic (Gr. lyo
= to dissolve gennao
;
=I produce) are formed by the dis-
appearance (solution^ of groups of associated cells which had
previously contained, drops of oil. These were in some in-
stances similar to the surrounding cells, in other cases dis-
similar. They may occur in the deep-lying tissues, or the
epidermis may participate. In the latter circumstance they
are sometimes called internal glands, in contradistinction to
those formed externally and mentioned in connection with
the cells of the epidermis (p. 205). Such spaces may be
found in the peel of orange and lemon, where they attain
great size (one millimeter diameter, Fliickiger ; 400 to 500
microns, Tschirch; 600 microns, Hatcher). They are in-
closed by a special form of cells, which, however, do not
secrete oil into the spaces.
Oil-spaces or balsam passages due to the formation of
intercellular spaces (see also Intercellular Spaces, p. 236) and
called sohizogenio (Grr. schizo = to cleave ; gennao = I pro-
duce) are formed by the forcing asunder of four adjoining
cells and their subsequent division into daughter-cells, which
secrete the oil orbalsam and pour it into the space so formed.
Reference to Fig. 19 will- make the formation easily under-
stood. By the prolongation of this space long tubes or oil-
passages are formed. Sach are the oil-spaces in most of the
Umbelliferous fruits, fennel, etc. (conium, previously men-
tioned, p. 234, being an exception), in clove, pimenta, savin
(leaf), inula, pyrethrum, arnica. Important products ob-
tained from schizogenic passages include oleoresins from the
Coniferse and many gum-resins (ammoniac and asafetida).
While the individual receptacles are not usually sufficiently
characterized to render them useful in the identification of
vegetable powders, their relative numbers and distribution
PBOSENOHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 235
may be of greater importance in the recognition of the sec-

tioned drugs. Thus in arnica rhizome they are usually found
one opposite to each fibrovascalar bundle in the bark; in
inula they are freely distributed throughout the root, and in
'^'^Lji
y^
OcprtJ
Fig. 19.— Showing the development of an oil nr balsam receptacle, or

from an intercellular space A, Shows four cells, ff, q, g, q, which in
; B have sepa-
rated, the walls being convex toward the space, but in C and V becoming concave
in JTthe space has become elongated. The boundary-cells divide (as do the older
cells in some cases) in 7? and G, when the space is fully formed and surrounded by
the secreting cells (Muller).
pyrethrum they are even more numerous and equally dis-

tributed. In the fruits of the Umbelliferffi the number of
is very characteristic for each fruit
the oil-tubes Coriander, :
2 in each mericarp ; anise, about 15; fennel and caraway,

each 6.
Sachs states that laticiferous vessels are usually absent in

those plants which have secretion canals, exceptions men-
tioned include lappa and some other Compositse, and in these
cases they are found in different tissue systems.
Practical Exercise. —Examine transverse sections of arnica
(rhizome), inula, pyrethrum, and lappa, and approximately
estimate the relative numbers of oil-spaces. Note their dis-
tribution, whether more numerous in bark or wood. Make
a section of lemon- or orange-peel and note the large size of
the oil-spaces and whether they are connected with the epi-
dermis or not. Examine transverse sections of fennel or
other Umbelliferous fruit (except conium), and of cloves.
Fig 20. —Parenchyma from aconite, showing intercellular spaces (i).
Intercellular spaces should be considered here, since

they present, in sections of organs, appearances often no less
typical than are many of the cells. Mention has been pre-
viously made of these spaces (p. 207), and in this place
reference will be made only to a few of the more typical
forms. They may be very minute, as in the parenchyma of
ipecac and other roots, where they are usually nearly trian-
gular spaces left at the angles of cells (Fig. 20), or they
rriaybe much larger than the cells which surround them, as
in theparenchyma of calamus (Fig. 21, /), and to a less
extent in iris. In the former they appear nearly circular,
PBUSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 237
separated from each other by a network composed of single

rows of cells. Between these there are all gradations of
shape and size. They play a very important role in the
leaves in connection with the stomata previously mentioned,
and in water and marsh plants. They are less important but
widely distributed in nearly all organs. If we except the
openings of the stomata, they do not occur in the epidermis
(though so important beneath it) nor in the endosperm of
—
Fig. 21. Calamus (transverse section) B, Fibrovascular bundle of the concen-
:
tric type (vessels surrounding the phloem) within the nucleus sheath ;C, B, iibro-
vascular bundle of collateral type, outside of the nucleus sheath, going to a leaf;
/, large intercellular space; I', intercellular space in the bundle; S, nucleus
sheath V, vessel.
;
seeds, few in medullary rays, nor do they separate the cells

of the endodermis sheath, and are usually insignificant in
dense woody tissues.
In general, plants growing in dry places have small inter-
cellular spaces, while those in moist places have large ones.
Intercellular spaces illustrate the diversity of uses to which
similar or analogous structures are put by the plant. They
enable the air to come into intimate contact with the starch-
forming parenchyma of the leaf; in other instances they are
utilized as storage receptacles or may be made especially for

that purpose.
Practical Exercise. —Examine sections of calamus, showing
large intercellular spaces of marsh plant (Fig. 21), aspidium,
and a transverse section of any official leaf. Note that these
latter permit the air to come into contact with most of the
interior parenchyma cells of the leaf.
CHAPTER V.
TISSUES AND ORGANS.

TISSUES.
Tissues are groups of cells, alike or unlike, united for the

performance of a definite function. Ndgeli classified all the
tissues as meristem, or that which gives rise to new cells by
division ; and permanent, or that which is incapable of cell-
division.
Meristetn is the name given to the cells which, by their
active division, give birth to new cells.
Primary meristem is that found at the growing points of
organs, and, in fact, the whole of the embryonic organ is
meristematic ; as the organ enlarges the meristem becomes
separated by permanent cells. Thus in Dicotyledons that
portion of meristem situated beneath the cork and giving rise
to cork and phloem parenchyma is called phellogen, or cork
cambium that portion between wood and bark is called cam-
.5
bium if between the two masses of a fibrovascular bundle,

;
it may be termed fascicular cambium that portion separat- ;
ing bark parenchyma from the central mass of parenchyma

is called interfascicular cambium. The fascicular cambium,
by subdivision of its cells, gives rise to new cells toform
additional vessel masses toward the center and new sieve-
masses toward the circumference. The interfascicular cam-
bium gives off parenchyma in both directions.
Tissues have been variously grouped by different authors,
but the groupings are of minor importance from the purely
pharmacognostic point of view, hence but brief mention. will
be made of them here.
Sachs' morphologic classification, which is frequently em-
ployed, groups them into three systems :
1. The epidermal system corresponding to those already

239
240 TISSUES AND ORGANS.
mentioned under that head tlie epidermis and its append-

;
ages and cork

; this system
; has a fairly well-defined phys-
iologic function i. e., protection of the inner tissues.
2. The jibrovascular system comprises very dissimilar ele-

ments, such as vessels, sieve-cells, and bast-fibers with
—
Fig. 22. Transverse section of aspidiura cp., Epidermis m, an intercellular
: ;
space into which projects a gland, g (not usually seen easily). One entire and part
of a second fibrovascular bundle are seen, consisting of E, endoderm 6, the;
phloem, and V, vessels (Godfrin and Noel).
equally dissimilar functions, forming a skeleton framework

and serving for conduction. The fibrovascular bundles or
strings of Monocotyledons and Ferns form well-characterized
groups or bundles, but the average student seems to find it
more difiicult to comprehend the wedge-like masses of tissues
in Dicotyledons as forming definite groups.
TISSUES. 241
A transverse section of aspidium (Fig. 22) illustrates the

Fern type of arrangement of these bundles in the stem. They
form an interrupted circle of about ten principal bundles, each
of them roundish or oval in outline, composed of an outer
circle of cells with thickened walls inclosing two masses
the central mass, composed of wide, thick-walled cells the —
vessels (or vessel-like tracheids) —
the lateral or outer mass
partially or completely surrounding the inner, composed of
thin-walled cells —
the sieve portion. Though no bast or
other fibers are present, it retains the name of iibrovascular
bundle.
The Monocotyledonous type of arrangement is seen in cala-
mus and iris. The individual bundles resemble rather closely
those of the Fern, with the diiference in most cases that while
Ferns have the vessels in the center, Monocotyledons have the
masses lying side by side (collateral bundles), or they have
the vessels surrounding the sieve portion (Fig. 21, E). In
the distribution of the bundles there is a great difference, how-
ever ; instead of the few well-developed in the Fern, we find
great numbers Monocotyledon, not grouped in a circle,
in the
but scattered without any apparent order, save that they are
massed more thickly near the endodermal sheath. Those upon
the outside of the sheath, on their way to enter leaves (where
they form veins), have their parts rearranged into the collat-
eral form, which is the one found in the leaf (Fig. 21, C, B).
Where either mass surrounds the other it is called a concentric
bundle ; when the vessels and other constituents lie side by
side, collateral. This distinction is made whether the bundle
is surrounded by an endodermal sheath or not.
Bicollateral bundles (one mass between two others) are of

no interest here.
Dicotyledons have collateral bundles in roots and stems,
the vessel portion usually forming a more or less wedge-like
mass, constituting the woody part, and the sieve portion,
separated from it by the layer of cambium, lying in the bark
—raenispermum (Fig. 29).
Those fibrovascular bundles which have a cambium layer
are called open or growing; those without are called closed.
The masses of the vessel portion (which includes wood-
16
parenchyma, and vessels in many cases) are separated
fiber,
from each other by medullary rays or by masses of paren-
chyma cells.
Eadial fibrovascular bundles are of minor importance in
pharmacognosy, being found in very young roots, as in sarsa-
parilla. In this form the masses alternate like the spokes of
a wheel and the spaces between them (Fig. 24).
The vessel-masses are sometimes called xylem (Gr. xylon
= wood) and the sieve-masses, phloem (Gr. phloios =
bark),
even though they are found in Monocotyledons which have
no bark.
3. The fundamental system, the third system of Sachs, in-
cludes those tissues in which the fibrovascular tissue is dis-
tributed.
Haberlandt, whose classification is followed by Tschirch,
divides the tissues into the following systems :
1.Meristem, corresponding to the meristem of Sachs.

2. Protective, embracing the epidermal and the mechanically
supporting (fibers, etc.).
3. One including the absorbing system of the roots (hairs) ;
the assimilating system of the leaves (leaf parenchyma, the
conducting system through which dissolved material is trans-
mitted (vessels, sieve-tubes, etc.) ; the storage system, where
reserve material for food is stored ; the respiratory system, in-
cluding air-spaces and passages, and the system for secretion
and excretion with their storage reservoirs.
4. The reproductive system.
HISTOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS.

General Histology of the Root. The extreme— tip
or growing part of a root has a root-cap for the protection of
the younger cells. It may be seen if any growing rootlet tip
—
be examined as, for instance, that of grass. It is of no
interest in pharmacognosy. The very young root has an epi-
dermis similar to that already described, but lacking the
stomata ; near the tip it bears numerous hairs which soon
wither except in sarsaparilla, the only official root showing
them in considerable numbers.
The root consists at this stage of the cortex and central
HISTOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS. 243
cylinder separated by an endoderniis sheatli. The cortex is
very variable, consisting of few or many of the tissues, as

hitherto mentioned. The central cylinder consists of a radial
fibrovascular bundle with a variable number of masses (4 in
the Cruciferse to 100 in Indian corn). Since but one Mono-
cotyledonous root — sarsaparilla— is official, beside the rootlets
attached to the Monocotyledonous rliizomes it will serve as
an example of the development of that type (Fig- 24).
The epidermis persists, showing numerous short, straight
hairs. Within the epidermis is a layer of rather thick-walled
endodermal cells, the remainder of the cortex forming a broad
zone of ordinary parenchyma. The cortex is separated from
the central cylinder by an endodermis consisting of but a
single row or circle of cells having characteristically thickened
walls. Next to the endodermis is a woody zone, consisting
of numerous masses of xylem and phloem (vessel and sieve
portions). The center of the root is occupied by the pith,
composed of thin-walled parenchyma, or these may be lignified.
Dicotyledonous roots usually show considerably greater
changes from the type of the very young root. In these
cork usually di'splaces the epidermis, and the remainder of
the bark and the central cylinder resemble the stem in struct-
ure, save that the pith is more frequently wanting in the
roots.
Practical Exercises. —Examine transverse section of sar-
saparilla and of the cyprcpedium, veratrum viride,
rootlets of
and convallaria according to the outline given above.
General Histology of the Stem.—The very young
stem has no cap covering its growing point, and for the rest
resembles a very young root in its tissue arrangement, but it
is the developed stem with which we are really concerned.
The Fern type of stem is the simplest of the three found

among official drugs. Aspidium, the only official example,
may be taken for the type (Fig. 22).
The outermost layer of cells have rather thickened walls,
differing somewhat from the endodermal layer beneath the
epidermis of sarsaparilla the remainder of the entire rhi-
;
zome consists of thin-wall parenchyma, except for the fibro-

vascular bundles.
The Monocotyledonous
type of stem (Fig. 23) con-
sists of the epidermis, or
corky layer, with a cortical
zone of parenchyma sepa-
rated from the central pa-
renchyma by the endoder-
mis, many fibrovas-
with
cular bundles scattered
through both zones, much
more numerous within the
endodermis ; these bundles
being " closed " (having no
cambium zone), soon cease
to grow in diameter, hence
such stems soon reach their
maximum size.
The Dicotyledonous type
of stem has an epidermis if
young and green, or an outer
cork layer if some years old;
beneath this is a layer either
of cork or of parenchyma,
or both, in the order named,
and then the innermost layer
of the bark, the bast-fiber re-
gion. Alayer of cork may
be formed in any of these re-
gions, and since this is im-
pervious to liquids, every-
thing outside of it soon
dies, so that even a portion
of the bast layer may be
Fig. 23.— rurcuma (transverse sec-
separated ; in which case
tion) : Cork (subereous)
iS, : I, liber or bast there would remain only
V, vessels, these latter two forming the
concentric fibrovascular bundles (God- the outer cork and the re-
I'rin and Noel).
mainder of the bast region,
This commonlv occurs in old and woody Dicotyledons.
The next layer, separating the bark from the wood, is
HISTOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS. 245
the cambium, inclosing the central cylinder or woody por-

tion.
The central cylinder consists of a circle of wedge-shaped
vessel-masses separated by medullary rays or parenchyma and
inclosing a pith of parenchyma.
The type is well illustrated by the rhizome of Menisper-
mum (Fig. 29), in which, however, the epidermis persists
and there is no cork layer, even in the second year. It must
be remembered that while these types are given, there are
many variations.
PracticalExercises. —
Examine transverse sections of as-
pidium, calamus, and menispermum. Compare the latter, a
Dicotyledonous stem, with glycyrrhiza, a root of the same
class.
General Histology of the I/caf. —
All the official
leaves are Dicotyledonous. Both surfaces of the leaf are
covered Avith the epidermis, and the remainder consists of
parenchyma through which run the veins. These consist of
fibrovascular bundles. The arrangement of the parenchyma
varies, forming two types. The " centric," as seen in pine
leaf (never in official leaves), having the parenchyma nearly
evenly distributed through the entire leaf; the -''bifacial,"
having the palisade cells compactly arranged near the surface
and loose ordinary parenchyma toward the interior. The
latter type is very much more commonly seen. The petiole
consists usually of a closed collateral hurdle covered by the
epidermis as this bundle repeatedly divides to form the
;
smallest veinlets, it becomes depauperated (/. e., loses some

of its parts) until the smallest veinlet consists merely of a
vessel or two, really trachei'ds.
Practical Exercises. —Examine a tranverse section of a
portion of any taken across the midrib.
official leaf
FlowefS con.sist of modified leaves, or rather they are

phyllomes, a kind of leaf. Their individual peculiarities
form the principal means of identification (stigmas of crocus
and various forms of pollen grain).
Fruits show too great variation in histology to permit of
useful generalization.
Seeds consist of two coats, frequently blended, and of
the albumin and the cotyledons. One or both coats are very
often adherent to the albumin. The outer surface, or epi-
dermis, shows a considerable variety of structure, examj^les
of which are seen in flax-seed and in nux vomica.
The following drugs have been selected for illustrating the study of his-
tology. These illustrations should be carefully compared with sections of
the drugs in order to familiarize the student with the vai-ious forms of cells
and tissues. When these have been carefully studied and drawn from the
sections, the student is ready to proceed with the consideration of others, as
may be deemed important, at the discretion of the teacher.
Too great stress cannot be placed upon the value of carefully made
drawings, since, as before stated, this compels a close attention to detail, and
points which would otherwise escape the attention are observed.
Good histologic descriptions of most of the official as well as many un-
official drugs may be found in the dispensatories, and more especially scat-
tered through the volumes of the Proceedings of the American Pharmaêvr
'
tical Associati'in, not to mention numerous text-books.
The instructor may have the following blank printed and used in the
histologic descriptions of drugs, or it may be used merely as a guide. It is
not complete, but is intended merely to suggest some of the points to be
observed in certain cases. Under Remarks or after the various elements is
to be mentioned anything of interest or importance.
Drawing-paper of suitable sizes may be had of dealers in artists' mate-
rials and of stationer's, and should be used, since the drawings can be made
much better upon it than upon ordinary paper. An ordinary pencil may
be used, and the drawing traced in ink, or pencils may be used for HHHH
permanent drawings.
SpBCiMEsr Blank.
Official name . .
Epidermis ...
Cork . . . ....
Bast-fiber (length, etc. ) . . . . .
" (arrangement) ... . . .
Sieve-tissue . . . *
Cambium .
...
. .
Vessels (size) . . .
" (sculpturings) . . . .
Tracheids ....
Wood-fibei-s .
Medullary rays (width) . . ....

Pith ....
Crystals
Starch ...
Bemarks (anything
.
relating to above, peculiarities, distribution,

.
contents, etc. ) . . ....

CHAPTEE VI.
HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS.
ROOTS.
—
Sarsaparilla. The epidermis is rather thick-walled,
and usually shows a number of simple hairs. Beneath the
epidermis is an endodermal layer of thick angled cells.
Within the endodermis is a rather broad zone of parenchyma
cells, containing starch and occasionally raphides of calcium
oxalate. Separating the cortical portion just described from
the central woody portion is a single row or circle of cells,
the endodermis or sheath, the cells of which differ slightly in
shape for the different varieties of sarsaparilla. The central
portion of the root is composed of parenchyma, in some
cases lignified, with a radial fibrovascular bundle. The ves-
sels are sometimes of considerable diameter ; associated with
them are the fibers, and separating these masses of lignified
tissue are regions of sieve.
—
Belladonna Root. The epidermis is one or two layers
in thickness (corky in older roots). Within this lies the
bark parenchyma, containing starch and occasionally crystal
meal (cryptocrystalline calcium oxalate), the bark measuring
a millimeter or more in thickness ; there are no bast-fibers in
the bark ; this is separated from the central cylinder by the
cambium zone, usually very distinct, composed of thin-walled
brick-shaped cells. The masses of lignified tissue are sepa-
rated from each other by rather irregular medullary rays and
alternate (from center toward the circumference) with paren-
chyma, while plates of parenchyma are found at right angles
to the medullary rays penetrating the vessel-masses.
—
Ipecac. The structure of ipecac is very unlike that of
other official roots. The outermost layer consists of cork
three or four cells in thickness, stained brown ; interior to
this is a thick zone of parenchyma tissue, comprising about
247
248 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS.
three-fourths of the radius of the root ; many of the cells are

closely filled with starch (not shown in drawing), and occa-
"
—
Fig. 24. Transverse section of sarsaparilla ront; Ej>., Epidermis; End., endo-
dermis; P., pareneliyraa (containing starcli and sometimes rapliides— not shown
here) E. S, endodermal slieatli i", sieve-tissue (tlie cell-walls have collapsed)
; ; ;V,
vessels F^ fibers.
;
sionally there are seen raphides of calcium oxalate (the latter

are not common in Dicotyledons). The central cylinder (the
ROOTS. 249
white portion) consists

almost entirely of tra-
cheids, vessels wholly
wanting. In the region
where the central cyl-
inder is joined by the
parenchyma spurs of
sieve - tissue may be
seen extending into the
parenchyma, the cells
being commonly more
or less collapsed.
Fig. 25.— Transverse section of belladonna, root .Ep., Epidermis

: B, paren-
;
chyma of the bark (containing starch-grains and occasionally minute packed

crystals of calcium oxalate— not shown in illustration); C, cambium layer; V,
vessels; F, wiod-fibers; M, medullary ray; P, parenchyma of the central cylinder
or woody portion.
Inula. —Inula shows the following structure Corky :
layer, some six or eight cells in thickness, broad zone of

parenchyma separated from the central cylinder by a cam-
bium layer, the central cylinder consisting of parenchyma,
vessels, and other cells more or less lignified the medullary ;
Fig. 26.— Ipecac root : C, Cork; Pam, parencliyma ; S, sieve tubes ; T, tracheMs.
rays, aboutone cell in width, extending some distance into

the bark. In the cortex as well as in the central cylinder
are numerous large oil-tubes.
Taraxacum has a narrow corky layer with a very broad
zone of parenchyma, which is separated from the central
ROOTS. 251
Fig. 27.— Transverse section of inula: Fig. 28. — Transverse section of tar-
S, Cork g, secretion receptacles
: ; r, axacum : ,S, Cork ; p c, parenchyma of
medullary ray v, i/, vessels (Godfrin
; cortex; laticiferous tubes or ves-
It,
and Noel). sels c, cambium v, vessels (Godfrin
; ;
and Noel).
cylinder by a prominent cambium line. In tlie cortical por-

tion are circles of laticiferous vessels, which even to the
naked eye appear as brownish circles, due to tiie drying of

the latex. Inasmuch as these laticiferous vessels pursue a
very irregular course, they are not very sharply marked off
from the surrounding tissue and are best recognized by their
brownish appearance.
STEMS (RHIZOMES).
Menispermum. —The rhizome of menispermum serves
stem of Dicotyledons.
to illustrate the typical structure of the
The cells of the outer layer have a thickened cuticle. Within
this layer is found a moderately thick zone of parenchyma
tissue, the inner layer of bark showing crescent-shaped masses
of bast ; the cambium is indistinct. Interior to the mass of
bast lies a wedge of woody tissue consisting of wood-fibers
interspersed with large vessels. Broad medullary rays sepa-
rate the wood wedges, which number about fourteen, those
upon the lower side being somewhat longer than the upper.
The diameter of the central pith is nearly equal to the length
of the shorter wood wedges.
—
Althaea. Althaea shows an outer layer of cork which is
commonly absent in commercial specimens, in which case the
silky bast-fibers occupy the outermost space. The cortical
zone of parenchyma forms about half the radius of the root
this is separated from the central cylinder by a rather promi-
nent cambium line, and is interspersed with numerous muci-
lage cells and shows a number of medullary rays extending
variable distances. Many of the cells are filled with starch,
while others show stellate crystals of calcium oxalate. In
this region groups of bast-fibers are numerous in the central
;
portion are found vessels, wood-fibers, and parenchyma.

Pareira illustrates a structure unlike those which we have
been considering ; here we find that the fibrovascular bundles
are ranged in a number of concentric circles which show both
vascular and sieve portions. A corky layer of moderate
thickness covers the root ; the medullary rays are broad,
becoming broader toward the circumference.
—
Rtiubafb. In this the cork is conmionly wanting ; a
section in the outer portion would present a different appear-
STEMS. 253
ance from one toward the center. Since the root is of con-
siderable size, it is rarely practicable to make a single section
Fig. 29.— Menisperinnm (transverse section) A, Epidermis B, parenchyma of the

: ;
barl;
; C, vessel
; D, bast-iibers E, wood-fibers.
;
from the entire organ. In the cortical portion particidarly

will be found parenchyma tissue containing some starch, many
crystals of calcium oxalate, and traversed by a number of
irregular medullary rays. The cambium line is rather prom-

inent ; the central cylinder presents a number of vessels and
Fig. 30.— Althsea: &', Cork; pc. Fig. 31.— Pareira: s, Cork; v, vessels; I,
cortical parenchyma, in which are liber or bast terminating each wood-bundle

seen large mucilage cells; I, bast peripherally;/^, wood-fibers; r, medullary
region, constituting the outer layer ray (Godfrin and Noel),
of the peeled root e, cambium v,
; ;
Tessels (Godfrin and Noel).
some lignified tissues ; medullary rays, starch, and calcium

oxalate being also present. A very characteristic appearance
STEMS. 255
Fig. 32.— Rhubarb (transverse section through a portion) I. A stellate spot c,

; ;
cambium ring in stellate spot b, wood zones (numerous crystals of calcium oxalate)
;
(Godfrin and Noel).
isthat of the stellate spots, which are the origin of the fibro-
vascular bundles extending into the leaves. Fig. 33 shows
Fig. 33.— European rhubarb : c, Cambium ; b, wood zone ; r, medullary ray ; v,

vessels (Godfrin and Nuel).
a transverse section of European rhubarb, occasionally, though

not often, met with as an adulterant or substitution for the
genuine rhubarb. Fig. 23, p. 244, shows a transverse section

of curcuma, which is often used, particularly in powdered
form, to adulterate rhubarb, but, as elsewhere mentioned, the
form of starch masses and the chemic tests usually furnish
an easier means of de-
tecting this adulteration
than do the histologic
characters.
Calamus (see Fig.
21, p. 237) may serve
©'
a as a type of
ledonous stem.
Monocoty-
It has
©^ a thin corky layer
'U :C
(brown resin), a thick
cortical zone, consist-
ing of parenchyma in-
terspersed with a few
fibrovascular bundles,
which here often pre-
sent the collateral type,
since, as mentioned
elsewhere, they are on
the way to the leaves
in which that type of
bundle is found. The
central portion, con-
parenchyma
sisting of
with numerous con-
centric fibrovascular
bundles, is separated
from the cortical zone
by a nucleus sheath.
This nucleus sheath
may be continuous for
Fig. 34.— Jalap: s, Coik p c, cortical paren-
;
chyma; It, laticiferous vessels; c, cambium; a considerable distance,

z <7, zones of growing tissue with cambium sur-
rounding one or more vessels (Godfrin and Noel).
or portions of it may
embrace but a few bun-
dles. The parenchyma consists of numerous oil- and resin-
cells situated at the angles of the large intercellular spaces,
STEMS. 257
and of smaller cells which seem to serve as a chain connect-

ing these larger cells together.
Note. —The larger intercellular spaces may be mistaken for
the cells themselves. The fibrovascular bundles are very
Pig. 35.— a. Jamacia quassia: 6, Surinam quassia r. Vessels; r, medullary rays

:
(note the difference in the width of the medullary rays in the two woods) ;/(,
wood-fibers p I, wood parenchyma (Godfrin and Noel).
;
much more numerous immediately within the nucleus sheath

than toward the center of the rhizome.
—
Jalap. What has been said as to the size of rhubarb
applies also to Jalap, the appearance of the section varying
as to the part which is taken. The outermost layer consists
of cork much of the tuber is composted of parenchyma.
; A
n
rather prominent cambium line separates the central cylinder

from the cortex some sections show modified laticiferous
;
vessels, previously mentioned (see p. 231). The illustration
Fio. 36.-Cinchona (radial section): C, Cork;

P, parenchyma; M, medullary ray;
B, bast-flbers.
is sufficiently explicit
so that no further comment is necesary.
Quassia.—This represents only the woody portion of the
stem; Fig. 35, a, represents the Jamaica or
official quassia;
b, the Surinam. Note the difference in the width
of the
medullary rays.
BARKS. 259
BARKS.
Cinchona. —While
the different species of cinchona show
of structure to enable the expert to
sufficient peculiarities
distinguish between them, this requires more experience than
Fig. 37.— Cinchona (transver.<!e Fin. 38.— Cascara Sagrada (transverse

section) : s. Secondary cork (the section): S, Cork; //, group of bast-
outer bark having been reinovedl flbers: s c, stone-cells; r. medullary ray
r, medullary ray: /, bast-fibers (note their gradual merging into cortical
(Godfrin and Noel). parenchmya), (Godfrin and Noel).
260 JirSTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS.
is practical for the average pharmacist ; it being sufficient,

however, for his purpose in most cases to be able to identify
a given specimen as true cinchona or a spurious bark the ;
value of an individual specimen

being determined by an assay
rather than by structural differ-
ences, inasmuch as the same
species often present the widest
e-9 variation in alkaloidal contents.
The outermost layer will show
a corky surface, varying up to
twenty cells in thickness ; or,
if only middle and inner
the
-f bark is present, the outermost
portion will be parenchyma.
When the whole bark is used,
secondary layers of cork will
Fig. 39.— Chinese cinnamon ep,

; Fig. 40.— Ceylon cinnamon
Epidermis; s, cork; (7, resin and oil The structure issimilar to the
receptacles; f, fibers; r, medullary Chinese; observe the oil-spaces,
rav m, mucilage cell (Godfrin anJi
: and the minute starch granules
Noel)- (not shown in the figure) (Godfrin
and Noel).
often be found, as in Fig. 37. A

number of stone-cells are
present, which may be
distinguished from the bast-fibers by
the relatively thicker walls of the latter and by their more
LEA VES. 2G1
irregular arrangement. The typical form of the bast-fibers

and the wall-like form of the medullary rays are best seen
on longitudinal section (Fig. 36).
—
Cascara Sagrada. Rhamnus purshiana shows a broad
corky layer, beneath which is a zone of parenchyma with
groups of stone-cells and nuraerons crystals of calcium
oxalate. The bast-fibers are formed in more or less irregu-
lar tangential lines, the medullary rays, usually narrow in
the inner portion, becoming broader and less sharply distin-
guished from the parenchyma in the outer region, where their
direction becomes somewhat tangential, this being a charac-
—
FiG. 41. Eucalyptus: epi, etie, Epidermis of upper and lower surfaces: pp, pali-
sade parenchyma occupying entire tliickness of leaf, except the epidermis: gland
.(7,
containing essential oil; s c. tliicked-walled cells of leaf margin; M, lenticel; v,

vessels ; fi, bast (Godfrin and Noel).
teristic of this bark. The shape of the bast-fibers can be

studied when isolated or upon longitudinal section.
The bark of frangula should be studied in connection with
that of rhamnus purshiana that their similarity and difference
may be noted, especially with regard to the medullary rays.
Cinnamon. —
Chinese and Ceylon cinnamons show certain
minor differences of structure, but their macroscopic and cliemi-
cal characters are of more importance than the microscopic.
LEAVES.
The structure of the various leaves will scarcely require
separate consideration. Attention is here called to a few of
262 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMP'ORTANT DRUGS.
the more salient points. In this connection it is well to bear

in mind that the various forms of hairs furnish one of the
Fig. 42.— Buchu eps, Epidermis of the upper surface ept, of lower cm, gum-
: ; ;
bearing tissue swelling with water pp, palisade parenchyma, here separated from
;
the cuticle by the action of water upon the tissue just mentioned p s, spongy
;
parenchyma iGodfrin and Noel).
readiest means of detecting adulterations of powdered leaves ;

hence special attention should be given to the consideration
of their forms.
—
Fig. 43. Digitalis (across a smaller vein) eps. ITpper epidermis epi, lower epi-
: ;
dermis; pp, palisade parenchyma; pi, loose parenchyma; p, hair; b, vascular

bundles constituting the vein (Godfrin and Noel).
Eucalyptus is seen to consist almost entirely of palisade

cells, in which are found oil-spaces j beneath the epidermis
FRUITS AND SEEDS. 263
of the margin of the leaf are found crescentic masses of

thick-walled cells.
Buchu is examined by taking a fresh section made in
alcohol, mounting in water, and observing the separation of
the epidermis from the palisade cells, owing to the rapid swell-
ing of the mucilage-bearing cells between them.
oil-cells).
(Note the —
Digitalis is characterized mainly by the shape and dis-
tribution of its simple hairs.
FRUITS AND SEEDS.

Black pepper and cubeb have their structure suf-
ficiently explained by the illustrations and require no further
comment in this place.
Fig 44 —Blaok pepper pr. Pericarp, Fig. 4">.— Cubeb: The letters have
embracing ep, epidermis
:
se, stone-cells
;
same significance as m Fig. 44 (Godfrin
(the epidermis in this layer constitnt- and Noel),
ing the epicarpl; p, parenchmya and
e'p', the epidermis of the ovary (note U-
shaped appearance of cells^ prs.
;
peri-
sperm of parenchyma cells (Godfrin and
Noel).
Anise illustrates the structure of the Umbelliferous fruit.

In connection with this will be studied the other aromatic
Fig. 46.— Anise: cp, Epidermis of fruit; st, stoma; p, hair; al, parenchyma with
proteid; Jv, flbrovascular bundle (Goafrin and Noel).
Umbelliferse, including fennel, conium, coriander, and cara-

way. The explanation accompanying Fig. 46 is sufficient.
—
Nux Vomica. The outermost layer shows the hairy
Fig. 47.— Nux vomica: p, Hairs covering the surface ; (, tegument ; al, proteid
(Godfriu and Noel).
FRUITS AND SEEDS. 265
covering ; beneath this are found cells with thin walls which
become progressively thicker toward the center.
Flaxseed. —The
mucilage-bearing epidermis is best ob-
served by mounting a fragment of the tegument in water and
watching the rapid swelling of this portion, due to -the absorp-
tion of water. Beneath the epidermis is found a single layer
Fig, 48.— Flaxseed : (, Tegument, embracing c, cuticle; m, mucilage-bearing

cells; ep, epidermis with underlying cells d and /; al, albumin surrounding the
cotyledon, Co iGodfrin and Noel);
of thick-walled cells, the remainder of the seed being com-

posed of parenchyma.
—
Nutgall. The central portion is occupied by a cavity
which may have pulverulent remains left by the insect sur- ;
rounding this cavity is a compact layer of small stone-cells

which graduate toward the exterior into ordinary paren-
chyma. In the latter are found tannin and occasionally
lignified tissue.
The above illustrations do not by any means exhaust the
list of drugs which should be studied microscopically; in
fact, these have been chosen as representing various types of
structure rather than because of their theiâpeutie importance.
A familiarity with these will make the study of any other
Fig. 49.— Nutgall: d. Tannin in parenchyma cells, a; h, cells becoming i>ro-

gressively thicker-walled as they approach center /, starch in the cell c limiting
;
the central cavity (Godfrin and Noel).
easy, and the student should examine and draw as many dif-
ferent specimens as time will permit.
CHAPTER VII.
HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS.

INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF POWDERS.
The frequency %\'ith which powdered drugs are employed
makes it necessary that the pharmacist should be capable of
detecting adulterations, and in some cases, perhaps, of identi-
fying unknown powders ; but it is to be understood that the
exercises given in this work are intended to familiarize the
student with the histologic characteristics of the various drugs,
rather than to train him in the general practice of identifying
unknown powders by this means.
The student is again cautioned to employ all the various
means at his command in guarding against inferior or adulter-
ated drugs, and to remember that the microscope is but one
of these means. The sense of taste may serve to direct sus-
picion toward strychnin, or the sense of smell may be the
first indication of the presence of opium in a given case ; so
we may classify powders according to their colors and sub-
divide these according to their taste and odor.
Before examining any powder with a view to deciding
upon its genuineness or the presence of adulteration, the
student should become familiar with the structure of an
authentic specimen of the drug, using a verified powder,
which should be kept on hand as a standard. When pos-
sible, he should have transverse and longitudinal sections of
the whole drug. These should be used for comparison at
the time of examining the powder.
The appearance, taste, or other circumstances, as has been
said, often leads one to suspect that a powder is adulterated.
"When suspicion points to a definite substance, such as flour in
elm bark, its detection is usually easy ; but in many cases it
267
268 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DBU6S.
is extremely difficult or impossible to detect a sophistication

by the use of the microscope alone.
One of the commonest forms of adulteration consists in
the admixture of starchy substances therefore the student ;
cannot become too familiar with various forms of starch-

grains, such as those in corn, potato, wheat, rice, oat and
bean.
The chapter is arranged according to the following
plan :
I. The study of powders, with practical exercises upon

some of the more important ones.
II. Practical exercises in the identification of powders in
groups of three.
III. Practical exercises in the detection of adulterg,tion of
known powders.
IV. Scheme for identification of unknown powders with
practical exercises.
THE STUDY OF POWDERS.

When a powder is examined with the microscope by one
. who has never before attempted
it, a very confusing picture
is presented to him, and he finds himself utterly unable to

distinguish anything familiar amid the mass ; with experience
he learns to disregard that which does not present anything
characteristic, and to devote his attention to that which is
recognizable.
Certain powders will require special treatment, but for
general practice temporary mounts are made either in glycerin
or in a saturated solution of chloral hydrate. Both of these
media have the property of rendering powders transparent,
the solution of chloral hydrate to a greater degree than the
glycerin ; but it has the disadvantage of dissolving certain
cell-contents, notably starch-grains, very readily.
Powders may be bleached, stained, and either temporarily
or permanently mounted, as in the case of sections.
Practical Exercises. —The purpose of these exercises is to
familiarize the student with the general methods used in
examining powders ; and in selecting and recognizing the
important elements.
THE STUDY OF POWDERS. 269
1. Put a very small knife-pointful of lycopodium upon a

slide ; distribute evenly over the space of a cover-glass, and
it
examine. The particles appear black and their structure

cannot be distinguished.
Put some of the powder into alcohol, and when thoroughly
wetted, drop a little upon the slide and add a drop of gly-
cerin ; place upon it a cover-glass and examine ; the charac-
teristic shape and markings of the spores are now readily
seen.
Examine some pine or other pollen grains in the same way.
2. Examine a number of the starches in this way Mount :
a little starch in water, add a drop of very dilute solution of

iodin, and study the concentric markings. Mount some
wheat starch or a little scraped potato in saturated solution
of chloral hydrate, and watch some of the grains as they lose
their shape and gradually dissolve.
Mount some wheat starch in dilute solution of potassa and
watch some of the grains swell and dissolve, the markings
becoming prominent for an instant.
3. Put a very small knife-pointful of finely powdered
cinchona upon a slide and add from a pipet a drop of satu-
rated solution of chloral hydrate cover with cover-glass and
;
examine at once. If too much of the powder has not been

used, fragments of tissues will be seen pretty evenly dis-
tributed. The bast-fibers and other cellular elements have
been rendered so transparent as to be easily observable.
Notice particularly the shape of the bast-fibers though many ;
of them will be broken in pieces, some are unbroken, and

even the fragments show what the original shape was. A
careful search will show a few stone-cells and possibly some
starch-grains ; but most of these, which are few at best, have
been dissolved by the solution of chloral hydrate. In addi-
tion to the elements just mentioned, fragments of medullary
rays, parenchyma, and cork-cells may be distinguished amid
the general d6bris — disregard all the rest for the present.
Mount another sample of the same in glycerin and ex-
—
amine for starch-grains a very few may be found the bast- ;
fibers are easily distinguished but the remaining tissues are

;
not seen so clearly as in the solution of chloral hydrate.

270 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS.
4. Put some powdered a watch-glass with 1 C.c.

ctuassia in
of alcohol (just enough to wet add about 10 C.c. of
it) ;
water and a few drops of anilin. If the water remains col-

ored, wash the powder by decantation and mount some of
the powder in saturated solution of chloral, and another
specimen of it in glycerin-jelly. Note the preponderance of
lignified tissues.
5. Put a knife-pointful of finely powdered belladonna into
a watch-glass ;add a few cubic centimeters of water and as
much solution of chlorinated soda stir the mixture by means
;
of a small pipet, and, when the powder is sufficiently bleached,

allow it to settle and pour off the supernatant liquid wash ;
several times with distilled water (for this purpose it is often

preferable to put the powder into a test-tube or bottle in
order that a much larger quantity of water may be used at
a time in washing). Transfer the washed powder to a watch-
glass with a few cubic centimeters of water, add a few drops
of aniliu ; when stained sufficiently, wash out the excess, as
in the case of the bleaching fluid ; draw the powder up into
the pipet and allow it to collect near the orifice ;
place a drop
of the water containing the powder upon a slide, absorb the
water by means of a bit of filter-paper, leaving the powder
upon the slide mount in glycerin or water for temporary
;
use, or mount permanently in glycerin-jelly or Canada bal-

sam. Care must be exercised in washing powders by decan-
tation to avoid toogreat a loss of the finer particles, since
they settle so much more slowly, whereby the appearance of
the powder would be materially changed.
Many powders do not readily absorb water, and a few
drops of alcohol dropped upon them before the water is
added greatly hastens the process.
Practical :Kxercises in the Study and Identifica-
tion of Powders, Presented in Groups of Three.
The purpose of these exercises is to bring into prominence
the characteristic elements of various important powders by
contrasting these with other powders. The specimens are to
be submitted unlabeled, by groups ; the student being required
to recognize the powders within each group, according to the
directions.
THE STUDY OF POWDERS. 21 i
Podophyllum, Quassia, and Digitalis. —

(a) Spiral vessels are present, while has
quassia
large porous vessels ; most of specimen
this
consists of thin-walled parenchyma, which is
absent in quassia. Neither hairs nor stomata
are present, hence it cannot be digitalis it is —
podophyllum.
(6) Since there is no thin-walled parenchyma, it
cannot be either podophyllum or digitalis, but
the large preponderance of wood-fibers shows
that the specimen is a woody substance it is —
quassia.
(c) The hairs are typical of digitalis the ; great
number of stomata indicate that we have a leaf
—
under observation it is digitalis.
Cincliona, Pomegranate, and Wild Cherry. —
(a) The bast-iibers are characteristic for cinchona.
(6) The variety of forms of stone-cells and bast-
fibers, simple and branched, distinguishes the
specimen from both cinchona and pomegranate
— it is wild cherry.
(o) This lacks bast^fibers and the typical branching
stone-cells of wild cherry. The arrangement of

the very numerous roset-shaped crystals of cal-
cium oxalate in rows is typical of pomegranate.
Sarsaparilla, Gentian, and Khubarb. —
(a) Contains starch, which is not found in gentian,
and large roset-shaped crystals of calcium
oxalate, which are not found in sarsaparilla,
and is, therefore, rhubarb.
(6) Contains starch, acicular but no roset-shaped
and is sarsaparilla.
crystals,
(c) Contains no starch, which is found in both
rhubarb and sarsaparilla. It is, therefore,
gentian.
Ginger, Squill, and Mustard.
(a) Numerous large starch-grains, and is ginger,
since neither squill nor mustard contains more
than a very few.
272 ITISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DJRUGS.
(6) Shows large and small acicular crystals of cal-

cium oxalate since these are not found in
;
mustard or in ginger, the specimen is squill.

(c) Shows neither large starch-granules of ginger
nor acicular crystals of squill, and is, there-
fore, mustard.
Ipecac, Belladonna, and Glyc3nThiza. —
(a) Neither bast-fibers nor vessels present, since
both are found in glycyrrhiza, and vessels are
—
found in belladonna specimen must be ipecac.
(6) Contains numerous vessels, hence cannot be
ipecac ; bast-fibers numerous (wood-fibers few
in belladonna), with many cells containing
prismatic crystals lining the fibers these are ;
not seen in belladonna ; vessels are large ; some

with reticulated markings (scalariform or
—
porous in belladonna) hence the specimen is
glycyrrhiza.
(o) Shows vessels — is not ipecac ; shows few bast-
or wood-fibers, calcium oxalate as fine dark
powder (cryptocrystalline), no crystal cells
vessels porous or scalariform, not reticulated
as in glycyrrhiza ; specimen is belladonna.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN THE DETECTION OF ADUL-

TERATION OF POWDERS.'
Nature of Sophistication is Suspected.
—
I/ycopodium. The powder is of too light a color and
somewhat mucilaginous when mixed with water, leading one
to suspect the presence of flour. Upon examination starch-
grains are seen which are identified as those of corn.
Digitalis. — It is stated that mullein is sometimes used to
adulterate digitalis. The powder shows large branching hairs
(characteristic of mullein), Avhile those of digitalis are simple.
Cinchona. —A decoction of the powder gives the starch
reaction with iodin somewhat too strongly, cinchona being
' The student is furnished with a pure and with an adulterated specimen
of each number. He is to recognize which of the two is adulterated.
DETECTION OF ADULTERATION OF POWDERS. 273
practically freefrom starch, leading to the suspicion that some

other drug, having a greater abundance of starch, has been
used to adulterate it.
The powder shows numerous bast-fibers of a different shape
from those of cinchona, and numerous starch-grains. The
powder is evidently adulterated, even though the adulterant
is not identified. (It contains cotton-root bark.)
Ceylon Cinnamon. —The powders of various barks are
commonly used to adulterate this drug.
In addition to a variety of forms of bast-fibers, large
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate are found, those of the
cinnamon bark being very small. The powder is adulterated
with that of other barks (elm and sassafras).
Senega. —Owing to carelessness in collecting, cypripe-
dium is very often present. Cypripedium (and most Mono-
cotyledons) have acicular crystals,whereas senega has no
crystals.
Nature of Sophistication not Strspected.
—
ApOCynum. The powder presents very little that is ab-
normal, excepting that we find groups of stone-cells ; since
the official apocynum has no stone-cells, we conclude that we
are dealing with an admixture or substitution of the closely
related Apocynum androscemifolium. (This substitution is
very common and it is not generally regarded as being fraudu-
lent.)
Belladonna. —
^While the powder shows no foreign ele-
ments, a marked deficiency of starch and a superabundance
of lignified {issues are seen. The root is, therefore, unfit for
use, even though no actual adulteration with a foreign sub-
stance has occurred, unless we regard woody roots of bella-
donna,, which the pharmacopoeia expressly forbids, as foreign.
—
Crocus. The extreme cost of this powder offers constant
inducement to the unscrupulous for sophistication, a very
great variety of substances being used.
The microscopic examination shows particles which effer-
versce with acids (chalk), or upon treating the specimen with
concentrated sulphhuric acid, we find the proportion giving a
blue color much less than in an authentic specimen.
18
Cloves. —The
value of cloves mainly depends upon its
volatile oil, andmay be absent by oi'dinary deterioration
this
or by fraudulent exhaustion ; this is best detected by the
diminution of specific gravity ; hence the microscopic exami-
nation alone should not be depended upon, except when it
gives positive evidence of adulteration.
The powder shows starch-grains, probably derived from
the clove fruit, a not uncommon sophistication.
—
Cubeb. What has been said in regard to cloves applies
also to cubeb, since its main constituent
is also a volatile oil.
The powder shows a number of vessels, and we conclude

that parts of the stem were included with the fruit.
SCHEIVIE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN

POWDERS.
In the hands of an expert the microscopic examination of
a powder suffices in itself, in many cases, for its identifica-
tion. This is, however, needlessly difficult. Important
hints and aids may be derived from the physical and chemic
characters of the powder. By utilizing these, as has been
done in the present scheme, a very little practice suffices to
identify the more important drugs. Since the powders which
may be obtained from the vegetable kingdom are practically
unlimited in number, only some fifty of the more important
and most frequently used are considered in this scheme.
The student should practise on unknown powders by the
use of this scheme, until he is able to identify some half-
dozen consecutive specimens. A few examples are given,
following the scheme, to illustrate its use.
The powders are grouped into classes according to their
color, as follows
Class —Greenish.
I.
"
"
—White
II. or grayish.
III.—Yellowish.
" IV. —Brownish.
Class I.— Greenish Powdees.
(A) Characteristic taste :
(a) Very astringent.
Neither hail's nor stomata present . . . Galls.
IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN POWDERS. 275
(B) Bitter:
(a) Crystals of calcium oxalate absent.
Characteristic hairs . ... Digitalis.
(6) Crystals of calcium oxalate present.
1. Crystals roset-shaped Stramonium.
2. Crystals not roset-shaped Hyoscyamus.
(c) Calcium oxalate, amorphous . • • •
{ ^f^v^°^
(C) Astringent:
(a) Little odor.
1. Hairs and stomata present Uva ui-si.
Haire and stomata absent crystals in
(D)
2.
Bitterish:
rows of cells . .
;
...
Pomegranate.
(a) Odor tea-like.

Hairs and stomata present. Reset crystals. Senna.
(E) Characteristic odor
(a) Pollen grains present.
Glandular haiiB present Peppei-mint.
(6) Pollen grains absent.
Hairs few or wanting. Eoset-crystals . Buchu.
Class II. White oe Grayish Powdees.
(A) Characteristic Microscopic Appeararux
White Various starches
(B) Starch Absent or Nearly so:
(a) Intensely bitter.
Giuyish ; chamcteristic hairs Nux vomica.
(6) White or nearly so.
1. Acrid taste. Acicular crystals . . . Squill.
2. Mucilaginous.
Soluble in water Acacia.
Swells only in water Tragacanth.
Class III.—Yellowish Powdees.
(A) Characteristic Microscopic Appearance
(a) Simple cell-spores Lycopodium.
(b) Aggregated cell-glands Lupulin.
(B) Characteristic Taste:
(a) Very astringent.
Tannin masses present. Starch sparingly
present Galls.
(6) Very bitter.
1. Mainly lignified tissues. Wood-fibers
abundant Quassia.
2. No lignified tissues present Aloes.
(c) Bitter and astringent.
1. Large roset-shaped ciystals Ehubarb.
Eoset-shaped crystals wanting
2. .... Hydrastis.
(d) Pungent.
1. Starch-grains abundant, large .... Ginger.
2. Starch-grains wanting Mustard.
(e) Sweet-bitter.
Numerous bast-fibers Glycyrrhiza.
Class III. Yellowish Powdebs. {Continued).
(C) Bitter:
(a) Large reticulated vessels.
Large simple starcli-grains . . Calumba.
(6) Vessels small.
Pollen grains present Crocus.
(c) Vessels absent.
1. Bast-libel's with crystal cells ... Fi-angula. .
2. Bast-fibei-s absent. Acicular ciystals Ipecac. .
(D) Pungent:
(a) Bitterish bright yellow.
;
Starch in pasty masses (chemic test pref-

erable) Curcuma.
(6) Sweetish.
Laticiferous vessels characteristic .... Jalap.
(E) Acrid:
(a) Large and small acicular crystals. Few
spii-al vessels Squill.
(F) MncitagiTums:
(a) Very few starch-grains.
Bast-fibers numerous ; vessels wanting . Elm.
Class IV. Brownish Powdees.

(A) Characteristic Taste:
(a) Very bitter.
Vegetable tissues wanting Aloes.
(6) Bitter; characteristic odor.
1. Very little vegetable tissue present . .Opium.
2. Starch wanting ; few fibers Gentian.
3. Starch present ; rosetrshaped crystals . Bhubarb,
(c) Bitter and astringent.
1. Bast-fibers characteristic . . . . Cinchona.
2. Hydrocyanic acid develops upon
chewing. Characteristic variation
of stone-cells Wild cherry.
(d) Nauseous bitter.
Fibere with crystal cells . . .... Cascara sagrada
(e) Very astringent.
Tannin masses present Galls.
(/) Extremely acrid; tingling of tongue
characteristic.
Few lignified cells . . Aconite.
(jf) Pungent ; starch-grains few or none.
1. Odor characteristic large oil-reser-
;
voirs . Cloves.
2. Stone-cells numerous; oil-drops in
cells . . Cubeb.
3. Starch-gi-ains present ; large oil reser-
voirs . . . .... Pimenta.
4. Starch present; stone-cells character-
istic Pepper.
(B) BUter : _
(a) Saliva tinged bright yellow.

Vessels small and few Crocus.
(6) Sweetish.
1. Large porous vessels, calcium oxalate,
amorphous powder . Belladonna. . .
2. Spiral and reticulated vessels consists ;
mainly of parenchyma Podophyllum.

3. Vessels wanting fibers with crystal
;
cells Fi-angula.
(c) Aromatic.
Characteristic air-spaces (intercellular) Calamus. .
(d) Astringent.
Vessels few ; starch usually in pasty
masses . . ..... Guarana.
(C) Aarid:
(a) Thick-walled endodermal cells. Starch
(sometimes in pasty masses) ; acicular
crystals . . Sareaparilla.
(D) Oily and Disagremble:
(a) Consists of interwoven hyphas . ... Ergot.
(E) Nearly so :
Tasteless or
(a) Contains inulin anastomosing ; laticif-
erous vessels . Taraxacum.
(6) Whitish starch-grains large
; ; ves.sels
wanting stone-cells numerous
; .... Physostigma.
(F) Characteristic Odor:
(a) Stone-cells characteristic Valerian.
Practical Bxercises in Identification of TTn-

known Powders. — 1. The powder is yellowish, odorless,
and nearly tasteless. The student should be able to identify
it by inspection or microscopically. If not, he may turn to
Yellowish Pov/ders. Under (A) he finds two of characteris-
tic microscopic appearance —
(1) of simple cells and (2) glan-
dular ; this is obviously Lycopodium, which may be confirmed
by comparing with an authentic specimen of that powder.
Examples of Identification of Unknown Powders Selected
from Preceding Scheme. —
2. The specimen is of greenish
color. These are all classified as having a characteristic
taste (A), bitter (B), astringent (C), bitterish (D), or of a
characteristic odor (E). We
find it has a moderately astrin-
gent taste, hence we should look for it under (C) rather than
under (A). This section (C) embraces but two drugs in one :
of them stomata and hairs are present, in the other absent.

They are absent in the specimen, hence we classify it under
(C), (a) 2.
278 inSTOLOQIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS.
The crystals in rows of cells identify it as Pomegranate.

If we are in doubt about the intensity of the astringency,
these rows of crystal cells exclude galls from further consid-
eration. Confirm by comparison with authentic sections or
powder.
3. The powder is grayish, very bitter, contains no starch,
but numerous characteristic hairs ; if these are not recog-
nized, we proceed to the analysis.
Section (A) embraces starches, and we pass to (B)
and under
(a) in-
we
—
Nux Vom-
tensely bitter ; 1, grayish, this find
ica, with characteristic hairs. Since (6) and (c) have noth-
ing at corresponding to this description, we conclude that
all
we are dealing with the drug mentioned. Confirm by com-
parison with authentic sections or powder.
4. The powder is very light yellowish, and of mucilagi-
nous taste. Consists of vegetable tissues, starch being
absent.
This excludes section (A). All the members of (B), (C),
(D), and (E) are bitter, astringent, pungent, or acrid, so we
pass on to (F) ; this is mucilaginous, having little or no
starch (a) ; bast-fibers present and vessels wanting ; this
corresponds to our specimen, which we therefore conclude is
Elm. Confirm by comparing with authentic sections.
5. The powder is of a yellowish color, has a very bitter
taste, and upon microscopic examination is seen to consist of
vessels and wood-fibers with oval-shaped medullary rays (tan-
gential view). Starch not very abundant.
Since there are various forms of cells, it cannot be lyco-
podium, nor is it glandular, hence not lupulin. It evidently
belongs under Section (B), characteristic taste. find in We
this section (a) astringent, (h) very bitter, and the latter is
true of our specimen. 1 we find to consist mainly of lignified
tissues, which is true of our specimen. The onlyother
simple-bitter of intense bitterness among yellowish powders
is aloes, but we find this (2) contains no lignified tissue,
hence it cannot be aloe and must be Quassia,

Continuing down the list we find other bitter drugs (C)
to embrace (a) calumba, having large simple starch-grains
—
(6) crocus, with pollen grains present ; and frangula and
ipecac, —
both wanting in vessels obviously the powder must
be Quassia. Comfirm by comparing with authentic sections
of the drug.
6. The powder is brownish ; upon chewing, it causes tingling
of the tongue and irritation of the throat. Since it is neither
bitter nor astringent it cannot be included in (a) to (e) of
section (A) of brownish powders ; (/), extremely acrid
answers the description and we proceed to the microscopic
examination. We
find that it consists mainly of parenchyma,
again agreeing with (/), Aconite, and we compare it with
authentic sections of that drug.
7. This is also brown, and has a markedly bitter and as-
tringent taste. The only ones answering to that description
are found in section (A), (c). It must be —
1, cinchona, or
2, wild cherry. There is no hydrocyanic acid taste upon
chewing, and we are able to identify the characteristic bast-
fibers as those of Cinchona. Confirm by comparison with
authentic sections.
8. The powder is light brownish, decidedly bitter, and
somewhat sweetish ;the presence of vegetable tissues excludes
aloe,even if we did not know that it is not that powder.
The absence of a characteristic odor excludes all of (6), ab-
scence of astringency (c) and (e), the lack of crystals cells
and fibers excludes (d) ; there is no extreme acidity nor pun-

gency, hence we pass to section (B) (a), is not sweetish, and
further we recognize that this cannot be the delicate stigma
of crocus when we examine it microscopically, nor does it
show any intense coloration of the saliva when chewed, (b)
includes three powders. 1 has large porous vessels and cal-
cium oxalate in powder, while 3 has no vessels, whereas our
specimen has mostly small vessels and we suspect that it is
Podophyllum ; this is confirmed by comparison
with authen-
tic sections of that drug.
9. The powder has a characteristic odor and taste, which
every pharmacist and physician should be able to identify
readily as that of Opium. Turning to the brownish powders
(A) (6), we find that opium has very little vegetable tissue,
that present being accidental or derived from the leaves in
which it is wrapped. Upon examination we find numerous
starch-grains, showing that the powder has been adulterated

(corn-starch). (The value of opium depends upon its mor-
phine content, which is determined by assay.)
10. The powder is of a bright yellow color. The taste
and odor are both characteristic, and passing to section (B)
we may at once exclude (a), (6), (d), and (e) we find it cor-
;
responds to (c), bitter and astringent 1 has large roset-shaped

;
crystals, and 2 has not. The specimen has large roset-shaped

crystals, and we conclude that it is Rhtjbaeb, but upon
comparing it with authentic sections of rhubarb we find that
it has prismatic in addition to the roset-shaped crysta,ls, and
that numerous irregular-shaped masses are found, giving a

a blue color with iodin, the starch-grains of rhubarb being
rather small. We conclude the specimen is adulterated, and
upon testing for curcuma (see p. 318), we find that test
positive.
PART III.
CHEMIC EXERCISES IN MATERIA MEDICA.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
In their study of pharmaceutic chemistry, students gen-
erally become familiar with the principal reactions of the con-
stituents of drugs. It is also important, however, that they
should be familiar with those constituents in the form in
which they occur in the crude drugs and extracts ; how they
may be isolated ; and how their reactions are modified by
impurities. This establishes an essential connection between
materia medica and chemistry. A
further benefit of these
exercises is that they will familiarize the student witli
manipulative methods and train him in overcoming difficul-
ties. The use of home-made and inexpensive apparatus has
been introduced wherever possible, partly for the latter pur-
pose.
In Chapters II. to IV. the reactions are studied, on
first,
isolated constituents, then on drugs containing these. Chapter

V. gives an outline for the analysis of unknown drugs.
Chapters VI. to IX. apply these methods to the study of
some of the more important drugs.
Supplementary experiments are appended to one or more
of the paragraphs, not for the class, but for extra work, and
in order to bring in methods and special apparatus, etc., and
calling for greater independence of action and judgment upon
the part of the student, the directions being less detailed and
the experiments usually more intricate.
The authors suggest that those teachers who employ the
281
282 INTRODUCTORY.
book it convenient to provide certain reagents in

will find
concentrated form, with label indicating percentage strength
of the substance, in order to facilitate the extemporaneous
preparation of various strengths of dilution, thus obviating
the necessity of keeping a great number of reagents on hand.
When preparations such as decoctions are to be made by
the class, time may be saved by having one student make
sufficient of any one preparation for the entire class.
For convenience in the systematic study of plant constitu-
ents the following classification will be followed :
Class Constituents for the most part soluble in water,

I.
but insoluble in alcohol and similar solvents. This class pom-

prises :
Carbohydrates. Proteids.
Saponins. Ferments.
Carbohydrates.
(A) Reduce Fehling's solution directly glucose. :
(B) Reduce Fehling's solution only after inversion.

1. Soluble in hot water inulin. :
2. Soluble in water not precipitated by alcohol

cane sugar ; glucosids.
3. Soluble in water, precipitated by alcohol gums, :
dextrin, and pectin.

4. Insoluble in water : starch.
Class II. Constituents for the inost part soluble in alcohol
and in water, insoluble in ether, chloroform, benzol, petroleum
ether ^ {(jasolin), and amyl-alcohol : Alkaloidal salts (gluco-
sids) ; bitter and neutral principles tannins ; organic acids ;
;
coloring-matter.
—
Class III. Constituents solvable in alcohol, insoluble in
water: Resins, cathartic resins, phlobaphenes, balsams, oleo-
resins, gum-resins, volatile oils, and camphors.
Class IV-. Constituents mostly insoluble in alcohol and in
water :
Waxes. Fixed oils.
^ Commercial gasolin is much less volatile than the official petroleum

ether or henzin.
APPARATUS AND REAGENTS. 283
APPARATUS AND REAGENTS.

Each student should have the following appaiutus and reagents (the
lists which are given after each paragraph are for additional apparatus and
materials exclusive of the following list) :
1 porcelain crucible. 1 mortar and pestle.

1 Bunsen burner. 3 pipets.'
2 feet rubber tubing. 1 percolator.^
1 testrtube brush. 1 sand-bath.'
2 dozen test-tubes. Nitric acid.
1 test-tube rack. Acetic acid.
1 2J-inch glass funnel. Hydrochloric acid.
1 4-inch glass funnel. Sulphuric acid.
1 4-inch tin funnel. 5 per cent, solution of soda.
1 100-C.c. cylindric graduate. 5 per cent, solution of potassa.
1 50-C.c, cylindric graduate. Aqua ammonia.
1 250-C.c. flask. Alcohol.
1 500-C.c. wash-bottle. Fehling's solution (A).
_
1 100-C.c. porcelain evapoiuting dish. Fehling's solution (B).

1 200 C. c. porcelain evaporating dish. Compound solution of iodin.
1 100-C.c. beaker. 10 per cent, solution of ferric chlorid.
1 water-bath and tripod. Solution mercuric potassium iodid.
1 piece wire gauze. Litmus-paper.
1 thermometer. Solution of lead subacetate.
5 per cent, solution of cupric sulphate.
U. S. P. test-solutions are commonly employed in this work.
t
Fig. 50.— Glass tube drawn out to be divided into two pipets.
To avoid the repetition of terms, the words " solution " or

" aqueous solution " will be understood in such cases where
it is evident that they are intended, thus 1 per cent, sodium :
hydrate evidently means a 1 per cent, solution.

In the directions to use given quantities for testing quali-
tatively, such as put 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium hydrate
into test-tube, etc., it is understood that the quantities are to
be used approximately unless given in italics, or it is other-
'
Pipets are economically made by heating a 30 cm. piece of Hnch glass
tubing in the middle, drawing out to a capillary tube, and cutting with a
file (Fig. 50) scratch the levels of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 C.c.
;
^ A
simple form of percolator is made by heating the bottom of a test-
tube to redness and blowing a hole in it a plug of cotton is placed below
;
the drug and one above, menstruum being supplied from a tube through
a perforated cork in an inverted flask.
* Sand-baths are economically made by using tin pie-plates filled with
sand.
284 INTRODUCTORY.
wise indicated that exactness is desired —

for instance, if a
pipet or graduate is directed to be used.
When such terms as " dilute hydrochloric acid " are used,
the official is meant ; if hydrochloric acid, then the strong is
intended. When practical, the reagents used are the official
preparations ; thus 5 per cent, sodium hydrate is the official
solution of soda.
The following pieces of apparatus will be required in the
laboratory for a class of twelve students for all experiments
exclusive of the supplemental. Since all crude vegetable
drugs should be kept on hand for study, they will not here
be enumerated in every case :
1 drying oven. Files.

3 glass desiccatoi's. Assorted bottles.
1 analytic balance. Filter-paper.
2 direct-vision spectroscopes. Glass rods.
Corks. Absorbent cotton.
Cork-borers. Microscope.
Glass-tubing.
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE AND ASH.

Undried drugs contain a very large percentage of
(fresh)
moisture, and those which have been dried by the sun or at a
low artificial heat usually contain a considerable amount.
The amount of moisture often varies greatly for the same
drug, and the percentage of active constituents is consequently
more nearly uniform in dried specimens.
All crude vegetable drugs contain ash, but the percentage
is subject to very wide variations, sometimes even in different
samples of the same species ; thus, imperfectly cleaned roots

give a high percentage. Nevertheless, the amount for a given
drug is usually fairly constant. Perhaps no constituent is
more frequently altered in amount by adulteration than is the

ash, hence the method of determining it is important.
A very high percentage of ash is sometimes found in rhu-
barb (40 per cent.), while starch contains very little. Pow-
dered drugs adulterated with starchy substances usually show
a diminution of ash.
The color of the ash often furnishes a clue to its composi-
tion, iron giving a reddish, and manganese a purple ash.
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE AND ASH. 285
Experiment 1. —A
porcelain crucible of about 10 Co.
capacity heated in a Bunsen flame for a moment to expel
is
adherent moisture, cooled in a glass desiccator (Fig. 51), and

weighed on an analytic balance. Into the crucible is put
1 gm. of the drug reduced to coarse powder. The cru-
cible and its contents are heated in a drying oven (Fig. 52) at
110° C. for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and, after cool-
ing ia a glass desiccator over calcium chlorid, weighed ; the
loss inweight represents the moisture.'
Experiment 2. —
The crucible and dry drug are now heated
Fig. 51.— Desiccator. Fig. 52. —Drying oven with thermo-regulator.

in a Bunsen flame until nothing but a white ash remains
this requires from a few minutes to an hour or more.^ After
' The heating should really be continued until two successive weighings,
made four houre apart, give the same result. AVith drugs which are rich
in volatile oil this must be determined by a separate analysis, and sub.stracted
from the apparent moisture, to give a correct result.
'^
During the ignition, the carbon may conglomerate into masses which
resist combustion. This may make it necessary to powder the contents of
the crucible and then repeat the ignition. The same object may be attained
by adding a few crystals of ammonium nitrate. The heat must then be
continued until all the excess of the ammonium salt is expelled i. e.,
until the crucible ceases to loose weight.
In exact analysis it may be necessary to estimate the carbonic acid of the
ash (which is not usually present in the plant, butfonned by the combus-
tion), and to substract it from the apparent ash.
286 INTROD UCTOB Y.
cooling in desiccator the crucible and ash are weighed : from

the total the weight of the crucible is subtracted, the differ-
ence being the weight of the ash.
Example : Crucible weighs ... 10 gm.
Drug weighs .... 1 "
Total . . . . 11 gm.
After drying, crucible and contents weigh . . 10.95 "
Loss of weight (moisture) .... 0.05 " or 5 per cent.
Crucible and ash weigh . . .... 10.05 "

Crucible weighs 10.00 "
Ash weighs 0.05 " or 5 per cent, of un-

dried drug.
In practice it is better to make both of these determina-

tions thesame day, using two crucibles for each student, or,
dividing the class into sets of two men, one makes the ash
determination while the other makes that of moisture, each
keeping notes of both experiments.
It is hardly necessary to state that in practice the experi-
ments are made in duplicate ; should the results fail to agree,
it would show that an error has been made, in which case the
experiment must be repeated.

For these determinations use rhubarb for moisture and ash.
—
Experiment 3. Test a part of the ash for carbonates by
addition of dilute hydrochloric acid (effervescence) ; oxalic
acid or oxalates and other organic acids are reduced to carbon-
ates by incineration.
Experiment4. —
To test for calcium dissolve the remainder
of the ash in dilute hydrochloric acid ; add sodium hydrate
in excess ; collect the precipitate, dissolve in acetic acid, add
ammonium oxalate — gives a precipitate of calcium oxalate
insoluble in acetic acid, soluble in hydrochloric.
Material required for determination of moisture and ash :
rhubarb and solution of ammonium oxalate.

CHAPTER II.
CLASS L— CONSTITUENTS FOR THE MOST PART

SOLUBLE IN WATER, BUT INSOLUBLE IN
ALCOHOL AND SIMILAR SOLVENTS.
This class comprises the carbohydrates, glucosids, saponins,
and ferments.
proteids,
CARBOHYDRATES.
Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, the last two elements being present in the proportion
to form water (two atoms of H for each atom of O). They
also have certain other properties in common (not every com-
pound which contains two atoms of H to one of O
is classed
as a carbohydrate).
Glucose, dextrose, or grape-sugar has the formula CjH,jj
Og. It widely distributed in the vegetable kingdom, being
is
abundant in sweet fruits and present in various parts of many

plants. It is quite soluble in water ; less so in alcohol. It re-
duces copper tartrate in alkaline solution to cuprous oxid upon
being boiled, and gives a brown color to solution of soda or
potassa when heated. These tests are also given by maltose
and some other sugars which are not easily distinguished from
glucose except by the polarimeter or some other tests.
Fehling's solution not being applicable to acid solutions,
when these are used they must first be neutralized with solu-
lution of soda or potassa.
Experiment 1.— Take 1 or 2 C.c. of Fehling's solution,
dilute with 10 C.c. of water, and boil (it should remain
clear) ; add at once a few drops of glucose — the mixture be-
comes yellow or red at once and a brick-dust-colored precipi-
tate forms.
287
288 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS.
Experiment 2 —
Heat a few cubic centimeters of solution
of soda with a little glucose solution —
it becomes yellow,
brown, or nearly black, dependent upon amount of glucose

used. This is known as Moore's test.
Experiment 3. —
To 2 C.c. of 5 per cent, solution of potassa
add a drop of glucose solution and drop by drop a 1 per cent,
solution of cupric sulphate as long as the precipitate formed
redissolves ; then boil. A
yellow, orange, or red color results,
dependent upon the amount of glucose used. This is known
as Trommer's test for glucose. This test and Fehling's are
not applicable when proteids are present. When insufficient
alkali is used, a dirty, blackish precipitate forms even in the
absence of glucose. This must not be confused with the
reaction described.
Experiment 4. —Use honey instead of glucose and repeat
these three tests.
Experiment 5. —Make a 2 per cent, decoction of each of
the following drugs, filter, and apply Fehling's test for glu-
cose-: Triticuni, squill, cassia fistula.
Glucose is an abundant constituent of the following drugs
Cassia fistula (60 per cent.) ; fig (60 per cent.) ; tamarind ;
juniper berry (unofficial) phytolacca fruit ; prune ; rasp-
;
berry ; and other sweet fruits, and in manna and honey ; it

occurs in varying proportions in the larger number of vege-
table drugs.
—
Apparatus and Material Necessary. Glucose, honey, triti-
cum, squill, cassia fistula.
Inulin is an isomer of starch, from which it differs, how-
ever, in important characteristics. It occurs abundantly in
many roots, particularly those of the natural order of Com-
positse, where it replaces starch. It has been observed in
small quantities in some other plants.
It is insoluble in cold water and alcohol, soluble in water
at 55°' to 60° C.
Inulin is a constituent of the following drugs Taraxacum, :
chicory, pyrethrum (50 per cent.), inula, lappa, arnica, and

others. (Compare the following experiments with those
given under Starch :)
Experiment 1. Inulin — may be prepared by percolating the
CARBOHYDRATES. 289
drug with cold water after macerating for twenty-four hours,

throwing away this percolate, and then percolating with water
at 60° C, usiug a hot filtration funnel.' Upon cooling, the
inulin slowly separates, or this may be hastened by the addi-
tion of alcohol, which, after filtration, may be recovered by
distillation. Take 15 gm. of ground pyrethrum and mace-
rate with a liter of water, with occasional shaking for forty-
eight hours ; decant as much of the water as possible and
throw it away ; collect the powder upon a filter, return it to
Fig. 53.— Funnel for hot filtration: g. Glass funnel ; (, tin funnel; w, water; c, cork.
a suitable vessel, and pour upon it 100 C.c. of water heat ;
upon a water-bath to 60° C, allowing it to macerate at that

temperature for two hours ; filter while still warm, and set
aside to precipitate (twenty-four to seventy-two hours) ; or
add 300 C.c. of alcohol, which causes the precipitation of the
' An inexpensive hot-filtration funnel is made by inserting a perforated
cork into the throat of a tin funnel of four inches diameter and passing the
stem of a three-inch glass funnel through the perforated cork (Fig. 53).
See that this fits tightly pour water into the tin funnel and heat to the
;
required temperature with a small Bunsen flame.

19
inulin much more promptly. After twenty-four hours most

of the liquid decanted and the inulin collected upon a filter.
is
Experiment 2. —
Having dissolved the inulin upon the
filter in 30 C.c. of warm water (60° C), divide it into sev-
eral portions ; to the first portion apply Fehling's test for

glucose (negative).
—
Experiment 3. To the second portion of the solution add
an equal bulk of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid, heat to boiling
on water-bath for ten minutes, neutralize with sodium hydrate,
and apply Fehling's test (positive, showing that the inulin
has been converted into glucose —
" inversion ").
—
Experiment 4. Cool the third portion of inulin solution
and add a drop of iodin (no reaction difference from starch).
;
(See also under Histology, p. 195.)

For lecture-table demonstration the end of the cold perco-
lation and beginning of warm may be shown, the students
being supplied with portions of the warm filtrate for subse-
quent use in the remaining experiments.
For the sake of comparison this experiment and the corre-
sponding one under Cane-sugar and tha't under Starch (p. 294)
may be made simultaneously.
Materials Necessary. —
Inulin, pyrethrum.
Cane-sugar has the formula CjjHjjOjj. Its physical
properties are so well known that they need not be recounted
here. It is found in the sugax'-cane and other grasses,
and in several varieties of beets, also in small quantity in
many plants.
It not an important constituent of any official crude drug.
is
—
Experiment 1. Test a little freshly prepared syrup for
glucose with Fehling's solution negative result.
:
—
Experiment 2. Test some old syrup for glucose, as in the
preceding experiment (positive ; showing that inversion occurs
upon exposure of the syrup).
—
Experiment 3. To 5 C.c. of the freshly made syrup add
5 C.c. of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid and place in boiling-water
bath for ten minutes or longer; neutralize with sodium
hydrate and apply Fehling's test (positive ; showing inversion
by heating with dilute mineral acid).
Materials Necessarj''. — Cane-sugar, old weak syrup.
CARBOHYDRATES. 291
Clucosids are characterized by yielding glucose and

some other substance upon decomposition by dilute miueral
acids or ferments. The term embraces a great number of
substances differing widely in other respects. It includes
the tannins, which have many properties in common ; the
saponins ; cathartic acid from senna ; and amygdalin from
bitter almond, which, by its decomposition, yields hydro-
cyanic acid.
Some glucosids reduce Fehling's solution without inver-
sion, inwhich case the fermentation test (see Ferments, Ex-
periment 5) is necessary for their determination. Most
glucosids are insoluble in ether and benzol, and are precipi-
tated by tannin, but not by other alkaloidal reagents. The
ferments are usually specific for a limited number. Some
glucosids are resinous, but most of them are crystalline.
Two glucosids, glycyrrhizin and salicin, are official.
The following glucosids, among the very great number
existing, may be mentioned : Amygdalin in bitter almond
quercitrin in oak and other barks convolvulin and jalapin ;
in jalap ; and digitoxin in digitalis, sinigrin in black

digitalin
and sinalbin in white mustard picrocrocin in saffron ; conif-
;
erin in various species of Coniferse ; scillain and scillin in

squill and numerous saponins from different sources.
;
—
Experiment 1. To a few cubic centimeters of a 1 per cent,
aqueous solution of salicin apply Fehling's test negative. :
Experiment 2. —
Heat 0.1 gm. of salicin with 10 C.c. of 1
per cent, sulphuric acid to boiling-point on water-bath for
ten minutes ; neutralize with sodium hydrate and apply
Fehling's test (positive, showing inversion of the glucosid by
acids).
Experiment 3. —
To 0.1 gm. of salicin add 5 C.c. of saliva
and warm 40°C. on water-bath for half an hour then
to ;
apply Moore's test for glucose (positive, showing inversion

by ferments).
Experiment 4. —
Into each of three test-tubes put 5 C.c. of
1 per cent, solution of salicin ; to the first add a few drops
of solution of tannin to the second, Mayer's reagent to
; ;
the third, picric acid ; noting that all are negative.

Experiment 5. —Some difficulty may be encountered in
demonstrating the presence of a glucosid in the crude drug,

owing to the fact that nearly all drugs contain glucose or
other reducing substance, and because many drugs give a
brown color with the alkali in Fehling's solution.
Since the glucosids are not usually so readily soluble in
water as is glucose, this difficulty can often be avoided by
dissolving out the glucose with water and inverting the glu-
cosid in the marc by boiling with dilute mineral acid, when
glucose is formed and goes into solution. Starch and inulin
must be absent. A control-experiment must always be
made. This method is illustrated in the following experi-
ment :
—
Experiment 6. Moisten 5 gm. of powdered digitalis with
water and percolate with warm water until a cubic centimeter
of percolate gives no reaction with well-diluted Fehling's
solution (showing that the drug has been exhausted of sugar).
Divide the marc into two equal portions ; boil one part with
50 C.c. of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid for fifteen minutes (to
invert the glucosids present) ; boil the other portion of the
marc with 50 C.c. of water. Filter the two, and neutralize
the acidulated decoction with a few drops of solution of
soda. Now take 1 C.c. of Fehling's solution, dilute with
20 and divide into equal portions in two test-
C.c. of water,
tubes. After boiling them, add to the first 1 C.c. of the
filtrate from the inversion process to the second, 1 C.c. of
;
that from the' simple decoction boil each for a minute or

;
two, and put aside to cool ; it will be found that the first
shows a much greater reduction than the second.
Gums are colloidal ^ vegetable substances formed by con-
version of the cell-walls. They are either soluble in water
(true gums) or swell with it (bassorins). All gums are in-
soluble in alcohol. Acacia (a true gum) and tragacanth
(bassorin) are official.
A great many plants contain gum in varying quantities
'Soluble solids were divided into two classes by Graham The o-j/stat-
:
loids,which diffuse readily through parchment, and which may assume

crystalline shape and the colloids, which do not diffuse readily through
;
parchment, which do not i-eadily form crystals, and the solutions of which
are usually viscid. It will be seen that the classification is by no means a
sharp one, but it is very convenient.
CARBOHYDRATES. 293
in the following drugs it is an important constituent in all :
gum resins ; and quince-seed (latter unofficial) sassa-

flax- ;
fras pith elm bark althaea ; opium senna, and in many

; ; ;
leaves, herbs, and flowers.

—
Experiment 1. Heat 1 gm. of powdered acacia and 1 gm.
of powdered tragacanth, each with 5 C.c. of water. Note
that the acacia is readily soluble, but that only a part of the
tragacanth dissolves, the remainder forming a jelly.
Experiment 2, —
Put into each of five test-tubes about 5
C.c. of a 25 per cent, mucilage of acacia to the first add ;
2 C.c. of alcoh ol to the second, a few drops of Ipad sub-

;
apetate ; to the third, some saturated solution of borax to ;
the fourth, a few drops of solution of fi^rrip. nhjnrid and to ;
the fifth, some 10 per cent, solution of tannin. Note the

character of the precipitate in each case.
. —
Experiment 3. Repeat the preceding experiment, using a
10 per cent, decoction of elm in place of the mucilage of
acacia.
Experiment 4. —
To 5 C.c. each of mucilage of acacia and
mucilage of tragacanth, in separate test-tubes, add a drop of
compound solution of iodin ; the tragacanth is colored violet
at the point of contact ; no reaction.
in the other there is
—
Experiment 5. Test 5 C.c. of the mucilage of acacia with
Fehling's solution (does not reduce it). Commercial acacia
may give a slight amount of reduction. Apply Moore's test
to 5 C.c. (turns brown).
—
Experiment 6. Heat 10 C.c. of mucilage of acacia and
2 C.c. of 10 per cent, sulphuric acid to boiling and continue
the heat for twenty minutes neutralize with sodium hydrate
;
and test with Fehling's solution positive (compare with

:
Experiment 5).
Demonstration. —
To 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of com-
mercial dextrin add a drop of compound solution of iodin
(reddish violet).
Materials. —Powdered acacia, elm bark, dextrin, powdered
tragacanth, 25 per cent, mucilage of acacia, solution of lead
subacetate, saturated solution of borax, 10 per cent, solution
of tannin.
Starch (C^HjÔJ is the chief constituent of many well-
known and tubers (potato). It is widely distributed

cereals
in the vegetablekingdom, being found in by far the greater
number of such official drugs as roots, rhizomes, and seeds.
Starch-granules from different sources can be identified by
the microscope (see p. 192).
Of the many in which it occurs, the following drugs have
it in large percentage Belladonna root (in which its abun-
:
dance roughly indicates the relative alkaloidal contents),

ipecac, althaea (35 per cent.), glycyrrhiza, ginger (20 per cent.)
physostigma (48 per cent.).
The absence of starch is often of importance, since its
presence in those powders, which should not contain it, affords
a means of detecting adulteration. The following drugs are
free from starch or have but traces of it Drugs of the Com-
:
positse ; senega, gentian, cinchona, elm, the cinnamons, many

flowers or parts of flowers, particularly cloves and saffron,
mustard, opium, lactucarium, aloe, and, of course, such iso-
lated principles as sugars, gums, camphors, and oils.
—
Experiment 1. Triturate 1 gm. of starch with 10 Co. of
water (it does not dissolve) ; heat to the boiling-point (it
becomes gelatinous), add about 90 C.c. of water, and warm
(it forms an opalescent solution, a little precipitate falling later).
Experiment 2. —Into each of three test-tubes put 5 C.c. of

the starch solution from Experiment 1. To the first add
5 C.c. of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid ; to the second, 10 C.c.
of saliva ; and to the third nothing ; put the first in the
water-bath at the boiling-point ; the second in the water-bath
at 40° C. ; and the third is kept at room-temperature ; after
an hour test all three with Fehling's solution for glucose the :
starch will prove negative, but the other two will be positive,
showing that the ferment, ptyalin, of the saliva and the
sulphuric acid have each converted the starch into sugar.
—
Experiment 3. To one drop of starch solution add half
the test-tubeful of water and a drop of compound solution of
iodin (violet color). Warm the test-tube (color disappears)
cool under tap (color reappears) (applicable to 1 part of starch
in 500,000 parts of cold water). Add 1 C.c. 5 per cent,
solution of soda (color disappears), then 2 C.c. 5 per cent,
hydrochloric acid (color reappears).
SAPONINS. 295
Experiment 4. — Intxj test-tubes put a few drops of 5 per

cent, decoctions of the following drugs Ginger, belladonna,
:
cassia, and Saigon cinnamon ; and to each

dilute all equally,
add a drop of compound tincture of iodin. If no color ap-
pears, add to each a drop of hydrochloric acid ^ to neutralize
the alkaline salts usually present in drugs ; if no color then
appears, add another drop or two of iodin solution. Notice
the difference in intensity of reaction, roughly corresponding
to the relative percentages of starch contained, if all have
been equally exhausted.
Materials. —
Starch, ginger, belladonna, cassia, Saigon cin-
namon.
SAPONINS.
Saponins are amorphous, glucosidal substances, free from
nitrogen, soluble in water, the solutions foaming when shaken ;
they are strong emulsifying agents and cause the solution of
red blood-corpuscles. Some saponins are precipitated by lead
acetate.
Those which are physiologically inactive are called Sapo-
nins those which are active, Sapotoxins.
;
Most saponins or sapotoxins give the sulphuric-acid reac-

tion mentioned below in Experiment 3. There are no official
saponins, but in the following drugs they are important con-
stituents Digitalis, quillaja, sarsaparilla, senega, and squill
:
among the official, and soap-root among the unofficial.

Experiment 1. —
Make a 5 per cent, decoction of quillaja,
using a 0.9 per cent, solution of sodium chlorid^ instead of
water to a drop of blood upon a glass slide add a drop of
;
the decoction and a few drops of the 0.9 per cent, solution
of sodium chlorid it causes laking
: i. e., forms a clear
solution.
—
Experiment 2. Take 10 C.c. of 5 per cent, decoction of the
following drugs shake them, and notice the frothing of those
;
containing saponin ; then add 10 minims of cotton-seed oil

^ Iodinmay be added in excess instead of using the acid.
^ TUs solution of 0.9 per cent, sodium chlorid in water behaves indiffo
ently toward the tissues and blood of warm-blooded animals.
It is the " normal saline solution " of physiologists and physicians. Note
that it is not a " normal " solution in the sense in which the word is used by
chemists.
and note their relative emulsifying powers : Quillaja, senega,

sarsaparilla, cinchona (last negative).
Experiment 3. —Place 0.01 gm. of saponin (crude saponin
consists for the most part of sapotoxin) on a chip of white
porcelain and add two drops of sulphuric acid (strong)
canary color. Add trace of water gradual development of
;
purple color, which fades after a time.

Materials. — Quillaja, senega, sarsaparilla, cinchona, 0.9 per
sodium
cent, solution of chlorid, cotton-seed oil.
PROTEIDS.
Proteids are very complex substances, universally dis-
tributed in living animal and vegetable but not found
tissues,
abundantly in most of the official drugs other than seeds ; of
which, however, they often constitute more than 25 per cent,
of their weight. They are of very great physiologic import-
ance, since they are intimately connected with the life of
cells.
Proteids contain from 15 to 18 per cent, of nitrogen, com-
bined with carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, and oxygen, the latter
element being in much smaller proportion in these compounds
than in the carbohydrates.
The class of proteids includes a number of substances dif-
fering more or less, but having certain characteristics in com-
mon. Their separate treatment belongs to the more advanced
study of chemistry. Their molecules readily undergo decom-
position by the action of ferments, acids, alkalies, and other
agencies. Probably because of the size of the molecules, they
do not pass through animal membranes nor vegetable parch-
ment, and they are not readily crystallizable.
For our purpose none of the official drugs except seeds
need be considered in connection with this class of com-
pounds.
—
Experiment 1. Egg-albumen (white of egg) may be con-
veniently studied for the characteristic proteid reactions.
Take the white of an egg and mix with 500 C.c. of water : a
white, cloudy precipitate of globulin (another proteid) forms
filter and use the clear filtrate for the following tests :
PR0TEW8. 297
—
Experiment 2. To 5 C.c. of the solution of albumen add
5 C.c. of solution of potassa or soda, and drop by drop a 1
per cent, solution of cupric sulphate a violet or pink color
:
results. Biuret test.

When the amount of proteids is small, the cupric sulphate
gives a blue precipitate, which dissolves with a purple color.
The beginnner must be careful to avoid excess of the cupric
sulphate, which would remain imdissolved and give a blue
color to the liquid.
Experiment 3. —
To 5 C.c. of the solution of albumen add
a drop or two of 5 per cent, acetic acid and boil ; the proteid
is coagulated ; after coagulation it cannot be again dissolved
except by decomposing the molecule. If strong acids are

used, especially hydrocholoric, a soluble compound may be
formed.
—
Experiment 4. To a little pure (undissolved) egg-albumen
add an equal amount of strong nitric acid a yellow color
:
develops ; now add an excess of ammonia water or sodium

hydrate ; the color becomes orange, and if a large excess of
alkali is used, the albumenbecome soluble. This test
will
may be made upon the by boiling 5 C.c. with as
solution
much strong nitric acid, in which case a yellow solution is
obtained, which becomes orange on the addition of the alkali
(xanthoproteic test).
—
Experiment 5. To 5 C.c. of the solution of albumen add
a few drops of acetic acid and some mercuric potassium iodid
(Mayer's reagent). A
white precipitate occurs. This is also
a general alkaloidal precipitant (see p. 303).
—
Experiment 6. Rub a kernel of bitter almond to a paste
and add 25 C.c. of water, stirring for a few minutes, and
filter through a previously wetted filter.
Apply the biuret, xanthoproteic, and Mayer's tests (see

Experiments 2, 4, and 5) to portions of the filtrate, demon-
strating that the proteid found in seeds responds to the char-
acteristic tests for egg-albumen. Physostigma or other seeds
may be similarly tested, but note that the alkaloid physo-
stigmine is also precipitated by Mayer's reagent.
Materials. — Egg-albumen, bitter almond, physostiguia.
FERMENTS.
Ferments are organic bodies which induce definite changes
in the chemic composition of certain substances without com-
mensurate change in the ferment. They are of comparatively
little pharmaceutic interest (if we except the fermentation of
syrups), despite the fact that they play a very important part
in the processes of health and disease.
The digestive ferments ptyalin, found in saliva, and pep-
:
sin and pancreatin, secreted by certain glands of the stomach

and pancreas, convert the food into substances capable of
absorption into the blood and assimilation by the tissues.
The ferment emulsin in bitter almond decomposes amygdalin
into oil of bitter almonds, hydrocyanic acid, and dextrose.
Similar ferments are found in many other plants which con-
tain glucosids.
The conversion of glucose into alcohol and finally into
acetic acidby the action of the yeast ferment is a familiar
instance of a fermentation process.
The action of a given ferment is usually exerted only on
a very small number of closely allied substances, and only
imder favorable conditions of temperature, moisture, etc.
In addition to the emulsin and the digestive ferments pre-
viously mentioned the following drugs contain important
ferments White and black mustard contain myrosin ; ex-
:
tract of malt contains diastase.

Yeast plays an important r6le pharmaceutically, since to it
is due much of the troublesome fermentation (syrups, etc.)
which causes so much annoyance to pharmacists.

—
Experiment 1. Dissolve 0.1 gm. of pepsin in 100 C.c.
of water ; add 1 C.c. hydrochloric acid (this approximately
represents the gastric juice of the stomach, though certain
salts and mucus are present in that organ). Put 10 C.c. of
this solution into a test-tube; add about 0.1 gm. of fibrin,'
' Fibrin is prepared by briskly whipping fresh blood with a glass rod for
fifteen minutes, straining out the fibrin, and washing with water. It may
be preserved in alcohol or in solution of common salt.
The U. S. P. uses coagulated egg-albumen in estimating the digestive
power of pepsin. The reaction is the same with that proteid, but the fibrin
is acted upon more rapidly and is, therefore, preferred in this experiment.
FERMENTS. 299
which has been thoroughly washed to remove alcohol or salt,

and stand the tube in water at 40° C. for half an hour.
The pepsin causes the digestion of the fibrin, the decom-
position products being soluble, and if the biuret test (p. 297)
is now made, it will be found that proteids, albumose, and
—
peptone are in solution in other words, the insoluble fibrin
has been converted by the ferment pepsin into soluble sub-
stances.
Experiment 2. —Put 10 C.c. of this acid solution of pep-
and boil for five minutes this destroys
sin into a test-tube ;
the pepsin. Now add 0.1 gm. of fibrin and place the tube
in a water-bath at 40° C. for half an hour, after which
apply the biuret test ; this will now prove negative, since
the fibrin remains unchanged and insoluble.
—
Experiment 3. Put 10 C.c. of the acid solution of pepsin
into a test-tube with 0.1 gm. of fibrin, and add 10 C.c. of
solution of soda (5 per cent.) ; place in water-bath at 40°C.
for half an hour, and apply the biuret test. This will also
prove negative, showing that the ferment is not active in
alkaline medium.
—
Experiment 4. Dissolve 0.1 gm. of pancreatin' in 100
C.c. of water and add 1 C.c. of concentrated solution of
sodium carbonate (this approximately represents the pan-
creatic juice in the intestine). Into each of three test-
tubes put 10 C.c. of this solution ; boil the first one for
five minutes ; render the second strongly acid with hydro-
chloric acid, and use the third as it is to each add 0.1 gm.
;
of fibrin ; place the three test-tubes in the water-bath at

40° C. for half an hour, and then apply the biuret test. It
will be found that boiling has destroyed the ferment that it
;
has been inactive in an acid medium, and that the third alone
gives the biuret reaction, since pancreatin (or trypsin) requires
a neutral or an alkaline medium for its digestive action.
—
Experiment 5. Take a piece of compressed yeast of the
size of a pea and shake it in a test-tube with a little 5 per
cent, solution of glucose until a smooth mixture is obtained
then fill the tube with the glucose solution and invert it in a
'
Pancreatin is a mixture of ferments, one of which (trypsin) is con-
cerned in the above experiment.
3U0 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS.
beaker containing some of the liquid, avoiding the escape of

the solution by covering the tube with the thumb.'
Put in a warm place for a day or
r^ longer. The yeast will decompose the

glucose with formation of CO^ (which
collects in the test-tube). This may be
tested by introducing a small piece (1
gm.) of sodium hydrate into the tube :
the carbon dioxid combines with it to

form sodium carbonate, the gas being
replaced by water. Alcohol is also
formed, which may be detected in the
^;=^^
r\\ liquid in the beaker by adding a few
jj
^ "^^
cubic centimeters of solution of potassa
and then a few drops of compound
4r .;n> solution of iodin ; a yellow precipitate
fes' of iodoform occurs either at once or after
a time, and the well-known odor can be
detected.
When the amount of alcohol formed
Fig. 54.— Fermentation
tube with exit, for use by the fermentation is small, it may
with small quantities of
liquid.
be necessary to distil oflF a few cubic
centimeters of the liquid ; alcohol, being
more volatile than water, will be found in a larger proportion
in the first distillate than in the undistilled portion.
—
Experiment 6. Extract of malt contains the ferment
diastase, which is capable of converting starch into dextrin
and glucose.
To 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, starch solution add 1 C.c. extract
of malt and 4 C.c. of water ; put in water-bath at 60° C.
for a few hours. When the conversion is complete, the starch
will have been completely decomposed, which may be proved
by adding a drop of solution of iodin to a little of the mix-
ture, no blue color resulting. If the conversion is not
^ Instead of mounting the test-tube in the beaker, the method illustrated
in Fig. 54 may be used. This consists of a bent tube which passes up
through a perforated cork into a testrtube. After filling as described in the
above experiment, the apparatus is inverted in a tumbler and put aside in
a warm place. The carbon dioxid evolved forces the liquid out through
the tube while the gas collects in the test-tube.
FERMESTS. 301
completed, the reaction may be compared with a control as

follows:
Take 2 C.c. of the mixture and dilute with a liter of cold

water ; then take 1 C.c. of the 1 per cent, starch solution
and dilute with a liter of cold water. Test 5 C.c. of each in
test-tubes of the same diameter, adding one drop of iodin
solution to each, and note the diminished intensity of color
in the partially converted solution.
—
Materials. Pepsin, pancreatin, yeast (fresh), extract of
malt, fibrin, 5 per cent, glucose, starch.
CHAPTEK III.
CLASS n.—CONSTITUENTS FOR THE MOST PART

SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL AND WATER, INSOL-
UBLE IN ETHER, CHLOROFORM. BENZOL. PE-
TROLEUM ETHER (GASOLIN), AND AMYLIC
ALCOHOL.
ALKALOIDS.
Alkaloids are organic bases whose watery solutions
turn reddened litmus blue. The United States Pharmacopoeia
distinguishes alkaloids from other compounds by the termi-
nation of their names in -ine thus, strychnine.—They com-
bine with acids to form salts without, however, liberating
hydrogen ; their combinations with hydrochloric and hydro-
bromic acids are, therefore, called hydrochlorates and hydro-
bromates by the U. S. P., though some authorities prefer to
call them hydrochlorids, hydrobromids, etc. They all contain
nitrogen. The greater number of pharmaceutic interest con-
•
tain oxygen, are solid, and non-volatile at the ordinary tem-

perature a few are oxygen-free liquids and are readily volatil-
;
izable. The free alkaloids ^ are usually soluble in alcohol,

ethei", and chloroform, slightly so in water, while their salts
are soluble in water, less so in alcohol,and nearly insoluble
in chloroform and ether ; advantage being taken of the readi-
ness with which they form salts and the differences in solu-
bility of salt and free alkaloid to separate them from other
plant constituents.
A number of alkaloids give characteristic, usually evanes-
cent, color-reactions with certain concentrated mineral acids.
A number of reagents precipitate both alkaloids and proteids
(hence it may become
necessary to isolate an alkaloid before
applying identity tests). The following alkaloids or one or
more of their salts are official :
^ A few free alkaloids are fairly soluble in water.

302
ALKALOIDS. 303
Apomorphine, atropine, caffeine,^ cinchonidine, cinchonine,

cocaine, codeine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quini-
dine, quinine, strychnine, and veratrine, the last-mentioned
being a mixture of alkaloids.
Of some importance are Aconitiue, brucine, coniine, col-
:
chicine, emetine, narceine, narcotine, nicotine, solanine, and

theobromine.
Experiment 1. —Add one drop of dilute sulphuric acid (10
per cent.) to 10 C.c. of distilled water and test its reaction
with litmus-paper (acid). Then add to it 0.1 gm. of quinine
(alkaloid) and again test with litmus ; it is now neutral,
showing that the alkaloid has neutralized the acid, and upon
shaking vigorously, enough of the quinine will dissolve to
render the solution alkaline.
—
Experiment 2. Shake 0.2 gm. of quinine with 100 C.c.
of water and note that only a small part is dissolved ; add
10 C.c. of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid ; agitate the flask until
solution occurs. (The insoluble ^ alkaloid has been converted
into a soluble salt, the sulphate.) Note the fluorescence
(bluish color) of this solution, rendered more intense by fur-
ther dilution with dilute sulphuric acid, but destroyed by
adding sodium chlorid.
—
Experiment 3. Use the solution of quinine sulphate made
in Experiment 2 for the following general tests :
Put 5 C.c. of the solution into each of five test-tubes to ;
the first add a few drops of Mayer's reagent (mercuric potas-

sium iodid) to the second, solution of picric acid to the
; ;
third, solution of tannin ; to the fourth, solution of iodin

with potassium iodid ; and to the fifth, enough solution of
sodium or potassium hydrate (five to ten drops) to render it
alkaline (or until an abundant precipitate falls). With the
first four insoluble compounds have been formed, while the
alkaline hydrate has precipitated the alkaloid by combining

with its acid this may be demonstrated by nearly filling
;
all the test-tubes with water (or adding 20 C.c. to each),
^ Caffeine and theobromine, while classed, for convenience, with the

alkaloids, show the alkaloidal reactions only to a minor degree and are very
feebly basic.
The terms soluble and insoluble are given in this work relative values
''
quinine is soluble in about 1700 parts of cold water.

304 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS
when the free alkaloid may be dissolved by shaking, but

the first four preciiîtates remain undissolved (see Experi-
ment 5).
Experiment 4. —This will serve to illustate the method of
isolating alkaloids by reason of differences in solubility when
more than one present in solution.
is To 5 Co. of the solu-
tion of quinine sulphate add 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of
morphine sulphate. To the mixed solutions add 1 C.c. of 1
per cent, solution of soda or until the mixture is decidedly
alkaline to litmus, but avoiding a large excess. This precipi-
tates the free alkaloids from solution ; add 10 C.c. of ether,
and shake gently with a which causes
sort of rotary motion,
the quinine to be dissolved by the ether without its mixing
with the water; the morphine being but slightly soluble
(1 in 4000), remains in the watery layer ; the ethereal solu-
tion quinine is drawn off in a pipet, and 5 C.c: of fresh
.of
ether again gently shaken with the mixture in order to

remove the last traces of quinine. The two portions of ether
are mixed and 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid added,
when, upon gently shaking them, the quinine again becomes
the sulphate and passes out of the ether into the weak acid,
as is evidenced by the fluorescence which it has acquired.
Further proof may be had by applying the thalleioquin test
(see Experiment 3 under Cinchona, p. 347).
The morphine may be removed by adding 10 C.c. of acetic
ether to the mixture (after the second portion of ether has
been removed) and gently shaking for a few minutes. Re-
move the acetic ether layer (which now contains the mor-
phine) with a pipet. The acetic ether may be evaporated off
and tests applied to the residue ; or the acetic ether solution
may be agitated with 10 C.c. of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid,
which converts the morphine into the sulphate, and this dis-
solves in the weak acid. The
fact that neutral principles do
not form salts with acids taken advantage of in separating
is
them from alkaloids (see Neutral Principles, Experiment 1).

—
Experiment 5. Keller's method of estimating the alka-
loidal contents of a drug consists in extracting it with a
mixture of chloroform and ether in the presence of ammonia
water (the latter is added to insure the alkaloids being free)
ALKALOIDS. 305
from a weighed amount of drug, purifying, and then weigh-

ing. The following process, modified for the present pur-
pose, will serve to illustrate the method. The product will
not be sufficiently pure to enable one to determine the quan-
tity present, but serves readily for the identity test.
Into a flask of about 250 Co. capacity put 12 gm. of
powdered nux vomica and pour upon it a mixture of 80 C.c.
of ether and 40 C.c. of chloroform shake occasionally for
;
half an hour (to give time for the mixture to penetrate thor-
oughly into the cells of the drug) ; then add 10 C.c. of
ammonia water and shake well and frequently during an
hour (half-hour suffices to extract a part of the alkaloid)
then add 5 C.c. of water and shake the mixture ; keep add-
ing portions of 5 C.c. of water and shaking after each addi-
tion at intervals of two minutes until the drug separates,
leaving a nearly clear layer above, when it is allowed to
stand for a minute or two (not more than about 25 C.c. of
water in all should be used). When the ether-chloroform
separates into a clear layer and the drug tends to remain
agglutinated at the bottom, pour off the clear liquid (the
water remains in the drug) into a flask, add 50 C.c. of 1
per cent, hydrochloric acid, and shake (rotate) gently for ten
minutes. Separate the chloroform-ether layer, or it may be
easier to remove the greater part of the acidulated solution
from the bottom. The acid watery layer now contains the
alkaloids as the hydrochlorates. For the following test the
solution should be rendered nearly neutral by the addition
of sodium carbonate. Half a cubic centimeter of the solu-
tion injected into a frog ^ gives typical strychnine convulsions.
The intensely bitter taste, even on dilution, is characteristic
of strychnine.
If the remainder of the solution is now rendered alkaline
by adding ammonia water, and a mixture of 40 gm. ether
and 20 gm. of chloroform is added, and the mixture is shaken
occasionally with a gentle rotary motion (to avoid emulsifi-
cation"), the ether-chloroform layer (containing free alkaloid)
' inject into frog, cut a small hole in the skin of the abdomen with a
To
knife or scissors and drop the fluid into the space between the skin and
the S-bdpinen, with a fine pointed pipet.
20
can be separated and evaporated (or distilled) ; the alka-

loids, strychnine and brucine, are left behind (see Experi-
ment 6).
Experiment 6. —
The success of this experiment will depend
somewhat upon the care with which the preceding one has
been conducted. Use the end-product of Experiment 5, and
to a part add nitric acid —
a red color fading to yellow is due
to brucine to another part add a drop of sulphuric acid,
;
then a very small crystal of potassium bichromate, when a

a play of colors —
blue, violet, and red —
will be seen, due to
strychnine.
Experiment 7. —To demonstrate the presence of a volatile
alkaloid, mix
gm. powdered tobacco with an equal bulk of
1
freshly slaked lime put into a test-tube and pour enough
;
water in to cover the powder. Stopper the tube with a per-

forated cork having a bent tube extending into the upper
part of the test-tube, the other end dipping into slightly
acidulated water in a small beaker ; heat the test-tube, caus-
ing the volatile alkaloid, nicotine, to vaporize, and be con-
densed in the water in the beaker. Should the nicotine con-
dense on the walls of the upper part of the test-tube and the
bent tube, these may be heated.
To the water in the beaker apply several of the alkaloidal
tests given in Experiment 3, p. 303, after dividing it into
several portions.
iVbfe.^When operating upon a drug containing a small
quantity of a volatile alkaloid, it is better to exhaust the dry
mixture of drug and calcium hydrate with ether, evaporate
the latter at a temperature of the room or little higher, and
then distil the residue as in Experiment 7. The distilla-
tion may be carried on in a stream of CO^ to avoid oxida-
tion.
Materials,
acid,
—
Quinine (alkaloid), saturated solution of picric
10 per cent, solution of tannin, 1 per cent, solution of
morphine sulphate, ether, acetic ether, chloroform, powdered
nux vomica, frog, potassium bichromate, powdered tobacco,
unslaked lime, bent glass tube, and cork with two perforations
for distillation.
NEUTRAL PRINCIPLES. 307
NEUTRAL PRINCIPLES.
Neutral principles form a class which is not strictly scien-

since they constitute a heterogeneous collection, some
tific,
being soluble in water, others in alcohol ; some are glucosids ;

some contain nitrogen.
They are characterized by bitter or sharp taste and by the
absence of most of the other properties of alkaloids. They
are usually crystalline, and are possessed of marked physio-
logic action, usually shown by the bitter taste.
Picrotoxin, piperin, salicin, and santonin are mentioned by
the Pharmacopoeia as neutral principles ; of these salicin, has
been considered among the glucosids.
Experiment 1. —The
following will demonstrate the non-
alkaloidal character of picrotoxin Take 0.05 gm. of this
:
neutral principle, rub it with 5 C.c. of water ; a part remains

tjudissolved, and the mixture is neutral to litmus-paper. Add
a drop or two of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid, and note that
no appreciable amount is dissolved thereby, showing that
no soluble salt is formed (compare with Experiment 2, p. 303).
Now add 10 C.c. of water and triturate until solution is
effected.
Experiment 2. —Divide the solution of picrotoxin made in
Experiment 1 into three portions in three test-tubes ; to the
first add Mayer's reagent to the second, solution of
; picric
acid ; to the third, compound solutiop of iodin, noting that
these alkaloidal precipitants give no precipitates.
Experiment 3. —
To about 0.1 gm. of santonin add 5 C.c.
of solution of soda, heat, and when dissolved, neutralize the
solution with 5 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid. The san-
toninate of soda formed in effecting solution is decomposed
by the acid, and the santonin is precipitated. The mixture
now having an excess of acid, the non-glucosidal character
of santonin may
be shown by boiling the acid mixture, and,
after neutralizing with sodium hydrate, testing with Fehling's
solution : the result is negative.
A distinct class of neutral principles embraces the purgative
DEEIVATIVES OF ANTHKAQUINONE ; these include chryso-
phanic acid (found in chrysorobin, senna, rhubarb, and cas-
cara sagrada), emodin (fouDd in rhubarb, frangula, and aloes),

and the aloins (found in the various aloes).
They are only slightly soluble in pure or acidulated water,
but readily so in alkali, with which they combine, with the
development of a red color.
—
Experiment 4. Anthraquinone derivatives Moisten 1 :
gm. of powdered cascara sagrada with 1 C.c. of alcohol

macerate a few minutes and percolate with 5 C.c. of alcohol
to the percolate add 2 per cent, sodium hydrate (red color).
(In class some students may use senna, others rhubarb, etc.,
in this and the next experiment, comparing results.)
Experiment 5. —
Moisten 1 gm. of coarsely powdered cas-
cara sagrada with 1 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate
macerate a few minutes and percolate with 10 C.c. of 5 per cent,
sodium hydrate to the percolate add a slight excess of hydro-
;
chloric acid precipitate of resinous substance.

:
—
Experiment 6. Dissolve 0.1 gm. of chrysophanic acid^
in 2 C.c. 5 per cent, sodium hydrate (beautiful red color).
Add slight excess of dilute hydrochloric acid. Precipitate
mixture becomes milky.
Materials. — Picrotoxin, santonin, cascara sagrada, and
chrysophanic acid.
TANNINS.
Tannins constitute another heterogeneous group, distin-
guished by an astringent taste, by giving a blue-black or
green-black color with ferric salts, and by being amorphous.
They do not contain nitrogen ; some are glucosids.
Pathologic tannins, so named because they are pro-
duced in the course of disease processes, in general give in
neutral solutions a bluish-black color with ferric salts, while
physiologic tannins, or those produced in normal tissues, give
a greenish-black with those salts.
Most tannins form precipitates with alkaloids, albumin,
and most of the metallic salts.
Tannins are soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin ; less
soluble in ether.
Gallic and gallotannic acids are the only official tannins,
' " Chrysophanic acid " is not an acid, but a neuti-al substance.
TANwms. 309
but not only is tannin an important constituent in the drugs
in the subjoined list, but it is very widely distributed, par-

ticularly in barks and leaves.
Nut-galls contain gallotannic and gallic acids, but the latter
isprincipally obtained as a derivative of the fornjer. Oak -bark
C(mtains quercitannic acid, and the following barks contain
their peculiar tannins Cinchona, coruus, pomegranate, black-
:
berry root and others, and the leaves of uva ursi, chestnut,
coca, matico, and hamamelis ; krameria and a number of
other roots and rhizomes contain minor quantities, but still
sufficient to form a black mixture when ferric salts are added
to their preparations. Calumba is a notable instance of a
root free from tannin.
Catechu and kino are notably rich in their peculiar tannins.
Experiment 1. —
Put 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of tan-
nin (the official tannic acid) ' into each of five test-tubes ; to
the add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid a blue-black
first
— —
;
color ink occurs add 1 C.c. oxalic acid (5 per cent.)

;
it is decolorized then add an excess of solution of soda

; it :
becomes a port-wine color.

To the second tube add a little albumin to the third, a ;
solution of quinine sulphate ; to the fourth, solution of lead

subacetate ; and to the fifth, sodium hydrate. The last gives
a reddish-brown color and the preceding three give white
precipitates.
Experiment 2. —
(Demonstration U. S. P. Test.)— "To a—
1 per cent, solution of tannin add a small quantity of calcium
hydrate T. S.^ A pale, bluish-white, flocculent precipitate
is produced, which is not dissolved on shaking (difference
from gallic acid), and which becomes more copious and of a

deeper blue by the addition of a moderate excess of calcium
hydrate T. S., while a large excess of the latter imparts a
pale pinkish tint to the solution."
—
Experiment 3. To 5 C.c. of each of the following in-
fi,isions in test-tubes add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid.
' This is pathologic tannin, being found in galls produced by the sting
of an insect. Ink-stains in cloth maybe removed (as shown by tliis experi-

ment) by addition of oxalic acid, which should then be washed out in water.
^ Test solution.
Note the color formed in each case; then to each add an

excess of hydrochloric acid (note bleaching) ; then to each an
excess of sodium hydrate (note garnet or sherry-wine color).
Infusion of oak bark and of uva ursi.
Demonstration. —
To 5 C.c. of each, decoction of quassia
and of calumba, add a drop of ferric chlorid no black color.—
Materials. —
1 per cent, solution tannic acid oak-bark ;;
uva ursi ; nut-galls ; 5 per cent, solution oxalic acid ; solution

of albumin ; ' 1 per cent, solution of quinine sulphate ; calcium
hydrate T. S.
ORGANIC ACIDS.
Organic acids exist in plants, both free and in combination,
as salts. The —
oleic, palmitic, and stearic
fatty acids are —
constituents of and will be considered with them. The
fat,
aromatic acids —
benzoic, cinnamic, salicylic, etc. are found —
in balsams and other drugs ; the three acids just mentioned
are the most important of this class pharmaceutically ; of
these, benzoic and cinnamic occur abundantly in benzoin,
tolu, and Peru balsams, storax, etc., while oils of wintergreen
and sweet birch are composed of methyl-salicylate, from which
salicylic acid is easily obtained.
Perhaps no other acid is so widely found in the vegetable
kingdom as is oxalic, which usually exists as calcium oxalate,
needle-shaped or sphere crystals of which are usually recog-
nized with ease microscopically (see Histology, p. 196).
Calcium oxalate may be further identified, when in doubt,
by the fact that it is insoluble in acetic acid (calcium car-
bonate dissolving with efifer\'escence). Soluble oxalates give
a white precipitate with calcium chlorid, insoluble in acetic,
soluble in hydrochloric, acid.
Acetic and fruit acids —
malic, citric, and tartaric occur —
free or combined in the juices of many fruits. Acetic acid or
acetates give a red color with ferric chloric. Soluble tar-
trates with potassium hydrate and an excess of hydrochloric
acid give a white precipitate of potassium bitartrate (cream
of tartar), soluble in a large amount of water.
' Where small quantities of albumin are wanted from time to time, it
will be found convenient to keep the following mixture on hand and dilute
as required White of one egg water, 190 C.c.
: ; sodium chlorid, 10 gm.
;
OEOANIC ACIDS. 311
Soluble citrates in neutral solutions give with calcium

chlorid no change in the cold ; upon boiling, a precipitate
falls; this is insoluble in sodium hydrate.
Valerianic acid occurs in valerian and in the viburnums
but it is now mainly prepared synthetically through the oxi-
dation of amylic alcohol. The study of these acids belongs
rather to the department of chemistry than to that of materia
medica, hence no experiments with them are given in this
book.
Hydrocyanic acid usually exists in amygdalin, from
which it is split off by the ferment emulsin (see p. 298).
Amygdalin exists in the following drugs Bitter almond, :
wild cherry, and peach leaves.

—
Experiment 1. Use a 1 per cent, solution of potassium
cyanid for the following hydrocyanic-acid tests Into a test- :
tube put 5 C.c. of the solution of potassium cyanid and add a

drop of solution of silver nitrate (white precipitate, dissolved
by adding excess of potassium cyanid). Potassium cyanid is
used for the sake of convenience, since it responds to the
tests for hydrocyanic acid.
—
Experiment 2. To 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of potas-
sium cyanid add a drop of 1 per cent, ferrous sulphate, a
drop of solution of ferric chlorid and a little sodium hydrate;
heat gently and add an excess of hydrochloric acid, when a
deep green or blue color or a blue precipitate of Prussian
blue is seen (a blue color may appear when the ferrous sul-
phate is added at the beginning of the experiment).
Experiment 3. —
Moisten a piece of filter-paper with 0.5
per cent, copper sulphate, and when dry, moisten with a
recently prepared tincture of guaiac.^ Dry this in a warm
place —
beside the Bunsen flame if necessary, but not above
it, since this heat may cause it to turn blue. Expose one
portion of the paper to the hydrocyanic-acid vapor by press-
ing it over the mouth of a bottle containing that acid it :
becomes dark blue press another portion over the mouth of

;
a bottle of ammonia water it becomes greenish.

:
—
Experiment 4. Put 5 gm. of coarsely powdered wild-
' This is best prepared fresh by taking a small piece of clean guaiac
resin (0.1 gm.) and adding 5 C.c. alcohol in a test-tube, warming slightly.
cherry bark into a test-lube and moisten with water ; warm

very gently (60° C.) the amygdalin present is decomposed
;
by emulsin, and liydrocyanic acid is formed ; press a third

portion of the previously mentioned copper-guaiac paper over
the test-tube while warming ; it becomes dark blue from the
hydrocyanic acid generated.
Experiment 5. —
Rub a kernel of bitter almond in a mor-
tar to a pasty mass ; put into a test-tube ; add 6 C.c. of
water shake and warm gently while holding a piece of the
;
guaiac and copper sulphate pressed over the tube, as in the

previous experiment (dark blue, showing presence of hydro-
cyanic acid).
Benzoic Acid. — Êxperiment 6. —To 5 C.c. of 5 per
cent, sodium benzoate add ten drops of hydrochloric acid :
benzoic acid is precipitated warm, the acid is dissolved if

; ;
the test-tube is cooled under the hydrant, the acid again cry-
stallizes out of solution, the contents of the tube becoming a
semitransparent solid, so that the tube may be inverted with
little or no loss of liquid. Now add 5 C.c. of ether and
shake the ether dissolves out the benzoic acid.
:
—
Experiment 7. To 0.1 gm. of benzoic acid (or sodium
benzoate) in a small evaporating dish add a few drops of
nitric acid and evaporate to dryness on a water-bath ; when
the vapor of nitric acid has disappeared, the odor of oil of
bitter almond will be detected.
—
Experiment 8. To 5 C.c. sodium benzoate add two drops
of ferric chlorid flesh-colored precipitate of ferric benzoate.
:
Experiment 9. —To 1 gm. benzoic acid add 5

C.c. of milk of
lime and boil a few minutes while hot through a wetted
; filter
filter ; add to filtrate a slight excess of hydrochloric acid.
This illustrates Schuh's wet method of preparing benzoic
acid. By boiling the milk of lime with benzoin the acid
present combines with the lime to form calcium benzoate,
which is soluble ; by filtration resinous matter is left behind ;
after precipitating the acid it may be collected upon a filter
and further purified by sublimation. Its identity may be
established by the tests previously given.
—
Cinnamic Acid. Experiment 10. To 5 C.c. of balsam —
of Peru add 19 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate and heat
OROANIC ACIDS. 313
a few minutes. Filter through a wetted filter and add a

slight excess of hydrochloric acid ; cool, add 10 C.c. of ether
shake for a few minutes and remove half of the ether with a
pipet to small evaporating dish ; evaporate the ether at a low
temperature (avoiding vaporization of the cinnamic acid),
and test as follows :
To the dry residue add a few drops of concentrated solu-

tion of potassium permanganate ; benzaldehyd is formed by
oxidation and can be detected by the odor of oil of bitter
almond. This test serves to distinguish cinnamic from ben-
zoic acid. Benzoic acid is also present in the balsam of Peru.
If the remainder of the ether be evaporated, the residue dis-
solved in 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium hydrate, and the solu-
tion rendered practically neutral by the addition of very
dilute hydrochloric acid and a few drops of ferric chlorid be
added, the flesh-colored precipitate of ferric benzoate is seen.
If the solution is strongly acid, no precipitate occurs if ;
alkaline, reddish ferric hydrate is precipitated.

—
Salicylic Acid. Experiment 11. To 5 C.c. of 5 per—
cent, sodium salicylate add 1 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid ;
sodium chlorid is formed, and salicylic acid is liberated as a
white precipitate ; heat to boiling ; the salicylic acid dissolves
and recrystallizes on cooling, as in case of benzoic acid when ;
cool, add 2 C.c. of ether and shake gently ; the salicylic acid
dissolves in the ethereal layer. With pipet remove the ethe-
real layer to another test-tube and add 1 C.c. of 5 per cent,
sodium hydrate ; shake gently, and evaporate off the ether,
leaving salicylate of soda in solution. This may be neutral-
ized and diluted for the next experiment, or a fresh solution
employed.
Experiment 12. —To one drop of 5 per cent, sodium salic-
ylate add 5 C.c. of water and a drop of ferric chlorid violet :
color.
Experiment 13. —To 5 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium salic-
ylate in a test-tube add a little bromin water crystalline pre-
:
cipitate.
Experiment 14. —Onadding to a small portion of salic-
ylic acid in a test-tube about 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric
acid ; then, cautiously, about 1 C.c. of raethylic alcohol in
drops, and heating the mixture to boiling the odor of :
methyl salicylate will be evolved. —

(U. S. P.)
The odor of methyl salicylate is well known as that of oil
of wintergreen or oil of sweet birch.
—
Experiment 15. Heat 2 C.c. of oil of sweet birch (me-
thyl salicylate) with 20 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate
(whereby sodium salicylate is formed) ; then add 60 C.c. of
water and 10 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid to the mixture
in order to precipitate the salicylic acid ; collect this on a
filter and dissolve in a few cubic centimeters of hot water
and to the solution add ferric chlorid : violet color.
Carbolic Acid. — Although this which is not
substance,
a true acid, does not occur free in plants, its reactions resem-
ble those of salicylic acid so closely that they may be con-
sidered in this place in order that they may be conveniently
compared.
Experiment 16. —
To 6 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of car-
bolic acid add a drop of ferric chlorid bluish color (compare
:
with the violet color given with salicylates).

—
Experiment 17. To 5 C.c. of concentrated carbolic acid
add 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, and then, cautiously,
1 C.c. of methyl alcohol in drops and heat to boiling. No
odor of oil of wintergreen will be evolved. Contrast with
Experiment 14.
Materials. —
1 per cent, solution potassium cyanid, pow-
dered wild-cherry bark, bitter almonds, 5 per cent, solution
sodium benzoate, benzoic acid, balsam of Peru, 5 per cent,
solution sodium salicylate, oil of sweet birch, 1 per cent,
solution of carbolic acid, 5 per cent, solution silver nitrate,
1 per cent, solution ferrous sulphate, guaiac, 2 per cent,
hydrocyanic acid, ether, milk of lime, saturated solution potas-
sium permanganate, bromin water, methylic alcohol.
COLORING-MATTER.
Coloring-matter is very prevalent in the vegetable king-
dom, as a moment's reflection will confirm. The most widely
distributed, at least in flowering plants, is the green coloring-
—
matter " chlorophyll " —
which serves for the assimilation of
COL ORINO-MA TTER. 31
carbon dioxid and liberation of oxygen. The substances

which constitute the brilliant coloring of flowers are mostly
unknown, as they exist only in small quantities and are
readily altered. Larger quantities of coloring-matter exist
in some plants, in which they- may occur in any part. These,
in so far as their composition is known, are benzol derivatives,
this being true of the widely distributed brown coloring-sub-
stances particularly abundant in barks, which are closely
allied to tanninsand phlobaphenes. It is of interest to note
that the advanced products of the decomposition of chlo-
rophyll are identical with the decomposition-products formed
from the red coloring-matter of blood-hemoglobin.
A very interesting and important property of most vege-
table colors is that most of them show different colors in acid
and alkaline media.
Only a few of the more important can find a place here,
and since the composition of many is so imperfectly known,
no strictly scientific classification is possible hence the fol-
;
lowing will be adopted

(A) Green color.
(B) Yellowish in all media.
(C) Reddish in all media.
(D) Reddish in acid, bluish in alkaline, media.
(E) Bluish in all media.
Class A. —Green Color.
Chlorophyll. —When fresh green plants are examined

microscopically, the cells are found to be charged with green
granules called chloroplasts. These consist of a spongy,
colorless network of protoplasm in which the chlorophyll is
inclosed. This " crude chlorophyll " consists of two sub-
stances— the bluish-green " chlorophyll proper " and the yel-
lowish " xanthophyll." Both of these give characteristic
"
absorption spectra, the crude chlorophyll giving a " mixed
spectrum.
These substances are insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol,
ether, chloroform, etc. Chlorophyll is readily changed by
acids and by alkalies —
more especially by the former. To
this is due the yellow or brown color which leaves acquire

after drying. If leaves dry very slowly, organic acids are
formed, causing the leaves to becoQie blackish, but if they
dry quickly, the acid formation does not occur, hence the
leaves remain green.
—
Experiment A 1. Having moistened 2 gm. of powdered
digitalis (preferably the English), percolate it with 25 C.c.
of tepid water, and throw away the percolate then with 20 ;
C.c. of alcohol, rejecting the first 2 C.c, which are mostly

water a beautiful green percolate is obtained if the leaves
:
have been properly dried. Put 10 C.c. of this percolate in a

test-tube and examine spectroscopically.' It may be neces-
sary to dilute with alcohol to obtain best results. Three
lines will be seen —
a dark one in the red, a lighter one about
' On
looking through a spectroscope at a yellow gas-flame a continuous
band of colore is seen. These are, from left to right Bed, orange, yellow,
:
green, blue, indigo, and violet. When the spectroscope is held toward the
sunlight (daylight), the same band of colore is seen, but crossed by a num-
ber of fine vertical lines, due to gases in the sun, and called " Fraunhofer's
lines" (Fig. 55). Their positions being unvarying, they are useful in de-
1*10. 55. —
Solar spectrum fof smaller spectroscope) A, B, C, D, E, and F, Lines of
:
Frauuhofer, divisions above showing approximate positions of colors.
scribing the position of other bands. They have been given numbers,
though letters are still frequently used to designate them. The band of
colore, together with its peculiar lines, seen upon examining any substance
spectroscopically is called the spectrum of that substance. The solar spec-
trum is the band of colors with the Fi-aunhofer lines. Artificial light does
not show these lines. When a colored solution is intei-posed between the
light and the spectroscope, certain portions of the band of colors are
"absorbed" and are replaced by black lines or dark bands in the spectrum,
and this is spoken of as the " absorption of the spectrum " of that substance
or simply as its spectrum. When the solution contains two coloring agents,
the spectrum shows the bands of both and is called a " mixed spectrum."
For absorption spectra a spectroscope of small dispersion —
!. e., one giving
—
a short band of colors is the more useful.
To use the spectroscope: Look through it toward the daylight and
adjust the aperture by turning the milled head and varying the tube
length so that the Fraunhofei^'s lines are sharply seen (compare with Fig.
COLORINQ-MATTER. 317
the middle of the green, and one in the orange, while all tjie
spectrum to the right of the green appears dark. This mixed
spectrum is that of chlorophyll and phylloxanthin.
Experiment A 2. —
To half of the alcoholic percolate used
in the spectroscopic examination add an equal bulk of dilute
hydrochloric acid the mixture becomes yellowish ; to the
:
other half of the percolate add an equal bulk of 5 per cent,

sodium hydrate the color becomes an old-gold green with a
:
blood-red fluorescence (seen on looking down upon the tube

held slantingly).
Experiment A 3. —A
characteristic test for chlorophyll is
performed as follows To 5 C.c. of the clear green alcoholic
:
percolate obtained from the digitalis add 1 C.c. of concen-

trated hydrochloric acid and dilute with 5 C.c. of water
when the effervescence has ceased (in a minute), add 5 C.c.
of ether, shake gently, and allow the mixture to separate into
two layers the lower (acid) layer becomes bluish-green, the
:
ethereal layer, yellowish. If these are examined spectro-

scopically, four bands will be seen in the ethereal layer, the
intensity dependent upon dilution ; these are a very dark
:
one in the red, a faint one in the orange, a very dark one
about the middle of the green, and a very faint one a little to
the left of the last, while all to the right of the green is some-
what darker. In the acid layer a very dark band is seen in
the red.
If the alcoholic percolate be evaporated on a water-bath
and the residue taken up in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a
heavy dark band is seen in the red, another in the yellow, a
faint one between, and a faint one in the green, with a dark-
ening of the right side of the spectrum.
55) until the principal ones are recognized at sight and their location
known when looking at gas-light then interpose the substance to be ex-
;
amined in a testrtube and examine, when certain lines or bands of varying

intensity will be seen.
When looking at gas-light (no lines) the position of D may be very
nearly located by dusting a bit of powdered borax or other sodium salt into
the flame the bright-yellow line appearing suddenly very nearly corre-
:
sponds to D. If horizontal lines are seen, they are due to imperfections in

the spectroscope and are disregarded.
Class B.— Colors Yellowish in Both Acid and Alkaline Media.
Curcuma. —Experiment B — 1. Percolate 0.1 gm. of cur-

cuma with 10 C.c. of alcohol (or use tincture of curcuma).
To 5 drops of the percolate add 5 C.c. of water and 1 drop
of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate (reddish-brown color), then an
excess of dilute hydrochloric acid (yellow color is restored).
Curcuma contains the pigment called curcumin ; it is in-
soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol.
—
Experiment B 2. Dip a piece of filter-paper into the re-
mainder of the percolate, allow to dry, dip it into 5 per cent,
boric acid; let it dry (orange color). At one place touch it
with a drop of 1 per cent, hydrochloric acid (deeper red)
at another touch with a drop of 0.5 per cent, sodium hydrate
(it becomes blue or nearly black).
—
Saffron. Êxperiment B 2. Triturate 0.01 gra. of—
saffron ' with water gradually added and then dilute with a
liter of water a yellow tint is discernible even in this
;
dilution (1 100,000).
:
Compare with safflower after treating an equal amount of

safflower in the same way.
Saffron contains a pigment called crocin or polychroit, a
glucosid, the principal characteristic of which is the intense
coloring-power.
—
Experiment B 4. Triturate 0.01 gm. of saffron with 0.1
gm. of sugar ^ thoroughly, then with water gradually added,
dilute with a liter of clear water this gives a dilution of
;
1 100,000 take 5 C.c. of this dilution, put into a test-

: ;
tube, and add water until the color is just visible after shak-
ing ; then measure the contents of the tube ; the number of
cubic centimeters multiplied by 20,000 will give the amount
of dilution of the saffron.
—
Example. If to 5 C.c. of the 1 100,000 enough water :
is added to make the contents of the tube measure 30 C.c,
' It may be found more

convenient to have a 1 per cent, alcoholic
tincture prepared, of which 1 C.c.
is used for diluting.
For this
^ to have a triturate of saffron and sugar
experiment it is well
in above proportion prepared, to avoid weighing such small quantities as
0.01 gm.
COLORING-MATTER. 319
we have 30 X 20,000=600,000 as the dilution in which the

color is visible.
Saffron should give with this method a color visible in a

dilution of 1 : 700,000.
Supplementary to this experiment two powders may be
furnished the student, for him to determine which is true
saffron.
—
Experiment B 5. Eub a single stigma of saifron in a
mortar ; add a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid deep :
blue color. By making this test under the microscope the

proportion of true- saffron in an adulterated sample may be
roughly estimated.
Carthataus, or safflower, so-called "American saffron,"
contains two coloring-principles: safflower yellow is soluble
in water, the other, carthamin (red), is insoluble in water but
soluble in alcohol and in alkaline solutions.
Experiment B 6. —
Triturate 0.1 gm. of safflower with 10
C.c. of water gradually added (yellow solution of safflower
yellow) ; filter, and to part of the filtrate add 1 C.c. dilute
hydrochloric acid ; to the other, 1 C.c. solution of soda
note that little change of color occurs with either acid or
alkali, the latter becoming reddish. Save the exhausted drug
for next experiment.
—
Experiment B 7. Return the undissolved portion of saf-
flower remaining upon the filter in the preceding experiment
to the mortar, and triturate with 19 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium
carbonate ; the liquid when filtered is of an orange color
(compare with the filtrate in the preceding experiment) ; now
add an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid ; when the efferves-
cense ceases, the liquid portion will be yellow, with a reddish,
flocculent precipitate suspended in it.
Annotto contains two pigments : bixin, which is bright

red and sparingly soluble in water but quite soluble in alco-
hol, ether, alkali, oils, etc., to which it imparts a yellow color
and orellin, yellow, soluble in water.
—
Experiment B 8. Triturate 0.1 gm. of annotto with 10
C.c. of alcohol (yellow color). Divide into two parts to :
one add 1 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid; to the other, 1

C.c. of solution of soda (no material change of color).
—
Experiment B 9. Triturate 0.1 gm. of annotto in a mor-
tarand add a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid (blue color,
changing to yellowish upon addition of water).
Class C. — Pigments Reddish in Both Acids and Alkalies.
Cochineal consists of the impregnated female insects and

contains the pigment, carmine, or carminic acid. Commer-
cial carmines are impure compounds of this acid.
—
Experiment C 1: Triturat;e a single insect with 10 C.c.
of water ; notice the tint ; add 1 C.c. of ammonia water and
note depth of color. To 5 C.c. of this add water gradually
and notice the various tints caused by various degrees of dilu-
tion —
with high dilution almost pure violet tint.
—
Experiment C 2. Powder 0.1 gm. of cochineal and warm
for a few moments with 5 C.c. of water and 1 C.c. of water
of ammonia ; cool and filter ; to the filtrate add an excess of
dilute hydrochloric acid red, precipitate of carminic acid.'
:
Note change of color.
Qass D.—Pigments Reddish in Acids, Bluish in Alkaline Media.
The most familiar of this class, since it is used as an indi-

cator, is litmus.
Iîttnus is the product of a lichen which contains two
coloring principles azolitmin (blue), soluble in warm water,
:
insoluble in alcohol, the principle which gives value to litmus,

and erythrolitmin (red), soluble in alcohol, but almost insol-
uble in water. In addition to these are two other coloring-
principles of minor importance. (See U. S. P. for prepara-
tion of litmus-paper).
—
Experiment D 1. To 1 C.c. of the official test solution
of litmus (which has been deprived of erythrolitmin) add a
drop of dilute sulphuric (or other) acid (red color) ; then a
slight excess (three or four drops) of solution of soda the :
blue color is restored.

Experiment D 2. —Put a small lump of litmus into a dry
test-tube with 10 C.c. of alcohol and boil for a few moments :
'
Carmine is prepared by precipitating the filtered decoction of cochineal
with Kochelle salt oralum and purifying the precipitates.
COL OBING-MA TTER. 321
a bluish solution is obtained which shows very little change

when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is added, and if
afterward a slight excess of sodium hydrate is added, the
blue is changed to yellowish. This substance, erythrolitmin,
is directed to be removed with boiling alcohol before the
official test solution of litmus is made. If the boiling be

long continued, it removes enough of the azolitmin to give a
slight red with acids and blue with alkalies.
Cudbear, like litmus, is the product of a lichen. Tinc-
ture of cudbear (N. F.) may be used to illustrate the char-
acter of its pigments.
—
Experiment D 3. To 5 C.c. of water add 5 drops of
tincture of cudbear, then a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid
(note shades of color). Now add a slight excess of solution
of soda (bluish-violet color).
Alkauet, the root of Alkanna tinctoria, contains the red
coloring substance alkanet red or anchusin, which is insol-
uble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils ; hence it
is used in coloring-tinctures, oily liniments, etc.
—
Experiment D 4. Take a very small fragment of the
root (0.1 gm.) and add in a test-tube 5 C.c. of alcohol
shake a few minutes (bright-red color), add a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid (remains red), then a slight excess of solu-
tion of soda (it turns blue).
Hematoxylon, the heartwood of HEematoxylon cam-
pechianum, contains the principle hematoxylin, which is much
more soluble in hot water than in cold ; also soluble in alco-
hol and in solutions of alkaline salts. This principle is also
called hematin, but it must not be confused with the con-
stituent of that name in the blood.
Experiment D 5. — Boil a small piece of hematoxylon
(0.1 gm.) with 5 C.c. of water (reddish color). Add a drop
of dilute hydrochloric acid (color changes t9 yellow), then a
slight excess of solution of soda (bluish purple).
Hematoxylin furnishes an exceedingly delicate test for
—
ammonia 1 1,000,000 parts of water. To apply, saturate
:
a piece of blotting-paper with alcoholic solution of hema-

toxylin ; dry, and hold over the solution to be tested warm,
:
the ammonia turns the paper blue.

21
CLASS E -BLUE IN ALL MEDIA.
ItldigfO is a pigment resulting from the fermentation de-
composition of a colorless glncosid (indican) existing in a
number of plants. Indigo is also prepared synthetically.
Traces of indican exist in urine.
As seen in commerce indigo contains a number of coloring
principles, including indigo blue or indigotiu, upon which its
value depends ; indigo red and indigo brown. The following
characteristic tests refer mainly to indigotiu.
—
Experiment E 1. E.ub a piece of indigo upon a hard sur-
face, such as the thumb nail (the better qualities take on a
metallic coppery lustre), then carefully place the piece upon
water to see if it will float (the better qualities do so, though
the specific gravity of the powder is 1.32 to 1.45, and if
wetted it sinks).
—
Experiment E 2. This test is employed in estimating the
quality of indigo. Place a small piece of indigo (0.1 gm.)
in a test-tube, and heat strongly (300° C). Violet-purple
vapors are given off, which condense upon the cooler parts
of the tube, forming a blue deposit ; at the same time decom-
position occurs and a disagreeable odor is evolved.
Experiment E 3. —
Dissolve a small fragment (0.1 gm.) of
indigo in nitric acid (a yellow solution of isatin is formed).
—
Experiment E 4. ^Dissolve a very small fragment (0.01
gm.) of indigo in 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid (green-
blue color), add two or three drops of solution of chlorinated
soda (generates free chlorin which decolorizes the solution).
Materials. A. Digitalis (English), borax or other sodium
salt, ether. B. Curcuma, saffron, sugar, 1 per cent, solution
of sodium carbonate, safflower, per cent, triturate of saffron,
1
annotto. C. Cochineal. D. Litmus T.
S., litmus in lumps,
tincture of cudbear (N. F.), alkanet root, hematoxylon. E.
Indigo.
CHAPTEE IV.
CLASS in—CONSTITUENTS SOLUBLE IN ALCO-

HOL, INSOLUBLE IN WATER.
RESINS.
Resins constitute another heterogeneous collection. They
may be defined as amorphous, usftally non-nitrogenous, sub-
stances, soluble in alcohol, strong alkalies, ether, chloroform,
and and insoluble in water, petroleum-ether, and weak
oils,
ammonia (distinction from resinoids). While these solubili-
ties are true for most resins, there are numerous exceptions
thus, some are soluble in boiling water, others dissolve in

boiling weak alkali some are neutral, others are acid, while
;
still others are anhydrids of acids. Neutral resins and

stable anhydrids are insoluble in weak alkalies those with ;
acid characters and the unstable anhydrids are soluble.

The following true resins are official : Mastic, guaiac, ben-
zoin, resin of copaiba, and (common) resin.
In addition the following, in more or less impure form, are
official jalap, podophyllum, and scammony resins.
:
Oleoresins, balsams, and gum-resins are considered inde-

pendently. In addition to those previously mentioned, the
following official drugs contain resins as important constitu-
ents pyrcthrum, sumbul, stillingia, rhubarb, sanguinaria,

:
leptandra, frangula, cascara sagrada, xanthoxylum, mezereum,

eriodictyon, pepper, and senna.
Experiment 1. —
In order to demonstrate its solubility ' in
'
Solubility Detebminations. — The rough method described in the
above most qualitative work. For quantitative estimations one
suffices for
of the following methods may be used
1. To a weighed quantity of the substance add the solvent, a little at a
time, with vigorous shaking, until complete solution has occurred. This will
give the approximate solubility.
2. Heat the above solution to about 50° C. and add a weighed quantity
of the substance, a little at a time, until no more can be dissolved. Let the
323
various solvents put about 0.1 gm. of common resin into

each of seven test-tubes ; to each add 5 C.c. of one of the
following substances, and note in which it dissolves To the :
first, alcohol ; to the second, water ; to the third, ether ; to
the fourth, chloroform ; to the fifth, gasolin ; to the sixth,

cotton-seed oil, and to the seventh, boiling solution of soda
0.5 per cent. —
not the strong. To the last-mentioned, when
solution is effected, add an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid :
precipitate of the resin. (This represents the pharmacopoeial

test for common an adulterant of beeswax.)
resin as
Divide the lasttwo test-tubes overlay one with 2
into ;
C.c. gasolin, the other with 2 C.c. ether shake the ether
; ;
clears up —
the gasolin does not.
—
Experiment 2. To the alcoholic solution of resin made in
the last experiment add 20 C.c. of water (it precipitates)
divide into two portions ; to one part add 5 drops of solution
of soda, to the other 5 drops of 5 per cent, ammonia water
shake the two mixtures and note that while the one with
soda dissolves, that with ammonia does not (compare with
phlobaphenes, p. 325). With just enough sodium hydrate,
resin soap is formed ; a large excess of the alkali causes its
reprecipitation, not dissolved, even upon heating. With
the ammonia a part dissolves, but it does not become clear,
as in the case of the soda.
Materials. —
Resin, ether, chloroform, gasolin, cotton-seed
oil.
Cathartic resins are for the most part anhydrids of

resin acids they present similar physicochemic properties to
;
other resins, from which they are distinguished only by their

physiologic actions. The same general tests which are applied
solution cool, filter through a weighed filter, dry, and subtract the weighed
undissolved residue from the total quantity of the substance used. This
divided into the quantity of fluid used gives the amount of solvent required
to dissolve one part of the substance. Or evapoiute the filtered solution
and weigh the dried residue.
3. Alkaloids which are almost insoluble in water cannot be accurately
estimated by these methods. In this case a weighed amount of the alkaloid
can be dissolved in water by the addition of a known amount of sulphuric
acid. The solution can then be diluted to various degrees, and the acid
exactly neuti-alized by alkali. The dilution which is just greater than that
in which precipitation begins indicates the limit of solubility.
BESINS. 325
employed here.
to resins will, therefore, be number of A
drugs containing cathartic resins have been mentioned under
the subject of resins, notably, rhubarb, senna, and cascara
sagrada.
—
Experiment 1. Moisten 10 gm. of powdered jalap with
alcohol and pack into a percolator pour upon it enough
;
alcohol to leave a stratum above the powder when the latter

is fully penetrated by the menstruum ; allow this to macerate
a day ^ (or until the next laboratory exercise) and proceed

with the percolation, using alcohol for the menstruum, until
the drug is exhausted distil or evaporate the tincture on a
;
water-bath until it measures 4 C.c. cool and pour slowly

;
with constant stirring into about 50 C.c. of water ; collect

the precipitate upon a double filter (the outer exactly counter-
balancing the inner one), wash it with water once or twice,
dry in a desiccator at 100° C, and weigh, using the outer
filter as a counterpoise for the inner one. The dried resin
should weigh 1.2 gm. (12 per cent, of the weight of the
jalap), and upon shaking it with a few cubic centimeters of
ether ^ not more than 0.12 gm. (10 per cent, of the dried
resin) should dissolve in the ether. This is the United States
Pharmacopoeia test in detail for the qualitative and quantita-
tive estimation of the resin in jalap.
It may be found advantageous to use one of the weighed
resins for a demonstration by the instructor for the latter
part of the experiment.
Materials. —Powdered jalap, ether.
Phlobaphenes are substances which differ from resin in
dissolving in diluteammonia water. They are for the most
part derived from tannins by boiling with acids. They are
also characterized by a brown color, and are often the col-
oring principle of extracts. Phlobaphenes are troublesome
compounds formed inmany pharmaceutic preparations where
heat is employed. They have no other importance.
'
When inconvenient to macerate for a day, percolation may be begun
at once, but a larger quantity of menstruum will be required.
^ The etheiôluble resin may be removed from the filter by placing it in
the funnel and pouring ether upon it so long as any is dissolved to esti-
;
nate it, put the ethereal solution into a tared flask, distil off the ether, dry
in a desiccator at 100° C, and weigh.
Experiment. —
To 5 drops of fluid extract of cinchona add
10 C.c. of water ; this causes a reddish precipitate ; then add,
drop by drop, water of ammonia until a clear solution is
obtained. When the first drop of ammonia water is added,
it will be noticed that the upper portion becomes transparent
in contrast to the muddy mixture below.

Material. —
Fluid extract of cinchona.
BALSAMS.
Balsams are soft or liquid substances containing resin and
benzoic or cinnamic acid and an odorous principle ; the official
balsams contain varying amounts of volatile oils. According
to some authors, resins containing aromatic acids are classed
as solid balsams ; so-called balsam of copaiba is an oleoresin.
Fig. 56.— still, Liebig condenser, and receiver.
since it contains neither benzoic nor cinnamic acid. The defi-

nition here given accordance with the restrictions of the
is in
British and United States Pharmacopoeias.
Tests for resins have been given on p. 324 ; for aromatic
acids, on p. 312.
The official balsams are Peru, tolu, and storax. Sweet
gum is not official.
Experiment. —
Put 10 gm. of tolu balsam into a flask
OLEORESINS. 327
fitted to a condenser^ (F'g- 56) which connects with a vessel

(test-tube) containing a few cubic centimeters of 1 per cent,
sodium hydrate. Heat the flask on a sand-bath until no fur-
ther distillate is received, but avoiding a heat high enough to
char the residue. When the distillation is complete, put the
test-tube aside, loosely corked, for the oil to rise to the surface
(preferably until the next laboratory day) ; test the watery
layer for benzoates by the method on p. 312, after filtering it
through a wetted filter and rendering it neutral by the addi-
tion of a few drops of hydrochloric acid Ferric chlorid gives
:
a flesh-colored precipitate.
Materials and Reagents. —
Balsam of tolu, sand-bath, still.
OLEORESINS.
Oleoresins are mixtures of resins and oils (usually volatile)
and they may contain other substances. They are of varying
degrees of consistence from solid to fluid. They are either
natural or artificial. Distinctive tests are for oil and resin.
The following oleoresins are official : Natural —Copaiba,
Canada turpentine. Burgundy and turpentine.
pitch, tar,
Artificial —
Aspidium, capsicum, cubeb, lupulin, pepper, and
ginger. The following unofficial are important Elemi and :
Canada pitch.
Experiment. —
Put 10 gm. of turpentine (the oleoresin, not
the oil) into a flask connected with a condenser, as in the dis-
tillation of tolu balsam. Heat upon a sand-bath ; collect the
distillate in a test-tube containing some distilled water ; when
oil ceases to distil over, disconnect the receiver, taking care
to remove it before withdrawing the heat, lest some of the
water in the test-tube be drawn back into the flask ;
put the
test-tube aside for the oil to collect on the surface ; this may
be easily recognized by its odor and other physical properties
pour the melted resin from the flask into a warmed porcelain
dish and put aside to cool. The transparent mass is easily
recognized as common resin.
' Several flasks may be connected with one Liebig condenser, or an indi-
vidual condenser may be improvised by taking a piece of glass tubing

50 cm. in length, bending it at one end, and connecting it with the flask
through a perforated stopper.
If the oleoresin is fresh, the volatile oil may be distilled in

the presence of water, but if too high a heat is avoided, the
sand-bath is found more satisfactory.
Materials. —Turpentine (oleoresin), sand-bath, still.
GUM-RESINS.
Gum-resins are natural mixtures of gums and resins, the
gums acting as emulsifiers so that emulsions result from their
being rubbed with water. Gums have been considered on
p. 292, and resins on p. 323. The components of a gum-
resin, when separated, respond to their repective tests.
The following gum-resins are of importance (the official in
italics) :Asafdida, galbanum, ammoniac, olibanum, myrrh,
gamboge, euphorbium, and scammony.
—
Experiment 1. Triturate 1 gm. of ammoniac in a warmed
mortar with 22 C.c. of water, at first very gradually added.
This, when strained, together with enough water to wash the
mortar and strainer, makes the official emulsion of ammoniac ;
emulsion of asafetida is similarly prepared.
—
Experiment 2. Triturate 1 gm. of powdered myrrh with
10 C.c. of alcohol (resin dissolves ; gum remains insoluble)
filter or decant into a test-tube add 20 C.c. of water (milky
;
mixture of precipitated resin).

—
Experiment 3.: To the residue left from Experiment 2, add
10 C.c. of water and warm (most of the residue dissolves,
but the mixture remains milky from the traces of resin pres-
sent) ; filter through a wetted filter and divide the filtrate
into two parts ; to the first add solution of lead subacetate ;
to the second, solution of ferric chlorid ;

precipitates ; second
slowly formed.
Materials. —Âmmoniac ; myrrh.
VOLATILE OILS.
Volatile oils are liquids of oily consistence, volatile at

moderate heat without change. They share the oily char-
acter of fats, but are more soluble in alcohol. They are
slightly soluble in water, merely giving to it their odor and
flavor. They usually possess characteristic odors, and are
VOLATILE OILS. 329
generally mixtures consisting mainly of terpenes and sesqui-

terpenes. Most of the odorous volatile oils contain oxygen ;
a few contain nitrogen and a few sulphur.
Volatile oils occur as constituents in a great many drugs.
The following volatile oils ^ are official Bitter almond, anise,
:
orange-peel, orange flowers, bergamot, betula volatile, cade,^

cajuput, caraway, cloves, chenopodium, cinnamon, copaiba,
coriander, cTibebs, erigeron, eucalyptus, fennel, gaultheria,
hedeoma, juniper, lavender flowers, lemon, peppermint, spear-
mint, myrcia, nutmeg, pimenta, tar, rose, rosemary, savine,
santal, sassafras, mustard, turpentine, rectified turpentine, and
thyme.
Experiment 1. —
Oil of turpentine may be taken as a type
into each of seven test-tubes put 1 C.c. of oil of turpentine
then add 5 C.c. of each of the following To the first, water
:
second, alcohol ; third, ether ; fourth, glycerin ; fifth, chloro-

form ; sixth, cotton-seed oil, and to the seventh gasolin, noting
the degree of solubility in each case.
—
Experiment 2. Apply a drop of oil of turpentine to glazed
paper (greasy stain) ; heat gently in a test-tube (stain disap-
pears or loses its greasy appearance).
—
Experiment 3. Heat 5 drops strongly in a test-tube (it
volatilizes or may ignite, but no acrolein odor).
Experiment 4. —A
crude drug well suited for the study of
volatile oils and illustrating some of the tests for their char-
acterization is Place half a dozen cloves in a dry

clove.
test-tube and heat moderately in a Bunsen flame (heavy
white vapors of the volatile oil are given ofl^ and condense
in small drops on the sides of the tube). Pour some of the
heavy vapors into another test-tube, add a cubic centimeter
of alcohol, shake, and add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid
(blue to green color).
Into the tube containing the cloves, upon the sides of which
oil-drops have condensed, pour some bromin vapor by tilting
an open bromin bottle over the test-tube (the drops of oil
become yellow and turbid.
^ Ethereal oil is a mixture of equal parts of heavy oil of wine (chiefly
ethyl sulphate), with ether, hence is omitted from this list.

'^
Oil of cade is a tarry product, not a true volatile oil.
Experiments. Test^ for Adulterations. In each case use —

a sample as pure as obtainable and compare with the results
gotten from an adulterated specimen, the latter being pre-
pared for the occasion.
Test for Alcohol. —
Put 5 C.c. of pure oil of turpentine into
a small, graduated cylindric vessel,* and 5 C.c. of a mixture
of of turpentine and alcohol into another similar vessel
oil
to each add 5 C.c. of water ; then shake them gently, care-

fully avoiding any loss, and allow them to stand until the
liquids separate into layers. In the pure oil the watery
layer willshow no increase and the oily layer no decrease
but in the adulterated specimen the increase in the watery
layer and decrease in the oily layer will correspond to the
amount of alcohol used, because the afBuity between the
alcohol and water is stronger than that between the alcohol
and the oil.
Experiment 6. —
For adulteration with fatty or mineral oils :
Put 2 C.c. of pure oil of turpentine in a small cylindric
vessel, and 2 C.c. of a mixture of oil of turpentine and either
cotton-seed oil or liquid petrolatum into another. To each
add 5 C.c. of alcohol and shake gently. The pure oil of
turpentine dissolves in or mixes with the alcohol ; the fatty
or mineral oil remains undissolved.
—
Experiment 7. To detect oil of turpentine ^ in other essen-
tial oils Put 5 drops of oil of sweet birch upon a clean por-
:
celain surface, and 5 drops of old oil of lemon or of a mix-

ture of oil of sweet birch and oil of turpentine upon another
porcelain surface ; to each add a drop of concentrated sul-
phuric acid ; no change of color occurs in the pure oil, but a
red to nearly black is seen in the other, dependent somewhat
upon the amount of oil of turpentine present.
Supplemental Experiment. —
Nitrogen may be tested for according to
Lassaigne's test as follows : Put 1 C.c. of the oil, such as volatile oil of mus-
' A graduate is used, or a small test-tube may be gradu-

10-C.c. cylindric
ated by marking the graduations upon a strip of paper pasted upon it,
measuring with a pipet or graduate.
Since most of the volatile oils tend to become terebinthinate upon ex-
'^
posure to light and air, this test does not prove fraudulent adulteration in
most cases, l)ut merely shows that the oil has become terebinthinate. Oil
of sweet birch does not so change hence this test would show fraudulent
;
adulteration should it be positive.

CAMPHORS OR STEAR0PTEN8. 331
tard of bitter almond containing hydrocyanic acid, into a dry test-

01' oil
tube take a piece of metallic sodium, dry upon blotting-paper, and drop
;
into the oil heat rapidly in Bunsen flame to redness and plunge into 50
;
C.c. of water in a beaker this water contains the nitrogen in solution as

;
sodium nitrite add a few drops of 5 per cent, solution of ferrous sulphate
;
;
allow it to stand five minutes acidulate with hydrochloric acid (concen-

;
trated) and heat blue color or precipitate of Prussian blue.

;
—
Oil of turpentine, cloves, oil of sweet birch,
Materials.
ether, chloroform, gasolin, cotton-seed oil, glazed
glycerLa,
paper, metallic sodium, bromin, old oil of lemon (or other
terebinthinate volatile oil).
CAMPHORS OR STEAROPTENS.
Camphors or stearoptens are closely related to the volatile
oils, both chemically and physically. Many of the volatile
oils consist of two portions, which may be separated one, a :
liquid at ordinary temperatures, called eleoptea ; the other a

solid at ordinary temperatures, but melting easily and being
sublimable, called a stearopten or camphor.
A
characteristic of stearoptens, applicable to most of them,
is their liquefaction when triturated in molecular proportions
with chloral hydrate.

The official camphor is obtained by boiling the chips from
the camphor tree in water, and condensing the camphor with
the aqueous vapor —
the camphor is then purified by sublima-
tion.
Most of the volatile oils may be made to yield stearoptens
by cooling them sufficiently.
Menthol is an official stearopten obtained in this way from
oil of peppermint ; thymol from several species of Labiat«e
the latter is a phenol.
Experiment 1. —
Into the bottom of a clean dry test-tube
put 0.1 gm. of camphor warm rapidly over Bunsen flame,
;
inclining the tube so that crystals are condensed upon the

sides of the upper part. Examine the crystals under the
lower power of the microscope. Now continue the heat
until all of the camphor has been sublimed, leaving no
residue.
Experiment 2. —Rub 0.5 gm. of camphor with 0.5 gm. of
chloral hydrate (it slowly liquefies). This is the camphorated

chloral of the National Formulary.
Experiment 3. —Into each of four test-tubes put 0.1 gm.
of camphor ; to the first add 2 C.c. of alcohol ; to the sec-
ond, 2 C.c. of water ; third, chloroform ; fourth, ether, and
note solubilities upon shaking.
—
Experiment 4. Rub 1 gm. of camphor in a dry mortar
and note its tendency to form a mass then add three or four
;
drops of alcohol or ether and rub lightly, when it will be

easily pulverized ; the alcohol or ether being quickly lost by
evaporation, leaves an impalpable powder.
Materials. —Camphor, chloroform, ether, chloral hydrate,
microscope.
CHAPTER Y.
CLASS IV —CONSTITUENTS INSOLUBLE IN

ALCOHOL AND IN WATER.
WAXES.
Waxes are compounds of fatty acids with alcohols other
than glycerin ; for instance, common yellow wax is mainly
melissyl palmitate, and spermaceti is principally cetyl pal-
mitate. Waxes are soluble in fat solvents and in boiling
alcohol. They are not saponified by boiling with alkalies, nor
do they produce acrolein on heating.
White and yellow wax and spermaceti are the only official
waxes. While many plants contain small amounts of wax,
in none of them is it of pharmaceutic interest.
—
Experiment 1. Heat 0.1 gm. of wax strongly in a test-
tube. No acrolein odor (that is, that of burning grease) is
evolved. Should acrolein odors be strongly developed, it
shows that some fat has been used as an adulterant it may ;
be removed (and its presence confirmed) by boiling 1 gm. of

the wax with 20 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium hydrate for fifteen
minutes, which converts the fat other than petroleum into
soap ; filter and wash the wax ; add an excess of hydro-
chloric acid to the filtrate this causes a precipitate with the
;
soap. The washed wax is then strongly heated, when no

pungent acrolein odor is evolved.
—
Experiment 2. Into each of seven test-tubes put 0.1 gm.
of wax and add 5 C.c. of each of the following solvents To :
the first, water second, cold alcohol ; third, boiling alcohol

;
fourth, ether ; chloroform ; sixth, cotton-seed oil, and

fifth,
seventh, oil of turpentine. Gentle warming may hasten solu-

tion. If a somewhat smaller proportion of cotton-seed oil
is used, it may be solidified upon cooling, and if the boiling
alcohol be cooled, solidification will occur.

333
334 INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS.
—
Experiment 3. Put 5 gm. of yellow wax into a flask with
25 C.c. of sulphuric acid (concentrated) and heat to 160° C.
for fifteen minutes; then pour into a large excess (150 C.c.)
of water in a large vessel, avoiding any loss of the mixture.
The wax is completely charred, and no waxy substance sepa-
rates. This is substantially the pharmacopceial test to detect
the presence of paraffin in beeswax, paraffin under similar
conditions separating unchanged.
Materials. —Wax, ether, chloroform, cotton-seed oil, oil of
turpentine.
FIXED OILS OR FATS.

Fixed oils or fats are esters produced by replacing three
hydroxyl groups in glycerin by the radicles of higher fatty
acids, commonly by those of stearic, oleic, palmitic, and mar-
garic, the compounds being called stearin, olein, etc. Of
these, olein is liquid at ordinary temperatures ; the others
solid, though they melt below 100° C. All fats are in the
main mixtures df these.
Fats are characterized by a greasy feel and by leaving a
permanent oily stain upon paper. They are decomposed by
heat with the evolution of sharp, unpleasant irritating vapors,
particularly with the formation of acrolein. They are lighter
than water, and insoluble in it ; almost insoluble in alcohol
easily soluble in those substances commonly termed fat sol-
vents — chloroform, ether, and petroleum-ether (benzin).
viz.,
When treated with osmic acid, they yield a black color ; by
treatment with an alkali they can be split into glycerin and
an alkaline salt of their acid these compounds are called
;
soaps ; from these the fatty acids may be liberated by hydro-

chloric acid. These acids diiFer from fats in being acid to
litmus and in being soluble in alcohol, their other characters
being similar. They may also be liberated by rancidity.
Fats are contained in various animal tissues, but in the
vegetable kingdom they occur mainly as constituents of
seeds.
According to their behavior upon exposure to air, they are
classified as drying or non-drying oils, the former containing
glycerid of linolic acid.
FIXED OILS OB FATS. 335
The following fixed oils are official Expressed oil of

:
almond, cotton-seed, linseed, olive, castor, sesamum, theo-

broma, croton, cod-liver, and lard oil lard, suet, and
;
hydrous wool-fat may be included, being usually spoken of

as fats (solid fixed oils).
Castor oil, though a drying oil, forms solid ricinelaidin
with nitric acid.
—
Experiment 1. Into each of seven test-tubes put 2 C.c.
of cotton-seed oil and add 10 C.c. of each of the following
substances, namely To the first, water ; second, alcohol
:
third, ether fourth, gasolin ; fifth, oil of turpentine ; sixth,

;
chloroform ; seventh, carbon disulphid ; shake and note in

which the solution is complete, in which incomplete, and in
which the oily layer remains undiminished.
Experiment 2. —
Place a drop of cotton-seed oil upon a
piece of glazed paper it leaves a greasy stain which does
;
not disappear upon heating the paper in a test-tube at a

temperature too low to cause charring.
Experiment 3. —
Put 5 drops of cotton-seed oil into a test-
tube and heat strongly (pungent vapors of acrolein are given
off).
Experiment 4. —Into a small crucible put enough mercury

so that it may have the bulb of a thermometer immersed in
itwhen the thermometer is suspended above it. Upon the
surface of the mercury place a few very small fragments
(0.01 gm.) of oil of theobroma. Having placed the crucible
upon a water-bath with cold water, heat very slowly, ob-
serving the temperature at which the edges of the fragments
begin to lose their sharpness by melting —
this is the melting-
point of the substance. If the specimen is pure, it will be
found to melt at from 30° to 33° C. Admixture with other
substances either raises or lowers the melting-point.
Somewhat greater accuracy may be had by the following
process Draw a piece of glass tubing to a capillary tube,
:
and having melted the oil of theobroma, draw it into the

tube by suction and cool. Take a short section (1 cm.) of
the tube and fasten to the bulb of a thermometer with a
thread or rubber band, and warm very slowly by immersing
the bulb in the water, which is heated gradually ; the point
at which the opaque (solid) contents of the tube become

transparent (liquid) is the melting-point. The heating must
be done so slowly that the mercury in the bulb is practically
of the same temperature as the liquid in which it is immersed
— the warming may be rapid up to 25° or 26° C. and very
slow after that.
—
Experiment 5. ^Put 10 C.c. of olive oil into an evaporating
dish with 20 C.c. of solution of soda (5 per cent.) and 50
C.c. of water heat upon a water-bath until a sample of the
;
mixture added to warm water does not separate any oil ; this
requires an hour or several hours ; the time may be short-
ened by boiling over a wire gauze, but there is danger of
burning the product. The fact that no oil separates upon
mixing with water shows that saponification is complete;
this occurs in the case of olive oil with greater facility when
the soda is diluted than when it is used in a concentrated
form. Now dissolve the soap by adding 100 C.c. of water
and heating. Dissolve 15 gm. of sodium chlorid in 100 C.c.
of water and add the solution to that of the soap slowly,
with constant stirring. Soap being insoluble in a 5 per cent,
solution (or stronger) of sodium chlorid rises to the surface
(this is termed "salting out" the soap) after fifteen min- ;
utes it may be skimmed from the surface of the salt solution ;
then dissolve a small portion of it in ten times as much

water, add an excess of dilute sulphuric acid the fatty acids ;
(oleic, etc.) are precipitated ; shake and pour 2 C.c. of the

mixture into a test-tube add 10 C.c. of alcohol and shake
;
(the fatty acids dissolve).

Glycerin is formed in small amount and remains in the
solution when " salted out " (see below).
the soap is
—
Experiment 6. To 10 gm. of cocoanut oil (liquefied if
cold) add 5 gm. of 32 per cent, sodium hydrate.' Warm
gently with vigorous stirring and put aside for one day (or
longer). This soap contains glycerin and lathers with sea-
water. Cocoanut oil differs from olive oil in containing less
oleic acid and in its much readier saponification at a low
temperature.
^ Solution of soda, of specific gravity 1.35, is made as follows : Take of
sodium hydrate 32 gm. and dissolve it in 68 C.c. of distilled water.
FIXED OILS OR FATS. 337
Wool-fat, combined with not more than 30 per cent, of

water (which is official as Hydrous Wool Fat), has choles-
teriu and isocholesterin, instead of glycerin, combined with
fatty acids ; it will mix with a much larger proportion of
water than will the true fats.
—
Experiment 7. Triturate 5 gm. of hydrous wool-fat with
5 C.c. of water (it forms a white mixture). The anhydrous
may be combined with a correspondingly greater amount of
water.
Experiment 8. —Pour 2 C.c. of a 2 per cent, chloroformic
solution of hydrous wool-fat upon 5 C.c. of pure concentrated
sulphuric acid in a test-tube (develops brown color).
Supplementary Experiment 8. —
After salting out the soap
in Experiment 5 the clear fluid remaining is evaporated
almost to dryness upon a water-bath, cooled, and treated
with 20 C.c. of alcohol ; this removes the glycerin, which
may be obtained by filtering off the alcohol carrying the
glycerin and evaporating upon a water-bath.
The following tests will serve to identify it : Add carbolic
acid and concentrated sulphuric acid in a test-tube and heat
cautiously (a deep-red, syrupy mass results) ; cool, dilute
with water, and pour over it a layer of ammonia water ; the
latter acquires a red-violet color.
—
Experiment 9. The elai'din test is made as follows Into :
each of two evaporating dishes put 5 C.c. of nitric acid of

specific gravity 1.185 ' ; to the first add 5 C.c. of olive-oil or
cotton-seed oil ; to the second add 5 C.c. of linseed oil which
is fairlyfresh (not too gummy) ; after stirring the two mix-
tures thoroughly with a glass rod, but carefully avoiding loss
of the liquids, add to each a very small globule of mercury
(0.1 gm.) and put them aside where the temperature will be
at 15° or 20° C. until the next day (or until the following
laboratory exercise), examining in the course of a few hours
if convenient. Tlie olive or cotton-seed oil being a non-
drying oil, will yield with the nitric acid solid elaidin in a
time varying from a few hours to a day or longer, but the
Nitric acid of specific gravity 1.185 contains 54 per cent, of absolute

'
HNOg, and is made by mixing 15 C.c. of the official acid with 5 C.c. of
water,
22
linseed oil, being a drying oil, does not yield solid elaidin, the
mixture separating into two liquids.

Materials.— Olive oil, cotton-seed oil, oil of theobroma,
cocoanut oil, hydrous wool-fat, 2 per cent, chloroformic solu-
tion of hydrous wool-fat, metallic mercury, ether, chloroform,
gasolin, oil of turpentine, carbon disulphid, sodium chlorid,
carbolic acid.
CHAPTER VI.
THE EXAMINATION OF AN UNKNOWN DRUG
FOR ITS PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS.
The exhaustive study and identification of the constituents
of an unknown drug are very difficult tasks, even when the
drug or its constituents have been examined and described,
and are unknown only in the sense that the analyst is not
informed of their nature in advance. The subject is still
more difficult if the substance is really new and is being ex-
amined for the first time. It requires a great deal more of
practice than could be given in the present course, and an
extensive acquaintance with the reactions and characters of
organic substance. An examination of this kind can scarcely
be undertaken without the personal guidance of a competent
investigator, although such books as Dragendorfi^'s Pflanzen-
analyse and Toxicologie may, with advanced students, take
the place of the instructor. This detailed and advanced
study would in every case be preceded by a preliminary
study, intended to show the presence or absence of the difier-
ent classes of constituents and their approximate quantity.
These preliminary tests yield results which are of interest in
many ways, and which often answer sufficiently the questions
for which the examination is undertaken. They are so
simple that a student who has conscientiously performed the
foregoing exercises will have no difficulty in obtaining reliable
results. Indeed, he will be merely applying to the unknown
substance the tests which he has practised on known sub-
stances. A system in the application of the tests will be of
great assistance. In this connection it is well to remember
that, the more we know about a substance, the easier it is to
test for unknown
constituents. Consequently no hint which
the odor, of a substance may furnish should be neglected
etc.,
and the easiest and quickest tests should be applied first.

339
340 FINDING CONSTITUENTS OF AN UNKNOWN DRUG.
This has been the guiding principle of the following scheme.
When the quantitynot specifically stated, the smallest
is
amount should be used which will give the reaction. If it

is said that a reaction " indicates " a constituent, the infor-
mation is fairly definite ; if it " points to " a constituent, this
means that the constituent may be present. In either case it
is often necessary to confirm the test by those given in the
preceding chapters (see Index).
SYSTEMATIC MARCH OF ANALYSIS.^

—
Preliminary Tests. 1. Note whether the substance
has any odor ; this may indicate volatile oils, esters, aromatic
acids or hydrocyanic acid, vanillin, etc., and, of course, often
gives positive guide as to what substance to look for. If so,
this should at once be tested for directly.
2. Note the solubility in water, alcohol, ether, and gasolin
by placing a gram of substance in 15 C.c. of solvent in test-
tube, shaking frequently during ten minutes, and then heating
in water-bath if necessary.
Soluble in water, insoluble in other solvents Gum, proteids. :
" " alcohol, or ether Volatile oils, resins, fatty acids.

:
" " ether, insoluble in alcohol Fats, waxes. :
" " ether, insoluble in gasolin Resins, waxes. ;
" " ether and in gasolin Volatile oils, fats.

:
3. Note the odor of these solutions : These show same as

No. 1. If HON odor is present in aqueous, not in alcoholic,
solution it shows this is present as a glucosid in conjunction
with a ferment.
Note the color of the solutions in acid and alkaline re-
4.
actions. A brown color unchanged by reaction, seen especially
in the alcoholic and ether solutions, points to phlobaphenes.
If the brown color is also present in the aqueous solution and
it is changed to deep-red or violet by alkalis, it points to
emodin. A
green color points to chlorophyll ; yellow color,
with alkaloid reactions, to berberine.
5. Note the taste on placing a drop of«the alcoholic solution
on the tip of the tongue A
bitter taste indicates alkaloids or
.
' Use the finely powdered drug.

SYSTEMATIC MARCH OF ANALYSIS. 341
bitter principles; a sharp taste, volatile oils or neutral prin-

ciple a tingling sensation, aconite ; anesthesia, cocain.
; A
sweet taste of the aqueous solution indicates sugars or glycyr-
rhizin.
6. Note the reaction to litmus paper : An acid reaction in
the aqueous solution may come from any
organic acid or acid
salt (see p. 310). If the substance is resinous, test for ben-
zoic and cinnamic acid. If the alcoholic, l)ut not the aqueous,
solution is acid, this points to free fatty acids.
Tests to be Made with the Aqueous Infusion.
7. Add a precipitate indicates gum, pectin, or pro-
alcohol :
teid collect the precipitate, boil with 5 per cent. HjSO^,

;
neutralize, and try Fehling's reduction, gum or pectin ; on

:
other one-half make biuret test positive, proteid. :
8. Add drop of compound tincture iodin Blue color :
shows starch ; port^wine color, dextrin ; a reddish precipitate

points to alkaloids.
9. Add drop Fe2Clg : Greenish-black color, physiologic
tannin ; bluish-black color, pathologic tannin ; violet points
to salicylic acid.
10. Extract some crude drug with cold water ; acidify
with acetic acid and heat to boiling precipitate coagulable : :
proteid. (Use rest of this solution for No. 17-20.)

11. Extract the marc left from Experiment 10 with water
warmed to 60° C. Cool and collect precipitate after a day
or two and test for inulin (see p. 290).
12. of infusion add drop HjSO^ diluted, then
To some
Mayer's reagent precipitate indicates alkaloids, especially if
:
No. 10 was negative. If No. 10 was positive, the conclu-

sion is not final until No. 25 has been made.
13. Apply Fehling's test : reduction, sugar.^
14. If No. 13 is negative, boil for ten minutes with equal
volume dilute H^SO^, neutralize, and apply Fehling's; if
positive : gums, starch, glucosid, or cane-sugar, inosite, man-
nite, etc.
15. If No. 12 was negative, add a little tannin ;
precipi-
tate : neutral principle or glucosid.
16. Add some amygdalin, let stand : if odor of HON
appears, emulsin was present.
17. To the solution made with cold water add a drop of
tincture guaiac, and, if necessary, of HÔ^ blue
; color : pres-
ence of oxidizing ferment.
18. Inject 1 C.c. of the solution into a frog this will :
show whether the substance is very poisonous, if the animal

goes into tetanus, this shows strychnine.
19. Pith a frog, expose its heart, and apply some of the
solution ;the heart first quickens, then becomes slow, weak,
if
and irregular, then quickens again, this points to aconite
(p. 353) if it slows gradually but steadily and becomes
;
small and white, this points to a drug resembling digitalis.

20. Instil a few drops into one eye of a cat and compare
with other eye a dilatation points to atropine, a constriction
:
to physostigmine or pilocarpine.
The last three need be done only if the animals are ac-
cessible.
Tests Made with the Alcoholic Solution. — 21.
Add water a precipitate indicates volatile oils, fatty acids,
:
resins, or phlobaphenes. Use for Nos. 22 and 23.

22. Shake some of the turbid mixture of No. 21 with
gasolin ;if the turbidity does not disappear, this indicates
resins or phlobaphenes.
23. Add a drop of ammonia ; if the turbidity clears, this
indicates phlobaphenes.
24 Place a drop of the alcoholic solution on glazed paper
and let it dry in the air. A
greasy stain indicates volatile
oil or fatty acid. Heat on a water-bath ; if the stain disap-
pears, it is due to volatile oil, otherwise to a fatty acid.
25. To the alcoholic solution add a few drops of dilute
HjSO^ and of Mayer's reagent. A
precipitate indicates alka-
loids.
26. Try Fehling's test on some of the alcoholic solution
before and after inversion (see p. 291). A marked difference
indicates a glucosid.
Tests Made
with the :ethereal Solution.— 27. Let
the solution evaporate on a water-bath The deposition of
:
crystals indicates an alkaloid, glucosid, or neutral principle.

Test by Nos. 25 and 26. Use the residue in the further tests.
28. Treat the residue with alcohol. Treat the insoluble
SYSTEMATIC MARCH OF ANALYSIS. 343
part by No. 29. If any reactions of the previous tests were

doubtful, these may be repeated ou their alcoholic solutions.
29. Treat the insoluble residue with hot solution NaOH :
solution indicates fat ; insolubility, wax or caoutchouc.

Tests Made with the Gasolin Solution. — 30.
Evaporate the solution and look for the deposition of crys-
tals as in No. 27.
31. Treat as in No. 28.
32. The insoluble residue will be principally fat.
Separation of Alkaloids, Glucosids, and Neutral
Principles. — It would take us too far to enter ink) the
identification of the separated principles. This may be done
according to methods given in text-books of pharmaceutic
chemistry or toxicology. The practice acquired in this book
would not be sufficient if no data as to the nature of the sub-
stance are at hand. If, however, a substance is suspected, it
can be separated in sufficient purity for identification tests
by the following method This is to be undertaken only if
:
Nos. 5, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 25, 27, or 30 gave posi'tive
results
33. Extract the principles by Keller's method (seep. 304).
34. Shake out the solution with 1 per cent. HCl in sepa-
rating funnel and separate. The watery portion will contain
most of the alkaloids ;
proceed by No. 35 ; the ethereal, most
of the glucosids, neutral principles, fats, resins, and coloring
proceed by No. 36.
35. Make the watery solution just alkakine with ammonia
and shake out with ether, separate, and evaporate the ether.
The residue represents the alkaloids.
36. Evaporate the ethereal layer of No. 34. Treat the
residue with alcohol. Filter ; evaporate the alcoholic solu-
tion ; treat the residue with petroleum ether. Filter, evapo-
rate the petroleum-ether solution. The residue represents
the glucosids and neutral principles.
Quantitative Determination. —The following simple
methods give some general idea of the quantitative composi-
tion of the material.
37. On 5 gm. of the substance determine the moisture
(p. 285) and ash (p. 286).
38. If alkaloids are present, determine their quantity by
drying and weighing the residue of 35.
39. Part soluble in petroleum-ethei' (mainly fats and vola-
—
tile oils). Place 6 gm. of the finely powdered drug in an
oval bottle of about 75 C.c. capacity ; add 60 C.c. of petro-
leum-ether ; mark the bottle at the level of the liquid.
Stopper well, lay on side, with frequent shaking, during
twenty-four hours. Let subside. Replace any evaporated
petroleum-ether to the original mark. Decant 50 C.c. of the
petroleum-ether as clear as possible, and filter through a small
filter into a tared capsule (rinsing the filter with petroleum-
ether). Evaporate at 50° C. to practically constant weight
(not over 24 hours). The weight multiplied by 20 equals
the percentage of petroleum extract.
40. Ether Extract. —Proceed as in No. 39, using ether in
place of petroleum-ether. The difference between No. 39
and 40 corresponds to resins, wax, alkaloids, and glucosids.
41. Alcohol Extract. — Proceed as in No. 39, using alcohol
in place of petroleum-ether and drying at 100° C. The
difference between Nos. 40 and 41 is mainly fat and wax
the difference between this and No. 39 is mainly volatile oil.
42. Water Extract; Cold. —Proceed as in No. 39, using
water and drying at 110° C. The extract represent mainly
gum, sugar, proteids, tannin, and soluble salts. Proceed
with the marc by No. 43.
43. Fiber and Starch. —
Dry the marc of No. 42 at 1 1 0° C.
Exhaust with ether in a Soxhlet. Dry again at 110° C.
Weigh, incinerate, subtract the ash from the dry weight. The
difference mtiltiplied by 16f equals fiber and starch in 100
gnis. of the drug.
CHAPTER VII.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF SOME IMPORTANT

ALKALOIDAL DRUGS.
CINCHONA.
There are some thirty or more alkaloids found in cinchona,
of which but four are of suificient importance to have found
a place in the Pharmacopoeia ; these are cinchonidine, cincho-
nine, quinidine, and quinine, the last mentioned being by far
the most important.
The proportions in which these alkaloids are found vary
enormously, some of the cultivated varieties (Ledgeriana)
yielding 13 per cent, of quinine alone, the percentage depend-
ing upon many different conditions, such as climate ; part of
plant from which the bark is taken ; age, etc.
In combination with the alkaloids there are several acids
cincho-tannic, kinic, and kinovic.
Cinchona-red has been considered under the subject of
Phlobaphenes (p. 325). Very little starch is present.
—
Separation of Alkaloids. Take 25 gm. of cinchona
in moderately fine powder, moisten with about 60 C.c. of
water, then add 100 C.c. of 5 per cent, sulphuric acid, and
heat to boiling ; continue the boiling for about twenty minutes,
decant or filter, and boil again for twenty minutes with a fresh
portion of 100 C.c. of 5 per cent, sulphuric acid, decant or
filter, mix the liquids, and evaporate to dryness with a slight
excess of lime; put this into a small flask and extract

with 50 C.c. of boiling alcohol ; filter through animal char-
coal and again extract with 50 C.c. of boiling alcohol, filter,
and mix the filtrates, which should contain all the alkaloids
which are of interest here. The sulphate of calcium and the
charcoal are thrown away.
Evaporate the mixed alcoholic filtrates in a capsule upon a
water-bath until a pellicle begins to form, —or to about 5 C.c,
343
/
346 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALRALOIDAL DRUGS./
—and put aside tightly stoppered and properly labelled until

the next laboratory day.
Cinchonine being slightly soluble in alcohol, crystallizes out;
filter : precipitate is cinchonine ; dry, label, and preserve for
future test ; filti'ate contains cinchonidine, quinidine, and
quinine. To this add 25 C.c. water and
per cent, sulphuric
1
acid, until exactly neutral ; the alcohol is evaporated off, and

the liquid allowed to cool ; some quinine sulphate may crys-
tallize out if so, it is collected, but some remains in solution.
;
To the cooled liquid add a little saturated solution of Rochelle

salt. An abundant precipitate of mixed tartrates of quinine
and cinchonidine falls, the quinidine remaining in solution.
Filter, and to the add solution of potassium iodid and
filtrate
set aside labelled " quinidine iodid "; the crystals will be found
upon the following laboratory day. The precipitated tartrates
of quinine and cinchonidine remaining upon the filter are
washed with a little water, and then dissolved in 1 per cent,
hydrochloric acid, about 10 C.c. being used. This is made
alkaline with a slight excess of ammonia or soda, and shaken
gently with ether, the latter decanted, and the mixture again
treated with ether. The two portions of ethereal extract
containing quinine are mixed, labelled, and put aside for sub-
sequent tests. The cinchonidine remains in the alkaline
mixture undissolved, and is collected upon a filter and washed
with a little water, then dried upon the filter it is next dis- ;
solved in a small quantity of 0.1 per cent, sulphuric acid and

labelled " solution of cinchonidine."
Having separated these four alkaloids in a more or less
impure state, the following tests may be applied to them, at
the same time applying the tests to pure alkaloids for com-
parison.
Tests. —
Cinchonine. —
Dissolve the alkaloid in a little
1 per cent, sulphuric acid, avoiding an excess, and then
add test-solution of potassium ferrocyanid until the precipitate
at first formed redissolves ; then add a little sulphuric or
other acid this gives a golden-yellow precipitate which
;
redissolves upon warming and gives minute needles or scales

on cooling.
Note that cinchonine requires more than 20,000 parts of
CINCHONA. 347
water to dissolve it. (Compare with solubility given in Phar-

macopoeia.)
Cinclionidine. —The sulphate is official. No distinctive
tests are given in the Pharmacopoeia, but those for solubility
may be tried (approximately) (see p. ?>2?j). Place a drop of
the fairly concentrated solution upon a slide, and add a drop
of sulphocyanid of potassium and examine the precipitate
microscopically.
Quinine. —Shake the ethereal solution of quinine (obtained
in the separation of the alkaloids) with 15 C.c. of 2 per cent,
sulphuric acid ;
quinine sulphate formed and goes into
is solu-
tion in the acid layer ; remove with a pipet to several test-
tubes.
Dilute 2 C.c. of this solution until it contains approximately
one part of quinine in 1000 or 1500 parts of solution to ;
5 C.c. of this dilution add a drop of bromin water, then an

excess of ammonia water an emerald-green color is devel-
:
oped (known as the thalleioquin test). If a little hydrochloric

acid is added, the green is changed to red. If this experi-
ment fails, it should be repeated upon weaker or stronger
solutions until successful, since it is simple and characteristic.
Solution of chlorinated soda may be used instead of bromin
water in the thalleioquin test.
Note the bluish fluorescence of acid solution of quinine

sulphate increased, up to a certain point, by diluting with
5 per cent, or 10 per cent, sulphuric acid. Quinine does not
form the insoluble hydriodate so readily as quinidine does.
Quinidine. —
This alkaloid responds to most of the tests for
quinine, thalleioquin, fluorescence, nearly similar solubility in
water, etc., but it differs in the following
Neutral Ammonia
Hydriodate Tartrate. Oxalate. Water.
Quinine . . Soluble. Insoluble. Insoluble. Soluble.

(1:1446)
Quinidine Insoluble. Soluble. Soluble. Slightly
(1:151) soluble.
Tannin. —To a neutral decoction of cinchona add solution

of ferric chlorid (green-black).
348 CHEMIQ EXAMINATION OF ALKALOIDA L DRUGS.
Note.'- —
The assaying of cinchona by the method given in
the United States Pharmacopoeia on page 91 constitutes an
excellent exercise. When time permits, it may be included.
It consists in the extraction of the alkaloids with a mixture
of alcohol, chloroform, and ammonia water, evaporating a
portion to dryness, taking up the alkaloid with weak sul-
phuric acid, rendering alkaline with potassa, extracting with
chloroform, and evaporating ; this gives the total alkaloids.
Quinine is estimated by using a portion of the above
extraction with alcohol, chloroform, and ammonia water, rep-
resenting 5 gm. of cinchona, dissolving in dilute sulphuric
acid, precipitating with potassa, taking up the residue with
chloroform, and evaporating this with broken glass. If this
is now treated with 10 C.c. of ether by percolation, nearly all
the quinine and some of the other alkaloids will be dissolved,

a second 10 C.c. of ether dissolving as much of the other
alkaloids as thefirst, the difference in their evaporated resi-
dues being the amount of quinine in 5 gm. of the bark.
OPIUM.
The main constituent of opium is morphine, which occurs

in combination with meconic acid. Though there are about
twenty alkaloids present, codeine is the only one beside mor-
phine which is of sufficient medicinal importance to merit a
place in the Pharmacopoeia. These are present in the milk
juice of the poppy capsules. Like many others, this con-
tains a caoutchouc-like substance abundantly. The quantity
of alkaloids diminishes in the ripening of the capsules.
—
Tests. 1. To a filtered decoction add solution of mer-
curic potassium iodid (abundant precipitate of alkaloids).
2. To another portion of decoction add solution of ferric
chlorid ; a deep-red color is produced which is not destroyed
by hydrochloric acid. The reaction is due to meconic acid.
3. To an alcoholic percolate or solution prepared by
decoction add an excess of water. (Milky precipitate of
resin).
4. Test the decoction for sugar with Fehling's solution.
5. —
Separation of Principal Alkaloids. This process is based
OPIUM. 349
essentially upon the pharmacopoeial method of assaying opium

for morphine.
To 20 C.c. of a 50 per cent, aqueous extract of opium in
an Erlenmeyer flask add a mixture of 25 C.c. ether and 10
C.c. alcohol ; then add 3.5 C.c. of ammonia water (10 per
cent.), shake, and set aside (stoppered) overnight or longer.
The ammonia precipitates the alkaloids, which are redissolved
in the ether-alcohol layer, excepting the morphine, which is
seen in crystals. The aqueous layer is nearly free from alka-

loids. Decant the alcohol-ether layer upon a plain filter,
collect the filtrate, and label ; put aside for subsequent test.
Now pass the aqueous layer through the iilter, collecting the
filtrate, and put aside after labelling for future testing. Rinse
out the crystals of morphine and wash the filter with a very
little cold alcohol, throwing the washings away —
do not let
any of the alcohol from washing get into the filtrates.
6. To the crystals of morphine apply the following tests :
To a small crystal of morphine upon a porcelain surface add

a drop of Marquis' reagent (concentrated sulphuric acid, 100
—
C.c; 40 per cent, formaldehyd, 5 C.c.) -a play of colors,
purple-red to violet. Sprinkle a few of the crystals of mor-
phine upon nitric acid of specific gravity of 1.250 to 1.300
(made by mixing 40 gm. of the official acid with 29 C.c. of
water, or 47 gra. of acid with 22 C.c. of water) an orange-
;
red solution follows, changing to yellow.

Dissolve some of the crystals in just enough 0.1 per cent,
sulphuric acid (avoiding an excess of acid), and dilute so that
the solution contains 1 per cent, of morphine to this add a
;
few drops of solution of ferric chlorid a blue color is pro-

;
duced which is destroyed by alcohol, heat, or acids.

7. Shake the ether-alcohol filtrate from No. 5 with dilute
sulphuric acid for a few minutes, and decant the former ;
evaporate the acid layer, which contains the alkaloids, until

it becomes reddish add sodium nitrite (violet color).
;
8. Acidulate the watery filtrate gotten in test No. 5 and

add a drop or two of solution of mercuric potassium iodid.
If that test was made with due care, this should show little
or no precipitate.
9. Codeine. —This alkaloid often contains notable amounts
350 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALKALOWAL DRUGS.
of morphine the latter is detected by this test

:
" On sprink-
:
ling 0.05 gm. of codeine upon 2 C.c. of nitric acid (sp. gr,
1.200, made by mixing equal volumes of nitric acid (U. S.
P.) and water, the crystals will turn red, but the acid, even
when warmed, will acquire only a yellow color (difference
from and absence of morphine) " (U. S. P.).
NUX VOMICA.
The principal constituents of the seed are two alkaloids,
strychnine and brucine. There are also present a fat, a glu-
cosid, and a sugar.
Prepare a 5 per cent, decoction for the first four tests,
using 0.5 per cent, hydrochloric acid, taking care to exhaust
the drug thoroughly.
— —
Tests. 1. Alkaloids. Apply any two of the general
alkaloidal tests given on p. 303.
2. Tannins. — Solution of ferric chlorid gives a black color.
3. Sugar. — Neutralize with a few drops of 1 per cent,
solution of soda before using Fehling's test.
4. Intensity of bitterness :Strychnine can be tasted when
one part is dissolved in more than half a million parts of
water. Dilute 4 C.c. of the infusion with a liter of water,
mixing well. This gives a dilution equal to 1 part of nux
vomica in 5000 (5 per cent, of 4 C.c. in 1000 C.c. =: 1 :
5000). If the bitterness cannot be detected in this,' it shows

that the nux vomica contains less than 1 per cent, of strych-
nine. (The brucine is disregarded.)
5. If frogs are obtainable, inject 1 C.c. of the decoction for
a frog of 40 gm. into the space beneath the skin of the ab-
domen (by snipping the skin with a pair of scissors the
liquid may be injected with a pipet, while holding the frog
with a towel laid over the hand) in three to ten minutes
;
typical strychnine convulsions ensue —stiffening of the legs,

rigidity (tonic convulsions), followed by jerking (clonic con-
vulsions), followed by relaxation (paralysis). Tapping the
table upon which the frog lies or pricking the animal with a
pin induces convulsions. After death the heart is usually
—
found beating for some hours if kept moist.
DRUGS CONTAINING CAFFEINE. 351
This demonstrates typically the action of poisoning by

strychnine in man.
6. To a little powdered nux vomica add a few drops of
strong nitric acid (orange color, due to brucine).
7. To tincture of nux vomica in a capsule add equal volume
of concentrated sulphuric acid (purple color, due to loganin).
Isolation of Alkaloids. — 8. A modification of Keller's
method of isolating alkaloids has been given (p. 304). The
mixed alkaloids may be gotten by this method, or the pure
alkaloids may be used for the two tests following.
9. Strychnine. —To a very small crystal of the alkaloid
upon a and a
glass slide add a drop of concentrated sulphuric
very small crystal (0.005 gm. or less) of potassium bichro-
mate. No change is observed upon the addition of the acid,
but the potassium bichromate causes a play of colors (blue,
violet, red).
10. Brucine. —Add concentrated nitric acid (red color).
DRUGS CONTAINING CAFETEINE.
The only official drug containing caffeine is guarana, but

coffee, tea, and kola also contain notable amounts of it. They
also contain tannins, differing in the various plants. These
are of importance in view of the frequent employment of tea
and coffee as alkaloidal antidotes, and will be considered with
reference to their value in that respect.
Tests. — 1. Caffeine. —
The murexid test is given by caf-
feine and by uric acid, to which caffeine is chemically
also
related. To 0.01 gm. caffeine add a drop of nitric acid and
evaporate upon a water-bath. Then cause the fumes of am-
monia to come into contact with the residue, when a brilliant
purple results.
2. Extraction of Caffeine. —
Powder 1 gm. of tea and
exhaust with gasolin (20 to 25 C.c), rejecting this percolate
dry the powder and exhaust with alcohol, or add a few di'ops
of ammonia water and shake out with chloroform. Evap-
orate upon a water-bath and heat the resulting extract
strongly in the Bunsen flame ; the caffeine sublimes and con-
denses upon the walls of the tube higlier up. If to the
352 CHEMIG EXAMINATION OF ALKALOWAL DRUGS.
crystals a drop of nitric acid be added (holding the tube

horizontally), and this carefully evaporated and a drop of
ammonia water be placed beside the residue, the purple color
will appear (murexid).
3. Tannins. —
To 5 per cent, infusions of tea and coifee add
the following reagents and note results Solution of ferric
:
chlorid (greenish) ; solution of lead acetate (copious) ; 1 per

cent, corrosive sublimate and 1 per cent, morphine sulphate
(precipitate with tea, not with coffee) ; both infusions pre-
cipitate strychnine ; neither precipitates arsenious acid.
Note. —Milk neutralizes the tannin in part, hence should
not be added when tea is used as an alkaloidal precipitant.
Tea-tannin precipitates more substances and more completely
than coffee-tannin, including alkaloids, glucosids, metals, and
proteids, but there are great individual differences in the
members of each class.
IPECAC.
This root owes its therapeutic action mainly to two alka-

loids,emetine and cephaeline. A
third alkaloid, psychotrine,
occurs in very small amounts, but it is not concerned in the
medicinal action. There is also a glucosidal tannin resem-
bling ooffee-tannic acid. The processes for separating the
alkaloids are rather toQ complicated for class experiments.
Cephaeline possesses some characteristic color reactions, in
which emetine does not share.
— —
Tests. 1. Alkaloids. Exhaust 0.1 gm. of powdered
ipecac with 5 C.c. of alcohol and apply several alkaloidal
tests (picric acid, mercuric potassium iodid).
2. Tannin. —To the decoction add solution of ferric chlorid
(small amount of tannin).
^.Cephaeline. —To 0.2 to 1 gm. of powdered ipecac add 10
C.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid, shake, and sprinkle
upon the surface a little chlorinated lime the cephaeline gives
:
an orange to red color.

4. Starch. —This is abundantly present, as may be shown
by using a very dilute decoction (dilute the ordinary 5 per
cent, decoction with 100 times as much water).
ACOyil'E-HYDRASTIS. 353
ACONITE.
Aconite contains a number of allialoids which are prone to
decomposition by heat and by reagents. For this reason the
commercial alkaloids vary enormously in their activity. Since
their toxicity is so great, this variability precludes their in-
ternal use,and the fluid extract or tincture of aconite servos
equally well for external application. There are no satisfac-
tory chemic tests for these alkaloids, but the physiologic tests
are very characteristic.
— —
Tests. 1. Resin. To an alcoholic tincture (or the official)
add water (milky precipitate of resin).
2. Alkaloids. —
Dilute the above mixture with a little
1 per cent, sulphuric acid, and add solution of mercuric
potassium iodid (precipitation of alkaloids with increased
cloudiness).
3. Three drops of the official tincture of aconite (or one
prepared extemporaneously) placed upon the tongue causes a
tingling which persists for some time.
Demonstration. —If frogs are obtainable, pith one by in-
serting a knife-point through the depression at the base of
the skull and pushing a pointed match or wire upward into
the brain and downward through the spinal column. Then
slitopen the abdomen with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors,
push aside the organs concealing the heart, and slit open the
membrane inclosing the heart (the pericardium). Count the
rate of the heart, then drop upon
it a few drops of a 5
per cent, infusion. Everyminutes count the rate and

five
drop upon it more of the infusion until stoppage occurs. At
first there will be seen an increase, then a diminution, then
an increase, the character of the pulsation often changing and
becoming very irregular.
HYDRASTIS.
The therapeutic action of this rhizome is mainly due to the
colorless alkaloid hydrastine. The intensely yellow and bitter
berberine is also present in large amount. A third alkaloid,
canadine, exists in small quantity, but is not concerned in the
medicinal action. Berberine may be separated from its solu-
23
354 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALKALOWAL DRUGS.
tion with hydrastine by reason of the slight solubility of the

berbei'ine salts.
— —
Tests. 1. Tannin. An infusion of the powder gives
but a slight reaction with solution of ferric chlorid.
2. Preparation of Crude Berberine and Hydrastine extract :
5 gm. of powdered hydrastis with dilute acetic acid with

heat, filter, and evaporate upon a water-bath to a syrupy
consistence (2 C.c.) ; pour into 6 C.c. of 20 per cent, sulphuric
acid and allow to stand a day or longer. yellow pre-A
cipitate of berberine sulphate falls. Preserve for identity
tests. Decant the mother liquor. Add an excess of am-
monia water this causes the precipitation of hydrastine
;
collect upon filter and preserve for identity tests.

3. Berberine. —
Dissolve a little of the precipitated berber-
ine in dilute hydrochloric acid and add bromin water (blood-
red color). This test may be applied direct to the acetic
extract employed in the foregoing experiment.
4. Hydrastine. —
Dissolve some of the hydrastine in dilute
sulphuric acid and add a few drops of solution of potassium
permanganate ; blue fluorescence, due to formation of hydras-
tinine.
5. Hydrastinine. —This is an artificial alkaloid obtained
by acting upon hydrastine with oxidizing agents. The hydro-
chlorate is official. The following pharmacopoeial test may be
applied to a pure salt
" To a 1 per cent, aqueous solution add an excess of bro-
min water (yellow precipitate) the addition of ammonia
;
water dissolves this to a nearly colorless solution (hydrastine

giving brick-red precipitate)."
BELLADONNA.
The active principles of this plant are alkaloids, the princi-
pal ones being atropine and hyoscyamine.
Make a few cubic centimeters of 5 per cent, infusion of
belladonna root and apply the following tests :
1. To a few cubic centimeters add mercuric potassium

iodid (precipitate of the alkaloids).
2. Put 1 gm. of powdered belladonna root into a small
COCA. 355
flask and add 15 C.c. of ether and 2 C.c. of chloroform

shake for two or three minutes and add 1 C.c. of ammonia
water ; continue the shaking for five to ten minutes and add
1.5 C.c. of water, shaking until the powder begins to sepa-
rate out ; let it stand a few minutes and pour off the clear
liquid (chloroform-ether mixture) ; filter if not clear and evap-
orate in a capsule upon a water-bath. To the residue in which
the impure alkaloids are contained add 10 drops of concen-
trated sulphuric acid ; transfer to test-tube, and heat until it
becomes brown ; then add about 1 C.c. of water.

cool, A
pleasant odor of tuberose or heliotrope (due to atropine) ; may
be strengthened by adding a few drops of solution of potas-
sium permanganate.
3. When animals are available, the following physiologic
test may be applied ; it is exceedingly characteristic :
Put three drops of the infusion of belladonna root into the

eye of a cat or white rabbit (entirely painless). In a short
time dilatation of the pupil occurs. The cat reacts most sat-
isfactorily, though rabbits also illustrate the action well.
Note. —Any of the ofiicial atropine tests may be applied as
supplementary experiments.
COCA.
These leaves contain a number of alkaloids, of which cocaine
is much the most important. The tannin present is called
cocatannic acid.
— —
Tests. 1. Cocaine. Rub a little of cocaine hydrochlorate
with an equal bulk of calomel upon a porcelain surface with
a glass rod, then breathe upon the mixture (becomes gray or
dark).
2. The alkaloids of coca may be obtained by Keller's
method (see p. 305). The yield is about 1 per cent.
The following drugs are only important because of the

alkaloids or neutral principles which they yield, the latter
being used almost entirely in place of the crude drug :
Pilocarpus, yielding pilocarpine, the hydrochlorate being

official ; the Pharmacopoeia gives no distinctive test. If
356 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALKALOIDAL DRUGS.
rubbed with an equal volume of calomel with a glass rod

upon a porcelain surface, when breathed upon, it becomes
gray or dark, as in case of cocaine hydrochlorate.
Physostigma, yielding physostigmine, the salicylate and
sulphate being official. Either of these salts may be used
for the following test :Dissolve a minute quantity (0.01 gm.)
in a few cubic centimeters of ammonia water becomes yel-
;
lowish-red ;upon evaporation on water-bath a blue or bluish-

gray residue is left, yielding a blue solution with Alcohol, and
becoming violet-red upon the addition of acetic acid, showing
a strong reddish fluorescence.
Cocculus indicus (unofficial), yielding the neutral prin-
ciple picrotoxin (see p. 307). To concentrated sulphuric acid
(afew drops) add a little picrotoxin it dissolves with golden-
;
yellow color, changing to reddish-brown and showing brown

fluorescence.
Asag^rsea officinalis (unofficial), yielding veratrine (a
mixture of alkaloids). To 0.005of veratrine, or to residue
after evaporating a little alcoholic solution, upon a slide add
a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid and note play of colors
— green, brown, red, and yellow.
CHAPTER VIII.
DRUGS CONTAINING GLUCOSIDS.
DIGITALIS.
Prepare a 5 per cent, infusion and strain.
Tests. — 1.Reaction. —
Test with litmus (acid).
2. Tannin. —Ferric chlorid solution (black-green).
3. Qluoosids. — Add solution of tannin (precipitate forms,
increases on standing).
4. Absence of Alkaloids. —
Add solution of mercuric potas-
sium iodid (no precipitate).
5. Saponin Principle (jyigitonin). —
Upon shaking the infu-
sion it froths another portion shaken with cotton-seed oil
;
emulsifies it, and if to a few drops of blood a drop of the

infusion containing 0.9 per cent, salt be added, it causes
laking.
6. Fehling's test shows the presence of reducing sugar, and
if this be removed by percolation with water, a glucosid
remains which can be inverted by boiling with a dilute acid.
(See Experiment 6, p. 292).
7. Physiologic test to be applied when frogs are obtainable
Slit the skinon the chest, cut through the bone, and slit the
thin membrane which envelops the heart (the pericardium)
a drop of the infusion upon the heart every minute causes
slowing, and the heart to stop in contraction (systole), appear-
ing white and small.
The valuable principles of digitalis are the glucosids, digi-
toxin, digitophyllin, digitalin, and digitalein.
8. Digitoxin. —To a gm. of digitoxin in
solution of 0.001
5 C.c. of glacial acetic acid add one drop of twenty times
pour this without mixing
diluted solution of ferric chlorid
;
upon an equal volume of concentrated sulphuric acid the ;
contact zone shows a broad band, first bluish-green, soon

becoming dark blue. Toward the sulphuric acid there is a
357
358 DRUGS CONTAINING GLUOOSWS.
narrow red-brown ring ; the acetic acid gradually becomes
green.
9. Digitalin (^Commercial). —
Evaporate a few drops of
1 per cent, alcoholic solution of commercial digitalin with a
drop of concentrated sulphuric acid ; a reddish-brown color
Jesuits ; if it is then exposed to the vapors of bromin (by
opening a bottle and permitting the vapor to run into the
tube), changes to violet and cherry.
it
10. Digitoxin. —
Boil 0.5 gm. of digitalis with 5 C.c. of
glacial acetic acid ; filter, and add a drop of the very dilute
(1 20) solution of ferric chlorid, and lay upon sulphuric
:
acid, as directed above.
STROPHANTHUS.
These seeds owe their activity to glucosidal principles
(strophanthin). These differ in the various species of the
plant. The official seeds are distinguished by giving a green
color to 80 per cent, sulphuric acid or stronger. The test
may be applied directly to seed or to the tincture as follows :
— —
Tests. 1. Upon Seeds. Powder the seed or make thin
sections and add a drop of sulphuric acid, preferably 80 per
cent. a green color must develop, at least in the endoderm
;
this color is often preceded by a blue. The green fades

gradually through blue to red. A
bright red may be imme-
diately seen at times.
2. Upon Tincture. —
To 6 drops of tincture of strophan-
thus add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid and 6 drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid a brown precipitate is formed
;
(floats), which becomes distinctly greenish after some time

and should retain that color for at least three hours.
UVA URSI.
This leaf contains a glucosid (arbutin), a resin, tannin,

gum, fat, and some volatile oil. Under the influence of acids
or ferments arbutin yields glucose and hydroquinon.
— —
Tests. 1. Tannin. Solution of ferric chlorid gives a
bluish-black color.
SANTONICA—CANTHARWES. 359
2. To an alcoholic tincture add water (precipitate of resin,

insoluble in gasolin).
3. Gum. —
To an aqueous infusion add an excess of alcohol
or solution of borax (precipitate of gum).
4. Arbutin. —
This process may be followed in a few indi-
vidual cases, but is hardly adapted for class work.
powdered drag with lead
Precipitate a decoction of the
subacetate, and through the filtrate pass sulphuretted
filter,
hydrogen to remove the lead filter, evaporate filtrate to

;
small bulk, and put aside impure arbutin will crystallize

;
out.
5. Impure arbutin is soluble in alcohol and in water, gives
an olive color with reduce Fehling's
ferric chlorid, does not
solution until boiled with dilute mineral acid (hence a glu-
cosid).
SANTONICA-
The active principle is santonin, an anhydrid of santonic
acid. The latter salts from which santonic
forms soluble
acid is separated by the addition of an acid, the liberated acid
readily passing into tlie anhydrid again.
Tests. — 1. Santonin.
Test fw —
Boil 1 gm. of santonin
with lO.C.c. of alcohol for a few minutes; to 1 or 2 C.c.
add a little solid potassium hydrate and warm ; red color
fading gradually.
2. Concentrate the remainder of the filtrate to about 1 C.c.
and add slight excess of acetic acid (santonin crystallizes
out).
3. To these crystals the following test may be applied :
Dissolve in concentrated sulphuric acid and add a few

drops of verj' dilute solution of ferric chlorid ; upon warm-
ing in the Bunsen flame a beautiful violet color is developed.
CANTHARIDES.
The is generally conceded
active principle of cantharides
to be cantharidin, though there may
be some other vesicating
substances present. In addition to this there is a green oil,
from which it is difficult, under certain conditions, to free the
cantharidin. The flies should be kept whole, in a dry place,
360 DRUGS CONTAINING GLVCOSIDS.
well stoppered and free from insects, using carbon disulphid
or chloroform in the container occasionally. They should be
powdered as needed. In this or any test where heat is em-
ployed with cantharides care should be taken to avoid the

upon the eyes.
irritating effects
— —
Tests. 1. Cantharidin. Powder a little of the canthar-
ides which are nearly free from injury by insects and perco-
late 1 gm. of the powder with 10 C.c. of chloroform, return-
ing the percolate once or twice to the percolator ; evaporate
the chloroform upon the water-bath and heat the residue
quickly, but not to a high heat, in the flame, keeping the
upper part of the tube cooled. Cantharidin is deposited in
prisms which can be seen with low magnification or as a
white sublimate with the naked eye.
Put a single drop of olive oil upon the sublimate and re-
move to the arm ; keep protected ; a blister forms without
pain in six to eight hours.
Cantharides is extremely liable to deterioration, and can-
tharidin is often unobtainable in such cases.
GLYCYRRHIZA.
The most important constituent of the root is glycyrrhizin.
Gum, starch, tannin, albumin, and a bitter principle are also
present, but no alkaloid.
Tests. — 1. Glycyrrhizin. —
The ammoniated glycyrrhizin
being preparation belongs rather to the pharma-
official, its
ceutic laboratory than to that of materia medica, but the follow-
ing, adapted from the official process, may be employed, where
time permits, in this course :
Moisten 10 gm. of coarsely powdered glycyrrhiza with 10

C.c. of water and half a cubic centimeter of ammonia water
and warm to about 60° C. for half an hour then percolate ;
with water and ammonia water mixed in above proportions

until 15 C.c. of percolate are obtained. Add 1 per cent,
sulphuric acid with constant stirring until all the glycyrrhizin
is precipitated (a few drops only) collect the precipitate and
;
wash with a little cold water.

Try the solubility of small portions in the following sub-
GLYCYRRHIZA. 361
stances : alcohol, ether, petroleum-ether, 1 per cent, solution

of potassa (note taste of solution), hot water (gelatinizes
upon cooling), and in 1 per cent, ammonia water. The latter
solution spread upon glass and scaled forms the official ammo-
niated glycyrrhizin.
The precipitation by sulphuric acid in the above experi-
ments demonstrates the oft-forgotton fact that preparations
of glycyrrhiza intended to mask the taste of quinine should
not have that alkaloid dissolved in an excess of acid.
2. Starch. — To a 5 per cent, decoction (not the percolate
prepared in the preceding test) add compound solution of
iodin (abundant reaction).
3. Tannin. — To a 5 per cent, decoction add solution of
ferric chlorid (moderate reaction).
4. Gum. — To a 5 per cent, decoction add usual precipi-
tants for gum i. e., alcohol, lead acetate, etc. (precipitate).
5. Absence of Alkaloids. —
Use an alcoholic tincture (not
the decoction) with usual alkaloidal precipitants (no reaction).
The decoction contains small amounts of proteid matter giving
precipitate with most alkaloidal precipitants.
CHAPTER IX.
DRUGS CONTAINING RESINOUS PRINOPLES.
INDIAN CANNABIS.
Very little is known about the constituents of this plant
it contains resin, some volatile oil, and chlorophyll.
Tests. —
iJesin.-Êxhaust 1 gm. of the drug with 10
1.
C.c. of alcohol and evaporate to an extract upon the water-
bath.
2. With a glass stirring rod remove a little of this extract
to a test-tube containing ether, and note its solubility.
3. Add water to some of the alcoholic tincture (prepared
above) : precipitates.
4. To the extract prepared above add a few cubic centi-
meters of strong nitric acid and heat gently ; the mass becomes
bright orange-red.
GUAIAC (RESIN) AND GUAIAC WOOD.

The wood contains a large amount of the resin, which
consists mainly of peculiar resin acids. These give a num-
ber of striking color reactions ; upon these are based the
following color tests
Tests. — 1.
:
Moisten a piece of the wood with concen-

trated nitric acid (a bluish green, if an excess of the acid is
used, passing to red).

2. Moisten a piece of the wood with solution of mercuric
cblorid and heat (bluish green).
3. Solubility of Mesin. —
Boil a fragment of the resin with
water ; goes into solution, forming a greenish-yellow
a little
decoction. With alcohol and ether the pure resin goes into
solution, the impurities falling to the bottom.
To 0.1, gm. of the powdered resin add 5 C.c. of solution
of soda or of potassa ; when solution is effected, add an
excess of dilute hydrochloric acid resin : is precipitated.
362
ALOES. 363
To 0.01 gm. of the powdered resin add 5 C.c. of concen-

trated sulphuric acid ; it forms a claret-red color ; upon the
addition of water this becomes lilac or purple.

4. To a little alcoholic solution of the resin in test-tubes
add the following : To the first, nitric acid (blue rapidly
passing to red) ; to the second, solution of ferric chlorid
(blue) ; to the third, dilute hydrocyanic acid and very dilute
solution of copper sulphate (0.5 per cent.) (deep blue, fading
to greenish).
5. The used as a delicate test for blood, even
following is
in case of old stains, but other things giveit. To a drop of
blood add some water and a little of the freshly made alco-
holic tincture of guaiac resin (no blue color should result)
then add a few drops of solution of hydrogen dioxid (deep-
blue color).
ALOES.
The different varieties of aloes, of which two, Barbadoes
or Curagao, and Socotrine or Zanzibar, are ofiicial, are the
inspissated juices of the leaves of various species of aloe.
They contain as their main active constituents neutral bitter
principles (non-glucosidal), derivatives of anthraquinon, which
are calfed aloins. They differ in the various species (barba-
loin, socaloin, nataloin, and capaloin), a which makes it
fact
possible to differentiate chemically between them. Further
constituents are resin and small quantities of emodin and of
a volatile oil.
The aloins are soluble in water and alcohol, but not readily
soluble in fatty solvents. They form yellow
crystals, give a
greenish-black color with ferric chlorid, and give insoluble
compounds with bromin ; they are slowly precipitated by
basic lead acetate. They have an intensely bitter taste.
Tests. — 1. SoluhiUties^. —To 5 C.c. of each of the follow-
ing substances add a little (0.5 gm.) powdered aloes (any
kind), and note the solubility : alcohol, readily, except im-
purities ; acetic acid, slowly in the cold ; solution of soda,
readily in the cold ; boiling water, except impurities, resin
precipitates upon cooling; chloroform, ether, and gasolin,
slightly soluble.
364 BBUGS CONTAINING RESINOUS PRINCIPLES.
2. Aloin {^Common to All). —

To an aqueous solution of any-
kind of aloes add water until but slightly colored then add ;
solution of copper sulphate (few drops) yellowish color

;
ensues ; then add to half of this, a little sodium chlorid, and

warm (pink to red) to the other half add dilute hydrocyanic
;
acid (chei'ry-red color).

To aqueous solutions add the following reagents and note
results : solution of ferric chlorid, greenish-black color ; solu-
tion of lead subacetate, precipitate forms slowly ; -bromin
water (saturated), precipitates.
3. Aloin {To Distinguish Varieties). —
To 5 per cent, alcoholic
solutions of the different aloes add ammonia water and com-
pare the colors produced Natal, carmin red ; Socotrine and
:
Barbadoes, brownish-red ; note fluorescence.

To 10 drops of nitric acid of specific gravity of 1.200
(made by mixing the official with an equal volume of water)
upon porcelain surfaces add 0.05 gm. of the various aloins
and compare colors formed Socotrine, little change ; Natal
:
and Barbadoes, carmin red Cape, green. ;
Dissolve the various aloins in concentrated sulphuric acid

and cause the fumes of nitric acid to come in contact with
them (hold a glass rod moistened with the acid near to them) :
Natal, blue ; others, no change. Solution of Natal is said

to give no fluorescence with saturated solution of borax ; the
others do. Barbaloin is the kind frequently found in com-
merce simply labelled " aloin."
4. Barbaloin. —To 0.5 gm. of barbaloin add 5 C.c. of
water and 5 drops of dilute sulphuric acid ; boil, cool, filter,
evaporate to 1 C.c. ; crystals separate upon cooling.
JALAP.
The active constituents of jalap are resins, soluble in alco-
hol water, and petroleum-ether (Resina
but insoluble in
Jalapse, U. There are two of these resins convol-
S. P.). :
vulin, the most important, insoluble in ether and jalapin, ;
soluble in ether. Convolvulin is -an anhydrid yielding a

resin acid (convolvulinic acid) with alkalies. This acid is a
glucosid, yielding glucose when boiled with a dilute mineral acid.
RHUBARB. 365
—
Tests. 1. Estimation of Convolvulin and Jalapin. Ex- —
haust 10 gm. of powdered jalap with alcohol ; concentrate
to 4 Co. and pour into water ; after standing, collect and
dry the precipitate, which should weigh 1.2 gm. This con-
stitutes the official resin. Triturate this with ether, remove
the ether to a watch-glass, evaporate, and weigh. Should
not weigh more than 0.12 gm. (jalapin). The insoluble
residue after treating with ether is mostly convolvulin. (If
desired, resin of jalap may be used instead of the crude drug
for the separation of these two.)
2. Convolvulin. —
Dissolve 0.01 gm. in 1 C.c. of concen-
trated sulphuric acid (a bright-red color), add very small
crystal of potassium dichromate ; explosive olive-green
!
color.
Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the convolvulin in solution of soda
(odor of whisky on warming). If the solutions of convol-
vulin and jalapin in concentrated sulphuric acid be cautiously
neutralized, the jalapin is precipitated, 'but convolvulin re-
mains in solution.
3. Jalapin. —
Dissolve a little (0.01 gm.) in concentrated
sulphuric acid (maroon color) ; add a very small crystal of '
potassium dichromate odor of rancid butter, reddish color.

;
Dissolve 0.01 gm. in solution of soda (reddish color).

4. GluGOsid. —
Boil 0.1 gm. of the resin or convolvulin
with 2 per cent, sulphuric acid for ten minutes ; neutralize
and test for glucose (positive).
RHUBARB.
Tests. — 1. JEmodin Principles. —Rhubarb, like senna and
cascara sagrada, contains a number of these substances. The
most important are chrysophanic acid, emodin, and rhein, all
giving similar reactions. Chrysophanic acid does not pre-
exist in the drug, but is formed from a glucosid, chrysophan,
in the presence of water, alcoholic extracts being free from it.
The following tests are applicable to the urine of one who
has taken rhubarb To a few cubic centimeters of an aqueous
:
decoction and to an alcoholic percolate and a chloroformic

percolate from rhubarb add solution of soda all give red to
:
366 DRUGS COSTAININO RESINOUS PRINCIPLES.
purple. (The emodins are soluble in boiling water, in alcohol,
and in chloroform.)
2. Tannin. —Rhubarb contains a peculiar tannin, rheo-
taunic acid, a glucosid, which upon boiling with dilute mineral
acid yields a phlobaphene and sugar.
To a decoction add ferric chlorid (greenish black) phloba-
phene. Boil an aqueous decoction with a little dilute hydro-
chloric acid for ten minutes ; the mixture becomes somewhat
turbid ; to one-half add alcohol and to the other solution of
soda; in each case the precipitated phlobaphene dissolves,
the mixture becoming clear.
3. Starch. —
To a decoction add a drop or two of dilute
hydrochloric acid and a drop of compound solution of iodin.
4. Reducing Sugar. —
This exists in rhubarb partly pre-
formed, partly from the decomposition of glucosids. Test
with Fehling's solution, depending upon the brick-dust pre-
cipitate which falls after a time. The red color gotten at
once is due to alkaline solution acting upon the emodiu
principles.
5. Destructive Distillation. —
Heat 0.1 gm. of powdered
rhubarb in a test-tube ; note the odor of yellow fumes which
arise.
6. Ash. —
Rhubarb occasionally yields considerable ash, 45
per cent, having been found, but usually between 10 and 20
per cent. Incinerate 5 gm. on platinum foil and weigh.
Dissolve in hydrochloric acid (eifervesces, oxalate having
been reduced to carbonate by heat), neutralize the solution
with 1 per cent, solution of soda, acidulate with acetic acid,
and add ammonium oxalate (precipitate of calcium oxalate).
7. Calcium Oxalate. — (See p. 196.)
8. Sophistication. —Curcuma
is very frequently employed
for this purpose. Percolate 0.1 gm. of powder adulterated
with curcuma with 2 C.c. of chloroform, letting the percolate
fall upon 0.1 gm. of powdered borax ; dry, and drop
upon it
a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid ; an orange color is
due to the coloring-matter,. curcumin. Ammonia produces a
blue black if dropped upon the filter moistened with the
chloroformic percolate.
8ENNA-EM0DIN PRINCIPLES. 367
SENNA.—EMODBM PRINCIPLES.
Senna contains active principles similar to those in rhubarb,
giving a red color with alkaline hydrates. Since these prin-
ciples are excreted in the urine of those taking the cathartic,
alkalies added to it will produce the same color. They are
soluble in water and dilute alcohol, but very sparingly so in
strong alcohol ; hence percolation with that menstruum re-
moves little of the active purgative constituents, while it
extracts resinous substances which are responsible for much
of the unpleasant odor and taste. Senna which has been per-
colated with alcohol therefore yields better preparations than
those made directly from the natural leaf. The alcoholic
percolate is greenish ; the hydro-alcoholic and aqueous are
reddish-brown. Prolonged boiling in presence of alkalies
diminishes the activity.
—
Tests. 1. Percolate 1 gm. of powdered senna with hot
alcohol. To the first cubic centimeter (concentrated) of perco-
late add solution of soda : green, changes to red ; continue
percolation to exhaustion (saving second portion of percolate
for Test No. 2), and from the marc prepare an aqueous in-
fusion add solution of soda.
;
To a few cubic centimeters of infusion prepared from the

powdered senna (untreated) add solution of soda (red to
purple). Save 10 C.c. of this infusion for the following'
tests :
2. Resins. —Concentrate the alcoholic percolate saved from

the previous test upon a water-bath, and add a large excess
of water (precipitate of the resin).
3. Gums and Cathartic Acid. —
To a few cubic centimeters
of the infusion (of untreated leaves) add large excess of alco-
hol precipitate of gum and cathartic acid ; collect precipitate
:
upon filter, wash with alcohol, and treat with solution of

soda (no red color or but traces).
4. Tannin. —
To a few cubic centimeters of the infusion
add solution of ferric chlorid (greenish-black color).
5. fliigar. —
Test a few cubic centimeters of the infusion
with Fehlinti's solution ; at first a deep-red color is produced
by the alkali acting upon the emodin principles, but precipi-
368 DRUGS CONTAINING RESINOUS PRINCIPLES.
tation may not occur ; if, however, the mixture is boiled, the
characteristic brick-dust precipitate soon forms.
FRANGULA AND RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.

These barks coutaiu cathartic principles similar to those
and rhubarb (emodins). Ehamnus purshiana
existing in senna
also contains other a bitter principle, glucose, etc.
resins,
When fresh, they contain a
very irritant substance, which is
a ferment acid and which can be destroyed by heating to
110° C. for three hours. It mostly disappears upon keeping
frangula one year and rhamnus purshiana two years. It
has been stated that the objectionable principle is a ferment,
but this seems doubtful. Boiling with an alkali lessens the
bitter taste.
Tests. — 1. Emodin Principles. —Make a 5 per cent, in-
fusion and add sodium or other alkaline hydrate a red to
:
violet color produced.

is
2. Resins. —
Boil a little of the coarse powder with alcohol,
allowing to stand a few minutes on water-bath cool, and to;
half the tincture add four volumes of water —

the resin is pre-
cipitated ; to the other half of the tincture add ether not —
precipitated.
3. Prepare an infusion of the bark by boiling with 10 per
cent,sodium carbonate for some time dilute with five times
;
as much water and compare the taste with that of ordinary

infusion similarly diluted (bitterness greatly diminished).
CHAPTEE X.
DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC AQDS, VOLA-

TILE OILS, RESINS, AND FATS.
BALSAM OF PERU.
This consists of a mixture of" a resin with benzylic benzoate
and benzylic cinnamate, with some free cinnaraic acid and
vanillin. Upon treating the balsam with petroleum-ether
the resin is left undissolved, the other constituents going into
solution,and upon evaporating the petroleum-ether there
remains the "oil of balsam of Peru," or cinnamein.
Tests. 1 —
Cinnamein.
. —
Shake 1 C.c. of balsam of Peru
with 10 C.c. of petroleum-ether and allow the mixture to
separate ; filter through paper moistened with petroleum-
ether, and evaporate the filtrate upon a water-bath. An oily
liquid (cinnamein) remains ; note that it leaves an oily stain
upon paper that volatilizes only at a rather higb temperature.
2. Purity. —
Shake 1 C.c. of balsam of Peru with 3 C.c.
of carbon disulphid (clear mixture) then add 8 C.c. of the
;
carbon disulphid and shake (the resin adheres to the walls of

the tube, and the liquid is clear and light brownish and not
more than faintly fluorescent) absence of Gurjun balsam.
;
Peru balsam mixed with water and subjected to distillation

at 100° C. should yield no volatile oil copaiba does. —
BALSAM OF TOLU.
This balsam consists of a mixture of resin with free cin-
namic and benzoic acids, benzyl benzoate and cinnamate,
vanillin, and a little volatile oil.
— —
Tests. 1 Resin. Treat four portions of the balsam with
.
alcohol, ether, gasolin, and solution of soda respectively. It

dissolves in all except the gasolin ; impurities insoluble.
2. ArornQtio Acid^,-' —Boil with water (the latter becomes
2i 369
370 DBUOS CONTAINING AROMATIC ACIDS, ETC.
acid to litmus). Boil 5 gm. of the balsam with a little milk

of lime, cool, filter,and add slight excess of dilute hydro-
chloric acid (few drops) ; a precipitate of aromatic acids
forms ; dissolve in a little 1 per cent, solution of soda and
apply tests for benzoic and cinnamic acids (see p. 312).
COPAIBA.
This is a typical oleoresin (see p. 326), though it is often
termed " balsam."
Tests. —
1. Volatile Oil. —
Distil some of the copaiba in
a small flask with water and note that the distilled oil leaves
a greasy stain upon paper which disappears upon heating.
2. Itesin. —
To alcohol, ether, and gasoline add 1 Co. of
copaiba ; in the alcohol it dissolves with slight opalescence
(clear in absolute alcohol) ; in the ether wholly insoluble, not
soluble in gasolin ; if to the last-named (gasolin) mixture
one-third its volume of ammonia water be added, a clear
solution is obtained, the gasolin separating into an upper
layer. Add
a slight excess of dilute hydrochloric acid (the
resin is precipitated). Solution of soda or potassa may be
used instead of ammonia to demonstrate the acid character
of the resin.
3. Bitter Principle. —
Boil 2 C.c. of copaiba with an equal
volume of water and filter through a previously wetted filter
the filtrate has a bitter taste; add solution of mercuric potas-
sium iodid (precipitate or opalescence).
4. Sophistications and their Detection (U. S. P.). Turperv-
tine : Odor upon heating. Fixed Oils : Only an amorphous,
brittle, transparent, solid (resin) residue after volatilization of
oil if pure. Ghirjun Balsam : Copaiba should not show
fluorescence nor become gelatinous when heated to 130° C.
Copaiba forms with one-tenth its weight of magnesia which
has been moistened with water a mass of pilular consistence.
The copaiba containing a high percentage of volatile oil (some
of the Para) will not readily form a mass.
CAPSICUM.
Our knowledge of the chemic composition of capsicum is
very incomplete ; the active constituents comprise a number
BENZOIN. 37
of neutral crystalline principles, of which capsaicin is the most

important. Some volatile oil, resin, and fat are also present.
The official oleoresin is an ethereal extract containing the act-
ive constituents, fat, resins, volatile oil, etc.
Tests. — 1. Capsaicin. —Exhaust

2 gm. of freshly pow-
dered capsicum (the powder rapidly deteriorates) with 10 Cc.
of gasolin or petroleum-ether and evaporate on water-bath or
spontaneously to 1 C.c. ; long crystals are deposited.
2. Resin. —
Exhaust 1 gm. of the powdered capsicum with
alcohol and filter, add water (precipitate of resin and oil
resin insoluble when shaken with gasolin).
3. A
decoction made with dilute sulphuric acid, filtered,
made alkaline with ammonia water, extracted with ether, and
the ethereal solution shaken with dilute sulphuric acid gives
no precipitate with alkaloidal reagents.
BENZOIN.
This is a solid balsam consisting of several resins and
aromatic acids, some vanillin, etc., the several varieties dif-
fering in composition. Several resins are always present
they have the structure of alcohols, and exist, in part, as
esters of the aromatic acids. The latter exist partly in this
combination and partly free. Some varieties e. g., Sumatra
— contain both benzoic and cinnamic acids; others (Siam)
only the benzoic.
— —
Tests. 1. Solubility of Resins. To a few centigrams of
benzoin in test-tubes add 1 or 2 C.c. of each of the follow-
ing Alcohol, ether, gasolin, and water
: solubility in the
:
order named ; gasolin and water precipitate it from alcoholic

solution.
Boil a few centigrams with 2 C.c. of solution of soda (red
solution); acidulate with hydrochloric acid (precipitate).
Warm a few centigrams with 2 C.c. of concentrated sul-
—
phuric acid the Siam dissolves with a red color ; add alco-
hol — violet or reddish, according to variety.
2. Free Aromatic Acids. —Boil with water and test the
reaction with litmus-paper (acid).
3. Sublimation of Benzoic Acid. —Heat a few centigrams in
372 DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC ACIDS, ETC.
a test-tube ; dense white irritating fumes of benzoic acid are

given off.' The method formerly official for preparing this
acid is very commonly employed in the pharmaceutic labor-
atory as an exercise in the process of sublimation.
4. Test for Cinnalnio Acid. —
Boil a few centigrams of
benzoin with solution of soda, cool (decant if necessary), and
acidulate with dilute sulphuric acid ; upon adding a little
concentrated solution of potassium permanganate the odor of
oil of bitter almond (benzaldehyd) is gotten if cinnamic acid
is present (Sumatra).
CINNAMON.
Chemic of but little importance.
tests are The bark con-
tains small amounts of starch and tannin and a large amount
of mucilage. The volatile oil represents its valuable prop-
erties.
— —
Tests. 1. Tannin. To 5 C.c. of a decoction add a few
drops of solution of ferric chlorid (greenish black).
2. Starch. —To 5 C.c. of a decoction add a little compound
solution of iodin. (The degree of dilution in which this re-
action is visible gives an approximate idea of the amount of
starch present.)
3. Ash. — Incinerate 1 gm. of the powder upon a platinum
foil, or in a crucible (0.025 to 0.04 gm. of brownish ash).
4. CinnamonOil —
Apply to pure and adulterated speci-
mens. Dissolve 1 C.c. of the oil in 10 C.c. of alcohol and
add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid brownish color ; oil
:
of cloves or carbolic acid gives greenish.
CUBEB.
This fruit contains a large percentage of volatile oil, a
neutral crystalline principle (cubebin, waxy), cubebic acid,
resin, and fat. These principles are soluble in ether, and to-
gether they constitute the official oleoresin. The deposit
which occurs is chiefly cubebin, which is inert and should
be removed before dispensing.
1 Dr. H. V. Arny states that the annoyance of these irritating
fumes may.
be avoided in the sublimation of benzoic acid if the temperature is kept at
120° C. or lower.
BUCHU—COD-LIVEB OIL. 373
—
Tests. 1. Resin and Volatile Oil. Exhaust 1 gm. of —
powdered cubeb with 10 C.c. alcohol or less filter, and to 5 ;
C.c. add water ; resin and oil are precipitated ; the oil may
be dissolved by adding gasolin and shaking the precipitate ;
of resin remains.
2. Cubebin and Cubebic Acid. —
To the remaining 5 C.c.
of alcoholic extract add concentrated sulphuric or phosphoric
acid a red or salmon color is caused by cubebin and cubebic
:
acid.
3. Powder one or two of the berries and press strongly
between folds of white paper oily spots result, which can be
;
dissipated by volatilizing the oil over a flame, leaving brown

stains due to resin.
4. Ash. —
Incinerate 0.1 gm. of the powder upon a platinum
foil ; the resulting ash
is grayish to greenish, containing man-
ganese and sometimes copper.
BUCHU.
These leaves contain some volatile oil, resin, much mucil-
age, salicylic acid, and a principle called diosmin, of which
but little is known.
Tests. — 1. Resin and Volatile Oil. —Exhaust the powder
with a hot alcohol, add an equal volume of water, which
little
precipitates resin and volatile oil ; shake the mixture gently
for some time with gasolin, which redissolves the volatile oil
but leaves the precipitated resin.
2. Gum. or Mucilage. —
Add an excess of alcohol to an
aqueous infusion milky precipitate of mucilage.
:
3. Tannin absent; diosphenol present. To a cold infusion

and to the alcoholic extract add solution of ferric chlorid,
COD-LIVER OIL.
This oil contains free acids, fat bases, lipochrome, choles-

terin,and traces of alkaloids.
— —
Tests. 1. Fatty Acid. Shake 2 C.c. of cod-liver oil
Avith an equal measure of alcohol allow them to separate ;
into layers ; if a blue litmus-paper be moistened with water.

374 DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC ACIDS, ETC.
it is reddened by the alcoholic layer. Pour a few drops of

the alcohlolic soution upon filter-paper and dry permanent
:
greasy stain.
2. —
lApochrome and Cholesterin. Dissolve a drop of the
oil in 1 C.c.of chloroform and add a drop of concentrated
sulphuric acid violet color changing to brown.
:
3. Identity. —Put 1 C.c. of cod-liver oil into a small porce-

lain capsule and add 5 drops of concentrated nitric acid. On
stirring, the mixture becomes red, slowly changing to brown
yellow.
4. The alkaloids may be detected by shaking the oil for
some time with per cent, sulphuric acid, allowing them to
1
separate, filtering the latter through a wetted filter, and testing
with solution of mercuric potassium iodid. Only traces of
alkaloids are present.
APPENDIX.
REAGENTS FOR HISTOLOGY.

MOUNTING MEDIA.
1. Glycerin -jelly. —The
most useful by far for the
student is it must not be forgotten
glycerin-jelly, although
that sections may need remounting after a few years. They
will last much longer, however, if they are ringed with
varnish some time after mounting. The jelly may be made
as follows:
Soak 30 gm. of white French gelatin in 90 C.c. of dis-
tilled water for an hour (to render it gelatinous at a low
temperature) filter, if necessary, and raise the temperature
;
to near the boiling-point, and add 120 Co. of glycerin ; filter

while hot, and add four drops of carbolic acid. Put into a
number of small tubes so that the whole will not be heated
each time it is used.
2. Canada balsam is much used for permanent mounts,
but has two great disadvantages —
viz., the trouble of using
and the fact that it often renders very thin sections so trans-
parent as to be almost invisible. Canada balsam is a very
'thick oleoresin, and, when used, it dissolves in oil of turpentine,
chloroform, or benzol, making a moderately thin fluid.
3. Glycerin may be used for temporary or even perma-
nent mounting when ringed with varnish, but the glycerin-
jelly is usually to be preferred.
4. Hoyer'S fluid for carmin-stained sections is made as
follows :First dissolve chloral hydrate in about its own
weight of water, and to 90 C.c. of the solution add 10 C.c.
of glycerin. Saturate 50 C.c. of this mixture with selected
pieces of acacia. Sections stained with carmin are transferred
to glycerin and then mounted.
375
376 APPENDIX:.
STAINING FLUIDS.
Staining fluids are used very much as some of the chemic
reagents, such as zinc chloriodid, but they are merely absorbed
by the tissue instead of forming color compounds
5. Anilin stains lignified and
suberous tissues very
readily ; cellulose, scarcely at all. Anilin chlorid or com-
mercial green anilin (No. 5) may be used ; the latter is .dis-
solved to saturation in alcohol for a stock solution, and when
employed, a few drops are- added to some water (15 drops to
10 or 20 Co.).
Fuchsin is merely a red anilin and may be used as other
anilin stains.
6. Grenacher's alum=carmm stains cellulose red, thus
differentiating from lignified, which it stains much less,
it
and from cork, which it does not affect. It is prepared by

adding powdered carmin to solution of ammonia alum in dis-
tilled water (2 per cent.) and boiling for about twenty min-
utes ; cool and filter, and add about J per cent, of carbolic
acid as a preservative. It may be used to demonstrate proto-
plasm by placing the section for a time in alcohol wash with ;
water and place in the stain for a day. These sections cannot
be mounted in glycerin-jelly, but may be mounted in Hoyer's
mounting fluid for carmin.
7. Grenacher's hematoxylin solution is especially
useful as a stain for nuclei, as well as for cellulose and
lignin. It is prepared as follows Dissolve hematoxylin in
:
5 C.c. of alcohol to saturation then saturate 40 C.c. of water

;
with ammonia alum finally mix the solution of ammonia

;
with J-j^ its volume of the hematoxylin solution allow it ;
to stand for about a week filter, and add to 50 C.c. of the

;
filtrate, 7 C.c. of glycerin, and 7 C.c. of wood alcohol.

Specimens should be allowed to stand in water for a time
before being placed in this stain they may be mounted later
;
in glycerin jelly.
8. Bosin in alcohol stains dead proteid ; this renders it
useful in studying sieve-cells, their proteid

contents being
stained more deeply than the cellulose walls of the cells.
REAGENTS. 377
REAGENTS.
9. Acetic acid dissolves calcium carbonate but not calcium
oxalate, the latter being soluble in hydrochloric acid without
effervescence. Globoids are soluble in dilute acetic acid.
10. Hydrochloric acid is used with phloroglucin in
staining lignified tissues (see Phloroglucin).
11. Nitric acid concentrated may be used because of its
property of preci])itating proteid in stiiining protoplasm. The
section is placed for a short time in the acid, then treated with
an alkaline hydrate. Xanthoproteic acid is formed, the dead
protoplasm assuming a yellow color. The middle lamella of
thick cell-walls may be stained yellow by placing the section
in hot nitric acid and then in ammonia water.
12. Picric acid in saturated solution (1 6) hardens
:
protoplasm, but the reagent is completely removed only with

some difficulty.
1 3. Osmic acid in 1 per cent, solution is used to detect oils
and fats, with which, as well as with tannin, it gives a black
or brown color. The acid is kept in sealed glass tubes, the
solution being made by putting the perfectly clean tube into
an amber bottle, shaking to break the tube, and adding 100
parts of distilled water.
14. Sulphuric acid containing 92.5 per cent, of absolute
H^SO^ or the 80 per cent, acid dissolves cellulose quickly,
lignin more slowly, and the intercellular substance scarcely
at all. See also iodin and sulphuric acid for cellulose, with
which amyloid is formed.
15. Alcohol, both the pure and dilute, is of wide applica-
tion in hardening tissues, dissolving resins, etc.
16. Chloriodid of «inc solution gives a variety of
colors with diiferent tissues and contents. The concentrated
solution with cellulose gives a purple, with lignin brown, and
with cutin and suberin a yellowish-bro\vn color. Starch-
grains appear blue-black and then dissolve. The solution is
prepared as follows Saturate 100 C.c. of hydrochloric acid
:
with pure metallic zinc and then, concentrate to a syrupy

state ; in this dissolve potassium iodid and iodin successively
to saturation.
378 APPENDIX.
17. Cuprammonia is prepared by dissolving about 10
gm. cupric sulphate enough water to make 100 C.c. and

in
precipitating this with sodium hydrate, allowing the precipitate
to collect, decanting, and washing with water. The precipi-
tate is dissolved in ammonia water. This is the only sub-
stance which forms a simple solution of cellulose. The reagent
does not keep well, hence must be prepared as wanted for use.
18. Ferric Chlorid and Fehling's solution may be
used with the microscope, as they are used in test-tubes for
tannin and sugar respectively.
18 a. Glycerin has numerous applications as a solvent
and as a mounting medium.
19. —
lodin. The official compound solution is used as a
test for aleuron grains, staining their proteid yellowish-brown
when a drop of the solution is added to a specimen immersed
in glycerin.
Cellulose immersed in the solution for a few minutes and then
transferred to sulphuric acid shows a purple color. lodin is the
readiest test for starch, for which purpose the solution should be
so dilute as to be nearly colorless or but slightly yellowish.
20. Mercuric chlorid in 2 per cent, solution is useful
in fixing proteid, such as aleuron grains, rendering them in-
soluble in water. After treatment with this reagent they
may be stained with eosin.
21. Phloroglucin in 2 per cent, alcoholic solution is
used with hydrochloric acid for staining lignified tissue. The
section is placed in the solution until thoroughly permeated
(few minutes for ordinary sections), and then in hydrochloric
acid (10 per cent.) for a few minutes. The lignified parts
are stained red — deeply if highly lignified (middle lamella),
less deeply for less lignified.
22. Potassium hydrate dissolves proteids and starch
very readily. A
very dilute solution (1 per cent.) is useful in
observing the markings upon starch-grains, a stronger solution
(5 per cent.) is employed as a clearing agent, dissolving many
cell contents and rendering the cell-wall more transparent. It
will destroy delicate sections if allowed to act upon them too
long. Solution of potassa dissolves or liquefies cork.
23. Schul^'s maceration fluid is made by dissolving
REAGENTS. 379
potassium chlorate in strong nitric acid to saturation (easier to

add slight excess of the potassium chlorate and shake occa-
sionally). This fluid readily dissolves lignified tissue and has
but little action upon cellulose, hence cells may often be sepa-
rated from each other by placing the section in a drop of the
fluid upon a slide, and, after some minutes, the middle lamella
having dissolved, by tapping gently upon the side of the
slide, thus shaking the cells apart. It may be used hot and
concentrated, in which case it acts quickly, but in practice it
is often better to dilute it with water (1:3) and allow to
stand an hour or more.

24. Solution of sodium hypochlorite is used for
bleaching sections, rendering them transparent —
it removes
many cell contents. It may be used of full strength, but

this is apt to cause complete disintegration of thin sections
hence, it is best diluted with several volumes of water.
25. Solution of chloral hydrate renders sections
readily transparent if they are not too thick ; it dissolves
certain cell contents, notably starch, for the study of which
it isnot suited. It is particularly useful in the examination
of powders. The solution in water dries out in a short time ;
it may be uiade with glycerin.
380 APPENDIX.
ADDENDUM TO PART I.
ABSINTHIUM.—Absinthium.—'Wormwood.
The and tops
leaves of Artemisia Absinthium Linn6
(Nat. Ord. Compositse).
Habitat. —Europe.
—
Description. " Leaves about 5 cm. long, hoary, silky-pubescent, petiolate,
roundisb-triangular in outline pinnately two- or three-cleft, with the seg-
;
ments lanceolate, the terminal one spatulate bracts three-cleft or entire

;
heads numerous, about 3 mm. long, subglobose, with numerous small, pale-
yellow florets, all tubular and without pappus odor aromatic taste per-
; ;
sistently bitter."- U. S. P.

Volatile oil, absinthin (bitter), tannin.
Therapeutic Use. —Tonic, but more frequently employed
as an external application to ulcers.
Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15—30 gr.).
POSOLOOICAL TABLE. 381
POSOLOGICAL TABLE.
The Latin names of crude drugs are given in bold face ; the names of
pharmaceutical preparations following are in English. For unofficial drugs
see the table following each morphologic class.
The average therapeutic dose is given.
The accent is placed after the vowel of the accented syllable of Latin
Absi^nthium 2-4 gm.

Aca'cia .
Mucilage .
Syrup . .
A'cidum Benzo'icum
Ci'tricum
Ga'Uicum
Hydrocya'nicum Dilu'tum
Lac^ticum
Salicy'licum
Ta''niiicum • •
Tarta'ricum . .
Aconi'tum . . .
Extract
Fluid extract
....
Tincture^ .
. . .
A'Uium ....
Syrup (for children)
A'loe Barbadeûsis
Socotrina .
Extract
Purified
Pills. . .
And asafetida pills

" iron
" mastic "
" myrrh "
Tincture (laxative or purgative'
And myrrh tincture
Aloi^num . .
Althse'a ...
Syrup .
Ammonfacum
Emulsion
Amy'gdala Ama'ra ....
Du'lcis . .
Emulsion
Syrup .
382 APPENDIX.
A'mylum extei-nally.
Ani'sum 0.6-2 gm. 10-30 gr.
A'ntliemis 30-60 gm. 1-2 oz.
Apo'cynum 0.3-1.3 gm. 5-20 gr.
Fluid extract 0.3-1 c.c. 5-15 min.
Apomorphi'nee Hydrochlo'ras . 0.004-0.008 gm. tW
not taken in substance,
gr-
A'rnicse Flo'res .
Tincture externally.
Ra'dix
Extract
.... 0.3-2 gm.
0.2-0.3 gm.
5-30 gr.
3-5 gr.
Fluid extract . 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min.
Tincture 0.6-4 CO. 10-60 min.
Asafce'tida . . 0.2-0.8 gm. 3-12 gr.
Emulsion 15-30 C.C. \-l oz.
Pills 1-3 pills.
Tincture 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
Ascle'pias . . 0.2-4 gm. 3-60 gr.
Fluid extract . . ... 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min.
Aspi'dium 2-6 gm. 30-90 gr.
Oleoresin 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Aspidospe'rma 1-4 gm. 15-60 min.
Fluid extract . .... 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Atropi'na .... 0.0006-0.001 gm. t^^jV gr-
Atropi^nae Su'lphas 0.0006-0.001 gm. ^J^V gr.
Aura'ntii AmaM Co'rtez . 4 gm. 60 gr.
...
. .
Fluid extract . . 4 c.c. 60 min.

Tincture 1-4 CO. 15-60 min.
Du'lcis Co'rtex • • . flavoring.
Syrap .... u
Tincture 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Ba'lsamum Penivia^num 0.5-2 gm. 8-30 gr.
Tolnta^num . . rarely used in substance.
Syrup ... 2-8 C.C. J-2 f. dr.
Tincture 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min.
Bellado'nnsB Fo'lia 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gr.
Alcoholic extract 0.008-0.03 gm. \-\ gr.
Tincture 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min.
Ba''dix . 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gi:
Fluid extract 0.06-0.2 C.C. 1-3 min.
Benzoi'num not taken in substance.
Tincture 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Compound tincture ... 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
Bruci'na (unofficial) . , . 0.05 gm. 1 gr. .
Bryo'nia . . , . 0.6-4 gm. 10-60 gi-.

Tincture .... 8-15 C.C. 2-4 f. dr.
Bu'chu 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Fluid extract 1-2 ex. 15-30 min.
Caffei'iia 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gr.
Citrated .... 0.12-0.3 gra. 2-5 gr.
Eflervescent citrated . . 10 gm. 2J dr.
Ca'lamus 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Fluid extract . . 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min.
Cale^ndnla . ... 0.5-1 gm. 8-15 gi-.
Tincture externally.
POSOLOGICAL TABLE. 383
Calu'mba ...
384 APPENDIX.
Cinchoni'na 0.06-2 gm. 1-30 gr.

Cinclioni'nee Sulphas . 0.06-2 gm. 1-30 gr.
Cinnamo'mum Ca'ssia 0.3-1.5 gm. 5-20 gi-.
Saigo'nicum . . . 0.3-1.5 gm. 5-20 gr.
Zeyla'nicum . . 0.3-1.5 gm. 5-20 gr.
Tincture . . . 4-8 C.C. 1-2 f. dr.
Aromatic powder . 0.6-2 gm. 10-36 g]-.
Co'ca 8gm. 2 dr.
Fluid extract .... 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Cocai'ns Hydrochlo'ras 0.008-0.12 gra. i-2 gr.
Co'ccus for coloring.
Codei'na 0.02-0.2 gm. J-3 gr.
Colchici Ra dix 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 gr.
Extract . . . 0.03-0.12 gm. ^2gr.
Fluid extract . . 0.1-0.5 C.C. 2-8 min.
Wine . . 0.6 C.C. 10 min.
Se'men . 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 g^^
Fluid extract . 0.05-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Tincture . . . 0.5-2 C.C. 8-30 min.
Wine 0.3-1 C.C. 5-15 min.
Colocy'nthis . • 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 gr.
Extract . 0.03-0.1 gm. i-2 gr.
Compound extract . . . 0.3-1 gm. 5-15 gi-.
Compound cathartic pill 1-3 pills.
Vegetable cathartic pill 1-3 pills.
Coni'um . . 0.06-0.3 gm. 1-5 gr.
Extract . . 0.015-0.06 gm. 4-1 gl^
Fluid extract 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Convalla'ria 0.1-0.4 gm. 2-6 gr.
Fluid extract 0.3-1 C.C. 5—15 min.
Copai'ba . 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min.
0.6-1 gm. 10-15 gr.
Besin . 0.3-1.2 gm. 5-20 gr.
Coria'ndrum . 0.6-2 gm. 10-30 gr.
Cro'cus (coloring main'ly) 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr.
Tincture .... 4-8 C.C. 1-2 dr.
Cube'ba . 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Oleoresin . . . 0.3-1.2 C.C. 5-20 min.
Kesin (unofficial) 0.3-1.2 gm. 5-20 gr.
Tincture . . . 2-12 C.C. J-3 f. dr.
Cu'sso 10-20 gm.
Fluid extract . . 4-15 C.C.
aoz.oz. f.
Cyprepe'dium . . 0.5-1 gm. 8-15 gr.

Digita'lis 0.1-0.2 gm. 2-3 gr.
Extract .... 0.015 gm.
Infusion . . . 15-30 CO. ^1 f. oz.
Tincture , . 0.3-1.5 O.C. 5-22 min.
Digitoxin (unofficial) 0.0003-0.0006 gm. JtfTS^Tirir gr.
Dulcama'ra 4gm. Idr.
Fluid exti-act . . 4 c.c. 1 f. dr.
Elateri^num . . . 0.003-0.005 gm. jVtV Sr-

Triturate (10%) 0.03-0.05 gm. i-^ g?.
E'rgota 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Fluid extract .
2-4 c.c. 30-60 min.
Wine .... 4-12 c.c. 1-3 f. dr.
Eriodi'ctyon ... 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Fluid extract 0.6-2 c.c. 10-30 min.
Eucaly'ptol . . 0.3-2 c.c. 5-30 min.
Eucaly'ptus. . . .
2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Fluid extract .
2-8 c.c. ^2 f. dr.
Euo'nymus . . 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Extract . . . 0.1-0.3 gm. 2-3 gr.
Euonymin (unofficial) 0.03-0.2 gm. ^-3 gr.
Eupato'rium . . 2-4 gm. 30-60" gi-.
Fluid extract . 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
FelBo'yis. .
0.3 gra. 5 gr.
Purified . .
0.25 gm. 4 gi-.
Fi'cus ... ad libitum.
Fceni'culum . 0.6-2 gm. 10-30 gr.
Fra'ngula . 2-8 gm. i-2 dr.
Fluid extract .
2-8 C.C. dr.
i-2 f.
Ga'Ua externally.
Tincture . 4-8 C.C. 1-2 f. dr.
Gelse'mium .
0.3-0.6 gm. 5-10 gr.
Fluid extiuct .
0.3-0.6 C.C. 5-10 min.
Tinctui-e . .
1-2 C.C. 15-30 min.
Gentia'na .... 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr.
Extract 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 gr.
Fluid extract 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min,
Tincture . . . 1-4 C.c. 15-60 min.
Gera'nium . . 1-3 gm. 15^5 gr.
Fluid extract .
1-4 C.C. 15-60 min.
Glycyrrhi'za . .
1^ gm. 15-60 gr.
Ammoniated glycyrrhizin 0.3-0.6 gm. 5-10 gr.
Compound powder . . .• . 2-8 gm. J-2 dr.
Fluid extract . . 2-15 C.C. 1-8 f. dr.
Pure " . . . 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Gossy'pii Radi'cis Co'rtex 2-4 gm. 30-60 gi-.
Grana'tum 2-6 gm. 30-90 gi-.
Grinde'lia 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Fluid extract .
1-4 C.C. 15-60 min.
Guai'aci Lignum not used in substance.
Besi'na . .
0.5-2 gm. 8-30 gr.
Ammoniated tincture 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
Tincture . . 2-4 c.c. 30-60 min.
Guara'na 0.5-4 gm. 8-60 gr.
Fluid extract . 2-8 C.C. i-2 dr.
Haemato'zylon not taken in substance.
Extract 0.3-1 gm. 5-15 gr.
Hamame'lis . . rarely used in substance.
Fluid extract .
2-8 CO. ^2 f. dr.
Hedeo'ma. . . .
1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
25
386 APPENDIX.
Hu'mnlns . . 2-20 gm.

Tincture
Hydrastiiu'nse Hydrochlo'ras -
Hydra'stis
Fluid extract
Glycerite
....
Tincture ...
Hyosci'nse Hydrobro'mas
Hyoscyami^nse Hydrobro'mas . .
Hyoscyami'nae Su'lphas
Hyoscy'amus
Extract
Fluid extract
Tincture
Ichthyoco'lla . . •
Illi'cium
I'nula
Ipecacua'nha . - {3^^''
Fluid extract
as emetic
and opium powder (diaphoretic)
Troches . . ...
I'ris
Extract
Fluid extract . . .
Jala'pa
Alcoholic extract . . . . . .
Compound powder
Eesin
Ju'glans
Extract
Eama'la
Ki'no
Tincture ....
Krame'ria
Extract ....
Fluid extract ....
Tincture
Lactuca^'rium .
Tinctui-e . . ' .
La'ppa • •
Fluid extract .
Lepta''ndra
Extract
Fluid extract
... .
Limo'nis Co'rtex
Spirit ....
Limo'nis Su'ccus ....
Li'num . .
Lobe'lia
Fluid extract
Tincture
. ...
POSOLOOICAL TABLE. 387
Lupuli'num . . 0.2-1 gm.

Fluid extract
Oleoresin
Lycopo'dium
Ma'cis ....
Ma''ima .
Marru'bium
Ma'stiche . .
Ma'tico ....
Fluid extract
Tincture . .
Mel
Purified .
Meli'ssa . .
Menispe'rmmn
Fluid extract
Me'ntha Fiperi'ta
Vi'ridis
Menthol ....
Me'thyl Salicy'las
Meze^reum . .
Fluid extract . .
Morplii'na ....
Morphi'nse Ace'tas
Hydrochlo'ras
Su'lphas
Compound powder
and ipecac troches
Mo'schus . .
Tincture
Mjrri^stica ...
My'rrha
Compound iron mixture
Tincture . .
Nux Vo'mica . .
...
.
Extract . .
Fluid extract ...

Tincture ....
0''leum A'dipis
Am^'gdalse Ama''rse
Spirit
Water
Amy'gdalse Expre''ssum
Ani'si
Water . .
Aura'ntii Cor'ticis .
Compound spirit .
Spirit
Aura'ntii Flo'min .
Bergamo'ttse . .
Be'tulae Vola'tile
Cadi^num ....
Cajupu'ti . • .
Ca'ri
388 APPENDIX.
O'leum Caryophy'lli . 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.

Chenopo'dii 0.1-0.6 O.C. 2-10 min.
Cinnamo'mi 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Spirit ... 0.6-2 C.C. 10-30 min.
Water ... flavoring.
Copai'bse . 0.06-0.3 CO. 1-5 min.
Coria'niM. 0.06-0.3 c.c. 1-5 min.
Cube'bae • 0.3-1.2 c.c. 5-18 min.
Erigero'ntis . . . 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Eucaly'pti . 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min.
Foeni'culi . . 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Water . . flavor.
Gaulthe'riaB . . 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Spirit 0.3-0.6 C.C. 5-10 min.
Gossy'ppii Se'minis ad libitum.
Hedeo'mae 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Juni'peri • . 0.1-0.6 C.C. 2-10 min.
Compound spirit . 4-15 C.C. 2-4 f. dr.
Spirit 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
Lava'adulsB Flo 'rum 0.3 CO. 5 min.
Compound tincture 2-4 c.c 30-60 min.
Spirit . 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
Limo'nis flavor,
Spirit . . flavor,
Li'ni externally.
Me'nthse Piperi'tse 0.05-0.15 cc 1-3 min.
Spirit . 0.3-1 cc 5-15 min.
Troclies . . one occasionally.
Water 4-15 cc. 1-4 f. dr.
Me'nthse Vi'ridis . 0.1-0.3 cc. 2-5 min.
Spirit . ... 1-2 cc 15-30 min.
Water . . 4-15 cc 1-4 f. dr.
Mo'rrhuse . 8-15 c.c. 2-4 f. dr.
My'rcise perfume.
Myri'sticae . . 0.1-0.15 cc 2 min.
Spirit . . 2-4 cc 30-60 min.
Oli'vae (as laxative) 30-60 c.c. 1-2 f. _oz.
Pi'cis Li'quidse . . 0.06-0.3 cc. 1-5 min.
Pime'ntae . . . 0.06-0.3 cc 1-5 min.
Ri'cini ... 8-60 cc. i-2 f. oz.
Eo'sse as perfume.
Bosmari'm . . . 0.06-0.3 cc 1-5 min.
Sabi'nse 0.06-0.3 cc. 1—5 min.
Sa'ntali. . . 0.1-0.6 cc. 2-10 min.
Sa^ssafras 0.06-0.3 cc 1-5 min.
Se'sami (as laxative) 30-60 cc 1-2 f. oz.
Sina'pis Vola'tile externally.
Terebi'ntliinse . . 0.06-0.3 cc 1-5 min.
Rectified .... 0.06-0.3 cc. 1-5 min.
Theobro'matis . externally.
Ti'glii .... 0.015-0.12 cc J—2 min.
POSOLOOIGAL TABLE. 389
O'pii Pu'lvis 0.015-0.12 gm. i-2 gr.

Deodorized powder 0.015-0.12 gm. J-2gr.
Extract . . 0.008-0.06 gm. 4-1 gi-.
Pills . . .... one pill.
Tincture . . . 0.2-1.2 c.c. 3-18 min.
''
camphorated . . . . 4-8 c.c. 1-2 dr.
" deodorized . ... 0.2-1.2 c.c. 3-18 min.
Vinegar . ... 0.2-1.2 c.c. 3-18 min.
Wine . . . 0.2-1.2 c.c. 3-18 min.
O'pium ... 0.02-0.15 gm.
Pancreati'num
Parei'ra
.
...
. ... •
0.3-1 gm.
2-4 gm.
5-15 gr.
30-60 gr.
Fluid extract . . . . 2-4 c.c. 30-GO min.
Pe'po . . 30-60 gm. 1-2 oz.
Pepsi'num 0.2-1 gm. 3-15 gr.
Saccharated
Physosti'gma
•
.... . . 0.3-4 gm. 5-60 gr.

0.06-0.25 gm. 1-4 gr.
Extract . . . 0.006-0.03 gm. tV-J gi--
Tincture . . 0.6-2 c.c. 10-30 min.
Physostigmi'nse Salicy'las Sulphas . 0.0006-0.002 gm. TffTnV gr-
Phytola'cca Fru'ctus . 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr.
Fluid extract . 0.3-2 c.c. 5-30 min.
Ra'dix . . . 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr.
Picrotoxi'num 0.0005-0.001 gm. xiiT-^V gr-
Pilocarpi'nse HydrocMo'ras 0.008-0.03 gm. i-Jgr-
Piloca'rpus .... 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr.
Fluid extract
Pime'nta ...
.
.
. ....
.
0.3-2 c.c.
0.3-1. 5,gm.
5-30 min.
5-22 gr.
Pi'per 0.3-1.5 gm. 5-22 gr.
Oleoi-esin . 0.015-0.06 c.c. J-1 gr.
Piperi'num . . . . 06-0.6 gm. 1-10 gr.
Pix Burgu'ndica plaster base
Pix Li'ciuida l-A gm. 15-60 gr.
Syrup . . 2-8 c.c. J-2 f. dr.
Podophyllum . 0.3-1.2 gm. 5-20 gr.
Extract . 0.1-0.6 gm. 2-10 gr.
Fluid extract . 0.3-1.2 c.c. 5-20 min.
Eesin . . 0.008-0.03 gm. i-J gr-
Podophyllin (unofficial) 0.008-0.03 gm.
Pru'num ..... . .
ad libitum.
4-igr.
Pru'nus Virginia'na . 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.

Fluid extract . . . 2-4 c.c. 30-60 min.
Infusion 60-90 c.c. 2-3 oz.
Syrap ....
...
. . .
. . 4-8 c.c. 1-2 f. dr.

Pulsati'lla . 0.12-0.6 gm. 2-10 gr.
...
.
Pyre'thrum ... 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.

Tincture . used in carious teeth.
Qua'ssia • 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Extract ... . 0.03-0.2 gm. i-3gr.
Fluid extract . ... . . 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Tincture .... 2-8 c.c. h^ dr.
Quilla'ja 1-2 gm. 15-30 gr.
Tincture . 2-8 c.c. i-2dr.
Quinidi'nae Su'lphas . 0.06-2 gm. 1-30 gr.
390 APPENDIX.
Quini'na 0.06-1.5 gm. 1-22 gr.

Quini'nae Bisu^lpbas 0.06-1.5 gm. 1-22 gr.
Hydrobro'mas 0.06-1.5 gm. 1-22 gr.
Hydrochlo'ras 0.06-1.5 gm. 1-22 gr.
Sa''lphas . . 0.06-1.5 gm. 1-22 gi'.
Valeria'nas 0.06-1.5 gm. 1-22 gr.

Eesi'na externally.
Eha'nmus Fursliia'na 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Fluid extract . . 1-i C.C. 15-60 min.
Rhe'um ...... 0.2-1 gm. 3-15 gr.
Compound pills . . 1-4 pills.
powder 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr.
Exti-act . . 0.2-1 gm. 3-15 gr.
Fluid extract . . . 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min.
Pills. . . . 1-3 pills.
Tincture . . . 2-15 c.c. i-4 f. dr.
" aromatic 4-12 C.C. 1-3 f. dr.
" sweet 15-30 C.C. oz.
J-1 f.
Rhus Gla'bra . 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.

Fluid exti-act . . . 1-A c.c. 15-60 min.
Tozicode'ndxon . 0.3-4 gm. 5-60 gr.
Ko''sa Centifo'lia . . perfume.
Ga'llica .... 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Confection . . excipient.
Fluid extract . . vehicle.
Honey 4-8 C.C.
Eu'bus
Fluid extract .
Idse'us .
Syrup .
Ru-'mex . ...
Fluid extract .
Sabi'na
Fluid extiuct .
Sa^ccbarum . . .
Sjrrup . .
Salici'num . . .
Sa'lvia
Sambu'cus
Sanguina'ria (emetic)
Fluid extract . .
Tincture . .
Sa'ntalum Bu'brum
Santo'nica ....
Santoni'num - . .
Troches . .
Sarsapari'Ua .
Compound decoction
" fluid exti-act
u
Sa''ssafras . .
Medu''lla
Mucilage .
Scammo'nium . 0.3-1 gm. 5-15 gr.

Resin . . . 0.0(>-0.3gm. 1-5 gr.
Sci'Ua 0.03-0.6 gm. i-10 gr.
Compound syrup 0.6-2 c.c. 10-30 min.
Fluid extract . 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min.
Syrup . . . 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min.
Tincture . . 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min.
Vinegar . . . 0.6-3 C.C. 10-45 min.
Scopa'rius . 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Scutella'ria 2-8 gm. f-2 dr.
Fluid extract . . 2-8 C.C. 1-2 f. dr.
Se'nega 0.5-1.5 gm. 8-22 gr.
Syrup . . 4-8 C.C. 1-2 f. dr.
Se'nna 5-15 gm. 1-4 dr.
Compound infusion 15-30 cc, ^-1 f. oz.
Confection .... 4-8 gm. 1-2 dr.
Fluid extract . Sec. 2 f. dr.
Syrup 4-16 C.C. 1-4 f. dr.
Serpenta'rise . . 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr.
Fluid extract 0.6-2 C.C. 10-30 min.
M
. . .
Tincture 2-8 CO. f- dr.

Sina'pis Alba . . . 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Ni'gra 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Spartei'nae Sulphas 0.008-0.06 gm. i-lgr.
Spige'lia 2-8 gm. ^2 dr.
Fluid extract . 2-8 C.C. i-2 f. dr.
Staphysa'gria externallv.
Stilli'nîa 1-2 gm." 15-30 gr.
Fluid exti-act .
2c.c. 30 min.
Stramo'nii Fo'lia . 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gr.
Se'men ... 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 g,-.
Extract . . 0.015-0.03 gm. h-i gr-
Tincture .... 0.3-1.2 C.C. 5-20 min.
Stropha'nthus . not used in substance.
Tincture .... n Q n fi „ « / 5-10 min
0.3-0.6 C.C.
I (5^„ tincture)
Strychni'na . . . 0.001-0.003 gm. ^1,-^V gr.
and iron citrate . . 0.05-0.1 gm. 1-lJ gr.
Stryclmi'iis Sulphas 0.001-0.004 gm. ^5-rV gr.
Sty'rax . . 0.5-2 c.c. 8-30 min.
Su'mbul . 0.2-0.6 gm. 3-10 gi-.
Tincture . 4-15 c.c.
"
1-4 f. dr.
Taba'cum. . 0.5 gm. 8 gr.
Tamari'ndus 2-20 gm. i-5 dr.
Tanace'tum 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr.
Tara'zacum 2-8 gm. f-2 dr.
Extract . 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 gr.
Fluid extract 4-15 c.c. 1-4 f. dr.
Terebi''nthiiia . externally.
Canade'nsis
Thymol .... 0.03-0.12 gm. ^2gr.
392 APPENDIX.
Tragaca'ntha ad libit utD.

Mucilage. . .
Tri'ticum
Fluid extract . . .
TJ'lmus
Mucilage . . .
U'vaU'rsi
Extract . ....
Fluid extract .
Valeria'na ....
Ammoniated tincture
Fluid extract . .• . .
Tinctui'e
Vani'Ua
Tincture
Veratri'na (mostly externally)
Vera'trum Vi'ride .
Fluid extract . ...

Tincture'
Vibu'mum O'pulus
Fluid extract .
Prunifo'lium
Fluid extract
Vite'Uus .
• •
Glycerite . . .
Xantho^xylum .
Fluid extract
Ze'a
Zi'ngiber . . .
Fluid extract .
Oleoresin . .
Tincture . .
Troches
OLOSSABY. 393
GLOSSARY
OF COMMONLY USED MEDICAL TERMS EMPLOYED IN THIS
VOLUME.
Abortifacient. Synonym for ecbolic.

Alterative. Altering the nutritive functions of the body used in a ;
class of diseases the nature of which is obscure and which were formerly
referred to faulty conditions of the blood (syphilis, skin eruptions, malnu-
trition).
Anesthetic. Abolishing sensation used in operations. A drug which
;
is used to abolish sensation over the entire body (and also consciousness)
is called a general anesthetic ;one which acts only where it is applied is a
local anesthetic.
Analgesia. Abolishing pain.
Anodyne. Abolishing pain.
Antacid. Diminishing acidity.
Anti-. Prefix denoting opposed to.
Antipyretic. Lowering the temperature in fever.
Antiseptic. Preventing the development of putrefaction and disease-
producing bacteria.
Antispasmodic. Diminishing spasms, convulsions sometimes hysteria.
;
Aphrodisiac. Increasing the sexual powers.

Astringent. " Drawing together " tissues used internally, especially
;
against diarrhea externally on wounds and to check bleeding.

;
Bitter. Possessing a bitter taste and used to increase appetite and in

certain forms of dyspepsia. Simple bitters contain as active ingredients
only bitter principles, while aromatic bittere and astringent bittere contain,
in addition, aromatic or astringent constituents.
Cardiac. Eefeiring to acting on the heart.

Carminative. Stimulating the intestine to expulsion of gas.
Cathartic. Producing evacuation of the bowels.
—
Caustic, Cauterizant. Destroying tissues.
CholagOgue. Increasing the flow of bile and giving a green color to
the stools.
Coma. A condition of profound and dangerous depression of the ner-
vous functions with unconsciousness.
Convulsant. Producing convulsions.
Corrective. Favorably modifying the taste or action of another drug
with which it is prescribed.
Corrosive. Synonym for caustic.
Counterirritant. An irritant applied externally to abolish pain, to
change the circulation in remote parts of the body, or as a general stimu-
lant.
394 APPENDIX.
Demulcent. A mucilaginous drug, moistening, soothing, and softening

the parts to which it is applied used especially against coughs.
;
Depressant. Lowering the functions.

Diaphoretic, Producing an increase of sweat.
Disinfectant. Killing putrefactive or disease-producing bacteria.
Diuretic. Increasing the amount of urine.
Ecbolic. Causing premature child-birth.

Emetic. Causing vomiting (emesis).
EnunenagOgue. Increasing the menstrual flow.
Emmollient. Softening the skin (usually an oily substance).
Epispastic. Producing blisters.
Expectorant. Altering (usually increasing) the bronchial mucus;
used in cough.
Germicide. Disinfectant.
Hemostatic. Synonym for styptic.

Hydragogue. A cathartic causing very profuse and watery stools.
Irritant. Irritating and inflaming the parts to which it is applied.
Laxative. A mild cathartic

Local. Acting only at the place where it is applied (in most cases ex-
ternally).
Narcotic. Disturbing consciousness.

Nauseant. Producing nausea (feeling of sickness, etc.), generally used
against cough.
Nutrient. Serving as food.
Oxytocic. Ecbolic.
Parasiticide. Killing parasites (usually on the skin).

Protective. Forming a protective covering (on wounds, etc.).
Purgative. A fairly powerful cathartic.
Refrigerant. Cooling used in fevers.
;
Rubefacient. Irritating the skin to redness.
Sedative. Calming counteracting stimulation or irritation.

;
SialagOgue. Increasing the flow of saliva.

Sternutatory. Producing sneezing.
Stimulant. Increasing the normal functions (nei'vous, cardiac, muscu-
lar, etc.) externally, promoting the healing of wounds.
;
Stomachic. Useful in diseases of the stomach.

Styptic. Having the property of checking hemorrhage.
Taeniafuge. Causing the expulsion of tape-worms.

Tonic. Increasing the strength of the patient (usually acting as .stom-
achics).
Vermicide. Killing the intestinal wonns.

Vermifuge. Causing the expulsion of these worms.
Vesicant. Producing blisters.
Vulnerary. Used externally in the treatment of wounds and bruises.
INDEX,
Abies balsamea, 156 Acid, lobelic, 78

excelsa, 157 maizenic, 132
Abrin, 129 malic, 107
Abrus, 34 meconic, 137
preoatorius, 34, 129 nitric, 377
Absinthium, 95, 380 ophelic, 92
Absorbent cotton, 132 osmic, 377
Acacia, 146 picric, 377
catechu, 143 polygallic, 24
Senegal, 146 prussic, 63
Achillea, 95 punico-tannic, 62
millefolium, 95 quercitannic, 65
Acid, acetic, 377 rheotannic, 212
antheraic, 101 chemistry of, 313
ai-abic, 147 salicylic, natuiul, 80
benzoic, 151 santalic, 54
chemistry of, 312 sphacelinic, 131
cambogic, 149 sulphuric, 377
carbolic, 314 toxicodendric, 82
camiinic, 166 valerianic, 43, 64
catechu-tannie, 143 Acipenser Huso, 166
cathartic, 83 Aconine, 38
chemistry of, 367 Aconite, 37
ceti-aric, 97 chemistry of, 353
chrysophanic, 22 leaves, 85
cinchotannic, 60 Aconiti folia, 85
cinnamic, 151 Aconitine, 38
chemistry of, 312 Aconitum, 37
coca-tannic, 78 napellus, 37
copaivio, 155 Acorin, 49
cubebic, 105 Acoi-us calamus, 48
chemistry of, 373 Adeps, 163
ergotinic, 131 lanse hydrosus, 162
eugenic, 99 Adiantum, 95
hydrochloric, 377 pedatum, 95
hydrocyanic, 311 Adrenalin, 170
dilute, 122 Adulteration, 272
igasuric, 118 jEgle Marmelos, 117
ipecacuanhic, 23 African ginger, 48
kinic, 60 pepper, 108
kinovic, 60 Agaricin, 135
kombic, 120 Agaricus albus, 135
krameriotannic, 31 Agi'imonia, 94
395
396 INDEX.
Agi'imonia Eupatoria, 94 Angelica atropurpurea, 34

Agropyrum lepens, 49 Angustura, 71
Akanet, 34 Anilin, 376
Albumen, chemistry of, 296 Animal drugs, 165
Alcohol, 377 secretions, 167
Aletris farinosa, 52 Anise, 112
Aleurone grains, 190 histology of, 263
Alexandria senna, 83 Anisum, 112
Alkailoids, histology of, 198 Anuotto, 319
chemistry of, 302 Anthemene, 101
Alkanet, 321 Anthemidin, 101
red, 321 Anthemis nobilis, 101
Alkanna, 34 Anthraquinone derivatives, 307
tinctoria, 34 Antitoxins, 171
chemistry of, 321 Apiol, 117
Allspice, 107 Apis mellifica, 146
Aloes, 363 Apium gi-aveolens, 117
Aloe barbadensis, 141 Petroselinum, 117
Peri-yi, 142 Apocynein, 27 '
Socotrina, 142 Apocynum, 27, 34

vera, 141 androssemifolium, 27, 34
Aloin, 364 canhabinum, 27
Alpinia officinarum, 52 Apomorphine, 137
Althsea, 29 Aporetin, 22
histology of, 252 Apocynin, 27
ofiScinalis, 29 Apparatus, list of, 283, 284
rosea, 102 Ai-alia nudioaulis, 52
Alum root, 34 racemosa, 52
American columbo, 34 spinosa, 65
hellebore, 49 Ai-aroba, 135
isinglass, 167 Arbor vitse, 95
safffon, 319 Arbutiu, 76
senna, 85 chemistry of, 359
wormseed, 116 Archangelica officinalis, 34
Ammoniac, 148 Arctium lappa, 26
Ammoniacum, 148 Arctostaphylos glauca, 85
Amygdala amara, 121 Uva-ursi, 76
dulcis, 122 Areca catechu, 129
Amygdalin, 121 Arecoline, 129
Amylopsin, 169 Argel, 83
Amylum, 133 Aristolochia reticulata, 44
Anacardium occidentale, 117 sei'pentaria, 44
Anacyclus officinalis, 34 Aristolochine, 44
pyrethrum, 26 Armoracia, 34
Analysis of unknown drugs, 340 Arnica flowei's, 101
Anarairta paniculata, 107 montana, 46, 101
Anchusin, 321 root, 46
Andira Araroba, 135 Arnicse flores, 101
Andropogon muricatus, 35 radix, 46
Anemone Hepatica, 85 Amicin, 101
prateusis, 93 A.rrowi-oot, 134
Pulsatilla, 93 Artemisia Absinthium, 95
Anethum giuveolens, 117 pauciflora, 98
Angelica, 34 Asafetida, 148
INDEX. 397
Asafcetida, 148 Beechdrop, 94

Asagrsea ofiBcinalis, 1 29 Bela, 117
chemistry of, 350 Belladonna, 354
Asarum canadensej 52 chemistry of, 354
Asclepias, 32 leaves, 78
cornuti, 52 root, 19
incarnata, 52 histology of, 247
tuberosa, 32 Belladonnae folia, 78
Ash, detei'mination, 284 radix, 19
Asparagin, 29 Belladonnine, 20
Aspidium, 51 Benne, 85, 129
athamanticum, 51 Benzoin, 151
rigidum, 51 chemistry of, 371
Aspidosperma quebiucho-blanco, 70 Benzoinum, 151
Astragalus gummifer, 147 Berberine, 29, 45
Atropa belladonna, 19, 78 chemistry of, 354
Atropine, 20 Berberis, 34
Auiantii amara cortex, 114 vulgaris, 34, 62, 71
dulcis cortex, 114 Beta vulgaris, 144
flores,102 Betula lenta, 80
folia,85 Birch tar, 158
Avens, 52 Bistorta, 52
Azedarach, 71 Bitter almond, 121
Azolitmin, 321 orange peel, 114
Bittersweet, 55
Babl, 117 Biuret test, 297
Balm, 89 Black haw, 64
Balmony, 94 hellebore, 52
Balsam of copaiba, 155 mustard, 124
of fir, 156 pepper, 105
of Peru, 153 histology of, 263
chemistry of, 369 snake-root, 44
of Tolu, 153 Blackberry, 66
chemistry of, 369 Bladder wrack, 95
Balsams, 153 Bleaching sections, 181
chemistry of, 326 Blessed thistle, 94
Baptisia, 34 Bloodroot, 43
tinctoria, 34 Blue cohosh, 46
Barbadoes aloes, 141 Bolders, 83
chemistry of, 363 Bi-assica alba, 124
Barbaloin, 142 nigi'a, 124
chemistiy of, 364 Brayera, 99
Barberry, 34 Broom, 93
Barosma crenulata, 82 Brucine, 118
betulina, 182 chemistry of, 351
Bassorin, 147 Bryonia, 32
Bassorins, chemistry of, 292 alba, 32
Bast fibers, 221 dioica, 32
Bay, 85 Bryonin, 32
Bdellium, 172 Bryony, 32
Bearberry, 76 Buchu, 82
Bebeeni, 71 chemistry of, 373
Beberine, 71 histology of, 263
Bedstiuw, 94 Buckthorn, 61, 117
398 INDEX.
Bugle weed, 94 Cantharis vesicatoria, 165

Bundle sheath, 217 vittala, 165
Burdock, 26 Caoutchouc, 143
Burgundy pitch, 157 Capsaicin, 108
Buttercup, 94 Capsicum, 370
Butternut, 69 fastigiatum, 108
Buxus sempervirens, 62 Caraway, 112
Carbohydrates, chemistry of, 287
Cacao, 123 Cardajnom, 109
butter, 123 Cardamomum, 109
Cactus grandiflorus, 94 Carduus benedictus, 94
Caffeine, 140 Carex arenaria, 52
chemistry of, 351 Carolina pink, 44
citrated, 141 Carota, 117
Cajuputol, 161 Carragheen, 96
Calabar bean, 122 Cartliamus, chemistry of, 319
Calabarine, 122 tiflctoris, 102
Calamus, 48 Carum Ajowan, 159
histology of, 256 Carui, 112
Draco, 173 Caiyophyllin, 99
Calcium arabate, 147 Caryophyllus, 99
carbonate, 198 Cascara sagrada, 61
gummate, 147 histology of, 261
oxalate crystals, 195 Cascarilla, 70
Calendula, 100 Cascarillin, 70
oflGicinalis, 100 Cascarin, 61
Calendulin, 100 Cashew, 117
Calisaya bark, 58 Cassia acutifolia, 83
Callitris quadrivalis, 173 angustifolia, 83
Calumba, 29 Fistula, 109
Calumbin, 29 marilandica, 85
Cambiform tissues, 210 Castanea, 84
Cambium cells, 210 dentata, 84
Camphor, 159 Castor bean, 127
chemistry of, 331 Cataria, 94
Camphora, 159 Catechin, 143
Camphoi-ated chloral, 332 Catechu, 143
Camphors, 158 red, 143~7
chemistiy of, 331 Cathartic resins, 324
Canada balsam, 156 Catnip, 94
histology of, 375 Caulophyllum thalictroides, 46
turpentine, 156 Cayenne pepper, 108
Canadian hemp, 27 Ceanothus, 34
moonseed, 47 Celandine, 93
Canella alba, 71 Celery, 117
Cane-sugar, 144 Cell-contents, 188
Cannabinol, 92 Cell-wall, 188
Cannabis indica, 92 Centrosomes, 189
sativa, 92 Cephaeline, 23
Canthai-ides, 165 chemistry of, 352
chemistry of, 359 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, 22
Cantharidin, 165 Cera alba, 164
chemistry of, 360 flava, 164
CanthaiTS, 165 Ceratonia siliqua, 117
INDEX. 399 9
Cerin, 164 Cinchona Ledgeriana, 57

Cetaceum, 164 officinalis, 57
Cetraria islandica, 96 rubra, 57
Cetyl alcohol, 164 Cinchonidine, 60
palmitate, 164 Cinchonine, 60
Cevadilla seed, 49 Cinnamein, 153
Cevadine, 49 chemistry of, 369
Ceylon cardamom, 110 Cinnamodendron corticosum, 71
cinnamon, 68 Cinnamomum, 68
Chamselirium liiteum, 52 camphora, 159
Chamomile, 101 saigonicum, 69
Chaulmoogra, 129 zeylanicum, 68
Chavicin, 105 Cinnamon, chemistry of, 372
Chekan, 85 Citrullus, 129
Chelerythrine, 43, 96 Colocynthis, 108
Chelidonine, 96 Citrus Aurantii, 102
Chelidoxanthine, 96 Aurantium, 114
Chelidonium, 93 Bergamia, 113
majus, 93 Limonum, 113
Chelone, 94 vulgaris, 85, 102, 114
glabra, 94 Claviceps purpurea, 130
Chenopodium ambrosioides, 116 Cloves, 99
Chen-y-laurel, 85 Cnicus benedictus, 94
Chestnut, 84 Coca, 77
Chicory, 34 chemistry of, 355
Chimaphila umbellata, 81 Cocaine, 78
Chinese aconite, 38 chemistry of, 355
isinglass, 167 Cocculus indicus, 107
musk, 167 chemistiy of, 356
rhubarb, 21 Coccus cacti, 166
Chinoidine, 60 Cochineal, 166
Chirata, 92 chemistiy of, 320
Chii-atin, 92 Cochlearia Armoracia, 34
Chloiiodid of zinc solution, 377 Cocus nucifera, 173
Chlorophyll, 191 Codeine, 137, 138
chemistry of, 315 chemistry of, 349
Cholesterin, 370 Cola acuminata, 129
chemistry of, 374 Colchiceine, 39
Chondrodendron tomentosum, 30 Colchici radix, 39
Chondrus crispus, 96 semen, 128
Chrysanthemum, 102 Colchicine, 39
Parthenium, 95 Colchicum autumnale, 39, 128
Chrysarobin, 135 root, 39
Chi-ysophyllum glyciphloeum, 172 seed, 128
Chi-ysotoxin, 131 Colic root, 52
Cibotium, 135 Collenchyma, 215
Baromez, 135 Collinsonia canadensis, 52
Cichoria, 34 Colocynth, 108
intybus, 34 Colocynthis, 108
Cimicifuga racemosa, 45 Colocynthein, 109
Cinchona, 57 Colocynthin, 109
caUsaya, 57 Colophony, 152
chemistry of, 345 Coloring-matter, chemistry of, 214
histology of, 259 Coltsfoot, 85
4U0 INDEX.
Columbo, 39 Cucumis Melo, 129

Comfrey, 35 sativa, 129
Commiphora Myrrha, 148 Cucurbita Pepo, 123
Companion-cells, 230 Cudbear, 321
Compound infusion of senna, 84 Culver's root, 47
jalap powder, 37 Cumin, 117
Comptonia asplenifolia, 85 Cuminum cyminum, 117
Condnrango, 71 Cunila, 94
Conii folia, 85 Mariana, 94
Coniine, ill Cuprammonia as a reagent, 378
Conium leaves,85 Cuprea bark, 59
maculatum. 111 Curapao aloes, 141
Convallaria, 50 chemistry, 363
majalis, 50 Curara, 172
Convallamarin, 51 Curarine, 172
Convallarin, 51 Curcas, 129
Convolvulin, 37 Curcuma, chemistry of 318
chemistry of, 365 in rhubarb, 366
Convolvulus Scanimonia, 1 50 longa, 52
Copaiba, 155 Zedoaria, 52
chemistry, 370 Cuspai-ia febrifuga, 71
Langsdorffii, 155 Cusso, 99
Copal, "173 Cydonium, 129
Coptis trifolia, 94 Cypripedium, 50
Coriander, 110 parviflorum, 50
Coriandrum sativun), 110 pubescens, 50
Coriaria, 83 Cystoliths, 198
Cork cambium, 209 Cytisus Sooparius, 93
Cork-cells, 208 Cytoplasm, 188
Com-silk, 132
Corn-smut, 135 Damtana, S5
Cornus florida, 71 Dammara, 173
Comutine, 131 Dandelion, 25
Coto, 71 Daphne Gnidium, 66
Cotton-root bark, 66 Mezereum, 66
Cotula Anthemis, 95 Daphnin, 66
Couch-gi-ass, 49 Datura Stramonium, 78, 128
Coumarin, 129 Daturine, 79
Cowage, 135 Dancus Carota, 117
Cramp bark, 63 Defatted tincture of digitalis, 75
Cranesbill, 43 Delphinine, 125
Crocus, 134 Delphinoidine, 125
sativus, 134 Delphisine, 125
Croton bean, 127 Delphinium Staphisagria, 125
Eluteria, 70 Deodorized opium, 137
Tiglium, 127 Dextrose, chemistry of, 287
Cubeb, 105 Diastase, chemistry of, 300
chemistry, 272 Dicotyledonous stem, 244
histology, 263 Digitalein, 74
Cubeba, 105 Digitalin, 74
Cubebin, 105 chemistry of, 357
chemistiy of, 373 Digitaliresin, 75
Cucumber, 129 Digitalis, 74
Cucumis Citrullus, 129 chemistry of, 263
INDEX. 401
Digitalis, histology of, 357 Epigaea repens, 86

puipurea, 74 Epilobiura, 95
Digitin, 75 angustifolium, 95
Digitoilavon, 75 Epinephrin, 170
Digitonin, 74 Epiphegus, 94
chemistry of, 357 virginiana, 94
Digitophyllin, 74 Ergochrvsin, 131
Digitoxin, 74 Ergot, 130
chemistry of, 357 Ergota, 130
Dill,117 Ericolin, 76
Dioscorea villosa, 52 Erigeron, 94
Diosphenol, S3 canadense, 94
Dipterocarpus turbinatus, 173 ])biladelphicus, 94
Dipteryx, 129 Eriodictyon glutinosum, 81
odorata, 129 Erytliroetin, 22
oppositifolia, 129 Erythrolitmin, 321
Distilled extract of witch-hazel, 81 Erytbrophloeine, 71
Ditany, 94 Erythrophl(£um guineense, 71
Dog-wood, 71 Ei-ythroxylon, 77
Dorema Ammoniacum, 148 coca, 77
Dovei-'s powder, 140 Eseridine, 122
Draconis resina, 173 Eserine, 122
Dragon's blood, 173 Eucalyptol, 77
Drimys Winteri, 71 Eucalyptus, 77
Drosera rotundifolia, 94 histology of, 262
Dryopteris Filix-mas, 51 globulus, 77
marginalis, 51 Eucalypti gummi, 172
Duboisia, 85 Eugenia aromatica, 99
myoporoides, 85 Chekan, 85
Ducts, 224 Eugenin, 99
Dulcamara, 55 Eugenol,_ 99
Dulcaraarin, 55 Euonymin, 67
Euonymus atropurpureus, 67
East India ginger, 48 Eupatorin, 91
rhubarb, 21 Eupatorium, 90
Ecballiuiii Elaterium, 152 perfoliatum, 90
Egg-shell, 166 Euphorbia, 34
Elseis guineensis, 173 corollata, 34
Elastica, 143 Euphorbium, 172
Elaterin, 152 resinifera, 171
Elaterium, 152 Evening primrose, 94
Elder, 102 Excretion receptacles, 232
Elecampane, 31 Extract of glycyrrhiza, 143
Elemi, 173
Elettaria repens, 109 Fats, 161
Elm, 68 chemistry of, 334
Emetine, 23 histology of, 191
Emodin, 22, 142 Fehling's solution, 378
principles, 308, 367 test. 287
Emulsin, 121 Felbovis, 170
Endodermis, 217 tauri, 170
Eosin stain, 376 Fennel, 112
Epidermal cells, 202 Fermentation test, 300
system, 239 Ferments, chemistry of, 298
402 INDEX.
Fermentum, 135 Gentiana, 25

Fern type of stem, 243 lutea, 25
Ferric chloride, 378 Gentiopicrin, 25
Ferula foetida, 148 Gentisin, 25
sumbul, 28 Geranium maculatum, 43
Fibrin, 298 German chamomile, 100_
Fibrovascular system, 240 German fennel, 112
Ficus carica, 115 Geum rivale, 52
Fig 115 urbanum, 52
Fish berry, 107 Gigartina mamillosa, 96
Fixed oils, 161 Glllenia, 52
chemistry of, 234 stipulacea, 52
histology of, 191 trifoliata, 52
Flake manna, 145 Ginger, 47
Flax seed, 126 Glandular hairs, 205
histology of, 265 Glechoma, 94
Focusing, 178 Glucose, 172
Foeniculura capillaceum, 112 chemistry of, 287
Foenugreek, 129 Gluoosids, chemistry of, 291
Foenura Gi'secum, 129 Glycerin, 375
Foxglove, 74 -jelly, 375
Frangula, 61 Glycyramarin, 24
chemistry of, 368 Glycyrrhiza, 23
Frangulin, 62 chemistry of, 360
Frankincense, 172 glabra, 23
Frasera, 34 Glycyrrhizin, 24
carolinensis, 34 chemistry of, 360
Walteri, 34 Gnaphalium polycephalum, 94
Fi-axinus americana, 71 Goa-powder, 135
Omus, 145 Gold thread, 94
Frostwort, 94 Golden seal, 45
Fuchsin, staining with, 376 rod, 94
Fucus vesiculosus, 95 Gonolobus condurango, 71
Fundamental system of tissues, 242 Gossypii radicis cortex, 66
Fungus chirurgorum, 135 Gossypium, 132
Fusiform jalap, 37 herbaceum, 66, 132
purificatum, 132
Gadus Morrhuae, 162 Gouania, 55
Galanga, 52 Grahe's test for cinchona, 60
Galbanum, 172 Granatum, 62
Galium Aparine, 94 Grape sugar, chemistry of, 287
Galla, 131 Grenaoher's alum-carmin,^376
Gamboge, 149 hematoxylin solution, 376
Gambogia, 149 Grindelia, 91
Gareinia Hanburii, 149 robusta, 91
Gaullheria procumbens, 80 squari'osa, 91
Gelseminine, 30 Ground ivy, 94
Gelsemium, 30 Guaiac resin,55
sempervirens, 30 chemistry of, 362
Gelsimine, 30 Guaiaci lignum, 54
General histology of leaves, 245 Guaiacum, 152
of roots, 242 officinale, 54
of stems, 243 sanctum, 54
Gentian, 25 wood, 54
INDEX. 403
Guaiacum wood, chemistry of, 362 Hydrastine, chemistry of, 354

Guarana, 140 Hyditistinine, 45
Gum ambic, 146 Hydrastis canadensis, 45
Gum-resins, 147 chemistry of, 337
chemistry of, 328 Hydrous wool-fat, 162
Gums, 146 chemistry of, 337
chemistry of, 292 Hygrine, 78
Guijun balsam, 173 Hyoscine, 20
Gutta-percha, 172 Hyoscyamine, 20
Gynocai-dia odorata, 129 Hyoscyamus,--79'
niger, 79
HiEMATIN, 54 seed, 129
Haematoxylin, 54 Hypericum, 95
Hfematoxylon campechianum, 54 perforatum,. 95
Hagenia abyssinica, 99 Hyssopus officinalis, 94
Hager's test, 136
Hairs, 203 Iceland moss, 96
Hamamelis virginiana, 80 Ichthyocolla, 166
Hard bast, 221 Identification of unknown powders,
Hardback, 94 274
Hedeoma 89 Ignatia, 129
pulegioides, 89 bean, 119
Helenium autumnale, 94 Ilex opaca, 85
Helianthemum canadense, 94 paraguayensis, 85
Helleboris niger, 52 verticillata, 71
Hematin, 321 Illicium verum, 116
Hematoxylon, 321 Imperatoria, 34
Hemidesmus, 34 Ostruthium, 34
indious, 34 India senna, 83
Hemlock, 111 Indian cannabis, 92
pitch, 173 chemistry of, 362
Henbane, 79 hemp, 92
Hepatica, 85 sarsaparilla, 34
Heuchera, 34 India-rubber, 143
americana, 34 Indican, chemistry of, 322
Hevea, 143 Indigo, chemistry of, 322
Histologic technic, 179 -blue, 322»'
Histological reagents, 377 -brown, 322
Histology of leaves, 245 -red, 322
of roots, 242 Indigotin, chemistry of, 322
of stems, 243 Insect powder, 102
Holly, 85 Intercellular spaces, 233
Hollyhock, 102 substance, 201
Honey, 146 Inula, 31
Hops, 105 histology of, 25
Horehound, 90 Helenium, 31
Horeemint, 95 Inulin, chemistry of, 28S
Horseradish, 34 histology of, 195
Hoyei-'s fluid, 375 Invereion of glucosids, 291
Humulus, 105 lodin as a reagent, 378
Liipulus, 105 lodothyrin, 169
Hydrangea, 34 Ipecac, 22
arborescens, 34 chemistry of, 352
Hydrastine, 45 histology of, 247
404 INDEX.
Ipecacuanha, 22, 34 Laminaria Cloustoni, 135

Ipomcea Jalapa, 30 Lappa, 26
pandurata, 34 Lard, 163
Iris florentina, 52 Laserpitium, 34
Irish moss, 96 officinale, 34
Isinglass, 166 Laticiferous tissues, 230
Isonandra Gutta, 172 Laurel, 85
Italian anise, 113 Laurocerasns, 85
Laurus nobilis, 85
Jaboeandi, 76 Lavandula vera, 102
Jaboridine, 76 Lavender, 102
Jaborine, 76 Leaves, histology of, 215
Jalap, 36 Ledum latifoliura, 85
chemistry of, 325, 364 Lemon peel, 113
histolosy of, 257 Leonurus, 95
resin, 37 oardiaca, 95
Jalapa, 36 Leptandra, 47
Jalapin, 37 Leptandrin, 47
chemistry of, 365 Levistioum, 34
Jamaica dogwood, 71 officinale, 34
ginger, 48 Liber fibere, 221
Japanese aconite, 38 Libriform fibers, 223
isinglass, 167 Lichenin, 97
Jateorhiza palmata, 29 Life everlasting, 94
Jatropha Curcas, 129 Lime liniment, 126
Java cardamom, 11 Limonis cortex, 113
'
Jequirity, 129 Linamarin, 126
Jervine, 49 Linden, 102
Juglans cinerea, 69 Linseed, 126
Juniper, 95, 117 Linum usitatissimum, 126
Juniperus communis, 117 Lipochrome, 374
Oxycedrus, 158 Liquidambar, 173
Sabina, 97 orientalis, 154
virginiana, 95 Styraciflua, 173
Liquorice root, 23
Kalmia latifolia, 85 Liriodendron Tulipifem, 71
Kamala, 134 Litmus, 320
Keller's alkaloidal assay (modified), Lobelia, 88
304 inflata, 88
Kino, 143 Lobeline, 88
Kino-red, 143 Loganin, 119
Kinotannic acid, 143 Logwood, 54
Kordofan gum, 147 Longitudinal section, 180
Kosotoxin, 99 Lupulin, 133
Kousso, 99 Lupulinum, 133
Ki-ameria, 31 Lycopodium, 133
Ixina, 31 clavatum, 133
triandra, 31 histology of, 272
Lycopns, 94
Lac, 173 virginicus, 94
Lacca, 173 Lysegenic spaces, 234
Lactuca virosa, 141
Lactucariiim, 141 Mace, 134
Ladies slipper, 50 Macis, 134
INDEX. 405
Madder, 35 Menthol, 87, 160

Magnesium arabate, 147 Menyanthes trifoliata, 85
Magnolia, 71 Menyanthin, 85
acuminata, 71 Mercuric chloride as a reagent, 378
glauca, 71 Meristem, 239
tripetala, 71 Methyl salicylate, 80
Maidenhair fern, 95 Methysticum, 34
Malabar cardamom, 110 Metroxylon Sagu, 134
Male-fern, 51 Mezereum, 66
Maltatus philippinensis, 134 Micrometiy, 183
Malva sylvestris, 102 Microscope, 176
Manihot utilissima, 134 selection, 178
Manna, 145 Middle lamella, 201
sorts, 145 Milk-weed, 52
Mannite, 145 Mirabilis Jalapa, 37
Manzanita, 85 Mitchella, 95
Maracaibo copaiba, 155 repens, 95
Maranta, 134 Moisture determination, 284
Marigold, 100 Molasses, 172
Marquis' reagent, 349 Moore's test, 288
Marrubiin, 90 Monarda, 95
Marrubium, 90 punctata, 95, 159
vulgare, 90 Monesia, 172
Marsh Tea, 85 Monocotyledonous stem, 244
Marshmallow, 29 Morphine, 137
Mass of copaiba, 155 chemistry of, 349
Masterwort, 34 Morus rubra, 117
Mastic, 150 Moschus moschiferous, 167
Mastiche, 150 Motherwort, 95
Mate, 85 Mountain laurel, 85
Matico, 84 Mounting in Canada balsam, 183
Matricaria, 100 in glycerin-jelly, 182
Chamomilla, 100 media, 375
May-apple, 42 sections, 182
Mayefs test, 303 Mucilage, histology of, 198
Mayweed, 95 cells,233
Medullary-rays, 211 Mucuna, 135
Mel, 146 Pruriens, 135
Melaleuca Leucadendron, 160 Mulberry, 117
Melia Azedaracb, 71 Mullein, 102
Melilotus, 95 Musk, 167
altissimus, 95 root, 28
Melissa, 89 Mustard paper, 125
officinalis, 89 plaster, 125
Melo, 129 poultice, 125
Melon, 129 Mutton suet, 163
Menispermine, 107 Mylabris cichorii, 165
Menispermum canadense, 47 Myrcia acris, 85
histology of, 252 cerifera, 71
Menispine, 47 Myricin, 164
Mentha arvensis, 160 Myricyl palmitate, 164
canadensis, 160 Myristica, 126
piperita, 87 fragrans, 126, 134, 173
viridis, 88 Myrobalans, 117
406 INDEX.
Myrrh, 148 Oil of peppermint, solid, 87

Myrrha, 148 of rose, 161
sassafras, 69
Nabceine, 137 of theobroma, 123
Narcotine, 137 of turpentine, 156
Nectandra rodiaei, 71 palm, 173
Nepeta Ca.taria, 94 Olea europsea, 161
Glechoma, 94 Oleander, 85
Neriura Oleander, 85 Oleoresin of aspidium, 51
Neucleolus, 189 of capsicum, 108
Neutral priniciples, 307 of cubeb, 105
Nicotiana Tabacum, 79 of ginger, 48
Nicotine, 79 of pepper, 105
Northern prickly ash, 64 of turpentine, 156
Nucin, 70 Oleoresins, 154
Nucleoplasm, 188 Olibanum, 172
Nucleus sheath, 217 Opium, 136
Nutgal], 131 chemistry of, 348
histology of, 265 Opopanax, 172
Nutmeg, 126 chironium, 172
Nux vomica, 118 Orange flowei-s, 102
chemistry of, 350 leaves, 85
histology of, 264 Organic acids, chemistry of, 310
Nymphffia odorata, 52 Origanum, 95
vnlgare, 95
OInotheea, 94 Ori-is, 52
biennis, 94 Ovum, 166
Oil, Carron, 126 Oxgall, 170
castor, 127
cocoanut,. 173 Pale rose, 1 00
cod-liver, 373 Palmitin, 173
chemistry of, 373 Pancreatin, 168
cotton-seed, 67 chemistry of, 299
croton, 127 Pancreatinum, 168
lard, 163 Pansy, 95
linseed, 126 Papaver Khoeas, 102
neat's-foot, 173 somniferum, 129, 136
of almond, expressed, 121 Papaverine, 137
of bergamot, 113 Para copaiba, 155
of betula, 80 rubber, 143
of bitter almond, 121 Paramenispermine, 107
artificial, 121 Paregoric, 140
of cade, 158 Pareira, 30
of cajuput, 160 brava, 30
of copaiba, 155 histology of, 252
of coriander, 111 Parenchyma, 200
of gaultheria, 80 Parenchymatous tissues, 200
of lemon, 113 Parillin, 33
of mustard, volatile, 125 Parsley, 35, 117
of nutmeg, expressed, 173 Parthenium, 95
of orange flowers, 114 Pathologic tannins, 308
peel, 114 Paullinia Cupana, 140
of peppermint, Chinese, 160 Peach, 85
Japanese, 160 Pelletierine, 62
INDEX. 407
Pellitory, 26 Pistacia Lentiscus, 150

Penghawar Djambi, 135 Pith, 211
Pennyroyal, 89 Pix burgundica, 157
Pepo, 123 canadensis, 173
Pepper, 105 liquida, 157
Peppermint, 87 Plantago, 95
Pepsin, 168 lanceolata, 95
chemistry of, 298 major, 95
Pepsinum, 168 Plantain, 95
Permanent mounting, 182 Plasmasomes, 189
Pernambuco jaborandi, 76 Pleurisy root, 32
Persica, 85 Podophyllotoxin, 42
Petroselinum, 35, 117 Podophyllum, 42
sativum, 35 peltatum, 42
Peumus Boldus, 85 Poison ivy, 82
Phaioretin, 22 Poke beriT, 106
Phellogen, 209 root, 28"
Phlobaphenes, 325 Polygala, 94
Phloroglucin as a leagent, 378 polygama, 94
Phlox Carolina, 44 Senega, 24
Physeter macrocephalus, 164 Polygonatum biflorum, 52
Physiologic tannins, 308 Polygonum Bistorta, 52
Physostigma, chemistry of, 356 Polyporus fomentarius, 135
venenosum, 122 officinalis, 135
Physostigraine, 122 Pomegranate, 62
Phytolacca decandra, 28, 106 Poppy, 102, 129
fruit, 101 Potassium arabate, 147
root, 28 hydrate, 378
Phytolaccse bacca, 106 myronate, 125
fructus, 106 Potentilla, 95
radix, 28 canadensis, 95
Picraconitine, 38 Tormentilla, 52
Picrtena excelsa, 53 Powdered cinchona, histology of, 272
Picropodophyllin, 42 cinnamon, histology of, 273
Picrotoxin, 107 digitalis, histology of, 272
chemistry of, 356 opium, 137
Pilocarpidine, 76 senega, histology of, 273
Pilocarpine, 76 Powders, histology of, 268
Pilocarpus, chemistry of, 355 Prickly ash, 64
Jaborandi, 76 Primary meristem, 239
Selloanus, 76 Prinos, 71
Pimenta officinalis. 107 Prosenchymatous tissues, 221
Pimpinella, 35 Proteids, chemistry of, 296
Anisum, 112 Protopine, 43
saxifraga, 35 Proto-veratrine, 140
Pink root, 44 Prune, 107
Pinus palustris, 156 Prunum, 107
Pipe gamboge, 149 Prunus Amygdalus, 121
Piper angustifolium, 1 84 var. amara, 121
cubeba, 105 var. dulcis, 122
nigrum, 105 domestica, 107
Piperine, 105 Laurocerasus, 85
Pipsissewa, 81 Pereica, 85
Piscidia erythrina, 71 serotina, 63
408 INDEX.
Prunus vii'giniana, 63 Ehein, 22

Pseudaconine, 38 Eheum, 21
Pseudaconitine, 38 officinale, 21
Pseudojervine, 49 rhaponticum, 35
Psychotrine, 23 Rhizomes, 40
Pterocarpus Mai-supium, 143 Rhoeas, 102
santalinus, 54 Rhubarb, 21
Pulsatilla, 93 chemistry of, 365
Pumpkin seed, 123 histology of, 252
Punica Gianatum, 62 Rhus glabra 106
Purging cassia, 109 radicans, 82
Pui-ifled cotton, 132 Toxicodendron, 82
Pyretliri flores, 102 Eicin, 127
Pyretliium, 26 Ricinus communis, 127
germanicum, 34 Rio Janeiro jaborandi, 76
Pyrus cydonium, 129 Roman fennel, 112
Roots, 17
Quassia, 53 histology of, 242
histology of, 258 Rosa canina, 117
Quassin, 53 centifolia, 100
Quebracho, 70 damascena, 161
Queen's root, 27 gallica, 100
Quercitin, 143 Rosemary, 85
Quercus alba, 65 ^ Rosin, 152
coccinea, vai'. tinctoria, 71 Rosmarinus officinalis, 85
tinctoria, 71 Rottlera, 134
Quillaja, 67 Rubia, 35
Saponaria, 67 tinctorum, 35
Quince, 129 Rubijervine, 49
Quinine, 59 Eubus, 66
Quinidine, 60 trivialis, 66
villosus, 66
Ranttnculus, 94 Eubus idseus, 107
bulbosus, 94 Rue, 86
Raphides, 196 Rumex, 33
Easpberry, 107 crispus, 33
Eed cinchona, 57 Russian isinglass, 167
gum, 172 rhubarb, 21
rose, 100 Rata graveolens, 86
Saunders, 54
Eesin, 152 Sabadilla, 95
of capaiba, 155 Sabbatia angnlaris, 95
of podophyllum, 42 Sabina, 97
Eesina, 152, 156 Saccharum, 144
Eesin-cells, 233 lactis, 145
Eesins, chemistry of, 323 officinarum, 144
histology of, 199 uveum, 172
Rhamnoxanthin, 61 SaiBower, 102
Ehamnus cathartica, 117 Saffron, 134
Frangula, 61 chemistry of, 318
Purshiana, 61 Sagapenum, l72
chemistry of, 368 Sage, 80
Ehaponticum, 35 Saigon cinnamon, 69
Rhatany, 31 Salicin, 71
INDEX. 409
Salix alba, 71 Secretion receptacles, 232

Salvia officinalis, 80 Senega, 24
Sambucus canadensis, 102 Senegal gum, 147
Sandalwood, 55 Senegin, 24
Sandaraca, 173 Senna, 83
Sanguinaria, 43 chemistry of, 367
canadensis, 43 Serenoa serrulata, 117
Sanguinarine, 43, 96 Serpentaria, 44
Santalin, 54 Serpyllum, 95
Santalum rubrum, 54 Sesamum indicum, 85, 129
Santonica, 98 orientale, 129
chemistry of, 359 Sevum, 163
Santonin, 98 Siam benzoin, 371
chemistry of, 359 cardamom, 110
Saponaria, 35 Sieve-cells, 228
officinalis, 35 Simaruba, 71
Saponins, chemistry of, 295 medicinalis, 71
Sarsaparilla, 33 officinalis, 71
histology of, 247 Sinalbin, 124
Sassafras, 69 Sinapis alba, 124
medulla, 132 nigi-a,124
pith, 132 sulphocyanid, 125
varufolium, 69, 132 Sinigrin, 125
Sassafrid, 69 Sinistrin, 40
Sassy bark, 71 Skunk-cabbage, 52
Savanilla rhatany, 31 Slippery elm, 68
Savine, 97 Smilacin, 33
Saw palmetto, 117 Smilax, China, 52
Scammonin, 150 medica, 33
Scammonium, 150 officinalis, 33
Scammony, 150 papyracea, 33
Smyrna, 150 Soap bark, 67
Schizogenic spaces, 234 Soapwort, 35
Sohulze's maceiation fluid, 378 Socaloin, 142
Scilla, 40 Socotrine aloes, 142
Scillain, 40 chemistry of, 363
Scillin, 40 Solanum Dulcamara, 55
Scillipicrin,40 Solidago odora, 94
Scillitoxin, 40 Solution of chloral hydmte, 378
Sclereids, 216 sodium hypochlorite, 378
Sclerenchyma, 216 Sorghum, 144
fibers, 221 Southern senega, 24
Scoparin, 93 prickly-ash, 65
Scoparius, 93 Spanish flies, 165
Scopola, 35 Sparteine, 93
carniolica, 35 sulphate, 93
Scrophularia nodosa, 94 Spearmint, 88
Scullcap, 90 Spennaceti, 164
Scutellaria,90 Sphacelotoxin, 131
90
lalerifloiu, Spigelia marilandica, 44
Secale cornutum, 130 Spiraea tomentosa, 94
Secaline, 131 Squawvine, 95
Seealintoxin, 131 Squill, 40
Section-cutting, 180 St. John's wort, 95
410 INDEX.
Staining, 185 Sweet orange peel, 114

fluids, 376 Swertia Chirata, 92
Standardization of ocular Symphitum ofiicinale, 35
meter, 184 Symplocarpus foetidus, 52
Staphisagria, 125 Syrupus fuscus, 172
Staphisagrin, 125
Star anise, 1 1 TABAcrM, 79
Starch, 133 Tamarind, 115
chemistry of, 293 Tamarindus indica, 115
giains, 192 Tampico jalap, 37
histology of, 191 Tanacetin, 91
Statice, 35 Tanacetum vulgare, 91
limonium, 35 Tangential section, 180
Stavesacre, 125 Tatinin, histology of, 198
Steapsin, 169 Tannins, chemistry of, 308
Stearoptens, 331 Tansy, 91
Stereids, 221 Tapioca, 134
Stillingia, 27 Tar, 157
sylvatica, 27 Taiuxacin, 25
Stomata, 207 Taraxacum, 25
Stone cells, 216 histology of, 250
Stoneroot, 52 - officinale, 25
Storax, 154 Tea, 86
Stramonii folia, 78 Temporary mgunting, 182
semen, 128 Tephrosia, 83
Stramonium leaves, 78 Terebinthina, 156
.seed, 128 canadensis, 156
Striated ipecac, 23 Tei'minalia, 117
Strophanthin, 120 Thea chinensis, 86
chemistry of, 358 Thebaine, 137
hispidus, 120 Theobroma cacao, 123
komb^, 120 Theobromine, 123
Strychnin, 118 Thoroughwort, 90
chemistry of, 350 Thuja occidentalis, 95
Strychnos Ignatia, 129 Thyme, 86
nux vomica, 118 Thymol, 159
Styrax, 154 Thymus Serpyllum, 95
benzoin, 151 vulgaris, 86, 159
Suet, 163 Thyroidura siccum, 169
Sugar, 144 Thyroiodin, 169
histology of, 198 Tilia americana, 102
of milk, 145 heterophylla, 102
Sugar-cane, 144 Tinnevelly senna, 83
Sugara, 144 Tobacco, 79
Sumatra benzoin, 371 Toluifei-a Balsamum, 153
Surabul, 28 Pereiiue, 153
Sundew, 94 Tonka, 129
Supiurenal, 170 Tonquin musk, 167
Suprarenin, 170 Tormentilla, 52
Surgeon's agaric, 135 ToiTeya califomica, 127
Sweet almond, 122 Toi-ula Cerevisise, 135
birch, 80 Toxicodendral, 82
clover, 95 Toxiresin, 75
flag, 48 Tracheids, 227
INDEX. 411
Titigacanth, 147 Volatileoils, chemistry of, 323

Tragacantha, 147 Vulcanized rubber, 144
Trailing arbutus, 86
Transverse section, 180 Wahoo, 67
Trichomes, 203 Wake robin, 52
Trigonella Foenum-graecum, 129 Water-lily, 52
Trillium erectum, 52 Watermelon seed, 129
Triticum, 49 Water-pores, 208
Troramei-'s test, 288 Wax myrtle, 71
Trosteum perfoliatum, 52 Waxes, 161
Trypsin, 169 chemistry of, 333
Tsuga canadensis, 173 West Indian tamarind, 115
Tulip tree bark, 71 White agaric, 135
Turkish rhubarb, 21 ash, 71
Turmeric, 52 gentian, 34
Turnera diffusa, 85 mustard, 124
Turpentine, 156 oak, 65
Tussilago Farfara, 85 wax, 164
Wild carrot, 117
Ulmits fulva, 68 cherry, 63
Undulated ipecac, 23 ginger, 52
Urginea maritima, 40 indigo, 34
Ui'sone, 76 jalap, 184
Ustilago, 135 nutmeg, 127
Maydis, 135 rose, 117
Uva ursi, 76 Willow, 71

chemistry of, 358 herb, 95
Wintera, 71
.Vaccine virus, 171 Wintergreen, 80
Vacuoles, 188 Witch-hazel, 80
Valerian, 42 Wood-fibei-s, 223
Valeriana officinalis, 42 parenchyma, 219
Vanilla planifolia, 110 Wool-fat, chemistry of, 337
Vanillin, 110 Wormwood, 95
Veratrine, 49
chemistry of, 356
Xanthophyil, 315
Xanthoproteic test, 297
Veratroidine, 49
Xanthorrhiza Apiifolia, 52
Veratrum album, 52
Xanthoxylum americanum, 64
viride, 49
Clava-Herculis, 64
Verbascum, 102
Veronica virginica, 47 Yakeow, 95
Vessels, 224 Yeast, 135
Vetiver, 35 Yellow dock, 33
Viburnin, 64 jasmine, 30
Viburnum, 63 parilla,47
opulus, 63 root,52
prunifolium, 64 wax, 164
Villosin, 66
Viola tricolor, 95 Zanzibar aloes, 363
Virginia snakeroot, 44 Zea, 132
Vitellin, 166 Mays, 132
Volatile alkaloids, 306 Zedoaria, 52
oil cells, 233 Zedoary, 52
oils, 160 Zingiber officinale, 47
SAUNDERS' BOOKS
Practice, Pharmacy,
Materia Medica, Thera-
peutics, Pharmacology,
and the Allied Sciences
W. B. SAUNDERS Cf COMPANY
925 Walnut Street Philadelphia
NEW YORK LONDON
TuUer Building, 5th Ave. and 23d St. 9. Henrietta St., Covent Garden
SAUNDERS' SUCCESSFUL PUBLISHING

AS is well-known, the lists of most publishers contain a
number of books that have never paid, and for which
the publisher will never get back the money invested.
Messrs. W. B. Saunders & Company would call attention
to the fact that they have no such works on their list.
In all the years of their business experience they have

never published a book at a loss. This they confidently
consider a most remarkable record, and submit the fact to
the attention of the profession as an example of what might
justly be called "Successful Publishing."
A Complete Catalogue of our Publications will be Sent upon Request

SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
Anders'
Practice of Medicine
Sixth Revised Edition —Just Issued
A Text-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By James M.

Anders, M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of the Practice of
Medicine and of Clinical Medicine, Medico-Chirurgical College,
Philadelphia. Handsome octavo, 1295 pages, fully illustrated.
Cloth, ^5.50 net ; Sheep or Half Morocco, t^.'ô net.
SIX LARGE EDITIONS IN SIX YEARS
The success of this work as a text-book and as a practical guide for

physicians has been truly phenomenal, six large editions having been called
for in as many years. The rapid exhaustion of each edition has made it
possible to keep the book absolutely abreast of the times, so that Anders'
Practice has become justly celebrated as the most up-to-date work on practice.
In this edition Malaria, Yellow Fever, Bacillary Dysentery, Cholecystitis, and
the use of the X-rays in Diagnosis and Treatment have been fully discussed,
incorporating the results of the most recent investigations. Among the new
subjects introduced are Paratyphoid Fever, the Fourth Disease, Trypanoso-
miasis, Orthostatic Albuminuria, Transcortical Aphasia, Adiposis Dolorosa,
and Amaurotic Family Idiocy, particular attention being paid to clinical
character, diagnosis, and treatment.
PERSONAL OPINIONS
James C. Wilson, M. D.,

Professor of the Practice of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine, Jefferson Medical
College, Philadelphia'
" It is an excellent book —concise, comprehensive, thorough, and up-to-date. It is a

credit to you : but, more than that, it is —
a credit to the profession of Philadelphia to us."
A. C. Cowperthwait, M. D.,
President of the Illinois Homeopathic Medical Association.
" I consider Dr. Anders' book not only the best late work on Medical Practice, but by
tar the best that has ever been published. It is concise, systematic, thorough, and fully
up-to-date in everything. 1 consider it a great credit to both the author and the pub-
lishers."
THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
AMERICAN EDITION
NOTHNAGEL'S PRACTICE
UNDER THE EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF
ALFRED STENGEL. M.D.

Professor of Clinical Medicine in the University of Pennsylvania; Visiting
Physician to the Pennsylvania Hospital.
It is acknowledged that the Germans lead the world in Internal

universally
Medicine; and of the German works on this subject, Nothnagel's " Speci-
all
elle Pathologie und Therapie" is conceded by scholars to be without question
the best Practice of Medicine in existence. So
necessary is this book in the study of Internal Medi-
BEST IN cine that it comes largely to this country in the orig-
EXISTENCE inal German. In view of these facts, Messrs. W. B.
Saunders & Company have arranged with the pub-
lishers of the German edition to issue at once an
authorized American edition of this great Practice of Medicine.
For the present a set of ii volumes, selected with especial thought of the
needs of the practising physician, will be published. These volumes will con-
tain the real essence of the entire work, and the
purchaser will therefore obtain, at less than half the
FOR THE cost, the cream of the original. Later the special and
PRACTITIONER more strictly scientific volumes will be offered from

time to time.
The work will be translated by men possessing
thorough knowledge of both English and German, and each volume will be
edited by a prominent specialist. It will thus be brought thoroughly up to date,
and the American edition will be more than a mere translation for, in addition
;
to the matter contained in the original, it will repre-

sent the very latest views of the leading American and
PROMINENT English specialists in the various departments of In-
ternal Medicine. Moreover, as each volume will be
SPECIALISTS revised to the date of its publication by the eminent
editor, the objection that has heretofore existed to
treatises published in a number of volumes will be obviated, since the subscriber
will receive the completed work while the earlier volumes are still fresh. The
American publication of the entire work is under the editorial supervision of Dr.
Alfred Stengel, who has selected the subjects for the American Edition, and
has chosen the editors of the different volumes.
The usual method of publishers when issuing a
VOLUMES SOLD publication of this kind has been to require physi-
SEPARATELY cians to take the entire work. This seems to us in
many cases to be undesirable. Therefore, in pur-
chasing this Practice physicians will be given the
opportunity of subscribing for it in entirety but any single volume or any number
;
of volumes, each complete in itself, may be obtained by those who do not desire
the complete series. This latter method offers to the purchaser many advantages
which will be appreciated by those who do not care to subscribe for the entire
work at one time.
SEE NEXT TWO PAGES FOR LIST
SA UNDERS' . B OKS ON
AMERICAN EDITION
Nothnagel's Practice
VOLUMES NOW READY
Typhoid and Typhus Fevers

By Dr. H. Curschmann, of Leipsic. The entire volume edited, with
additions, by Wm. Osler, M. D., F. R. C. P., Professor of the Principles
and Practice of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Bait. Octavo, 646
pages, illustrated. Cloth, ^5.00 net ; Half Morocco, ^6.00 net.
'* The monograph on typhoid fever is the best exponent of the knowledge that we
have in regard to this disease that is to be had in any language." -Journal of the
American Medical Association.
Smallpox (including Vaccination), Varicella, Cholera

Asiatica, Cholera Nostras, Erysipelas, Erysipe-
loid, Pertussis, and Hay Fever
By Dr. is. Immermann, of Basle Dr. Th. von JCrgensen, of ;
Tubingen; Dr. C. Liebermf.ister, of Tiibingen Dr. H. Lenhartz, ;
of Hamburg and Dr. G. Sticker, of Giessen. The entire volume

;
edited, with additions, by Sir J. W. Moore, M. D., F. R. C. P. I.,

Professor of Practice, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland. Octavo,
682 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $^.06 net Half Morocco, ^6.00 net. ;
*'
Dr. Immermann's vindication of vaccination in the prophylaxis of smallpox . . .
is probably the most complete and unassailable indictment of the propaganda of anti~
vaccination fanatics which has ever been published." The London Lancet,
Diphtheria, Measles, Scarlet Fever, and Rotheln

By William P. Northrup, M. D., of New York, and Dr. Th'. von
JuRGENSEN, of Tiibingen. The entire volume edited, with additions,
by William P. Northrup, M. D., Professor of Pediatrics, University
and Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. Octavo, 672
pages, illustrated, including 24 full-page plates, 3 in colors. Cloth,
J5.00 net Half Morocco, ;^6.oo net.
;
" The authors are to be congratulated. The articles are exhaustive treatises,
. . .
with numerous additions by the American editor."—Journal oj" the Atnerican Medi-
cal Association.
Diseases of Bronchi and Pleura; Inflammations of

the Lungs
By Dr. F. a. Hoffmann, of Leipsic; Dr. O. Rosenbach, of Ber-
lin and Dr. F. Aufrhcht, of Magdeburg. The entire volume edited,
;
with additions, by John H. Musser, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medi-

cine, University of Pennsylvania. Octavo, 1029 pages, illustrated, in-
cluding 7 full-page colored lithographic plates. Cloth, Js.oo net
Half Morocco, ^6.00 net.
" We regard as a most excellent and valuable publication, and one well wortby
it
of the distinguished physicians whose names are connected with it." British Medical
Journal.
THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
AMERICAN EDITION
Nothnagel's Practice
VOLUMES NOW READY AND IN PRESS
Diseases of the Pancreas, Suprarenals, and Liver

By Dr. L. Oser, of Vienna Dr. E. Neusser, of Vienna and Drs.
; ;
H. Quincke and G. Hoppe-Seylkr, of Kiel. The entire volume edited,

with additions, by Reginald H. Fitz, A. M., M. D., Hersfey Professor of
the Theory and Practice of Physic, Harvard University and Frederick
;
A. Packard, M. D., Late Physician to the Pennsylvania and to the

Children's Hospitals. Octavo, 918 pages, illustrated. Cloth, Jj!5'°0 "s'
Half Morocco, JS6.00 net.
Diseases of the Stomach

By Dr. F. Edited, with additions, by Charles
Riegel, of Giessen.
G. Stockton, M. D., Professor of Medicine, University of Buffalo.
Handsome octavo of 835 pages, with 29 text-cuts and 6 full-page plates.
Cloth, ;J5.oo net; Half Morocco, g6.oo net.
Diseases of the Intestines and Peritoneum

By Dr. Hermann Nothnagel, of Vienna. The entire volume
edited, with additions, by Humphrey D. Rollesi on, M. D., F. R. C. P.,
Physician to St. George's Hospital, London. Handsome octavo of 1050
pages, finely illusti'ated. Just Ready.
Tuberculosis and Acute General Miliary Tuberculosis
By Dr. G. Cornet, of Berlin. Edited, with additions, by Walter
B. James, M. D., Professor of Practice, Columbia University, New York.
Handsome octavo of 806 pages. Just Issued.
Anemia, Leukemia, Pseudoleukemia, Hemoglobine-
mia, and Chlorosis
By Dr. P. Ehrlich, of Frankfort-on-the-Main ; Dr. A. Lazarus,
of Charlottenburg Dr. Fklix Pinkus, of Berlin; and Dr. K. von
;
Noorden, of Frankfort-on-tlie-Main. Entire volume edited, with addi-

tions, by Alfred Stengel, M. D., Professor of Chnical Medicine,
University of Penn. Octavo, 750 pages 5 lithographs in colors.
;
Kidneys, Spleen, and Hemorrhagic Diatheses

By Dr. H. .Senator, of Berlin, and Dr. M. Litten, of Berlin. The
entire volume edited, with additions, by Jamf.s B. Herrick, M.D.,
Professor of the Practice of Medicine, Rush Medical Collie, in affiliation
with the Universty of Chicago. Octavo of 800 pages, finely illustrated.
Influenza, Dengue, Malarial Diseases

By Dk. O. Leichtenstern, of Cologne, and Dr. J. Mannaberg,
of Vienna. The entire volume edited, with additions, by Ronald
Ross, F.R .C. S Eng., D. P.
. H.,.F. R. S., Major, Indian Medical Service,
retired. Handsome octavo of 700 pages, with 7 full-page lithographic
plates in colors.
EACH VOLUHE COMPLETE IN ITSELF AND SOLD SEPARATELY

SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
Pusey and Caldwell on

X-Rays in
Therapeutics and Diag'nosis
The Practical Application of the Rontgen Rays in

Therapeutics and Diagnosis. By William Allen Pusey,
A. M., M. D., Professor of Dermatology in the University of
Illinois; and Eugene W. Caldwell, B. S., Director of the
Edward N. Gibbs X-Ray Memorial Laboratory of the Univer-
sity and Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. Hand-
some octavo volume of 625 pages, with 200 illustrations, nearly
all clinical. Cloth, ^5.00 net ; Sheep or H. Morocco, |;6.oo net.
JUST ISSUED-NEW (2d) EDITION. ENLARGED

TWO LARGE EDITIONS IN ONE YEAR
Two large editions of this work within a year testify to its practical value
to both the specialist and general practitioner. Throughout the work it has
been the aim of the authors to elucidate the practical aspects of the subject,
and to this end the text has been beautifully illustrated with clinical pict-
ures. Details are also given regarding the use and management of the appa-
ratus necessary for X-ray work, illustrating the descriptions with instructive
photographs and drawings.
British Journal of Dermatology

" The most complete and up-to-date contribution on tlie subject of the therapeutic
Rontgen rays which has been published in English."
action of the
Boston Medical and Surreal Journal

" It is indispensable to those who use the X-rays as a therapeutic agent ; and its illus-
trations are so numerous . . . that it becomes valuable to every one."
THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
Boston's
Clinical Diagnosis
Clinical Diagnosis. By L. Napoleon Boston, M. D.,

Demonstrator in Charge of Clinical Laboratory, Medico-Chi-
rurgical College, Philadelphia. Octavo of 549 pages, with 320
illustrations, many in colors. Cloth, $\.<:>o net.
JUST READY
The clinical examination of sputum, feces, blood, etc., has assumed such
an important place in practice that a thorough knowledge of the significance
of chemic and microscopic laboratory findings becomes absolutely necessaiy
to successful therapeusis. Dr. Boston here ]5resents a practical guide to cor-
rect diagnosis, giving only such methods, however, that can be carried out by
the busy practitioner in his office as well as by the student in the laboratory.
Rolleston on the Liver
Diseases of the Liver. By Humphrey D. Rolleston,
M. D., F. R. C. P., Physician to St. George's Hospital, London,

England. Octavo of 850 pages, with beautiful illustrations, in-
cluding a number in colors.
JUST READY
This is the most voluminous work on this subject in English, and wriiten
by an author who has devoted many years to this specialty, is authoritative
and complete. The illustrations are unusually excellent, both those showing
gross pathologic conditions and also the micro-photographs. There are also
a large number of colored insert plates of great merit and artistic beauty.
SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
Saunders'
Pocket Medical Formulary
Sixth Edition, Revised
Saunders' Pocket Medical Formulary. By William M.

Powell, M. D., author of " Essentials of Diseases of Chil-
dren Member of Philadelphia Pathological Society. Con-
'
'
;
taining 1844 formulas from the best-known authorities. With

an Appendix containing Posological Table, Formulas and Doses
for Hypodermic Medication, Poisons and their Antidotes, Diam-
eters of the Female Pelvis and Fetal Head, Obstetrical Table,
Diet-lists, Materials and Drugs used in Antiseptic Surgery,
Treatment of Asphyxia from Drowning, Surgical Remembrancer,
Tables of Incompatibles, Eruptive Fevers, etc., etc. In flexible
morocco, with side index, wallet, and flap. ;jS2.oo net.
CONTAINING 200 NEW FORMULAS

In compiling this handy volume the author has introduced as many of the
more important recently disebvered drugs as possible. Besides the many
hundreds of famous formulas collected from the works of the most eminent
physicians and surgeons of the world, it contains many valuable, and hith-
erto unp\iblished, prescriptions from the private practice of distinguished
practitioners of to-day. In this new edition the work has been thoroughly
and carefully revised and corrected, and some two hundred new and valuable
formulas added. The Dose-table has been brought up to date, and the
entire work made to comply in every way with the latest knowledge on the
subjects it contains.
OPINIONS OF THE MEDICAL PRESS
Medical Record, New York

" This little book, that can be conveniently carried in the pocket, contains an immense
amount of material. It is very useful, and, as the name of the author of each prescription
is given, is unusually reliable."
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal

**The book is attractively bound in flexible leather, and the fact that it has reached
its sixth edition bears ample testimony to its popularity.'
THE BEST iTineritan standard
Illustrated Dictionary
Third Revised Edition —Just Issued
The American Illustrated Medical Dictionary. A new

and complete dictionary of the terms used in Medicine, Surgery,
Dentistry, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and kindred branches; with
over loo new and elaborate tables and many handsome illustra-
tions. By W. A. Newman Borland, M. D., Editor of "The
American Pocket Medical Dictionary." Large octavo, nearly
800 pages, bound in full flexible leather. Price, ^4.50 net; with
thumb index, ^5.00 net.
Gives a Maximum Amount of Matter in a Minimum Space, and at the

Lowest Possible Cost
THREE EDITIONS IN THREE YEARS— ISOO NEW TERMS

The immediate success of this work is due to the special features that
distinguish it from other boolfs of its liind. It gives a maximum of matter
in a minimum space and at the lowest possible cost. Though it is practi-
cally unabridged, yet by the use of thin bible paper and flexible morocco
binding it is only i^
inches thick. In this new edition the book has
been thoroughly revised, and upward of fifteen hundred new terms have
been added, thus bringing the book absolutely up to date. The book con-
tains hundreds of terms not to be found in any other dictionary, over 100
original tables, and many handsome illustrations.
PERSONAL OPINIONS
Howard A. Kelly, M. D..
Professor of Gynecology^ Johns Hopkins University Baliintore.
,
" Dr. Dorland's dictionary is admirable. It is so well gotten up and of such conve-
nient size. No errors have been found in my use of it."
Roswell Park, M. D.,

Professor of Principles and Practice of Surgery and of Clinical Surgery, University
of Buffalo.
" Imust acknowledge my astonishment at seeing how much he has condensed within
relatively small space. I find nothing to criticize, very much to commend, and was inter-
ested in finding some of the new words which are not in other recent dictionaries."
SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
Stevens* Modern Materia

Medica and Therapeutics
A Text-Book of Modern Materia Medica and Tiiera-
peutics. By A. A. Stevens, A. M., M. D., Lecturer on Phy-
sical Diagnosis in the University of Pennsylvania. Handsome
octavo of 663 pages. Cloth, J3.50 net.
RECENTLY ISSUED—THIRD EDITION, REWRITTEN AND

GREATLY ENLARGED
Since the appearance of the last edition of this book such rapid advances
have been made in Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and the allied sciences
that the author felt it imperative to rewrite the work entirely. All the newer
remedies that have won approval by recqgn zed authorities have been incor-
porated, and their therapeutic properties fully discussed, thus bringing the
book absolutely down to date. The work includes tlip following sections :
Physiologic Action of Drugs ; Drugs Remedial Measures other than

;
Drugs ; Applied Therapeutics ; Incompatibility in Prescriptions ; Table of

Doses ; Index of Drugs ; and Index of Diseases ; the treatment being eluci-
dated by more than two hundred formulae.
OPINIONS OF THE MEDICAL PRESS
New York Medical Journal

" The work which Dr. Stevens has written is far superior to most of its class ; in fact,
it is very good. .. The book is reliable and accurate."
.
University Medical Magtkzine

*' The author has faithfully presented modern therapeutics in a comprehensive work
. and it will
. . be found a reliable guide and sufficiently comprehensive for the physician
in practice."
Bristol Medico-Chimr^cal Journal, Bristol

" This addition to the numerous works on Therapeutics is distinctly a good one. , . .
It is to be recommended as being systematic, clear, concise, very fairly up to date, and

carefully indexed."
Hatcher and Sollmann's

Materia Medica
A Text-Book Materia Medica Including Laboratory
of :
Exercises in the Histologic and Chemic Examinations of Drugs.

For Pharmacy Students. By Robert H. Hatcher, Ph.G., M. D.,
Instructor in Pharmacology, Cornell University, N. Y. and ;
ToRALD SoLLMANN, M. D. Assistant Professor of Pharmacology

,
and Materia Medica, Western Reserve University, Cleveland,

Ohio. i2mo of 411 pages, illustrated. Flex, leather, ^2.00 net.
JUST ISSUED
This work teaches the subject by actual experimental demonstrations.
Part I. comprises a guide to the study of crude drugs, official and unofficial
Parts II. and III. take up the histologic and chemic examinations of drugs.
Eichhorst's Practice
A Text-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By Dr. Her-
mann EiCHHORST, of Zurich. Translated and edited by A. A.
EsHNER, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia
Polyclinic. Two octavos of 600 pages each, with 150 illustra-
tions. Per set: Cloth, J6.00 net; Half Morocco, $7.50 net.
Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital

" Its completeness, yet brevity, the clinical methods, the excellent paragraphs on treat-
ment and watering-places will make it very desirable."
Bridge on Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis. By Norman Bridge, A.M., M.D., Emeritus
Professor of Medicine in Rush Medical College, Chicago. Hand-
some izmo of 302 pages, illustrated. Cloth, ^1.50 net.
S/IUNDERS' BOOK'S ON
Sollmann's Pharmacology
Including Therapeutics, Materia Medica, Pharmacy,
Prescription -writing. Toxicology, etc.
A Text-Book of Pharmacology. By Torald Sollmann,

M. D. Assistant Professor of Pharmacology and Materia Medica,
,
Medical Department of Western Reserve University, Cleveland,

Ohio. Handsome octavo volume of 894 pages, fully illustrated.
Cloth, fo.75 net.
The author bases the stildy of therapeutics on a systematic linowledge of

the nature and properties of drugs, and thus brings out forcibly the intimate
relation between pharmacology and practical medicine.
J. F. Fotheringham, M. D.,
Professor of Therapeutics and Theory and Practice of Prescribing;, Trinity Medical
College, Toronto
" The work certainly occupies ground not covered in so concise, useful, and scientific a
manner by any other text I have read on the subjects embraced."
Butler's Materia Medica

Therapeutics, and Pharmacolog'y
A Text=Book of JVIateria JViedica, Therapeutics, and
Pharmacology. By George F. Butler, Ph. G., M. D., late
Professor of Materia Medica and of Clinical Medicine, College of
Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago. Octavo, 896 pages, illus-
trated. Cloth, ^4.00 net; Sheep or Half Morocco, ^5.00 net.
FOURTH EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED

In this new edition the chapters on Organo-therapy, Serum-therapy, and
cognate subjects have been enlarged and carefully revised. An important
addition is the chapter devoted to the newer theories of electrolytic dissocia-
tion and its relation to the topic of pharmacotherapy.
Medical Record, New York

"Nothing has been omitted by the author which, in his judgment, would add to the
completeness of the text."
Gould and Pyle*s

Curiosities of Medicine
Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine. By George

M. Gould, M. D., and Walter L. Pyle, M. D. An encyclo-
pedic collection of rare and extraordinary cases and of the most
striking instances of abnormality in all branches of Medicine
and Surgery, derived from an exhaustive research of medical
literature from its origin to the present day, abstracted, classi-
fied, annotated, and indexed. Handsome octavo volume of 968
pages, 29s engravings, and 1 2 full-page plates.
Popular Edition : Cloth, S3.OO net ; Sheep or Half Morocco, 84.OO net
The Lancet, London

" The book is a monument of untiring energy, keen discrimination, and erudition. . . .
We lieartily
recommend it to the profession."
Saunders' Year-Book
The American Year-Book of Medicine and Surgery.
A Yearly Digest of Scientific Progress and Authoritative Opinion
in all branches of Medicine and Surgery, drawn from journals,
monographs, and text-books of the leading American and for-
eign authors and investigators. Arranged with critical editorial
comments by eminent American specialists, under the editorial
charge of George M. Gould, M. D. In two volumes Vol. I., —
including General Medicine ; Vol. General Surgery. Per II.,
volume: Cloth, I3.00 net; Half Morocco, $3.75 net. Sold by

Subscription.
The Lancet, London

** It is
much more than a mere compilation of abstracts, for, as each section is entrusted
to experienced and able contributors, the reader has the advantage of certain critical com-
mentaries and expositions . .proceeding from writers fully qualified to perforin these
.
tasks."
14 SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
Thornton's Dose-Book
Dose-Book and Manual of Prescription-Writing. By
E. Q. Thornton, M. D., Assistant Professor of Materia Medica,
Jefferson Medical College, Phila. Post-octavo, 362 pages, illus-
trated. Flexible Leather, |2.oo net.
SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED

In this new edition additions have been made to the chapters on " Pre-
scription-Writing " and "Incompatibilities," and references have been in-
troduced in the text to the newer curative sera, organic extracts, synthetic
compounds, and vegetable drugs. To the Appendix, chapters upon Syno-
nyms and Poisons and their antidotes have been added.
C. H. Miiler. M. D..
Professor of Pharmacology ^ Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago.
'*
I will be able to make considerable use of that part of its contents relating to the
correct terminology as used in prescription-writing, and it will afford me much pleasure to
recommend the book to my classes^ who often fail to find this information in their other
text-books."
Barton and Well^'

Medical Thesaurus
A Tliesaurus of Medical Words and Phrases. By Wil-
fred M. Barton, M. D., Assistant to Professor of Materia
Medica and Therapeutics, Georgetown University, Washington,
D. C. and Walter A. Wells, M. D., Demonstrator of Laryn-
;
gology, Georgetown University, Washington, D. C. izmo of 534

pages. Flexible leather, ^2.50 net; with thumb index, ^3.00 net.
A UNIQUE WORK—JUST ISSUED

This work is just the reverse of a dictionary instead of supplying the
:
meaning to given terms, it supplies the word or phrase to express the mean-
ing. Its value is evident.
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal

" We can easily see the value of such a book, and can certainly recommend it to our
readers."
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS 15
The American Pocket Medical Dictionary.

Fourth Edition, Revised — ^Just Issued
The Amkrican Pockkt Medical Dictionary. Edited by W.
A. Newman Dorland, M. D., Assistant Obstetrician to the Hospital of
the University of Pennsylvania. Containing the pronunciation and defi-
nition of the principal words used in medicine and kindred sciences,
with 64 extensive tables. Flexible leather, with gold edges, jSl.oo net;
with thumb index, $t.2f) net.
Vierordt's Medical Diagnosis. Fourth Edition, Revised

Medical Diagnosis. By Dr. Oswald Vierordt, Professor of
Medicine, University of Heidelberg. Translated from the fifth enlarged
German edition by Francis H. Stuart, A.M., M.D. Octavo, 603
pages, 104 wood cuts. Cloth, )!>4.oo net Sheep or Half Morocco, §5 00
;
net.
Cohen and Eshner's Diagnosis. Second Revbed Edition

Essentials of Diagnosis. By S. Sous-Cohen, M.
D., Senior
Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine, Jefferson Medical College,
Phila. ; and A. A. EsHNKR, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Phila-
delphia I'nlyclinic. Post-octavo, 382 piiges; 55 illustrations. Cloth,
Si 00 net. In Saunders' Question- Covipend Series.
Morris' Materia Medica and Therapeutics.

Just Issued — Sixth Revised Edition
Essentials of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Prescrip-
tion-Writing. By Henry Morris, M. D., late Demonstrator of
Therapeutics, Jefferson Medical College, Phila. Post-octavo, 250 pages.
Cloth, Si. 00 net. In Saunde?s' Question- Compend Series.
Sayre's Practice of Pharmacy. Second Edition, Revised

Essentials of the Practice of Pharmacy. By Lucius E.
Sayre, M. D., Professor of Pharmacy, University of Kansas. Post-octavo,
200 pages. Cloth, J! 1. 00 net. In Saunders' Question-Conipend Series.
Brockway's Medical Physics. Second Edition, Revised
Essentials of Medical Physics. By Fred. J. Brockway, M. D.,
late Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy, College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, N. Y. Post-octavo, 330 pages 155 fine illustrations.
; Cloth,
$l.C30 net. In Saunders' Quest! on- Compend Series.
Stoney's Materia Medica for Nurses second Edition
Materia Medica for Nurses. By Emily A. M. Stoney, Super-
intendent of the Training School for Nurses at the Carney Hospital,
South Boston, Mass. Handsome octavo volume of 306 pp. $1.50 net.
Grafstrom-s Mechano-Therapy seconfRevi:e"d Edition

AText-Book of Mechano-Therapy (Mas.sage and Medical Gym-
nastics). By AxEi. V. Grafstrom, B. Sc, M. D., Attending Physician
to the Gustavus Adolnhus Or|ihanage, Jamestown, N. Y. i2mo of roo
pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.25 net.
l6 SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON PRACTICE, Etc.
Jakob and £shner's Internal Medicine and Diagnosis

Atlas and Epitomb of Internal Medicine and Clinical Diag-
nosis. By Dr. Chr. Jakob, of Erlangen. Edited, with additions, by
A. A. EsHNER, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia
Polyclinic. With 182 coloied figures on 68 plates, 64 text-illustrations,
259 pages of text. Cloth, ;J3.0o net. In Saunders' Hand-Atlas Series.
Lockwood's Practice of Medicine. Rewtedld^'inr^ked

A Manual of the Practice of Medicine. By Geo. Roe Lock-
wood, M. D., Attending Physician to the Bellevue Hospital, New York
City. Octavo, 847 pages, with 79 illustrations in the text and 22 full-
page plates. Cloth, ^^4.00 net.
Salinger and Kalteyer's Modern Medicine

Modern Medicine. By Julius L. Salinger, M.D., late Assistant
Professor of Clinical Mediciiie, Jefferson Medical College; and F. J.
Kalteyer, M. D. Demonstrator of Clinical Medicine, Jefferson Medi-
,
cal College. Handsome octavo, 8oj pages, illustrated. Cloth, $4.00 net.
Keating's Life Insurance

How to Examine for Life Insurance. By the late John M.
Keating, M. D., Ex- President of the Association of Life Insurance
Medical Directors. Royal octavo, 211 pages. With numerous illustra-
tions. Cloth, ;J2.00 net.
Corwin's Physical Diagnosis. Third Edition, Revised

Essentials of Physical Diagnosis of the Thorax. By A. M.
CoRWiN, A. M., M. D„ Professor of Physical Diagnosis, College of
Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago. 220 pages, illustrated. Cloth,
flexible covers, $1.25 net.
American Text- Book of Theory and Practice

American Text- Book of the Theory and Practice of Medicine.
Edited by the late William Pepper, M. D., LL. D., Professor of the
Theory and Practice of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine, University
of Penna. Two handsome imperial octavos of about 1000 pages each.
Illustrated. Per volume Cloth, t^.oo net Sheep or Half Morocco,
: ;
$6.00 net.
Stevens' Practice of Medicine. *^ j*? wd'^"''

A Manual of the Practice of Medicine. By A. A. Stevens,
A. M., M. D., Lecturer on Physical Diagnosis, University of Pennsyl-
vania. Specially intended for students preparing for graduation and
hospital examinations. Post-octavo, 556 pages illustrated. Flexible
;
leather, $2.25 net.

Cu 31924031257243

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cu 31924031257243

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME

,. 3 1924 031 257 243

tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in

PHARMACEUTIC AND MEDICAL SCHOOLS AND FOR

ROBERT A. HATCHER, PH.G., M.D.

TORALD SOLLMANN, M.D.

PHILADELPHIA, NE'W YORK, LONDON

Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England.

The following pages were written with the object of

quaintance is much more impressive and interesting.

the application of chemic tests, he sees before him the won-

those tiny laboratories, the cells.

As the experiment of basing the instruction in Materia

far as Ave know, we introduced it gradually and tentatively

gratifying from the start. The students not only showed a

tory instruction is limited only by its practicability. In

will hasten the introduction of the laboratory method.

in the reverse order to that just given. In class-work, how-

This should be used only for comparison and reference.

Every drug should be studied and described from the speci-

is consulted. The student's notebook is, therefore, a very

important part of his work. We would also emphasize the

absolute necessity of making accurate, if not artistic, drawings.

which our experience has shown most useful. When indi-

most typical experiments, and these in the simplest form in

which they would give reliable results. For example, the

enable the student to ascertain whether or not a given sample

book an introduction which will enable them to

New Yokk and Clkveland, August, 1904.

1 United States Phai-macopoeia.

SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS.

VI. Drugs other than Plant Organs 130

Tous Cells and Tubes . 221

CHEMIC EXERCISES IN MATERIA MEDICA.

Allcaloids, 302— Neutral Principles, 307—Tannins, 308— Or-

V. Constituents Mostly Insoluble in Alcohol and Water . 333

Cinchona, 345 — Opium, 348 — N ux Vomica, 350 — Drugs Con-

SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS.

plant axis stem being the other part) which bears

fracture the latter varying from brittle and sharp to fibrous

etc. ; in odor. Even the macroscopic examination shows

see by naked-eye observation whether the bark is thick or

Study and desoribe as suggested on p. 17. Particularly

derivative homatropine is often preferred, because of its briefer

swallowing and speaking ; thirst and burning in the throat

' A"Glossaiy of Medical Terms" is appended to the end of this vol-

quantities is not always given.

strong light ; the vision is impaired, as if a film which one

kind now generally seen in commerce. Attempts to cultivate

the plant in Europe have not resulted in producing a good

internally white, with numerous red, irregularly curved and interrupted

odor somewhat peculiar, aromatic; taste bitter, somewhat astringent."

Stxidy and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note

said to be destroyed by torrefaction. The purgative action

Average Dose. —0.3-1.5 gm. (5-22 gr.). The official

Habitat. —Northern part of South America.

contorted, dull grayish-brown or blackish, finely wrinkled closely and ;

irregularly annulated, and often transversely Assured bark thick, brittle,

Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note

lated undulated ipecac does not show the close annulation

white ipecac has a porous wood (vessels). The stems are

powder or the fluid extract in warm water as nauseant, ;

0.01-0.05 gm. (^—1 gr.), repeated as required as expectorant, ;