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Electrical equipment in hazardous areas

In electrical and safety engineering, hazardous locations (HazLoc,
pronounced haz·lōk) are places where fire or explosion hazards
may exist. Sources of such hazards include gases, vapors, dust,
fibers, and flyings, which are combustible or flammable. Electrical
equipment installed in such locations can provide an ignition
source, due to electrical arcing, or high temperatures. Standards and
regulations exist to identify such locations, classify the hazards, and
design equipment for safe use in such locations.

Overview
A light switch may cause a small, harmless spark when switched on
or off. In an ordinary household this is of no concern, but if a
flammable atmosphere is present, the arc might start an explosion.
In many industrial, commercial, and scientific settings, the presence
of such an atmosphere is a common, or at least commonly possible, This inspection lamp is constructed
occurrence. Protecting against fire and explosion is of interest for so that it cannot set off an explosion
both personnel safety as well as reliability reasons. when surrounded by specified
flammable gases or dust.
Several protection strategies exist. The simplest is to minimize the
amount of electrical equipment installed in a hazardous location,
either by keeping the equipment out of the area altogether, or by making the area less hazardous (for
example, by process changes, or ventilation with clean air).

When equipment must be placed in a hazardous location, it can be designed to reduce the risk of fire or
explosion. Intrinsic safety designs equipment to operate using minimal energy, insufficient to cause ignition.
Explosion-proofing designs equipment to contain ignition hazards, prevent entry of hazardous substances,
and, contain any fire or explosion that could occur.

Different countries have approached the standardization and testing of equipment for hazardous areas in
different ways. Terminology for both hazards and protective measures can vary. Documentation
requirements likewise vary. As world trade becomes more globalized, international standards are slowly
converging, so that a wider range of acceptable techniques can be approved by national regulatory
agencies.

The process of determining the type and size of hazardous locations is called classification. Classification of
locations, testing and listing of equipment, and inspection of installation, is typically overseen by
governmental bodies. For example, in the US by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Standards

North America
In the US, the independent National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publishes several relevant
standards, and they are often adopted by government agencies. Guidance on assessment of hazards is given
in NFPA 497 (explosive gas) and NFPA 499 (dust). The American Petroleum Institute publishes analogous
standards in RP 500 and RP505.

NFPA 70, the National Electrical Code (NEC), defines area classification and installation principles.[1]
NEC article 500 describes the NEC Division classification system, while articles 505 and 506 describe the
NEC Zone classification system. The NEC Zone system was created to harmonize with IEC classification
system, and therefore reduce the complexity of management.

Canada has a similar system with CSA Group standard C22.1, the Canadian Electrical Code, which defines
area classification and installation principles. Two possible classifications are described, in Section 18
(Zones), and Appendix J (Divisions).

International Electrotechnical Commission

The International Electrotechnical Commission publishes the 60079

series of standards[2] which defines a system for classification of
locations, as well as categorizing and testing of equipment designed
for use in hazardous locations, known as "Ex equipment". IEC
60079-10-1 covers classification of explosive gas atmospheres, and
IEC 60079-10-2 explosive dust. Equipment is placed into
protection level categories according to manufacture method and
suitability for different situations. Unlike ATEX which uses
numbers to define the safety "Category" of equipment, namely (1,2
3), the IEC continued to utilise the method used for defining the
safe levels of intrinsic safety namely "a" for zone 0, "b" for zone 1
and "c" for zone 2 and apply this Equipment Level of Protection to
all equipment for use in hazardous areas since 2009. <IEC
60079.14>
A telephone for use in mines,
constructed so as not to cause
The IEC 60079 standard set has been adapted for use in Australia
external explosion of hazardous
and New Zealand and is published as the AS/NZS 60079 standard
atmospheres. The heavy case is
set.
secured with tamper-resistant bolts
to deter unauthorized opening of the
Hazards case.

In an industrial plant, such as a refinery or chemical plant, handling

of large quantities of flammable liquids and gases creates a risk of exposure. Coal mines, grain mills,
elevators, and similar facilities likewise present the risk of a clouds of dust. In some cases, the hazardous
atmosphere is present all the time, or for long periods. In other cases, the atmosphere is normally non-
hazardous, but a dangerous concentration can be reasonably foreseen—such as operator error or equipment
failure. Locations are thus classified by type and risk of release of gas, vapor, or dust. Various regulations
use terms such as class, division, zone, and group to differentiate the various hazards.

Often an area classification plan view is provided to identify equipment ratings and installation techniques
to be used for each classified area. The plan may contain the list of chemicals with their group and
temperature rating. The classification process requires the participation of operations, maintenance, safety,
electrical and instrumentation professionals; and the use of process diagrams, material flows, safety data
sheets, and other pertinent documents. Area classification documentations are reviewed and updated to
reflect process changes.

Explosive gas

Typical gas hazards are from hydrocarbon compounds, but hydrogen and ammonia are also common
industrial gases that are flammable.

Class I, Division 1 classified locations

An area where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors or liquids can exist all
of the time or some of the time under normal operating conditions. A Class I, Division 1
area encompasses the combination of Zone 0 and Zone 1 areas.

Zone 0 classified locations

An area where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors or liquids are present
continuously or for long periods of time under normal operating conditions. An example of
this would be the vapor space above the liquid in the top of a tank or drum. The ANSI/NEC
classification method consider this environment a Class I, Division 1 area. As a guide for
Zone 0, this can be defined as over 1000 hours per year or less than 10% of the time.[3]

Zone 1 classified location

An area where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors or liquids are likely to
exist under normal operating conditions. As a guide for Zone 1, this can be defined as 10–
1000 hours per year or 0.1–10% of the time.[3]

Class I, Division 2 or Zone 2 classified locations

An area where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors or liquids are not
likely to exist under normal operating conditions. In this area the gas, vapor or liquids
would only be present under abnormal conditions (most often leaks under abnormal
conditions). As a general guide for Zone 2, unwanted substances should only be present
under 10 hours per year or 0–0.1% of the time.[3]

Unclassified locations
Also known as non-hazardous or ordinary locations, these locations are determined to be
neither Class I, Division 1 or Division 2; Zone 0, Zone 1 or Zone 2; or any combination
thereof. Such areas include a residence or office where the only risk of a release of
explosive or flammable gas would be such things as the propellant in an aerosol spray.
The only explosive or flammable liquids are paint and brush cleaner. These are
designated as very low risk of causing an explosion and are more of a fire risk (although
gas explosions in residential buildings do occur). Unclassified locations on chemical and
other plant are present where it is absolutely certain that the hazardous gas is diluted to a
concentration below 25% of its lower flammability limit (or lower explosive limit (LEL)).

Explosive dust
Dust or other small particles suspended in air can explode.

NEC

Class Division Description

Division ignitable concentrations of combustible dust can

Class 1 exist, under normal conditions
II Division ignitable concentrations of combustible dust are
2 unlikely to exist normally

ignitable fibers, or materials producing

Division
combustible flyings, are handled, manufactured
Class 1
or used
III
Division
easily ignitable fibers are stored or handled
2
Non-hazardous or ordinary locations.
Unclassified
Determined to be none of the above.

An explosion of dust at this grain

United Kingdom elevator in Kansas killed five workers
in 1998
An old British standard used letters to designate zones. This has
been replaced by a European numerical system, as set out in
directive 1999/92/EU implemented in the UK as the Dangerous Substances and Explosives Atmospheres
Regulations 2002.[3]

Zone Description
Zone 20 ignitable concentrations of dust, fibers, or flyings are present for long periods of time

Zone 21 ignitable concentrations of dust, fibers, or flyings are likely to exist under normal conditions
Zone 22 ignitable concentrations of dust, fibers, or flyings unlikely to exist under normal conditions

Gas and dust groups

Different explosive atmospheres have chemical properties that affect the likelihood and severity of an
explosion. Such properties include flame temperature, minimum ignition energy, upper and lower explosive
limits, and molecular weight. Empirical testing is done to determine parameters such as the maximum
experimental safe gap (MESG), minimum igniting current (MIC) ratio, explosion pressure and time to peak
pressure, spontaneous ignition temperature, and maximum rate of pressure rise. Every substance has a
differing combination of properties but it is found that they can be ranked into similar ranges, simplifying
the selection of equipment for hazardous areas.[4]

Flammability of combustible liquids are defined by their flash-point. The flash-point is the temperature at
which the material will generate sufficient quantity of vapor to form an ignitable mixture. The flash point
determines if an area needs to be classified. A material may have a relatively low autoignition temperature
yet if its flash-point is above the ambient temperature, then the area may not need to be classified.
Conversely if the same material is heated and handled above its flash-point, the area must be classified for
proper electrical system design, as it will then form an ignitable mixture.[5]

Each chemical gas or vapour used in industry is classified into a gas group.
 NEC Division System gas & dust groups

Area Group Representative materials

A Acetylene
B Hydrogen
Class I, Divisions 1 & 2
C Ethylene

D Propane, methane
E (Division 1 only) Metal dusts, such as magnesium (Division 1 only)

Class II, Divisions 1 & 2 F Carbonaceous dusts, such as carbon & charcoal

G Non-conductive dusts, such as flour, grain, wood & plastic

Class III, Divisions 1 & 2 None Ignitible fibers/flyings, such as cotton lint, flax & rayon

NEC & IEC Zone System gas & dust groups

Area Group Representative materials

Acetylene & hydrogen

IIC
(equivalent to NEC Class I, Groups A and B)

Hydrogen
IIB+H2
(equivalent to NEC Class I, Group B)
Zone 0, 1 & 2
Ethylene
IIB
(equivalent to NEC Class I, Group C)

Propane
IIA
(equivalent to NEC Class I, Group D)

Conductive dusts, such as magnesium

IIIC
(equivalent to NEC Class II, Group E)

Non-conductive dusts, such as flour, grain, wood & plastic

Zone 20, 21 & 22 IIIB
(equivalent to NEC Class II, Groups F and G)

Ignitible fibers or flyings, such as cotton lint, flax & rayon

IIIA
(equivalent to NEC Class III

Mines susceptible to firedamp I (IEC only) Methane

Group IIC is the most severe zone system gas group. Hazards in this group gas can be ignited very easily
indeed. Equipment marked as suitable for Group IIC is also suitable for IIB and IIA. Equipment marked as
suitable for IIB is also suitable for IIA but NOT for IIC. If equipment is marked, for example, Ex e II T4
then it is suitable for all subgroups IIA, IIB and IIC
A list must be drawn up of every explosive material that is on the refinery or chemical complex and
included in the site plan of the classified areas. The above groups are formed in order of how explosive the
material would be if it was ignited, with IIC being the most explosive zone system gas group and IIA being
the least. The groups also indicate how much energy is required to ignite the material by energy or thermal
effects, with IIA requiring the most energy and IIC the least for zone system gas groups.

Temperature

Equipment should be tested to ensure that it does not exceed 80% of the autoignition temperature of the
hazardous atmosphere. Both external and internal temperatures are taken into consideration. The
autoignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which the substance will ignite without an additional
heat or ignition source (at atmospheric pressure). This temperature is used for classification for industry and
technology applications.[6]

The temperature classification on the electrical equipment label will be one of the following (in degree
Celsius):

International Germany °C
USA °C
(IEC) °C Continuous - Short time
T1 - 450 T3A - 180 T1 - 450 G1: 360 - 400

T2 - 300 T3B - 165 T2 - 300 G2: 240 - 270

T2A - 280 T3C - 160 T3 - 200 G3: 160 - 180

T2B - 260 T4 - 135 T4 - 135 G4: 110 - 125

T2C - 230 T4A - 120 T5 - 100 G5: 80 - 90

T2D - 215 T5 - 100 T6 - 85

T3 - 200 T6 - 85  

The above table shows that the surface temperature of a piece of electrical equipment with a temperature
classification of T3 will not rise above 200 °C. The surface of a high pressure steam pipe may be above the
autoignition temperature of some fuel-air mixtures.

Equipment

General types and methods

Equipment can be designed or modified for safe operation in hazardous locations. The two general
approaches are:

Intrinsic safety
Intrinsic safety, also called non-incendive, limits the energy present in a system, such that
it is insufficient to ignite a hazardous atmosphere under any conditions. This includes low
both power levels, and low stored energy. Common with instrumentation.

Explosion proof
Explosion-proof or flame-proof equipment is sealed and rugged, such that it will not ignite
a hazardous atmosphere, despite any sparks or explosion within.[7][8]

Several techniques of flame-proofing exist, and they are often used in combination:
The equipment housing may be sealed to prevent entry of flammable gas or dust into the
interior.
The housing may be strong enough to contain and cool any combustion gases produced
internally.
Enclosures can be pressurized with clean air or inert gas, displacing any hazardous
substance.
Arc-producing elements can be isolated from the atmosphere, by encapsulation in resin,
immersion in oil, or similar.
Heat-producing elements can be designed to limit their maximum temperature below the
autoignition temperature of the material involved.
 Controls can be fitted to detect dangerous concentrations of hazardous gas, or failure of
countermeasures. Upon detection, appropriate action is automatically taken, such as
removing power, or providing notification.

IEC 60079

Types of protection

Ex
Description Standard Location Use
code
Equipment construction is
such that it can withstand
an internal explosion and
provide relief of the
external pressure via
flamegap(s) such as the
labyrinth created by
threaded fittings or
machined flanges. The
escaping (hot) gases must
sufficiently cool down along
the escape path that by the
time they reach the outside Zone 1 if gas Motors, lighting,
IEC/EN
Flame proof d of the enclosure not to be a group & temp. junction boxes,
60079-1
source of ignition of the class correct electronics
outside, potentially
ignitable surroundings.

Equipment has
flameproof gaps (max
0.006" (150  μm)
propane/ethylene,
0.004" (100  μm)
acetylene/hydrogen)

Equipment is very robust

IEC/EN Zone 2 or Motors, lighting,
Increased safety e and components are made
60079-7 Zone 1 junction boxes
to a high quality

Equipment components are

IEC/EN Zone 2 or
Oil filled o completely submerged in switchgear
60079-6 Zone 1
oil
Equipment components are
Electronics,
Sand, powder, or completely covered with a IEC/EN Zone 2 or
q telephones,
quartz Filled layer of sand, powder or 60079-5 Zone 1
chokes
quartz

Equipment components of
Zone 1 (Ex
the equipment are usually IEC/EN Electronics (no
Encapsulated m mb) or Zone 0
encased in a resin type 60079-18 heat)
(Ex ma)
material

Pressurised/purged p Equipment is pressurised IEC/EN Zone 1 (px or Analysers,

to a positive pressure 60079-2 py), or zone 2 motors, control
relative to the surrounding (pz) boxes,
atmosphere with air or an computers
inert gas, thus the
surrounding ignitable
 atmosphere can not come
in contact with energized
parts of the apparatus. The
overpressure is monitored,
maintained and controlled.

Any arcs or sparks in this

equipment has insufficient
energy (heat) to ignite a
vapour

Equipment can be
installed in ANY
housing provided to
IP54.
A 'Zener Barrier', opto-
isolator or galvanic
unit may be used to
assist with
certification.
A special standard for
IEC/EN
instrumentation is 60079-25
'ia': Zone 0 & Instrumentation,
Intrinsically safe i
IEC/EN 60079–27, IEC/EN
'ib': Zone 1 measurement,
describing 60079-11
'ic: zone 2 control
IEC/EN60079-
requirements for 27
Fieldbus Intrinsically
Safe Concept (FISCO)
(zone 0, 1 or 2) (This
special standard has
been withdrawn, and
has been partially
replaced by:
IEC/EN60079-
11:2011 and
IEC/EN60079-
25:2010)[1] (https://we
bstore.iec.ch/publicati
on/12946)

Non-incendive n Equipment is non-incendive IEC/EN Zone 2 Motors, lighting,

or non-sparking. 60079-15 junction boxes,
IEC/EN electronic
A special standard for 60079-27 equipment
instrumentation is
IEC/EN 60079–27,
describing
requirements for
Fieldbus Non-
Incendive Concept
(FNICO) (zone 2)
(This special standard
has been withdrawn,
and has been partially
replaced by:
 IEC/EN60079-
11:2011 and
IEC/EN60079-
25:2010)[9]

This method, being by

definition special, has no
specific rules. In effect it is
any method which can be
shown to have the required
degree of safety in use.
Much early equipment
having Ex s protection was
designed with
encapsulation and this has Zone
now been incorporated into depending As its
IEC/EN
Special protection s IEC 60079-18 [Ex m]. Ex s upon certification
60079-33
is a coding referenced in manufacturer's states
IEC 60079-0. The use of certification
EPL and ATEX Category
directly is an alternative for
"s" marking. The IEC
standard EN 60079-33 is
made public and is
expected to become
effective soon, so that the
normal Ex certification will
also be possible for Ex-s

The types of protection are subdivided into several sub classes, linked to EPL: ma and mb, px, py and pz,
ia, ib and ic. The a subdivisions have the most stringent safety requirements, taking into account more than
one independent component faults simultaneously.

Many items of EEx rated equipment will employ more than one method of protection in different
components of the apparatus. These would be then labeled with each of the individual methods. For
example, a socket outlet labeled EEx'de' might have a case made to EEx 'e' and switches that are made to
EEx 'd'.

Equipment protection level (EPL)

In recent years also the EPL is specified for several kinds of protection. The required protection level is
linked to the intended use in the zones described below:
 Group Ex risk Zone EPL Minimum type of protection

I (mines) energized Ma

II (gas) explosive atmosphere > 1000 hrs/yr 0 Ga ia, ma

II (gas) explosive atmosphere between 10 and 1000 hrs/yr 1 Gb ib, mb, px, py, d, e, o, q, s

II (gas) explosive atmosphere between 1 and 10 hrs/yr 2 Gc n, ic, pz

III (dust) explosive surface > 1000 hrs/yr 20 Da ia

III (dust) explosive surface between 10 and 1000 hrs/yr 21 Db ib

III (dust) explosive surface between 1 and 10 hrs/yr 22 Dc ic

Equipment category

The equipment category indicates the level of protection offered by the equipment.

Category 1 equipment may be used in zone 0, zone 1 or zone 2 areas.

Category 2 equipment may be used in zone 1 or zone 2 areas.
Category 3 equipment may only be used in zone 2 areas.

NEMA enclosure types

In the US, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines standards for enclosure
types for a variety of applications.[10][11] Some of these are specifically for hazardous locations:

NEMA
Definition
Type

7 Certified and labeled for use in indoor locations rated NEC Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D

Certified and labeled for use in locations rated NEC Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D; both indoors
8
and outdoors
9 Certified and labeled for use in locations rated NEC Class II, Groups E, F, or G

Meets the requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), 30 CFR Part 18
10
(1978)

Labeling
All equipment certified for use in hazardous areas must be labelled to show the type and level of protection
applied.

Europe

In Europe the label must show the CE mark and the code number of the certifying/notified body). The CE
mark is complemented with the Ex mark: A yellow-filled hexagon with the Greek letters εχ (epsilon chi),
followed by the Group, Category, and, if Group II, G or D (gas or dust). Specific types of protection being
used will also be marked.
 Example markings
Mark Meaning

Ex II 1 G Explosion protected, Group 2, Category 1, Gas

Ex ia IIC T4 Type ia, Group 2C gases, Temperature class 4

Ex nA II T3 Type n, non-sparking, Group 2 gases, Temperature class 3, special Mark for ATEX
X conditions apply certified
equipment for
Industrial electrical equipment for hazardous area has to conform to appropriate parts explosive
of standard: IEC-60079 for gas hazards, and IEC-61241 for dust hazards. In some atmospheres
cases, it must be certified as meeting that standard. Independent test houses—
Notified Bodies—are established in most European countries, and a certificate from
any of these will be accepted across the EU. In the United Kingdom, Sira and Baseefa are the most well
known such bodies.

Australia and New Zealand use the same IEC-60079 standards (adopted as AS/NZS 60079), however the
CE mark is not required.

North America

In North America the suitability of equipment for the specific hazardous area must be tested by a Nationally
Recognized Testing Laboratory, such as UL, FM Global, CSA Group, or Intertek (ETL).

The label will always list the class, division and may list the group and temperature code. Directly adjacent
on the label one will find the mark of the listing agency.

Some manufacturers claim "suitability" or "built-to" hazardous areas in their technical literature, but in
effect lack the testing agency's certification and thus unacceptable for the AHJ (Authority Having
Jurisdiction) to permit operation of the electrical installation/system.

All equipment in Division 1 areas must have an approval label, but certain materials, such as rigid metallic
conduit, does not have a specific label indicating the Cl./Div.1 suitability and their listing as approved
method of installation in the NEC serves as the permission. Some equipment in Division 2 areas do not
require a specific label, such as standard 3 phase induction motors that do not contain normally arcing
components.

Also included in the marking are the manufacturers name or trademark and address, the apparatus type,
name and serial number, year of manufacture and any special conditions of use. The NEMA enclosure
rating or IP code may also be indicated, but it is usually independent of the Classified Area suitability.

History
With the advent of electric power, electricity was introduced into coal mines for signaling, illumination, and
motors. This was accompanied by electrically initiated explosions of flammable gas such as fire damp
(methane) and suspended coal dust.
At least two British mine explosions were attributed to an electric bell signal system. In this system, two
bare wires were run along the length of a drift, and any miner desiring to signal the surface would
momentarily touch the wires to each other or bridge the wires with a metal tool. The inductance of the
signal bell coils, combined with breaking of contacts by exposed metal surfaces, resulted in sparks, causing
an explosion.[12]

See also
Arc flash
ATEX directive
CompEx competency standard
Electrical conduit
Grounding kit
Intrinsic safety
Mineral-insulated copper-clad cable
Notified Body
Pressure piling

References
"Hazardous Location Motors" (https://www.dietzelectric.com/hazard-loc/). Dietz Electric.
Retrieved 2018-04-04.
1. "NFPA 70, National Electric Code" (https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and
-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=70). National Fire Protection
Association. Retrieved 2020-07-31.
2. IEC 60079:2020 SER Series - Explosive atmospheres - ALL PARTS (https://webstore.iec.c
h/publication/62417), International Electrotechnical Commission, 2020-06-26, retrieved
2020-07-31
3. "Hazardous Area Classification and Control of Ignition Sources" (https://www.hse.gov.uk/co
mah/sragtech/techmeasareaclas.htm). UK Health and Safety Executive. 22 September
2004. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
4. Bossert, John; Hurst, Randolph (1986). Hazardous Locations: A Guide for the Design,
Construction and Installation of Electrical Equipment. Toronto: Canadian Standards
Association. Chapter 9. ISBN 0-9690124-5-4.
5. Keith Lofland (2014-11-10), "Hazardous (Classified) Locations — NEC Articles 500 through
517" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170705001128/https://iaeimagazine.org/magazine/201
4/11/10/hazardous-classified-locations-nec-articles-500-through-517/), IAEI Magazine,
International Association of Electrical Inspectors, archived from the original (https://iaeimaga
zine.org/magazine/2014/11/10/hazardous-classified-locations-nec-articles-500-through-51
7/) on 2017-07-05, retrieved 2018-04-04
6. Autoignition temperature of liquid (https://web.archive.org/web/20160618030406/http://www.
ozm.cz/en/autoignition-temperature-of-liquid-ait-551/), OZM Research, archived from the
original (http://www.ozm.cz/en/autoignition-temperature-of-liquid-ait-551/) on 2016-06-18,
retrieved 2018-04-04
7. Explosion Proof & Flame Proof (https://www.intertek.com/hazardous-locations/protection-me
thods/flame-explosion-proof/), Intertek Group, retrieved 2020-07-31
 8. "Explosionproof Equipment" (https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-stand
ards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=70), National Electrical Code (2020 ed.),
National Fire Protection Association, chapter 1, article 100, part III, page 70-43, 2019-08-05,
retrieved 2020-07-31
9. "IEC 60079-27:2008 | IEC Webstore" (https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/12946).
10. NEMA Enclosure Types (https://www.nema.org/docs/default-source/products-document-libra
ry/nema-enclosure-types.pdf) (PDF), National Electrical Manufacturers Association,
November 2005, retrieved 2020-07-31
11. NEMA/IEC Enclosure Ratings (https://www.coleparmer.com/tech-article/nema-iec-enclosure
-ratings), Cole-Parmer, 2018-10-15, retrieved 2020-07-31
12. Bossert 86 page 17

Further reading
Alan McMillan, Electrical Installations in Hazardous Areas, Butterworth-Heineman 1998,
ISBN 0-7506-3768-4
Peter Schram Electrical Installations in Hazardous Locations, Jones and Bartlett, 1997,
ISBN 0-87765-423-9
EEMUA, A Practitioner's Handbook for potentially explosive atmospheres, The Engineering
Equipment and Materials Users Association, 2017, ISBN 978-0-85931-222-6

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