STATISTICS

• It is the science that deals with collection, presentation, LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

analysis and interpretation of data.
1. Nominal - Lowest level of measurement where data
• Numerical values describing a characteristic of the
collected are simple labels or names of category without
sample
any implicit ordering of the labels
• Comes from the Italian word "status" meaning
government or "political state" Examples: Sex, Color, etc.

2. Ordinal - Higher than Nominal where the data collected

TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS are labels or names with an implied ordering of the labels.

Examples: Sibling positions, Military Rank, etc.

TWO FIELDS OF STATISTICS 3. Interval - A level of measurement in which we can set up
inequalities and form differences, but not multiply and
1. Statistical Theory
divide. The zero point is arbitrary.
2. Statistical Methods
Examples: Temperature, IQ, etc.
a) Descriptive Statistics - methods concerned with the
4. Ratio A level of measurement in which we can set up
collection, description, and analysis of a set of data without
inequalities and form differences and can multiply and
drawing conclusions or inferences about a larger set.
divide.
b) Inferential Statistics - uses sample data to make
Examples: Height, Weight, etc.
estimates, decisions, predictions, or other generalizations
about a larger set of data.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
DATA 1. Primary - Directly acquired from the source of information
• Variable - a characteristic of interest which is measurable 2. Secondary - Previously gathered by other persons or
on each unit in the population. Usually denoted by institution or Republication of data by another agency
English capital letters
• Data - are facts or figures from which conclusions may
be drawn. 1. Objective Method
• Data Set - collection of facts and figures o Data are gathered with the use of a measuring and
counting instrument such as a meter stick, a Vernier
caliper, a color chart, or a counting device.
o Publicly observable event
o Knowledge or facts
TWO TYPES OF DATA o Measured or counted
1. Qualitative 2. Subjective Method
o Categorical data o Written or verbal reports are elicited from
o Names, labels, codes o identified respondents.
o Example: Brand of Laptop o Points of view
o Perceptions, beliefs and opinions
2. Quantitative o Feelings
o Numbers representing counts or measurements
o Example: Amount spent on Construction
Materials

Discrete Continuous ENGINEERING DATA COLLECTION

o Finite number of o Infinitely many possible
possible values values 1. Interview
o Counts, how many? o Measurements, how o Person-to-person exchange of information
o Example: household much? Emotionally-laden topics
sizes in Quiapo, o Example: Length of time o Time-consuming, has limited coverage
Manila consumed answering an 2. Questionnaire
examination o Written responses in a list of questions Mailed
or hand-carried
o Inexpensive
 o Can cover a wide area in shorter period High- o Usually done by draw lots, by use of the
response rate table of random numbers, or by the use of
calculator
3. Experiment - Determine the cause and effect -
Controlled condition
4. Observation
o Behavior or reactions 1.2 Systematic Sampling
o Reduced potential bias o Taking every kth unit from an ordered
o Types : Participants (Announced) and Non- population.
participants o First unit being selected at random
5. Registration
𝑁
o Enforced by certain laws 𝑘=
o Births, deaths, marriages, motor vehicles, 𝑛
o Made available to all
N = Population size R= (1, 2, 3, ….r)
o PSA
n = sample size
k = sampling interval Unites: r, r+k…
r= random start
SAMPLING c = number of strata
1. Population (N)
o "Set of all observations 1.3 Stratified Sampling
made on all objects N o Population of size N is subdivided into non-
under study for a given o overlapping subpopulations
characteristic of interest n o Strata - division of population
or variable. 𝑁𝑖
𝑛𝑖 =
o Set of all people, items, 𝑁
or events under N = Population size
investigation n = sample size
2. Sample (n) L= number of strata
o Subset of a population 𝑁𝑖 = population size in stratum
o Any subgroup of observations drawn from the 𝑛𝑖 = sample size in ith stratum
population by some appropriate method so that
the characteristics of the population can be 1.4 Cluster Sampling
estimated. o are non-overlapping subpopulation which
o Representative together compute the entire population
3. Census o Formed with heterogenous elements
o Complete enumeration o A sample cluster is selected then a census
o Gathering information from every unit in the or every element in the selected clusters is
population taken
4. Survey 1.5 Multi-staged Sampling
o Obtaining information from the unit in the o Done in stages
selected sample. o The population is divided into hierarchy of
sampling
❖ Advantages

o Reduced cost
2. Non-Probability Sampling - Some elements of the
o Greater speed
population are deliberately ignored. Depending to a
o Greater scope
large extent on the personal feelings on purpose of the
o Greater accuracy
researcher. Does not involve random selection

2.1 Convenience Sampling

SAMPLING METHODS o Haphazard or availability sampling
o Selecting samples that are available and
1. Probability Sampling - Each unit in the population has are capable of participating in a research
a known and non-zero probability of selection; A chance study
method o Mall/park polls
2.2 Snowball Sampling
1.1 Simple Random Sampling o Researcher identifies a key informant
o "Every distinct sample size n has an equal about a research of interest and then ask
chance of being drawn the respondent to refer or to identify
o Units in the population are homogenous another respondent
 2.3 Quota Sampling 4.3 Pictograph
o Sample from a group based on certain
characteristics
o "Almost the same with stratified sampling
but does not involve random selection
4.4 Line Graph – time or interval

METHODS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENTING DATA

Raw data collected data which have not been arranged

numerically
4.5 Scatter Plot – 2 Variables
1. Array
o Data are arranged numerically according to
magnitude (from highest to lowest or lowest
to highest)
o Comprehensible
2. Textual Method
o Collected data may be organized and 4.6 Histogram - a special type of bar graph
presented in a narrative or textual form.
constructed as a sequence of
o This method is the simplest to use when only
vertical rectangles, each
a few of statistics need to be reported.
rectangle drawn with its base
3. Tabular Method
equal to the class interval
o Data are organized into classes or categories
and a height corresponding
in rows and/or columns and appropriate
to the class frequency.
pieces of information are entered in the cells
of the table. Arranged in rows and columns
o Summarize facts
o Present important factors 4.7 Frequency Polygon - a line graph
constructed by
Parts Of Statistical Table plotting the
frequencies at
a. Table heading - includes the table number and
their class marks
title
and connecting to
b. Body contains the information or figures to be
plotted points by
presented
means of straight lines.
c. Stubs or classes - the classifications or
categories describing the data, found at the left-
hand side of the table.
d. Captions - designations or identifications of the 4.8 Less than Ogive constructed by plotting
information contained in a column, usually at the the less than cumulative frequencies at
top of the columns their upper-class boundaries

4. Graphical Method
o Presentation of data in the form of a graph or
diagram.
o Graph is a geometrical representation of a set
of data that helps in visualizing certain
properties and characteristics of the data at a 4.9 Greater than ogive built by plotting the
glance. Also attracts attention. greater than cumulative frequencies at
4.1. Bar Graph their lower-class boundaries.

4.2 Pie Graph

 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency Distribution Table - Arrangement of data that shows c. Relative Frequency (RF)
the frequency of occurrence of the different values of the o Ratio of the class frequency to the total number
variables. of observations, and is expressed in percent.

TYPES OF FDT 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝑅𝐹 = ( ) 𝑥 100
𝑁
1. Qualitative FDT
o Qualitative data
o Constructed for discrete variables
d. Cumulative Frequency (CF)
o Accumulated frequency of a class
Steps
o <CF is the number of observations less than or
(a) Enumerate the categories or classifications
equal to the UL of the class.
and define these as your classes
o >CF is the number of observations greater than
(b) Count the number of observations falling
or equal to the LL of the class.
under each category. These are the
frequencies of the different classes.
e. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)
o Ratio of CF to the total number of observations
2. Quantitative FDT
in the distribution, and is expressed in percent.
o Appropriate for variables with quantitative data
with many values
o Constructed < 𝐶𝐹
< 𝑅𝐶𝐹 = ( ) 𝑥 100
𝑁
> 𝐶𝐹
> 𝑅𝐶𝐹 = ( ) 𝑥 100
for 𝑁
continuous variables

Steps
(a) Determine the Range (R)
R = highest value – lower value
(b) Solve for the number of classes or class
interval
N = number of observations

(c) Determine the class size, c.

𝑅
𝑐=
𝐾

(d) Determine and enumerate the classes.

UL = LL + c – 1 unit of measure
(e) Count the number of observations that fall in
each of class interval.

Other Columns of the Quantitative FDT

a. True Class Boundaries (TCB)

o Reflect the continuous property of the data.
o Obtained by taking the midpoints of the gaps
between class intervals
LTCB = LL - 0.5 (one unit of measure)
UTCB = UL+0.5(one unit of measure)

b. Class Mark (CM)

o Midpoint of the class
1 1
𝐶𝑀 = (𝐿𝐿 + 𝑈𝐿) = (𝐿𝑇𝐶𝐵 + 𝑈𝑇𝐶𝐵)
2 2