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Summer Internship Report

Technical Report · August 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3648.2806

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 FE modelling and analysis of:
[a] Carbon-carbon nozzle exit cone for use in CE-20
cryogenic engine
[b]Metal-composite interface joints subjected to thermo-
structural loads

INTERNSHIP PROJECT REPORT

by

GHOSH PARTHO SHANKAR

SC13B019

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology

Thiruvananthapuram

June-July 2016

i
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “FE modelling and analysis
of: [a] Carbon-carbon nozzle exit cone for use in CE-20 cryogenic engine
[b] Metal-composite interface joints subjected to thermo-structural loads”
submitted to Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology,
Thiruvananthapuram, is a bonafide record of work done by
“GHOSH PARTHO SHANKAR” under my supervision from “6th June
2016” to “15th July 2016”

Place
Date

ii
 Declaration by Author

This is to declare that this report has been written by me. No part of the report is
plagiarized from other sources. All information included from other sources
have been duly acknowledged. I am aware that if any part of the report is found
to be plagiarized. I shall take full responsibility for it.

Place

Date

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Sincere thanks to Shri. Chakravarthy. P (guide) and Shri. Krishnakumar. G
(Head,CCDD/CMSE) for their positive support and guidelines. The continuous fruitful
discussions with all the engineers of CCDD have immensely contributed towards my
understanding and appreciation of the field of carbon-carbon composites. Special thanks to
Shri. Gaurav Kumar (Eng SD) for always being there for me like an elder brother and
cheering me up, always. Shri. Jhon Paul (Eng SE), Sir, apart from the usual work culture it
was always a pleasure speaking with you for hours on the various prospects still untouched in
Indian Space studies. I have surely gained immensely not just as a student but as a human in
appreciating the beauty of space history. The discussions on laminate film boiling were surely
a treat to remember. I would also like to thank Shri. Dipoo Kumar (Eng SD) for exposing
me to the need of carrying out a study on porosity evolution. Next, I would like to express my
sincere thanks to Shri. Santosh (Eng SG) for guiding me with my analyses by sparing some
time from his busy schedule. Shri. Mahendran (Eng SE), Sir, I really have no words to
thank you for all the support you have given me throughout my work at CCDD. Now, for
those with whom I spent most of my time in the CAD lab; Shri. Prakhar Agrawal (Eng
SD), Shri. Smijith (Eng SD), Shri. Vijay (Eng SD), Shri. Sreerag (Eng SC) and Shri.
Amal Jyothis (Eng SC), for the constant help and suggestions. Special thanks to Shri.
Sivakumar (Sr. Technical Asst), for explaining me all the processes being undertaken at
CCDD. Last but not the least, I would like to thank my parents for their constant support and
patience throughout the course of my work.

iv
 ABSTRACT

A preliminary 2D analyses has been done for the CE-20 carbon-carbon nozzle exit cone and
the results have been validated by the analysts at CMSE/VSSC/ISRO. Further exploration of
newer layup designs was carried out and comparisons were made. Modelling the joint
behaviour of a metal- composite interface was done using both beam model and the complete
3D bolted model. Relevant comparisons and favourable conditions for the use of beam
models were arrived at. A visualization study of the contact scenario to determine the nature
and dominance of thermal/structural loading was done. The free-hole approach being
currently employed in the proposed joint configuration of CE-20 nozzle (metal-composite
interface) was studied and its efficiency in dealing with adverse thermal mismatch was
observed. Mesh-dependence of beam models was explained and mesh-independence of 3D
models in the present study was observed.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iv

CONTENTS v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

1. Introduction…………………………………………….. 1
1.1 Problems addressed………………………………... 1
1.1.1 Analyses and design validation of CE-20
AR 100 NEC…………………………………... 1
1.1.2 Composite-metal interface joint design:
Analyses and study…………………………... 1
1.2 Related literature………………………………….. 2
1.3 Scope of the project……………………………….. 3
2. Practical problem description………………………... 4
2.1 What has been done so far………………………. 4
2.2 Methodology adopted in this study……………... 6
3. C-C NEC analysis……………………………………. 10
3.1 Proposed layup (4mm to 9mm)………………… 11
3.1.1 Tensile stresses in fiber direction………….. 12
3.1.2 Compressive stresses in fiber direction…… 13
3.1.3 Thickness direction stresses………………... 14
3.1.4 Contact forces………………………………. 14

vi
 3.2 Is further reduction in structural mass possible? 15
3.3 Fundamental mode of vibration………………... 16
4. Comparison between beam element and 3D bolted models 17
4.1 Thermal loads dominating structural loads…... 19
4.2 Structural loads dominating thermal loads….... 21
5. Concept of a free-hole………………………………….. 25
6. Mesh dependency study………………………………... 27
7. Conclusion……………………………………………… 31
8. Recommendations…………………………………….... 32
9. Appendices…………………………………………….... 34
Appendix 1…………………………………………… 34
Appendix 2…………………………………………… 35
Appendix 3…………………………………………… 36
Appendix 4…………………………………………… 41
10. References………………………………………………. 45

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CE Cryogenic engine

C-C Carbon-carbon

NEC Nozzle exit cone

CTE Coefficient of thermal expansion

SFC Supersonic Film Cooling

TEG Turbine exhaust gases

AR Area ratio

SS Stainless steel

ROF Rate of inflation

GES Global element sizing

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2.1.1 - 3D view of the bolted connection in the CE-20 C-C NEC
Fig. 2.1.2 – CAD drawing of the proposed joint configuration
Fig. 2.2.1- Composite modelled as a 3D orthotropic material
Fig. 2.2.2- Composite modelled as a composite layup of 18 layers
Fig. 2.2.3- Orientation of the solution co-ordinate system
Fig. 2.2.4- Force convergence plot for 3D orthotropic modelling
Fig. 2.2.5- Force convergence plot for a composite layup modelling
Fig. 3.1- Axial pressure variation
Fig. 3.2- Axial temperature variation
Fig. 3.1.1- Deformed shape of C-C NEC proposed design
Fig. 3.1.1(a) - x-component of tensile stresses
Fig. 3.1.1(b) –y-component of tensile stresses
Fig. 3.1.2(a) –x-component of compressive stresses
Fig. 3.1.2(b) –y-component of compressive stresses
Fig. 3.1.3 – Thickness direction stresses
Fig. 3.1.4- Contact forces
Fig. 3.3- First mode of vibration
Fig. 4.1- Pure thermal loading
Fig. 4.2- Pure structural loading (0.2MPa)
Fig. 4.3- Pure structural loading (10000N)
Fig. 4.1.1- Beam model
Fig. 4.1.2- 3D bolted model
Fig. 4.2.1- Beam model
Fig. 4.2.2- 3D bolted model
Fig. 4.2.3- FE connectivity
Fig. 4.2.4- Contact for 3D bolted model
Fig. 5.1- Normal hole
Fig. 5.2- Free hole

ix
 LIST OF TABLES
Tab. 2.2.1- Comparison between 3D orthotropic and composite layup
Tab. 2.2.2- Comparison of directional deformations
Tab. 3.2.1- Mass comparison
Tab. 3.2.2- Fiber-directional stresses comparison
Tab. 4.1- Comparison between beam model and 3D bolted model (thermal dominance)
Tab. 4.2- Comparison between beam model and 3D bolted model (structural dominance)
Tab. 5.1- Comparison between normal and free-hole
Tab. 6.1- ROF variation and its effect on shear stresses

x
1. Introduction

Advancements in the science of composites involve the understanding of the modern fabrication
technologies coupled with the extensive studies of micro-mechanics. A preliminary
understanding of the term- composite would be ‘a matrix material with fibres reinforced in
desired directions depending on the properties to be achieved.’ Boasting off higher specific
strengths than their metallic counterparts, composite materials have been finding their rightful
place in numerous aerospace and aircraft related applications since many decades. The materials
chosen for the matrix and the fibres depend on the applications under consideration.

1.1 Problems addressed

Although the underlying aim of this summer internship was to understand and appreciate the
challenges faced by the composites division at ISRO, two specific areas were identified, which
form the two main problems addressed during this course of internship. The interested reader is
directed to Appendix 1 for gaining a detailed insight into the continuous progress and challenges
being faced by the Composites Entity, VSSC.

1.1.1 Analyses and design validation of CE-20 AR 100 NEC

Firstly, this report focusses on the prospective use of composite technology in the design of the
divergent section of the CE-20 nozzle, currently being developed at ISRO. The candidate
composite material chosen is C-C composite. Preliminary 2D analyses and design of the nozzle
body subjected to thermo-structural loads have been modelled using PATRAN 2010-(64bit) and
solved using the enabled NASTRAN solver in the CAD lab at Advanced Structures and
Composites Group, Composites Entity, VSSC, ISRO.

1.1.2 Composite-metal interface joint design: Analyses and study

Secondly, the report focusses on a widely emerging area in the field of composites: composite-
metal interface joint design. Almost, all aerospace applications call for the joining of metals and
composites. The current configuration of the CE-20 engine demands a metal-composite joining at
an area ratio of ~10 in the divergent section. Importance of joint analyses lies in the fact of it
being the potential region of structural failure. Although the directional CTEs of C-C composites
are minimal, the main thrust of the problem lies in accounting for the thermal mismatch between
the C-C part and the SS flange. Modelling a joint in the nozzle section poses an additional factor
of leak-tightness to be considered. A compressed asbestos gasket serves the purpose. Ti6Al4V

1
bolts and washers have been proposed for mechanical fastening. All analyses pertaining to this
section was done using ANSYS 14.5 FE software at HPC Lab of IIST.

1.2 Related literature

A classic explanation of the manufacturing processes and properties of carbon-carbon composites
has been given by E. Fitzer [1]. The mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of C-C
composites were understood. Specific points of importance have been enlisted in Appendix 3 for
the interested reader. An important point to be noted while modelling a C-C composite is that
none of the existent laminate theories which apply to high strain matrices, are applicable. The
prime reason being the same strain characteristics of the fiber and the matrix, both comprising of
carbon alone. In addition to this, porosity evolution over the densification cycle, needs to be
properly understood to predict the corresponding mechanical properties of the total laminate
layup. A novel approach which is quite reasonably applicable for modelling C-C composites
would be found in the following section, which does away with the above mentioned difficulty.

Extensive research on adhesive bonding, mechanical fastening and hybrid joining technologies
have been carried out by Jin-Hwe-Kweon et al [2]. High temperature applications prefer
mechanical fastening in comparison to adhesive bonding and FE modelling of bolted joint
connections have been carried out by P.J. Gray et al [3] using the global-bolted joint model
which captures bolt-clearance, pre-torque, frictional effects very efficiently for multi-bolt
connections. A novel approach to joining metals and composites is brazing. Reasonable thermal
and structural studies have been carried out by M. Singh et al [4], wherein the microstructural
properties of titanium based braze foils have been explored. Although, brazing is a promising
future technique for composite-metal joining, the involved processes need a stronger theoretical
understanding amongst the composites community for proper application of the same.

Joint design calls for an understanding of the existing failure possibilities which greatly depends
on the interface materials under consideration. A simple procedure entailing all the necessary
modes of joint failure in composite bolted connections have been efficiently dealt by Christos C.
Chamis et al [5]. An important mention in his report which may as well as be called the rule of
thumb is that the integrity of the mechanical fastener joints depends mainly on the local laminate
bearing strength, while that for adhesively bonded joints, depends mainly on the local inter-
laminar shear strength. Further description of the failure modes could be referred to in Appendix
2.

2
A classic account on determining the mathematical expression for bolt-composite boundary
contour subjected to thermal loads has already been studied by Max. L. Blosser et al [6]. This
approach holds good for 2D orthotropic materials in general, subject to assumptions of
frictionless contact and uniform CTEs throughout the material along the two directions
respectively. However, a smart extension of the same theory was made to 3D cases having
isotropic behaviour in the r- plane and a different CTE in the z-direction (axial). Designing of a
joint subjected to a thermos-structural load would mainly involve dealing with the thermal
mismatch between the metal and the composite material. All throughout the operating conditions
the defined boundary should be such that both the surfaces in contact are coincident. Thus
developing a theoretical basis for the same is seemingly difficult in the case of composite
materials due to the presence of directionalized CTEs.

1.3 Scope of the project

Objectives:

i. A first-cut validation of the C-C NEC for use in CE-20 to qualify for the given thermal
and structural loads.
ii. Comparison of different layups for the nozzle and their structural masses.
iii. Understanding the importance of SFC using turbine exhaust gas and its implications on
the oxidative environment faced by the composite.
iv. Testing and validating the hypothesis: C-C composite layup of ‘n’ layers of different fiber
orientations (‘x’ mm thickness) can be modelled as a single block of ‘x’ mm thickness
using the 3D orthotropic properties of a single layer.
v. Studying and comparing beam element and 3D bolt models for:
a. Thermal loads dominating structural loads.
b. Structural loads dominating thermal loads.
vi. Free-hole effects on the thermal scenario in a beam model.
vii. Mesh dependency study.

3
2. Practical problem description

The design of the divergent section of the CE-20 involves the concept of SFC in place of the
previously proposed dumped cooling method, wherein the exhaust H2 gases were dumped
through the annular SS section of the nozzle. The SFC concept would be realised by letting in the
TEG at supersonic speeds at the SS flange and C-C flange interface. The injection of the turbine
exhaust gases would be such that the static pressures of the TEG at entry and that of the nozzle
flow at the point of their meet, would be the same. Use of SFC concept helps in doing away with
the need of an annular casing, for dumped cooling. The need for nozzle cooling arrangement
arises from the fact that the SiC oxidative protection coating on the C-C material would not
sustain at temperatures above 1500C. Thus the hardware needs to see a much lower temperature
than the flow so as to sustain itself throughout the operation range.

2.1 What has been done so far

Detailed CFD analysis of the CE-20 was done by the analysts at LPSC Valiamala, ISRO.
Contour plots of the pressure, temperature and Mach number variation throughout the nozzle
section were presented in the corresponding report. Axial temperature variation with and without
SFC were determined as a part of their analysis. A conceptual understanding of the way in which
the heat transfer analysis was carried out can be found in Appendix 1.

The second most obvious question which arises is the need of a joining in the divergent section
of CE-20 NEC. It is known that the flow through a CD nozzle is expanding. Thus, this implies a
continual decrease in pressure and temperature along the axis from the throat till the exit plane.
Up to an area ratio of 10, the hardware temperatures are much above the safe limit which would
result in charring of the C-C layup. Thus a joint design, interfacing the C-C section and the SS
flange is of utmost importance owing to the previously mentioned problem of significant thermal
mismatch. First-cut analysis of the 3D joint model has been carried out by the FE analysts in
VSSC, ISRO. A pictorial depiction of the proposed joint is shown below:

4
 Fig 2.1.1

The proposed joint design involves a SS free hole which would account for the differential
thermal expansion of the Ti6Al4V bolt and SS flange. A 2D-CAD drawing is hereby attached for
a clear understanding of the proposed configuration.

Fig 2.1.2

The proposed design uses 72 bolts placed circumferentially on a PCD of 688.2mm for joining the
composite with the SS flange. The sequence of stacking involved is (0/+45/+45/0) for the C-
C NEC. Each layer is 0.5mm thick. The proposed design involves a thickness variation from
4mm (8 layers) to 9mm (18 layers), from the exit plane to the metal-composite interface,
respectively. Modelling the thickness variation in 3D by assigning corresponding layer properties

5
is a complex task in itself. A 2D modelling using shell elements, is in fact the universally
practised methodology for composite sections. However, joint modelling, demands a 3D
modelling of the joint region so as to account for the proper contact deformations and frictional
effects. A 3D modelling of the current joint configuration for the given practical scenario has
been done with a major assumption of modelling the composite layup as a single piece of
orthotropic material having the 3D orthotropic properties of a single C-C layer. The following
assumption has been validated as a reasonable assumption in the current study. This assumption
simplifies the modelling of thick sections of C-C composites tremendously. The thermal
variation at the joint interface is minimal as the variations for the given loading conditions range
from 613K to 620K.

2.2 Methodology adopted in this study

After having gained a basic understanding of the problem under consideration and the modelling
techniques adopted so far, the reader may now be able to appreciate the importance of the chosen
topic and the complexities associated with it. Next, we try to validate the hypothesis [1.3(iv)].
The loading conditions can be referred to in Appendix 4.

Fig. 2.2.1

6
 Fig. 2.2.2

The total deformation plots shown above are for a single piece 3D orthotropic material (Fig. 2.2.1)
and a composite layup of 18 layers (Fig. 2.2.2). The bolt has been modelled using beam elements
with a referenced circular cross-section. Both the results have pretensions present in the beam
element to simulate the clamping effect. The above results are for a composite-metal joint subjected
to a thermo-structural load. It can be observed that the additional complexity of modelling 18
separate layers can be avoided by modelling the composite as a single block having the same
properties as that of a 3D orthotropic C-C layer. A stronger justification for this statement can be
observed by closely studying the tabular values listed below.

Result Layup (18 layers) 3D orthotropic block

min max min max

Axial force (N) 199.6 201.58 200.58 202.48

Bending moment
(N-mm) 655.94 13421 839.23 13371
Max. shear stress SS
(MPa) 0.049 604.49 0.05 604.55
Max. shear stress C-C
(MPa) 0.002 7.3868 0.005 6.7361
Max. principal stress C-C
(MPa) -6.46 6.8933 -1.4569 5.095
Max. principal stress SS
(MPa) -57.259 534.82 -57.53 537.46
Tab.2.2.1

7
The highlighted entries in Tab. 2.2.1 denote the magnitudes of stresses in the composite layup.
Although different, the effective deformations, both directional and total could be very well studied
by assuming a 3D orthotropic model. The stresses experienced are benign as compared to the yield
limit of C-C composites. Plots showing layer-wise stresses can be referred to in Appendix 4.
Deformation magnitudes are listed below for comparison.

Deformation Layup (18 layers) 3D orthotropic block

min max min max
x-deformation (mm)
-0.046989 0.04699 -0.04699 0.046987
y-deformation (mm)
-0.04584 0.045133 -0.04583 0.045118
z-deformation (mm)
-0.00589 0.026193 -0.00561 0.026403
Tab. 2.2.2

Fig. 2.2.3

The orientation of x, y and z- axes for which Tab. 2.2.2 has been generated can be seen in Fig. 2.2.3.

Thus, the hypothesis [1.3(iv)] was validated using simulation results. Also the computation time
benefits are tremendous in modelling the composite as a 3D orthotropic block as can be seen from
the force-convergence plots below.

8
 Fig. 2.2.4

Fig. 2.2.5

As it can be observed; the number of sub-steps required for the convergence of the first sub-step
and also the total number of sub-steps required is much greater for the layup case as compared to
the 3D orthotropic case. Thus, this simplification has been used in all the further analyses in this
study.

9
3. C-C NEC analysis
A conservative [A4] 2D analysis of the C-C NEC using shell elements to model the laminate
layup was carried out. Research is still in progress in CCDD, CMSE division of VSSC, ISRO for
determining all the necessary material properties of C-C composites. The values used in this
study were those obtained from a Russian data-record [A4].

The pressure and temperature field data used in this analysis have been plotted below. It must be
noted hereby that the temperatures plotted are the hardware temperatures with SFC.

Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.2

10
The above graphs must be read as axial distances from the nozzle exit plane. As observed in the
pressure variation plot, the static pressure continually decreases as expected when we move from
the AR 10 to AR 100. However, there is an initial rise in pressure which can be observed to the
right of the graph. This can be attributed to the TEG entry region effects. Similarly, the
temperatures dip drastically in the regions near the entry of TEG. Also, the continual decrease in
temperature profile along the axis as we move towards the exit plane is as expected for an
expanding flow.

3.1 Proposed layup (4mm to 9mm)

The 72 bolt locations were fixed and pressure and temperature entries were given as a field data.
The analysis was carried out in the cylindrical coordinate system which can be seen in the
deformation contour plot below.

Fig. 3.1.1

The deformation magnitudes do not exceed 3.64mm over the entire C-C NEC body for the given
thermal and structural loading, subjected to fixities at the 72 bolt locations. The bolt-location
fixities simulate the practical scenario more efficiently as compared to fixing the entire surface of
the C-C flange. This is achieved by fixing the nodes at the 72 bolt locations. Node movements
were necessary to ensure nodal presence at the bolt-locations, thereby resulting in localized
element skewing. However, this had negligible effects on the overall results obtained.

11
Although, layer-wise stress and strain distributions were obtained in the solution window, the
fiber-directional stresses is what determines the ability of the structure to withstand the given
loading. Maximum fiber directional stresses (tension) and minimum fiber directional stresses
(compression) for all the 18 layers were plotted as contour plots.

3.1.1 Tensile stresses in fiber direction

The tensile stresses experienced in the warp (X) and weft (Y) directions were closely similar as
expected.

Fig. 3.1.1(a)

Fig. 3.1.1(b)

12
The maximum tensile stresses over all the 18 layers is 49.6MPa for both the warp and the weft
directions. This value is much less than 100MPa, which is the yield limit of C-C composites in
tensile loading. It must also be noted the peaking occurs at the bolt locations. The average value
of maximum fiber directional stresses observed in the nozzle body is around 6MPa.

3.1.2 Compressive stresses in fiber direction

The compressive stresses experienced in the warp (X) and weft (Y) directions were closely
similar as expected.

Fig. 3.1.2(a)

Fig. 3.1.2(b)

13
The maximum compressive stresses over all the 18 layers is -53.5MPa for both the warp and the
weft directions. This value is much less than -100MPa, which is the yield limit of C-C
composites in tensile loading. It must also be noted the peaking occurs at the bolt locations. An
important observation is that fibers in the 4mm region are never in compression, as the stress
values are always positive for these fibers.

3.1.3 Thickness direction stresses

The thickness direction stresses could not be captured as the C-C composite layers were
modelled as a 2D orthotropic material. The stress plot below confirms this and also confirms that
material orientation in layup was proper, with z-axis indicating the thickness direction.

Fig. 3.1.3

3.1.4 Contact forces

The net magnitude of the contact forces were obtained as results of the simulation. It can be
clearly visualized in Fig. 3.1.4 that the peaking of forces occurs at the bolt locations. Although
there were 72 nodes fixed, the contact force results do not show 72 bolt location peaks. The
reason lies in the element skewing discussed earlier, so as to ensure nodal presence at each bolt
location. This could be avoided and accurate peaking at each bolt location can be obtained by
seeding as many mesh seeds as the number of bolt locations, on the flange.

The peak forces noted were at 2040 N.

14
 Fig. 3.1.4

Only the C-C flange has been displayed so as to neatly study the contact results.

Thus, the proposed design was validated successfully with the following concluding remarks:

 Fiber-stresses are well within the yield limits

 Total deformation magnitudes are acceptable
 No layer additions are needed in the current design
 Conservative results obtained in this analysis could be assumed valid for the entire
operational range of the C-C NEC

3.2 Is further reduction in structural mass possible?

The proposed layup could be altered by subtracting additional layers from the design, if the new
design is able to withstand the given thermo-structural loading. The table below gives a list-down of
the corresponding structural masses.

Layup Mass (kg) Mass benefit (kg)

All 4mm 38.43 6.68
2mm to 7mm 25.90 19.21
3mm to 8mm 35.51 9.6
4mm to 9mm (proposed design) 45.11 Reference
Tab. 3.2.1

15
The maximum fiber stresses experienced by the above designs in tension and compression have been
listed below:

Layup Max. fiber tension (MPa) Max. fiber compression (MPa)

All 4mm 95.8 -85.5
2mm to 7mm 52.1 -53.8
3mm to 8mm 50.3 -53.2
4mm to 9mm 49.6 -53.5
(proposed design)
Tab. 3.2.2

Except for the ‘all 4mm’ case, rest of the designs would sustain the given loading, safely. Choosing
the ‘2mm to 7mm’ design would give a structural mass benefit of 19.21kg (Tab. 3.2.1). However,
manufacturing difficulties limit the current minimum thickness of the layup to 4mm. Handling the
carbon fabric poses various difficulties due to its highly brittle nature. Thus, thinner layup designs do
make sense but manufacturing difficulties limit the opportunities available with the designer.

3.3 Fundamental mode of vibration

Fig. 3.3

The first mode of vibration of the proposed design was found to be 19.421 Hz. This means that the
structure would start resonating when exposed to this frequency. A contour plot showing the mode
shape can be seen in Fig. 3.3.

16
4. Comparison between beam element and 3D bolted models

From an analyst’s viewpoint, it is not feasible always to go for a detailed 3D modelling in priori,
when the specific dimensions of the bolts, nuts and washers are yet in the design phase. Using
beam elements gives a reasonable joint behaviour by simulating the bending characteristics of the
3D bolt. Pretensions if any can also be incorporated in the beam element model. The frictional
effects and local deformations at the bolt-metal and bolt-composite interface demand a much
detailed 3D model.

The current study focusses on the comparison between the above mentioned models for a given
thermo-structural loading case [A4]. It must be noted hereby that although the study mentions
thermal loading; the analysis done is non-linear static structural, wherein the thermal condition
manifests itself as a mechanical load. Detailed thermal analysis of the joint interface if necessary
would be a separate future study. Shown below are the nature of contact for a pure thermal and a
pure structural loading, respectively.

Fig. 4.1

It can be observed in the ‘pure thermal’ loading case, that although the earth’s gravity was
switched on, the joint interface differentially expanded due to vast difference in CTE of SS and
C-C. Sliding contact prevails around the bolt regions. No signs of sticking contact exists. A smart
guess at this point would be an existence of a dominant sticking contact in ‘pure structural’
loading case, which can be observed in the next figure.

17
 Fig. 4.2

This contact scenario not just validates the above mentioned guess but also throws light on the extent
of structural loading. Combining the figures, Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2, would mean “thermal loads
dominating structural loads”.

A different case of ‘pure structural’ loading results in a contact scenario as shown below:

Fig. 4.3

18
Continuing the discussion on nature and extent of loading, a combination of Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.3
would mean “structural loads dominating thermal loads”. Fig. 4.3 clearly depicts a case wherein
the SS and C-C interface has opened up due to the structural loading and the only sticking
contact which remains is towards the left edge of the left bolt. Contact scenarios in a way also
help in commenting on the direction of loading. For example, in Fig. 4.3, the loading is from
right to left.

In the following sections, no pretension was given to the bolt. However, the contribution of
pretension on the total structure can be taken as a future study.

4.1 Thermal loads dominating structural loads

The detailed loading conditions can be referred to in A4. The total deformation in the solution
co-ordinate system has been plotted below.

Fig. 4.1.1

The total deformation plot in the beam element model (with cross-sectioned solids displayed)
varies to a maximum of 0.066938mm. An intuitive guess for the deformation plot of the full 3D
model would be that the maximum value is lesser than that obtained using beam element
modelling. This could be explained considering the fact that a beam element model gives greater
flexibility to the overall joint as compared to a 3D model with bolts and nuts included. However,
Fig. 4.1.2 contradicts the above mentioned guess. The maximum deformation value obtained is
0.068395mm, in a 3D bolted model.

19
 Although, the two magnitudes of total deformation obtained are comparable, the fact that a 3D
bolted connections allows for larger deformation compared to the beam model, needs a
convincing explanation. This contradiction would be revisited later in section 4.2.

Fig. 4.1.2

The symmetrical plots are a clear indication of the fact that thermal loads have dominance over the
structural loading in the present scenario. For the purpose of comparison, the following table enlists
the result values for a beam element model and a 3D bolted model.

Results Beam element model 3D bolted model

min max min max
Max. principal stress C-C -1.8695 7.2429 -0.041911 3.8947
(MPa)
Max. principal stress SS -57.34 510.74 -13.258 59.993
(MPa)
Max. shear stress C-C 0.01349 8.3132 0.0082277 2.0818
(MPa)
Max. shear stress SS 0.04789 608.61 0.0079246 71.871
(MPa)

20
 x-deformation (mm) -0.045147 0.045855 -0.046081 0.045411
y-deformation (mm) -0.047018 0.047018 -0.046156 0.046156
z-deformation (mm) -0.024444 0.0077757 0 0.031871
Tab. 4.1

In Tab. 4.1, the ‘red’ marked entries cannot be modelled using a simple beam element model.
Discrepancies in the z-deformation can be attributed to the projections along z-axis in the 3D model.
In simple words, both the problems are dissimilar in the z-direction. Stress values of SS vary
drastically as one switches from the beam model to a 3D model. This is due to the method of
establishing the FE connectivity in the case of beam element models. The two ends of a beam
element are modelled as fixed with the SS and C-C surface on the two ends. This results in highly
concentrated stress at the ends of the FE connectors, which can be visualized by refining the mesh
around the boundary. Thus, the stress values for beam models do not converge at the FE connector
fixities. This phenomenon would be further discussed in Chapter 6.

The ‘cream’ marked entries do not affect the analyses adversely, as all through the operation range
of the given problem, the stresses in the composite block are benign.

Thus, from the ‘green’ marked entries, it may be commented that both the models give similar
results in the in-plane directions for an in-plane structural loading.

4.2 Structural loads dominating thermal loads

The detailed loading conditions can be referred to in A4. The total deformation in the solution co-
ordinate system has been plotted below.

Fig. 4.2.1

21
 Fig. 4.2.2

The maximum deformation in the beam element model is 0.13023mm in comparison to 0.1275mm in
the 3D bolted model. Here, it is observed that for a structurally dominant loading the beam element
model provides greater flexibility to the structure than the 3D bolted connection. On the contrary, as
observed in section 4.1, a thermally dominant loading results in the 3D model showing a higher
flexibility over the beam element model. Both these scenarios can be explained based on the FE
connectivity between the beam element and the reference surface as shown in Fig. 4.2.3.

Fig. 4.2.3

The red connector lines in fig. 4.2.3 are responsible for establishing the joint connectivity between
the beam element and the reference surface (SS as shown). This provides an additional restraint in
the case of a thermally dominant loading, owing to the significant thermal mismatch between the

22
beam, SS and C-C. Hence, the 3D bolted model shows a greater total deformation magnitude.
However, in a structurally dominant loading case, the presence of these FE connectors aid in an
efficient transfer of the in-plane structural load across the hole. Thus, the beam element model
undergoes a larger total deformation as compared to the 3D bolted model.

The following table compares the two models for the structurally dominant loading case.

Results Beam element model 3D bolted model

min max min max
Max. principal stress C-C -3.6001 25.432 -0.55797 20.276
(MPa)
Max. principal stress SS -89.834 1914.7 -36.075 253.08
(MPa)
Max. shear stress C-C 0.007679 19.614 0.0089203 10.265
(MPa)
Max. shear stress SS 0.10638 1675 0.10793 348.4
(MPa)
x-deformation (mm) -0.12168 0.00042785 -0.12161 0.0048899
y-deformation (mm) -0.049219 0.049218 -0.050178 0.05002
z-deformation (mm) -0.027541 0.021921 -0.015371 0.047704
Tab. 4.2

Similar discussions and inferences hold for Tab. 4.2 as previously discussed for Tab. 4.1 in section
4.1. However, the ‘blue’ marked entries in the table do not match. This can be explained by studying
the contact scenario in a 3D bolted connection.

Fig. 4.2.4
23
There exists a frictionless contact between the bolt and the holed surfaces. This is absent in the beam
element model and hence minimal deformation is observed in the x-direction (the loading direction
in the present case). The 3D bolted connection deforms as soon as the contact is established, thereby
undergoing a larger deformation. Keeping, this additional limitation in mind, a beam element could
be used to model the joint behaviour even in structurally dominant loading scenarios.

Thus absence of bolt-hole contact along the thickness is one of the limitations in a beam element
model in addition to the FE connectivity issues discussed earlier. Speaking of advantages, the beam
element model can be used for modelling in-plane loading scenarios and validating the
corresponding bolt forces and bending moments. Thickness direction results essentially demand the
usage of the fuller 3D bolted model.

24
5. Concept of a free-hole

As previously observed in Fig. 2.1.2, a free-hole in the metallic component (SS flange), implies
that the bolt is maintaining contact only with the second component (here the C-C composite)
throughout the operation. The pretension ensures the clamping effect, which keeps the joint in a
bonded condition during operation. As the current study does not incorporate pretension in 3D
bolt models, the concept of free holes is thus explained using the beam element model. Detailed
information on the loading can be obtained in A4. Shown below are the total deformation contour
plots of a normal hole and a free-hole case subjected to pure thermal loading.

Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.2

25
Free-holes provide the designer with an easy option of tackling only the contact scenario between the
bolt and the composite. This reduces the complexity of modelling the practical scenario, with an
added benefit of reduced structural mass. The problem of thermal mismatch between the bolt and the
metal alloy component (here SS) is inherently solved by this practice.

The tolerance of 0.2mm, given in the normal hole can be overcome by the differential expansion of
Ti6Al4V bolts and the SS flange. However, the CTEs of C-C are negligible as compared to that of
Ti6Al4V. Hence a free-hole is made in SS. The given thermal loading case study generates the plots
shown in Fig. 5.1 and Fig. 5.2. Tabulated below are the deformations observed around the bolt-
connection area.

Hole type Minimum deformation (mm) Maximum deformation (mm)

Normal hole
0.014394 0.028788
Free hole
0.005709 0.028547
Tab. 5.1

From Tab. 5.1, it may be observed that a free-hole geometry solves the problem of interference
between SS flange and Ti6Al4V bolts. Also, the deformations observed are even lesser than that for
a normal hole.

26
6. Mesh dependency study

Although, the modelling of the bolted connections can be done using beam elements to simulate
similar pretension and bending effects; mesh dependency demands the use of a fuller 3D version.
Beam element models have FE connectors establishing joint fixity contacts at regions of interest.
These result in tremendous peaking of stresses at those locations. This peaking can be observed
below in beam element models with different rates of inflations around the holes, for the same
global mesh sizing and same loading conditions. Increasing the rate of inflation (ROF), captures
the peaking of stresses in a more pronounced manner as can be observed from the plots that
follow.

Fig. 6.1 No inflation

Fig. 6.2 ROF=1.2

27
Fig. 6.3 ROF=1.5

Fig. 6.4 ROF=1.8

Fig. 6.5 ROF=3.0

28
Tabulated below are the peak shear stresses observed in the SS block as ROF is increased from no
inflation to a value of 3.0

ROF Peak shear stress (MPa)

No inflation 390.59
1.2 615.73
1.5 1191.3
1.8 1746.7
3.0 9740.7
Tab. 6.1

It must be noted that the values from Tab. 6.1 are not meant for use in any further evaluation. The
sole purpose of this analysis is to throw light on the peaking stresses at the FE connector fixities. At
this point it may also be noted, that the above argument can be made by varying the global element
sizing as well, keeping everything else fixed. Thus, the question of mesh dependency stands void in
the beam element case, as discussed at the start of this chapter.

Now, we try to visualize the mesh dependency characteristics of a 3D bolted model. Shown below
are shear stress plots of SS in the 3D models, having different global element sizing (GES) ,
subjected to the same loading conditions.

Fig. 6.6 GES=4mm

29
 Fig. 6.7 GES=2mm

Fig. 6.8 GES=1mm

As can be observed, the current problem can be safely considered to be mesh-independent for the
3D model. Similar observations of mesh-independency were observed for the total deformations for
varying GESs.

30
7. Conclusion

A basic understanding of C-C composites was made through the course of this internship study.
Novel production methodologies were witnessed at CCDD/CMSE/VSSC, which gave a good
insight into the difficulties and challenges faced by the composite community at ISRO [A1].
Analysis of the CE-20 C-C NEC, threw light on the fact that different layup designs were
possible, which could sustain the given thermo-structural loading. This was in addition to the
validation of the proposed layup design. The simplification in assuming a 3D orthotropic material
property for any ‘n-layered’ composite layup of C-C, was validated, thereby opening a simpler
formulation of the practical problem involving C-C composites, for future analysis. A rigorous
discussion on beam element models and 3D bolted models gave an insight to the reader on the
advantages and limitations of both and also the proper conditions for their applicability. Free-
hole analysis emphasized the need of a free hole to account for the thermal mismatch between the
bolt material and the metal alloy component. Lastly, the chapter on mesh dependency study,
threw light on the fact that beam element models cannot be mesh-dependent and that the 3D
models in the current study could be considered to be mesh dependent.

31
8. Recommendations

Recommendations for future work arrived at from this study are listed below as bullets.

 3D modelling the C-C NEC using a FE software module which supports thick composite
layup modelling. The results could be compared with that of the 2D analyses done in this
study
 Material orientation issues for assigning the 3D orthotropic properties to the element were
faced while modelling the C-C NEC geometry. Any further research on this area demands
from the analyst, a pre-requisite knowledge of the same in the FE software being used.
 The most crucial part involved in the modelling of composite structures, or for that matter
any structure made of a material other than an isotropic material; is defining and verifying
the proper material orientation. Unless this is done properly, one would end up with a
GIGO-Garbage In Garbage Out.
 While applying field data, it must be ensured that the data is being applied in the intended
co-ordinate system.
 A good practice is to always model your component in the global co-ordinate system.
This saves tonnes of manipulations when the CAD file needs to be exported to some other
software. All software by default export data in their respective global co-ordinate
system.
 A wise choice must be made of the results of your interest, which would finally appear in
your analysis report. As a qualitative example, plotting the layer-wise Von-Mises stress
for a composite layup is of no further use to the reader. Instead a plot of the layer-wise
fiber-directional stresses can have immense use for the intended reader.
 While performing a 3D mesh, one must avoid using tetra elements unless need be. The
reason for this statement is that many material orientations could be easily done in the
elemental co-ordinate system. However, the elemental co-ordinate system of a tetra
element would be oriented randomly as the elements themselves are randomly oriented.
 For having an efficient isoparametric mapping, the quad elements in 2D must have an
aspect ratio close to 1.
 This may sound out of place, but never add nodes in an already meshed structure, for the
sake of ensuring a nodal presence. A node belongs to an element which has already been
formed during the mesh. The FE equations are solved at the nodes by taking in the
material properties imprinted on the element. An isolated node means nothing and would

32
 do nothing. Instead move nodes or else change the mesh seeding for ensuring a nodal
presence at the desired location.
 Incorporating the adhesive layers in between the composite layers while modelling the 3D
layup would be necessary while modelling for bonded connections. Inter-laminar stresses
vary depending on the presence and absence of the adhesive. High temperature bolted
connections may not need the adhesive modelling as bearing failure dominates the inter-
laminar failure.
 The current study modelled the layup as layers bonded together. Although this simulates
the practical scenario reasonably well, a model accounting for the frictional contact
between the layers is necessary.
 Future work on modelling frictional contact faces between the bolt and the holed region.
 Future work on modelling pretension in 3D bolted connections.

33
 9. APPENDICES

Appendix 1

Challenges faced by CCDD/CMSE/VSSC:

CCDD- Carbon-Carbon development division in Composites Entity, VSSC is actively involved with
the production of carbon-carbon composites for use in ISRO applications. The process undertaken at
this facility are chemical vapour infiltration, carbonization and graphitization. Given below are short
explanations of the processes mentioned herein.

Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI): As the name suggests, CVI involves infiltrating the carbon
fabric with carbon. The pyrolysis of methane with nitrogen as the carrier gas at a temperature of
1100C, results in a chemical infiltration process, wherein the carbon forms the matrix with
hydrogen as a by-product. At the end of the process, also known as densification cycles, the carbon-
carbon matrix is formed which is further sent for density and porosity testing.

Carbonization: This process as the name suggests results in a final composite with only carbonaceous
components. All non-carbonaceous components are vaporized during carbonization.

Graphitization: This process affects primarily the micro-structure of the CVI densified composite.
The process temperatures are usually around 2800C. The furnace used in graphitization is also
known as VIF (vapour induction furnace).

All the above processes deeply involve concepts of chemical engineering. Diffusion kinetics need to
be understood theoretically so as to model the CVI process before practical operation.

One important problem with the current CVI process which follows the isobaric process is that the
deposition of carbon on the porous carbon fabric prevents the infiltration of carbon vapours. This
problem limits the effective densification thickness which can be achieved. A novel approach to this
is the thermal gradient CVI process. This ensures densification without any restriction on the
maximum thickness achievable.

The porosity evolution characteristics in a C-C composite needs a proper numerical modelling as this
significantly effects the mechanical properties of the composite.

34
Many more challenges are currently being faced which didn’t find mention in this description due to
lack of adequate supporting data.

Heat transfer methodology adopted:

The C-C NEC was assumed to be an adiabatic surface. This resulted in obtaining adiabatic wall
temperatures at all the nodes. The nozzle is now modelled as an isothermal surface and the
corresponding heat flux is obtained by taking the difference between the adiabatic wall temperature
and the isothermal wall. An assumption involved in this analysis is that the heat transfer coefficient
is independent of temperature in the given range of operation. Finally, the heat transfer coefficient
obtained from previous isothermal wall analysis can be further used for finding the hardware wall
temperature.

Appendix 2

Types of failure modes observed in a bolted composite connection and their descriptions.

 Local Bearing: Characterized by a local laminate compressive failure caused by the bolt
diameter which tends to crush the composite material. The requisites needed to design this
failure mode are:
a. Bolt diameter
b. Laminate thickness
c. Laminate compressive strength parallel to the bolt force
 Net tension: Characterized by “net tension” laminate fracture. Requisite variables required to
design against this failure mode are:
a. Net section width (w-d)
b. Laminate thickness
c. Laminate tensile strength
 Wedge-Type splitting: Characterized by laminate splitting which starts at the local bearing
point and propagates to the free edges. Requisite variables needed to design against this
failure mode are:
a. Bolt diameter
b. Laminate thickness

35
 c. Edge distance
d. Laminate transverse tensile strength
 Shear-Out: Characterized by shear-out part of the laminate ahead of the bolt. The requisite
variables needed to design against this failure mode are:
a. Edge distance
b. Laminate thickness
c. Laminate shear strength
 Tension with shear-out: Characterized by part net-section and part shear. The requisite
variables needed to design against this failure mode are:
a. Laminate thickness
b. Net section dimension (w-d)
c. Edge distance
d. Laminate tensile strength
e. Laminate in-plane shear strength

Several other factors influence composite bolted design. These could be referred to in [5].

Appendix 3

C-C composites as a TPS (Thermal protection system)

Carbon-carbon composites mean a carbon fibre reinforcement in a matrix of carbon. Carbon fibres
were previously being used as reinforcements as a better option to the boron fibres. Aptly termed as
‘advanced structural composites’ owing to high strength, high modulus properties in comparison to
the existing fibre reinforcements of boron, glass, etc. C-C composites efficiently dealt with the
mechanical deficiencies faced by other reinforcements in extreme thermal scenarios such as during
that of a re-entry mission. Minimal variation in mechanical properties with temperature qualifies C-C
as a potent contender for high-temperature composites.

C-C composites have been termed as ‘thermal protection system’ due to the reasons listed below.

• Retention of strength at high temperature

• Light weight and high specific strength and specific stiffness

• Low co-efficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and low co-efficient of moisture expansion
(CME)
• Good heat resistance
36
 • High heat of ablation

• Process ability of C-C

• Feasible oxidizing coating
• Increasing strength with increasing temperature

Key to the strength and stiffness of carbon fibers:

All the unique properties of carbon fibres can be directly attributed to the highly anisotropic nature
of the graphite crystal. In the plane of the sheets, the carbon atoms are linked by covalent bonds with
a strength of 400 kJ/mol which are created by the sp2 hybridization of the electron orbitals. When
loaded in crystallographic direction, the theoretical tensile modulus of graphite is 1060 GPa and a
tensile strength of 106 GPa should be possible.

However the transverse mechanical properties are poor owing to the weak Vander Waal’s bonding
between the graphene layers. Suppose a carbon fibre was made from infinitely large poly-aromatic
layers of elemental carbon arranged in the ideal graphite structure, it would fail in compression
because of the weak bonds between the graphene layers.

Instead of infinitely large crystallographic graphitic layers, researchers have found that small sized
poly-aromatic layers, containing disclinations and deviating from perfect preferred orientation, lead
to improved tensile and compressive properties in carbon fibres. Such structures are termed as
turbostratic.

Mechanical properties of C-C composites:

The mechanical properties of advanced composites are usually related to the properties, volume
fraction and direction of the fibres relative to the direction of applied stresses. Considering these
factors, the mechanical properties of polymer matrix composites or in a broader sense, of ductile
matrix composites are calculated by simple rule of mixture. However, in C-C composites, the matrix
has a failure strain of less than 0.5%, which is lower than that of fibres. Consequently, theories of
reinforcements which have been developed for commercial composites with high-strain matrix
systems and strong fibre/ matrix bonding do not apply to C-C composites.

However, the above mentioned reinforcement theories could be applied for C-C composites by
taking into consideration a correction term. First-cut analyses could be very well performed by

37
assuming the C-C composite structure to follow the reinforcement theories for high-strain matrix
systems. Classical Laminate Theory (CLT) is widely used as a reinforcement theory.

The processing route involved in the manufacture of the C-C composite is responsible in determining
the mechanical properties to a great extent. This due to the variation in the fiber/ matrix bonding and
matrix structure, both of which are process dependent. Although the processes are same at the basic
conceptual level, the methodology adopted for carrying out the same, differs owing to the processing
conditions adopted by the individuals. Adequate literature data for providing a theoretical basis,
validating the empirical results should be made available for future research. This step would be
important from both the production and design point of view.

Thermal properties of C-C composites:

Thermal properties of a solid material are generally controlled by two mechanisms:

• Electron charge cloud drift

• Lattice vibrations (phonons)

In phonon mode of transport, the thermal conductivity or thermal diffusivity is directly proportional
to the mean free path of the phonons. It has been found experimentally that the conduction of
electrons is not effective above 10K, while phonon interaction (Umklapp scattering) is effective at
higher temperatures. This proves the dominance of phonon scattering at intermediate temperatures at
crystal boundaries or defects.

The thermal conductivity in graphite is dominated by the layer plane conduction. The crystallite size
and the orientation of the layer planes determine the absolute magnitude of thermal conductivity. For
highly ordered graphite the thermal conductivity parallel to the basal planes can be two orders of
magnitude higher than those in the perpendicular direction. This ratio changes with the structural
order in graphite.

 Lower temperatures result in mean free paths equal to the crystallite size of the crystal. Also
the phonon concentrations are low.
 Thermal conductivity rises with increasing temperature as a square of the absolute
temperature and reaches a maximum at the dielectric maxima. The temperature is around
180K for pure graphite and higher for less ordered graphite.
 Umklapp scattering dominates above 180K, resulting in a decrease in both, the mean free
path and thus the thermal conductivity.

38
  Thermal conductivity values for graphite vary based in the extent of graphitization, resulting
in anisotropy as well as temperature.

All the above mentioned mechanisms can be very well applied to C-C composites, as both, the
fiber and the matrix is composed of graphite.

However, owing to the heterogeneous nature of the composite due to fibers, matrix and the pores, the
phonon scattering increases due to the increase in the number of components. Thus the thermal
conductivity is affected. The shape, size and extent of porosity can vary depending on the processing
route, constituents and conditions involved.

A take away from this elaborate discussion would be that although the thermal properties of C-C
composites are complex, a material with tailor made thermal properties can be fabricated by the
proper choice of constituents, their configuration and processing conditions.

Thermal expansion in C-C composites:

In C-C composites, reinforcement direction properties are controlled by the reinforcing fibers
whereas the matrix and porosity influence the perpendicular direction thermal expansion properties.
Composites heated upto the graphitization temperature show a lower thermal expansion in both warp
and weft directions. Anisotropy content of the composite is controlled by the fiber volume fraction
which also boosts the thermal expansion in both the directions. Shrinkage cracks also have a notable
influence on the CTE.

Narrowing of the pores and an increase in the fiber volume fraction is known to show an increase in
thermal expansion in the perpendicular direction. This has a significant influence in cases where the
user in interested in establishing the perpendicular direction properties, much needed for a joint
design.

Thermal Shock Resistance of C-C composites

Thermal shock resistance of a material is an additional required material thermal property of material
required for structural applications at high temperature, specifically under cyclic varying temperature
conditions.
Theoretically calculated as:

𝑠. 𝑘
𝐸. 𝑎

39
Where ‘s’ is the tensile strength, ‘k’ is the thermal conductivity, ‘E’ is Young’s

Modulus and ‘a’ is the coefficient of thermal expansion. Thermal shock fracture toughness is
calculated as follows:

𝐾𝑖𝑐 . 𝑘
𝐸. 𝑎

𝐾𝑖𝑐 is the critical stress intensity factor for plane strain case.

Mechanical Properties at High Temperature

C-C composites are known to show enhanced mechanical properties and changed fracture behaviour
at elevated temperatures (~increase in strength and stiffness by 10%-60% above 1000 C). This
phenomenon could be attributed to the factors mentioned below:

• Annealing of gross defects

• Closure of stress distributed micro-cracks due to thermal expansion of fibers and matrix

The decrease in the tensile and compressive moduli above 1600C, could be explained based on the
symmetric potential curve of graphite crystals. The average atomic distance increases with increase
in temperature thereby resulting in a decrease in modulus.

The discussion above holds good for unidirectional, bidirectional and multidirectional reinforced C-
C composites made with continuous fibers or felt and liquid- as well as gas- phase- derived carbon
matrix. In comparison with other structural materials, C-C composites exhibit exceptionally high
specific strengths at all temperatures.

The point of importance which needs to be taken from this discussion is that the structural changes
at higher temperatures influence the stress transfer mechanisms in the composite.

Effect of oxidation

C-C composites are highly susceptible to oxidation at elevated temperatures. Reliable performance
analysis of the composite material demands a detailed report on the thermal and mechanical property
variation due to oxidation. Preferential attack of oxygen on the less ordered carbon sites at matrix
rich regions, bundle/ bundle interfaces, or fiber/ matrix interfaces would accordingly alter the thermal
and mechanical properties. Porosity increase results in a decrease in the thermal conductivity.

40
Appendix 4

I. Loading conditions for validating the hypothesis 1.3(iv)

Layup test loading

The thermal loading was given as a ramp from 0K to 400K. Frictional contact given between SS and
C-C with a frictional coefficient of 0.3. The 18 layers were given bonded interface condition.

II. 3D bolt loading condition.

All other conditions remain same as in the beam model except that there is no pretension
accounted for. The fixed support also includes the faces of the bolt on the C-C side.
III. Loading conditions for comparing beam and 3D bolt models.
Thermal ramp is from 293K to 400K. Rest conditions remain the same.
IV. Thermal/ structural dominant loads.
The thermal dominant loading cases have a -0.2MPa pressure applied along the x-
direction on in the bolt co-ordinate system
The structural dominant loading cases have a -10000N force applied along the x-direction
on SS in the bolt co-ordinate system.

Shown below are the layer-wise stress distribution in the composite layup modelled for a
0.2MPa structural loading with a ramped thermal loading from 0K to 400K.

41
 Minimum principal stress (layer-wise)
1
18
0
17
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-1 16
15
-2
Stress (MPa)

14
-3 13
12
-4
11
-5 10
9
-6
8
-7 7
Time (s)

Maximum principal stress (layer-wise)

10
18
9
17
8 16
15
7
14
6
Stress (Mpa)

13
5 12
11
4
10
3 9
2 8
7
1
6
0 5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
4
Time (s)

42
The data used for modelling the C-C composite is as shown below:

C/C PROPERTIES (2D With Stitching) Tested at M/s KOMPOZIT, Russia with their material
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Temperature, K 293 773 1273 1773 2273 2773
-3
Young’s modulus in thickness direction EZ. 10 , MPa 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
Young’s modulus in warp and weft directions
7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.6 6.4
EX. 10-4, MPa
Thermal expansion coefficient in thickness direction
2.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.0
Z. 106, K-1
Thermal expansion coefficient in warp and weft
- 0.35 0.55 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.0
directions X. 100, K-1
Interlaminar shear modulus G. 10-3, MPa 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0
Tensile strength in warp and weft directions, MPa 120 120 120 140 130 120
Tensile strength in thickness directions, MPa 6 6 6 7 7 -
Compressive strength in warp and weft directions,
90 90 90 110 100 90
MPa
Compressive strength in thickness directions, MPa 100 100 100 110 100 -
ILSS, MPa 8 8 8 10 12 -
Inplane shear strength, MPa 25 25 25 30 25 -
Inplane shear modulus, GPa 2 2 2 2 2 -
Flexural strength in warp and weft directions, MPa 130 130 140 150 150 140

C/C PROPERTIES (2D With Stitching) Tested at M/s KOMPOZIT, Russia with their material

THERMAL PROPERTIES

Temperature, K 293 773 1273 1773 2273 2773

Thermal conductivity in thickness
5.10 6.40 7.80 9.20 10.50 11.60
direction, w/(m.k)
Thermal conductivity in warp and weft
8.50 10.00 11.50 13.25 14.85 15.90
direction, w/(m.k)
Specific Heat, J/(kg. K) 650 1590 1920 2020 2090 2130
Emissivity 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

It had been mentioned that the C-C NEC analysis was a conservative analysis due to the fact that
extreme CTEs were taken for modelling the nozzle as field entries of material properties was not
possible in the PATRAN 2010 version being used for analyses.

43
The data used for modelling the bolt and the SS are as follows:

Properties of SS, Ti6Al4V and Fire ply

Stainless Steel Ti6Al4V Compressed

Property
(321) Asbestos Sheet
Source From Literature
Density (g/cc) 7.9 4.43 2.12
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 193 114 -
@RT : 585
@1000C : 525
@RT : 896
@3000C : 405
@1500C : 845
Ultimate Tensile Strength (Mpa) @5000C : 380 9.50
@2600C : 758
@6000C : 335
@3700C : 690
@8000C : 175
@10000C : 60
Yield Strength (MPa) 240 827 -
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) @1000C : 16.3 6.6 -
Specific Heat (J/kg K) 500 565 -
0 to 1000C : 9.0
0 to 3150C : 9.5
Co-efficient of Thermal
0 to 1000C : 17.2 0 to 5380C : 10.1 -
Expansion (CTE) (μm/m/ K) 0
0 to 6480C : 10.6
0 to 8160C : 11.0

44
 10. References:
1] “Carbon Reinforcements and Carbon/Carbon Composites”, E. Fitzer, L. M. Manocha., Springer
(1998)

2] Jin-Hwe-Kweon, Jae-Woo Jung, Tae-Hwan Kim, JinHo Choi and Dong-Hyun Kim, “Failure of
carbon composite-to-aluminium joints with combined echanical fastening and adhesive bonding,”
Composite Structures 75 (2006), pp. 192-198.

3] P.J. Gray and C.T. McCarthy, “A global-bolted joint model for finite element analysis of load
distributions in multi-bolted composite joints,” Composites Part B: Engineering, Volume 41, Issue 4,
June 2010, pp. 317-325.

4] M. Singh, T.P. Shpargel, G.N. Morscher and R. Asthana, “Active metal brazing and
characterization of brazed joints in titanium to carbon-carbon composites,” Materials Science and
Engineering, A 412 (2005), pp. 123-128.

5] Christos C. Chamis, “Simplified Procedures for Designing Composite Bolted Joints”, NASA
Technical Memorandum 100281, 43rd Annual Conference of the Society of the Plastics Industry,
Cincinnati, Ohio, February 1-5, 1988.

6] Max L. Blowser and Robert R. McWithey, “Theoretical basis for design of thermal stress free
fasteners”, NASA Technical Paper 2226 (1983).

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