2 Water Supply the probable population for the city A in 1995. IF the per capita water consumption (average ) is estimated to be 100 gallons per ay, determine the capacity (in mgd ) for which the water.vorks for the city Ais to be designed. And 10% for fie requitement. Buet, 2 Gy [Yarns] ios | bss | a) Is | IoO Sara 1 Population 21,600 27,500 45,400 4516.0 $2120. 61,500 aioon 71,000. 0/000 9400 664300 74,000 491600 $6,500 68,200 36.000 23/000 36.000 46,000 32,510 48,800 21,000 25,800 | 6,000 10,500, the probable population in 1990 by the following methods (4), Grapsical extension and (+) Empirical method. BUET, 70 ‘Year [1930 1940 1950 19601970 “TE Tabulated below are the census Hautes tors town Ta Hanalar ‘desh for the period 19300 197) Estimate th: population for 2000 by the east square parabola method. BUET, 65. Yer: 193019401950” 19601970 Population : 280 280 33.8 «$5.8 802 ‘Whousands) 14 Whar are the various classes of water uses ? Give the normal range and the average water comvumption rate for each ‘of there closer 15. Caloulate the average, maximum and minimum daily ‘consumption of water for a city with a design population of 0-5 million. BUET, 1972. 12, The population dava for a city i supplied below. Calculate 3 GROUND WATER 34 Tateodaction : Ground water forms the major portion of carth’s fresh water supply: About 91% of the earth's fresh rater supply is stored in the underground formations. With the increase ia population, the demand for water is also increasing throughout the world Elective managemeat of ground water system js essential {3 mest the increasing demand for water. Ground water ean be used as a reliable source of water supoly irespective OF the climate, Ta the monsoon areas of South—East Asia, ground water may become en important source of supply especially for irigation purposes in the dry mosths. An assured supply of ‘water ean be obiained from the underground sources even in the tise areas if the system is properly designed and maintained. the New Valley Project of Egypt is ood example of proper ne of ground water where surlace watsr was not avaliable. There ire numerous such examples. 949; ofall the wateroworks use ground: water and they supply 779% ofthe total water consumed. Ground water is a vital source of water supply, especially in seu where dry summers of extended droughts eause stream flow (0 Stop. Both the surface water and ground water sources are depen {iat ofeach other. Many surface streams reosive a major portion, fof their flow from ground water, Elsewhere, water ffom the surface \ecams is the main source of recharge for the ground water. The tivo. sources of supply are definitely interrelated, and use of one woay affect the water available ftom the other soures, Both surface rin) ground water problems should be considered together in. planning forthe development of water supply systems.4 Water Supply Ground water is a vitel source of water supply for Banelades®, Bangladesh is almost entirely underlain by water bearing formations -at_depths varying. from 2e70 to forty fet below the ground surface (Fig 3.1). Almost entire supply of drinking water and a large part of the irrigation water come from the underground. sources ‘There are about 186,000 Govt hand-pomp tubewells ia. the rural aceas of Bonnlaesh, Resides, there are large diameter tubewlls Jn the munieipal acess nnd. mimerout Privately owned tubewells, Moreover, thers are many large diameter deep tubewells owned bY the Agricltaral Developmest Corporation for irigation purposes ail over Bangladesh, History ofthe water wols i. old a8 the history of ground Water ites Eayptians. were. known to have used walls 2100 B C. Wells ore also known to have been used at remote periods in ancient Greece, Kalv and fndia, and artesian wells were sunk in China in very early times. Ancieht China posiesies the doopest well nthe world and it-was Keown to be 1300 ft desp, In ancient Greece, tay, Egypt and india eep wells ws deep as 300 f were ustd 1 coliez ground water for various purposes, 32 Sources of Ground Water : The following are the major sources of ground water + Metcorie water, Conaate Water and Suverille Water, ‘Meteorie Water : This includes rain, sleet, sow, hall, and other forms of precipitation. A total of about. 26,000 cuble miles of water fall'on he continzats ics year, It is this water which {lls the solland upper crost ofthe earth, Tithe most important source of water used by man, Gonte Water : This isthe seawater or fesh winter trapped in sediments when they are deposited on sex bottoms or lakes, Since most sediments originats in sea water, icis usually salty, 118 ‘this source which supplies water found deeper in sedioeatary trata fof the crust. Connats Water. often found in rook unite with oie This ol floats om it ad rises upward until it trapped. “uyenille Water ( Magmatic Water ): This water is produced from valetnie and magmatic activity sad during the prosesees of crystallization of rock molecules, Te is hard to determine how must fof this water is coming to the sutfags ofthe earth at present. Many Volcanoes are located under Water, and many more are ound around the margins ofthe oceans. Te maybe Wat large part of the water ats into the volcanic. vents from the ground or oceans. More than 90 per cent of all materials coming out of voleanoes is steam, Te has not yet been possible tostimate how much of this water that has been recycles back into the volcano from the surface Ground Water as 33 Need for Proper Development and Management of Gromoe Waier Resources: While some ground-water reservoirs are being replenished Year after year by inflation from previpitation, river anuls and so on, other ate being replenished to much eset degrees or not at all, Extraction of water ffom those latter reser voirs results in the continued depletion or mining of the water, Fie, 3 Depth of Groundwater in Bangladesh Measured from Ground Surface (Note : Contour Interval : 4f0) Scale; 1"—48 mile46 Worer Suppyy Ground water also often seeps into streams, thus providing the tow Gow (base flow) that is sustained through the dtiest period of the year, Conversely, if the surface water levels in streame are higher than those in ground-water reservoir, then seepage takes in the opposite direction, from the streams into the ground-water recerirs Uneontolled use of ground water can, therefore, affect ‘the levels of sims and lakes and consequently the uses to which they are normally pu Ground. water development presents special problems. The lack ‘of so'wions to these problems have, ia. the past, contributed to the ‘mysery that surrounded ground-water development andthe Kimited tse fo which ground water has beon put. The proper development and management of ground-water resoureesrequites @ knowledge of the extent of storage, the rates of discharge from and recharge to ‘underground reservoirs, and the use of economical means of exirac- tion, Itmay be nacesary to devise artificial means of recharsing ‘hese reservoirs where no natural soutses exis! oF to supplement the Research has, ia resent years, considerably natural rechars Jnereastd our Kaowlegde of the processes invalved inthe origin and ‘movement of ground watet and has provided us with beter methods fof development and conservation of groundwater supplies. Evidence of this inerazed knowledge is to be found in the greater “emhssis being placed on ground-water development. 34 Origin, Occarrence and Movement of Ground Water : An. tundetstanding of the processes and factors afeciay the origin, fecourrence, and movement of ground water is eseatisl to the ‘proper development and .ase of groundavater resomces. Of ‘importance in determinating a satisfactory rate of extraction and suitable uses ofthe water are knowledge of the quantity of water preset, its origin, the diection and rate of movement 10 its point fof discharge, the discharge rate and tho rate at which it is boing feplenished, and the quality of the water. These points are consi ‘dered inthis chapter in as simpliled and limited a form as the aims and scope ofthis book permit, A Ground Water 7 Hydrologic Cycle. The hydrotonic eysle is the name siven to ‘he circulation of water fn is liquid, vapour or solid state from the ‘oceans to the ar, air to land, over the land surface or underground, and back (the oveans (Fig. 32) Evaporation, taking place at the water aufaos of oceans and ‘ther open bodies of water, reslts in the transfer of water vapour to the atmosphere, Under certain conditions this water vapout condenses (0 form clouds whieh subsequently release smoistuce as precipitation inthe form of rain, hail, sleet, or sao. Precipitation may occur over the oscans returning some ofthe water slieetly to them or over land to waich winds have previously trans. Porated the moisture-laden aie and clouds, Part of she ran falling to the earth evaporates with immediate return of moisture to the atmosphere. OF the remainder, some, upon reaehing the ground surface, wets it and runs off into Surface streams finally discharging jn the ocean while another past infiltrates io the ground and thea pereolates to the ground.vatee flow through which it later reacnes he ocean. Evaporation returns some of the water from the wet land.surface tothe atmosphere while plants extract some of that portion in the soil through their roots ant by process known as tenvspiration, retuen it through th leaves to the atmosphere Reg occa oy, vapor ati eaier Sac acter inf ep SS eg eet eae Fig. 32 Hydrologic Cyete—— = «6 Water Supply Subsurface water found in be divided into 040 main zones lon. ‘Subsurface Distrbaton of Water the intersies or pores of rocks #89 ea (Fig 3). These are the zone of aeration and the zone of ae es or : on rrr CTT vig, 39 Schonotc Diagram Isatig th Oscense of torn Gea “the zone of aeration extends from the land Zone of Aeration: ree athe level at which all of the pores or open spaces ia the suriace to the level Me vari materials are completly filed cr saturated with water ature of az and water is fo be found inthis zone pores and Renee vet muy be subdivided into three belts. These are (0) the {Q) the intermediate belt and (3) we capillary ble of soil water, ining. ee “The Belt of Soll Water les immediately bslow the surface and 8} extract, by theit roots, the moistare st raion om wih lass eae ickness of the belt differs greatly with] sway for owt The Thongs ofall ane vez00, 2 aed cop area to sve fect in flores ah land svonoring depot las canary Evia osc ho baton pron of thereof en aT mnt nove he one of saturation 1 ti a otha Toe wa nhs el i sspendd Of nich cute we 10 tI Soir foes simian to thone wh a lary tube above teteel of the water in a gta te tabe haben laced yh The oarowet fangng from afew fet in gram Ground Water Fe tobe of the pore, the higher the water rises, Hence, the thickness fof the belt depends upon the texture of the roek or soll and may bo practically 220 whore the pores ere large. ‘The Intermediate Belt Hos between the bolt of coil water and the capillary fringe, Most ofits water reaches it by gravity drainage lownward tsroush the belt of soil water, The water in this belt fs called in Intermediate (vadose) water. Zone of Saturation ; Immediately below the zone of acration lies the zone of saturation in which the pores are completely filled or saturated with water. The wate i the zone of saturation is known ss Ground Water and isthe only from of subsurface water that_wil flow readily into well, The object of well coxstruction is to pevetrate the earth into this zone with a tube, the bottom section ‘of which has openings which are sled such as to permit the inflow ‘of water from the zone of saturation but to exclude its rock particles. Formations which contain gfound water and will readily yield it to wll ae called agers. TImpervions formations or strstaare termed ss aguielades, ‘Aquislues ste hard, compact and cemented rocks euch as limestones fund related ealeareous rocks, sates, sandstones and conglomaraes, arate, slats, schists, granites and gness, They contain very litle round. water ‘The amount of ground water which can be obtsined in eny ates Aepends on the character of the underlying aquifer and the extent tnd the feeqneney of recharge. The capacity of an aquifer to contain, Water is measured by porcsity ofthe formation. Pores vary in size fiom micosoopio openings in clay and shale to large encerns, fiscturcs, joints, faults and tunnels inJimestones and tava. ‘The Table 3.1 indicates the variation in porosity for the more common mation materials,eo Water Sipply Table 3.1 Approximate Average Porosity, Speci Yield, and Permeability of Various Formation Materials. itis | Porat, | Spwete Viel) Poomeakiiy [ives 1 Vy sier (ames 00 os ee 15.000 Gert and sind FA 6 oa Ssndeone is : 700 Limestone and slate 3 Bi. |, aby Quarzte, pra, site| > schist, and geciss | aos Ou A high porosity does not indicat that an aquifer will yield lage volumes of wate a well. The only water which can be ‘obtained from the aquifer is that which will flow by gravity, 35 Types of Aquiers + Ground-wator aquifers may be cased a ether water table or artesian aquifers, A Water-ale aquifer is one which is not confined by en uppes impermeable lnyet. Hence, its atso called sn uscontned. aquifer. ‘Water in these aquifers is vicually at atmospheric pressure and the upper surface of the zone of saturation is called the water. table (Fig, 3.3). The water table marks the highest level to which water will rss in a yell constructed in a water table aquifer, aquifer in Fig. 3.4 isan example of a watertable aquifer ‘An artesian aquifer is one in which the water is confined under pressure greater than atmospheric by an overlying, relatively ypermeable layer, Hence, such aquifers are also called confined ‘or pressure aquifers, The name artesian owes its origin to. Artis, ‘he northernmost province of Francs, whore the first deep wells to tapeonfined aquifers wers Known to have been driled, Ualike ‘watertable aquifers, water in artesian aguifece will rise in wells $0 levels above the bottom of the upper confining layer. ‘This is because of the pressure created by thet confining layer and is the stngsishiag The upper ture between the two types of aquifers, Groind Water a joary sion which waer wile. wo ase cos outa an aroha agate ale he Peromee Sur tc ht fre ay be sr bot of_ tlw zm iment pats ofthe same. ager as showin Mess Wie the pitomtie fee en above te sound nfs, a well tapping the aquifer will flow at ground level and Wrcted Yoav Hvis wel, Wie th ptomsic vnc es tow the Bound surice a toobwng. sce we ; ‘suits and some 1s of lifting water, such as a pump, are ee ie to oman water fom the well, Tt is worthy of fo ae ‘that the earlier usage of the term artesiag wil Icceed niyo be Abwing pe whe ita wns ies ‘ct owing nd aoedoving wet poet he ae te ‘Malte above the botiom of he cofing ger HS top of te aguier Aopen ves reste wet / Wi AM Yi) mt LLL Fig2.8 TYPES OF AQUIFERS. a ea san! sraco ant He exp (tS. SokWater Surp7 cing unconfined, would be of tte watertable type AVISiSS ae ee rider om Ye: UBS 2 ey esand at interes wi ber age He te onto ich at at oun I auterFunctigs 2 The openings and pores ia 8 war ng Remaion may be considered. a8 a network of fteconeeted voece uhrough which water dows ak rry slow rat, sion 00% Than a fow fect per a3, 0 ars ol SGincharge, This network of pipes, therefo to provide Gor storage and flow or condal fonctions in an aque. from areas of eb 1g2 fopction of 3am and specific Storage Fusction: Related 10 the sto aguiter are two important properties Known a5 pores yield. : formation is that percentage ‘The porosity of a waterboaringf of the total volume of the formation which comsists of openings of ce For example, the poroniy of one ti foot of snl Ginich contains 0.25 cubic foot is 25 per cent Wee peace. evident tat poroy is an index of he amount seed water: that can be sored in a satartc) formation ‘of open 7208 ‘ie that may be taken fom a ctewated formation w Jess than that which 1 olds ctf oot spent bythe porosity Tals quantity isd rare operey Known as the apse yield and defn-d 38 ihe er aaiee ranard fom 2 usk yolumé of the adi so ral when allowed to drain freely by evi material Water not removed by gravity drainage ts beld OY ral 3! aptly frings and by “hilary forees such op found ia the capil re is called the specie rotation ead as 8. dexioal fraction ‘the amount of water yeilded” by ais] Toe renaiing ther forces of atiraction fike the specific yield, may be expressed Mee Soups. Ax dened, parodiy i, therefor, equal (0 rer che epee lela and the speelde reenlon, AB 2avi8h srry a porcaly of O25 ot 25, pat cent ead & spsride it wih r't0 percent would, therefore, have = apeciTe. retention ——— Ground Woter 3 or 0159 18per est, One milion cabo fet of seh an sie Mond conte 250600 cai fet of wate of whi 10,00 eb Tetsu aye by ara eee Condition "The peony of an ont fnson kag he ee Temeshty is menue. of te cpa of an agar to von fi 1 Rit ish fene and vey 7 Ramen i ptsude lamina or onctblnt on i se Toea ty gaion town a Dass's Law (Aer Hee oa ie te ger mh deere y= Kit an vie Vi te wba off In et eda, Ty is the prorat the pot of exec (0 te soon a pe unicorn tof ates, re is ate. presatre at the Foint of exit of the same section in fect of water, 1 isthe lenth of the section of ripe in feet, ond "is 's constant known, a5 the eoeflent of peraeablity but ‘often referred to simply as the permeability, aquifer related its Ug. 35) Faquation 3.1 may be modiied Y=KS where S= B7Ms + and is called the hydra gradient, The quantity of flow per unit of time through a given cross onal area may be oblained from Fig, 32.by multiplying the locity of flow by that area. Thus, AVEKAS @3)a ‘Water Supply ‘where Q_ isthe quantity of fow per unit of tine and A. isthe eross-sectional area, ‘Based on Bq,33 the encfficient of permeability, may, there fore be defined as the quantity of water thet will flow throught etional xfea of porous material jn unit time under # yy (or S=0) at a specified temperature Seuatly taken as 60°F. Ta. ground water problems, Q is usally Trpresed in gallons per 4sy (apd), Ain. square fee s0 Snel, therefore, in gallons per day per square foot ( spd.fsa ft ) se confit of petmenbilily can also be expressed in the met~ fie sytem wsiog unis of fits per day per square meter undef 1 npdranlic gradient of nity and ata temperature of 15.5°C 1 is importent to note that Darcy's Law in the form shown fn Ba, 23 states that the quantity of water flowing under laminan i Naactartulent conditions vaties in ditect proportion (9 the fdrantic gradient and therefore, the pressure difleence (hy —B.} musing the flow. This means that doubling the pressure diffrence cart result in doubling the flow theovgh the same cross-sectional rea: By doGnition, the hydraulic gradient is seen to be equraes wre slope of the water table for a water table equifer of Of the plezometric surface for an avtesian aquifer Anydravlic gradient of ‘unit Considering a vertical cross-section of an aquifer of (unit width and having « total thickness m, a hydrant gradient and an average coefisient of permeability, K, we se from Fa, 3. that the rate of flow, q, through. this ross section is given By 34) ‘The product Ken of Eq, 24 i termed the corctent of transmis ty or tranamssrty, T, of the eae. Ry further considering tha the foral width of the aquifer is W, then the rate of flow, Ahrough a vertical cross section of the aquifer is given by. QeaW=T3W es) ‘The cocficlent of transmissibility is, therefore, defloed 2st rate of flow through a vertical cross-section of an aquies aeKas Ground Water 35 fof unit width and whose height is the total thickness of the aquifer when the hydraulic gradient is unity. It is expressed in gallons per day per foot (gpdjft) and is equivalent to the pro- (6 Factors Affecting Permebilty : Porosity is an importeat factor ceing the permeablty an, therefore, the capac oF an aquifer for yielding water. This is clearly evident since aa. aguier ean geild only a portion of the water that it contains andthe higher lhe porosity, the greater i the volume of water that can be Porosity must, however, be eonsierd topster with other related factors such as particles sie arrangement and stribtion, continuity of pores, and formation or stratification. i The vahe of the permsbli, X, cn alto be daemined from th aberatoy analy of te alleles fom te egier by the following formula £ oy Keca: a6 Wwhete effective sizeof the particles D, and Ca constant, value varies between 100120. The Table 22 shove th value ofthe coin of lity for various effective sizes and porosities. : Siri Sie eye cee sce ean ee ic cheb cle gol te Mn re ee : ap are erly of Ch) Geavy Srng 0d) Ants Spea $6 Water Supply ‘Table 32 Co-ficient of permeability TEtecive 82 | pocsuy, pr cant | Cotsen of pormeabiity ee exo 25 © 20 2 | 020 } } 030 | 1 | 040 “The gravity spring may revue cither from the outcropping, fof an impervious strata wnderaeath the water bearing formation (Fig. 3.6) or from the overdow of the water table by the con tinuous rise inthe water table into the sides ofthe valley (Fis: 7) Ground Water Ey ‘The yeild of the gravity springs varies with the position of the water table or of rainfall and i, therefore, uncertain ‘The attsian spring (Fig, 28) is one resulting from the water bearing stratum Being under pressure, underlain end everain by impervious strata. Water flows to the surftse through the er some fault or weakers spots in the upper impervious strate, cervice in the rock, ‘The yield of the artesian spring i more uniform and almost constant throughout the year. Hot Springs : Springs that bring warm or hot water to the ath surface are called hot sprinss, thermal springs or warm springs. ‘A springs: is, usvally regarded as a thermal or hot springs if the temperature of its vater is about 15°F higher than the cua tomperaturs of the sic. ‘There are many hot springs all ‘over the world. In Banghidesh, there is @ hot spring at Sitkundu in the Chaadranath Hil Reage, Chittagong, Most of the hot prings derive their heat from masses of magma that have pushed their way intr the crust almost to the surface and. fee now eooling. In some areas, the circulation of ground Water cares it to depths great exough for it to be warmed hy he normal increase in earth's imterioe et Goysere : A. geyser (guy2ie) a special type of hot spring that jects water intezmittontly with considerable fores, The word “eyier” comes from a name ofa spring of this type in Teeland esse, probably based on the verb “geysa™” meaning to rush uiously”. Geysers renult when water accumulates in vertical lundcrgrourd chambers where it ia boated, The pressure of the jing water cyuses the boiling point near the bottom to ri Thc heating also causes the column of water to expind and spill over near the top. This reduoos the pressure, and the super= ested water at the bottom fishes into steam and causes tho foyser to erupt, This process is repeated more or less perion ally faa geyser. AMl ground water contsins dissolved minerals and tho hot water contains, in general, more, Thus, hot springs vad goysers commonly deposit caleite and other mnieral.38 Water Supply ‘The Old Faithful Geyser in Yellowstone National Patk i Americs is a very famous one, Since its discovery in 1870 this geyser has regularly spurted forth about 10,000 to 15,000, galls of steam water and fo an average eight of 150 ft about once every two how's. The entre display lasta about four minutes. Very fowr geysers ate as regular es the Old Faithful, but many other geysers are Knowa, and the nature of their activity is similar, ‘Outside Ameties, other areas of geyser activity are found in Aesland, Now Zealand snd Australia _ impervious Stratum Fig..6 Gravity Spring Resulting from the Outeropping of Impervious Steatum Fig. 37 Gravity Spring Resuttng from the Ovetlow of Rising Water Table Ground Water 9 Pervious Stratum Groundwater Impervious strata Fig, 38 Artesian Spring Ground Water Geolozy : The wide variation in texture and ratigraphy of the earth's crust is reflected in the manner of oosur- feace of both fie and confined ground waters. The water table may hie several thousind fest down. Ground water may flow through cavern, ervices, and solution passages at velocities comparable to the velocities of turbulent surface stteams (1 or more fps), oF it may nove in laminae flow through the capillary interstices of soils and es at velocities of only a few feet a yoar. Aquifers may be thick | isotropie (possessing the same properiles in all dicections) as Well as homogeneous, or they may_consist of a variety of layers, fewses, and tortoous bands of diferent materials. Detailed icquaiotaues withthe geology of ground water areas i essential fo \ knowledge of the capacity of water-beating formations. Surface cology and exposures by mining, quarrying, and related operations hnust be supplemented by well ozs These ate records of the nature hid depth of the strata encountered in sinking wells, Combined with Ineasurements of capacity, logs furnish the most important Injotmation to be had without the aid of test-well or geophsyica! Geotogealy, the earths crusts made up of rocks, snd soi the rocks are fgveous, sedimentary, and metamorphic in origi, the il are derived from the rocks by weathering of rock exposures.Water Supply Waterbearing Rocks : ‘The intrusive faneous rocks are dense in textore and would be barren of water. The extasive igneous rocks! may be very porous and contain eracks, holes, and exteosive fenverns, Some lava formations yield water in abundance. (Of the four common varieties of sedimentary rocks (Limestones and related calcareous rocks, shales, sandstones, and conslomerates)y the limestones are wsusly dense and, impervious. However, they are the most soluble of all rocks and, where they Ive been sub jected to the leaching action of water containing dissolving carbon: ‘ioxide or orzanic acids, they ars honeycombed by solution passages fand caverns. Undetgfound streams and lakes are formed in the) course of time, and these may overflow at the surface to creat large springs, Shales, produced by the consolidation of clays, are generally impervious and act as aquicndes. Sandsiones, by contrast ‘may be very pervious, Theit water-bearing capacity depends upon the extent to which the pores of constituent sand graine are filled ‘with cementing materials, Quarts, composed of silica sands completely fled with cementing siliceous materials, ate like eranites in density and ipervioumess ; loosely cemented sandstones are famong the most productive aquifers, The water-bearing capacity of the consolidated ce cemented heteropenovs mixtures of materials Ahat constivts conglomerates varies considerably. As a rule, they: ‘are quite tight. Good aguifers are sometimes encountered in limestones and sandstones at depths in excess of « lle. However ‘most ground water developments are les than 2000 ft d ‘None. ofthe metamorphic rocks is an important vater producct ‘Marble, like the limestone from which it is ereated, is soluble and may yield water from solution channels. Slates and schists, which ‘originate in shates, are relatively impervious but they transmit some ‘water along joints, cleavage eacks, and fractures. Gness resemble, finite structural and water-beating properties, the intrusive granites m whist ¢ is gonetlly detived Water-earing soils : Although the water-besring rocks are important source of water, the areas served by them are small Ground Water ou within Bangladesh as whole. Groster yields of water are derived fiom the soil ofthe over-burden strata in which ffec and artesian fonditions of low exis, Sands and gravels ate by far the most important. water-bearlog wis. They have high spesiie vields and permeabities and ar fowlinarily so situated that replenishment i rapid. Uniform oF Wwellsorred sands and pravels are the most productive ; mixed! honlerils containing elay ate leasl, for example, boulder clay ted beneath ice sheets, Transported material is generally ‘permeable than material in immedin'e contact with the her rock, Most sand and gravel beds have been deposited’ In shallow, active water # (1) Ta seas, lakes, or river beds as iluvia, @) at the mouth of canyons as outwash cones, or (3) rn the edge ot retoating ie shoe's as outwash p'sins. Because Ihe origin oF these soils and the doprh and motion of the trant- Porting water Mave varied in time, the deposits geverally include Niesnating. layers of varying size and grading. Beds deposited in Iikos and seas are often exleasive 5 cutwash cones oF ever ebanaols ally contain rolatively small lenses of sand and gravel confined Jeusen layers of less previous materials Clays and sites, although porous, are_generally quite impervious Hiiey ate pooe aquifers and significant only (I) when they confine ly interfere with the movement of water through the more per. ous sls, and @2) when they supply water to permeable forma. ‘conlidation Where rk outerops at the surface, the rate of water intake 4 Viely fo be small, if, on the other hand, the. rock is covered by. orous and permeable soils, the rate of infiration i aftea good, y\ the overburden Becomes, ia a sense, a reservoir froin waied er feeds steadily into the underlying rock. ‘The thicker the water vlog. mantl, the greater, in general, isthe safe yild from rocks W yellas irom the soil itself. ‘Topography is also important, Hii sleeper the slope, the more effectively does it shed rainfall | ronoff from melting snow. Valleys and outwash plains and@ Vater Supply “cones not only accumulate the heaviest overburden but they se Sedinarly, areas of lest slope and so in a postion to intercept Sand retain abundant quantities eround water. In Bangladesh, hand rock formation jascare, tis found in {Sunamgan}) and Chitagone (Sitakunds and Muiearai) and in major parts of Citagong, Hill Tracts. The seeigr Bangladesh possess deliio formation of alluvial ‘poste. There migitly svers—the Padma (Ganges), the Brahma) uta aed the Meghna with their network of wibutaries pa rroush the deliaio tesion of Bangladesh filing. the Tends. with seaey gaposits and otber unconsolidated materials such a sand sd sravel which thes river carry with ihem diaining the Himalaya fanpee The thickness of these strafed alluvium inthe entie 2 aerege 100 ft. The continuous layers, although containing oscasions Genes of eloy occur at depth varying from 50 to 300 ft, Gravel feeqvently marked with fre to medium sind. Coarse cond food rarcly and is thin layers, Within the stratiled aquifer cocurence of medium sand is the msximum. The average rafal fo Bangladesh is 98 inches of which 90% of rain falls durin f months commencing from May to October, inundatiog all d fermiond and sometimes about 907% of land by fiood. TT fiemge, slope of the counlzy varie about 16 inches ner atl orth to south inthe northern zone and about 3 inches pet mi ia the rest ofthe plain aa, The land elevation is about ‘inthe aorthern plains and 50 7 in the oviddle pisins aad} ow feet abave mean sea love atthe coastal plas. -some parts of Sylhet Having all these topostaphical and hygretogiea! conditions t ess every soil strata in Bangladesh contain water more or I telow water table. But all strata do not contain sufficient wa hat can be pumped of may not give water for # lons time is posible (0 get informatio ate best aquifers in moj ‘proper exploration programme, i Tbout the aquifer charactrsties and to Lr pats of Bangladesh, Ground Water 37. Govennatr Hy yr Hydrlgy ¢ Ta the sadly of a partiua wot oe, wo alton ars ad Saat conde od reters mut te iene, and hydrooi ea. vir of the stem must be dicoveed. Eximates of fe ld requie craton ofthe flowing factors: (1) the quan. of wate added to the formation ty ilitation of fan, meting sw se and ates te) he lomo ae soe sil oem a cmd th poy, hicks ad sat exe of the watresing sl a rosk oma, G) tr a wae he rms oHE the ol nd cs be wha fm, wh isa Fncin of pers iy and avilable ydraulic gradients, and (4) the amount of ste To fom te grand By porta pit ty Bua sete lene ant et arto of wiry ow frm sino aby enero rs of cpa Ais Same tae the ft of pig, or tar ndce wh Ara of ter fom the groan, mabe tan fo enue ‘ithdrawal upets the natural hydrologic and hydraulic ba : iter lvls fall, eeions of movement change, un of mat’ 1» the surface or to the atmosphere by aaturel proces may reduced, and infiltration may be increased, cae! General Hydric Kgeatin + yon ‘Wossed by the following equatior re ee PR=ED4.AS where EI a 2 ER denotes the various hydrological factors: a 2 1D those of discharge ates ps0 3 i rate eae es rage volume. More sicily, the rechraes composed of 1, Natural infiltration derived from rainful and sac ata Infiltration row surface bodies of water. a ae 3. Underlow. ‘Leakage through confining laje sage tout oni ers orm dled fom Water dred from di 3 dito, eharsng, and water ding operation, Peer vey, the tage alae speda Ground Water eee Wet how) id eal jeimg area inch faut Mand surface runoff, The larger the ated sideration of rain! : ae he fhe. greater are the aiicutes of ob 3 yulk of the water receis a is derived from surface streams by infiltratic Ue geet ro Soup te ae Le ve difficlt to determine, Tt requires a kn ‘and transpiration and of ugh coniomg layers or absorbed by them nim fon in surface flow smelting s20w ism 7 redae of by evaporation water needed to sally the pes the round from diffusior race, and rejling operations i acrally 2 mal era iis ue v Duckie) Olas canted to foraions wie the epi ee Discharge of grow tow of scams cevapotransirat cor the surf finge fives 10 the root zone oF Ue the dry-weel nee bx scene fom. changer in dy-weahet low sli lala mount of water withdrowa Abrough gre * oun Slory of dra, Undertow Rr serash aia i snarge or discharge, or both. The diffical eas way SON ape of leakage a4 unerfow 40% of evaluating the 055 Jessen its importance. Btorage ; The volume of wat et aap span Tas ean ore oes we troy ovo 0M ex within a saturated format "This is generalized int Ground Water 2 waterbearing forks and sol, Not all the water stored ina sological formation can be withdrawn by normal engineering ‘operation, Accordingly, thete 48 a difercnce between total storage sud aseful storage, The quantity that will drain of by gravitey iscalled the specific yield, its counterpart is the specie retention, Specie yicles vary from zero for plastic clays to 30% of mare for uniform sands and gravels. Most aquifers have specific yistde of 10 to 20%. ‘The variation in the storage of an artesian basins generally sll, Weis sometimes expressed a5 a storage coecient o¢ ratio fof the volume of water released from the full depth of the fguifer through a unit area ofits base when the piczometes surface of the basin drops by a unit of height, The range of velucs lies hotneen 0.00008 and 0.005, Along with Feakage through aqulclie kes, the relative volumes are small, but the associated absolute magnitudes may be appreciable when arcas end pressure deier~ ges are large, Storage coeficieats and spect yields become ubstantaly ieatical whea ground-water conditions are fres. Ground storage is relaively large and. deficis: may be mourred ‘over many years. Ultimately, however, they must be offiet by recharge, i the source is not t0 fall 38 Quality of Ground Water : Generally, the opening. through which water flows ia the grourd sre very small. This one siderably reatits the rate of flow while at the same tine pro- \iging a fitering action against paises originally in suspension in the water. These properties, it will be seen, considerably lect the physical, chemical, and microbiofogieal qualities of round water Physical Qualiy : Physically, eround water is generally clear, lurless, with litle oF no suspended matter, and has a relatively constant temperature, This is attebutable 10 its history of slow Ywscoletion through the ground and the resulting effect earior aSS 6 Water Supply ‘mentioacd. In direst contrast, surface waters are very offen turbid and contain considerable quantities of suspended matter, ticularly when ‘hese watert ate found near populous afcas, Surface waters are also subject (0 wide variations of tempera From the physical poin of view, ground water fs, therofore, more readily usable shan sueface Water, seldom requiring treatment toefore use, The exceptions are those ground waters which ate Lydraclicaly connected to nearby surface waters through lage ‘openings such as fissures and solution chanaels and the interstices fof some gravels, Thsse openings may permit suspended matct 0 enter into the aquifer, In such case, tastes and odours from decaying vegstation miy also be noticable ‘Microbiological Quality + Ground waters are generally fice from very minvte organisms (aairobes) which eause diseases and fehich are normally present im large numbers in surface waters, “This is another of the benefits that result from the slow filtering ction provided as the water flows through the ground. Also, the Tack of oxygen and natents ia ground water makes it an fis ourable environment for disease-produsing organisms t0 grow. nd multiply, The exceptions to this rule are again provided by the fsures and solution chaancls found in some consclidated ooks and in those shallow sind and gravel aquifers where watet js extracted in close proximity to polation sources, such Drives and cesspoots, This latter problem has been dealt with Tomore detail at the end of this chapter where the sonitary pro~ fection of ound watet supple i discussed, Poor well construc- ‘fon can also result in the contamination of ground waters, ‘Chemical Quilty + The chemical quality of ground water is also considesably influenzed by its relatively slow rate of travel ‘through the ground, Water has always been one of the best solvents known to man, Its relatively slow rate of percolation rough the earth provides more than ample time for many of the minerals that make up fhe earth's crust to be takea into: Ground Water a tclution, ‘These minerals have varying rates of solution in water, content usually has an unpleasant taste aad may be objectionable for some spricultural purposes, ‘The feel at which the taste i& noticeable varies from person {0 person but is generally of the order of 250 mg/!- A steat deat tlepends, however, on the extent to which people hove beer ovustomed 9 usiog sch waters. Animals usually can drink water with much mort chloride than humans-can totera'e. Cattle haves reportedly, been known 0 consume water with a chloride content ranging fom 3000 mg/l to 4000 me/t [Fuoride conceatrationt in ground water sre usually small and mainly detived from the leaching cf igneovs rocks, Notable Tmons the few eases of eoncestations is the reported 12 mp/! from flowing wells in some part of Bangladesh and 32 mgjl income parts of the world, Ground Water ® When preseot in concentrations Jess than 1,0. mej in water Aluonde generally reduocs tooth decay in small children and is desiable Excesive coacentrations, however, result in a brown Aiscotouration and. ptting of the tech called dental aorosis, This condition is pariulanly noticeable ia cnildren but ean also occu in adults. The level of concentration at which this adverse ‘eer occurs varies from one community to another depending lupoa factors such as temperature and Muoride intake 10 the body rhroush food IL is also ikely that continued consumption of wales containing Buoride in oxcoss of 4 mail are usualy not recommended for érinking water supaies, Nitrate content in ground waters various considerably and is oflen unrelated fo the rocks formations in che area, High nitrate oncenteations are tery offen due to the pereolatjon of surface waters coataining human wastes andj/or animal and other asc utural wave. prod or to the direct Dow of ceramiaated surface runoff into well. Precautions must there- + tskea ia the location and constuction of shallow wells 1 areas here privies und eesspoots are to be found. into aquier High coneenteations of nitrate in water produce un known a8 cganosis(methemoglobinemia) in mfants. This condition which is eharasterized by a Mlaish discolouratoun ofthe skin, res lessoess and drowsiness can be fatal, For this reason, water onaining irate in excess of 4S mg/l should not be used in rrepating Food tor babies under six months of age. It should ve noted that the boiting of such water will only serve toin ease the nitrate concesteation. Sulphate in ground water i derived mainly from the Teaching hafural deposits of magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate oth of which, ia sulfcieat quantities, may produce laxative lets, ardaess isthat property of water best demonstrated. by the readiness with whieh It dissolves soap to produce suds. No suds<< ———l—<=i=‘—O 70 Water Supply are produced ina hard water until the mincrals causing the bard: hess have beza removed by chemicel combination with constituents of the soap, Tho greater the hardness, the more soap is requied toproduce suds. ‘The hardness produced by the bicarbonates of calcium and mapeesiim can be virtually romoved by boiling the water and is ated, temporary hardness, The Tardness cawsed meinly by the Suiphates aod chlorides of calcium and magnesium cansot be emovel by boiling and i called permanent ardoess, Total bardaess fs the som ot the tomporary and permanent hardness. ‘The removal of temporary bardness by heat causes the deposition of calcium and maznesivm carbonates as hard scale in Kettle ooking utensils, eating coils, ot water pipss and boiler tubes whieh result, ia a waste of money. ‘Total assoled solids refer to the sum total of all the minerals such as chlorides, sulphates ete, found dissolved in the water. A water with a bigh total dissolved solids content would therfore te expecied to present the taste, laxative and ther problems fasocited with the individual mineral. Such waters are usually orrosve to well sereens and otber parts of the well structure, His a meanure of the hydroven ion concentration ia wales and. indicates whether the water is acid. or alkaline, Tt ranges im aloe from Oto 14 with a value of 7 indicating a neutral water, Yalu between 7 and incressingly acid and between 7 and 14 Taoreasingly alkaline waters, Most ground woters in Bangladesh have pH valuss ranging from about 5:3 to 8, Determination of the fpHvalue is important in the control of corrosion and_many processes in water treatment, Dissolved oxygen content of ground waters is usually low particularly ia waters found ot great depths. Oxysen specds UP fhe corrosive attack of water upon iron, ste], galvanized troy fand brass, The corrosive process is also more rapid when the PH islow. Gross Water 1 Hydrogen sulphide is recognizable by its characteristic odour oF rotten eggs, Tt is very often found in ground waters which contain izen, In addition to the odour, which is noticeable at as low a concentration a3 0.8 mgy!, hydrogen sulphide combines with ‘oxygen £0 produce a corrosive ‘condition in wells and alo com- ines with iron to form a seale deposit of iron sulphide in pipes. Most of the iydesgen sulphide ean be removed from ground water by spraying it into the sit or allowing it to cascade in thin layers over a series of trays. (Carbon dioxide enters water in appreciable quant a8 the Water pereolates through soil in which plants are growing. Distol- ved in wale, it forms carbonic acid which, topether with the curbonates and bicarbonates, controls the pH value of most round waters. A reduction of pressure, such as caused by the Pumping of a yell, results in the eteape of enrboa dioxide and fn inerease in tho pH velu2 of the water, Testing of ground- Water samples for eats0n dioxide content and pH, theretore, ogres the use of spezial teolnigues and should bedone at the well site. ‘The escape of carbon dioxide from waters may also te accompanied by the setting out of caium earbonate depos s. While the above list in that Nay tobe of sae ena consi of el aly aludes (uoie shemival substan ‘means an exhaustive one not ‘tended to be such, edions peculiar to specie areas may reguie ansiyies of round waters for other substaness. The eroup of elements often felcred to as the trace elements Because of the very low con oleations ia which they ars usually found in waters are here worth mentioning, Among. tese ae arsenic, bariaa, cadmium, ‘tvoniom, lead and seleniam, all of which are considered toxic (oan at sery tow levels of sntake the order of a fraction of J ingil. Since the rave of passage of some of these elements Ahiouklh the Body as very slow, the effets of repeated doses are ldtve aod ebronic poisoning occurs, Trace elements generally ato not present in objectionable neentations in ground waters but may be 30 in a few specie2 Water Supply ‘areas, Itthas teen reported for example, that arsenic: has been Found in sufficiently high concentrations in ground waters if some patis of the world (Mexico aod Argentina) to be considered injurious to health, Problems are most Hikcly {0 arise in areas Tere waste discharges from industries such as clctro-pltingy find overland run-off containg high concentrations of pesticides (insecticides and nerbsides) enter aquifers, ‘The presence of these tracs elements in drinking water are generally pot detectable by taste or sine or physical appserance of the wate Proper chemical analysrs are required For their detection. Tn some party of Bangledab, ground water sometimes contain ‘exeestive anouat of itos, copper, manganese, chloride, fluoride fclcium acd magaesiom, These make water unpotable. In coastal frees of Baagladesh, potable water is obtained from wells at Jeph tetween 700 9 1000 ft. Abov these depts, waters from all aquly fers are extcinely saline (about 2500 to 3000 ma/l) ; ground wales ‘contsins iron i Perojpur, Gopalgeni, Rajbari, Tanvail, RenepUty Maiidi, Chittagong and Chittagong Hil-Tracts subdivisions. Tron js exoesive only in shallow wells of Bhclt and Paturkhali. Aza frouad water contains carbonate in Kajshihi, Ssftet, and Chit fgong more than allowable limits, Groundwater in all other re ff Bangladesh have got acidic characteristic. 139 Well Hydraulics ; Groundwater movements towards a wel ean be formulated in accordance with the principles of Dupuit a Forchbcimet. When the well penetrate to the whole of the aqui ‘the fow is steady, and the water table or the piezometrc surface, the case may be, is horizontal. Actually the water table is rare Thorizontal and’ the flow is seldom steady. Changes in pumping echarye raics and in amounts of water stored in the saul foterfere, However, the usefulness of Dupuis formulation can ‘panded by introducing potential ow theory to cover conf aquifers i whicn the plezometri surface is nctined. The theory ‘endy flow has also been extenced (0 Teaky conflaing beds and other situations. Ground Water 2 low Towards Wells Converging flow: Whom a well is at rest, that is, when inere fs mo flow taking place from it, the water pressure within the well is the same as that in the formation outside the well. ‘The evel at which water stands within the well is known a6 the static water level This level cnincides with the water table for a watersableaqaifes or the piezometrie susface for an artesian ayuiler. Should the presaro Se lowered within the well, by » pump for example, then the grester pressure in the aquifer on the outside of the well would force water into the well and flow thereby results. This loweriag of the pressure within the SI i also accompsined by a lowering of the water Ievel in ni around the well Water fons Viroush the aquifer to the well from sll direcsony in what i known es convergiog flo. This flow may be considered to take place through successive cylindrical sections which Become smaller and sms Well-is approached (Fig. 39). This means that the area across Which the, ow takes place also becomes sucessively smaller is the ‘well is approached, With the same quantity of water Fovwiug aetross these sections, it fellows trom Eq’3.3 that the Yelocty ineseases as the arca becomes smaller Darcy's Law (E9.3:2. ‘ells us that the hydraulic gradient Vovies in ditect proportion o the velocity. ‘The increasing velo. siiy towards the well is, therefore eecompained by an increasing jysraulie gradient. Ie piezometsic surface develops an increasingly steeper slope fowards the well, In an aquifer of uniform shape and texture Ihe dispresion of the water table or piezometrie surface in te nity of a pumped of freely flowing well takes the form of fn inverted cone, This cone, Known as the cone of depression {W310}, has it apex at the water level in the well during mping is known as the pumping water level. The diference in letwcen the static water level and the surface of the owe of epresion is Known as the drawdown. Drawdown, there- the outer limits of the cone of Joplesion to a maximum ia the pumped well, The radius of Stated in other terms, the water surface or ‘increases from zero at"4 Water Supply fluence is the distance from the cxnter of the well to the cuter Himit of the cone of depression. Fig39. Flow converecs towards a wall imaginary ejlindrical surface Seller ae the Well fs approuched Drawdown Curve Strainer: Fig. 310 Hydraulics of flow for © well through a uncot ‘ined equier, Ground aver a Unofne Steady Fin {Duis fra for the Aw ito the Seouna of Bow of ound utr otional and tht ies eae preva eee We tate honk teu ofa eh vel eine An tesyands = dd 02 KAS = Kony Gs) ay oS aay 6 d-tonceyr 40 09) Ton ys ats (¢ tg the rd ft wel) and Ss eee el conte steerer Boe ce sats eas Sane ray al Gad Shwe, Q= well discharge in ep K = coelliciont of permeability in gpdjsht D a depth of the aquifer in ft. 4 = static head in Ro radian of the ercle of influence in 0. Fm radius of well a Thscuse D i coastant, the quantity, (D°—d7) increases at a Vining rate-asd isreduced, Thus, sucessive increases in draw. Jn, (Dd) teduce the specie capacity of the well. For a Aint value of R, the logarithmic ratio of the radius of the Hole of iaflaenee to the radius of the welland its inverse rela- Nin Wo the yield indicate that inceasing the size of a well hos not greatly increase fia yield, For example, a 2 ft dia Jones well will yield only 15 to 30 per cent more water then + Viet diameter welGromt ar 16 Water Supply D Contned Steady Flow: The Hypathetil conditions of flow iato Mesure or artesian well are iusirated in Fig3.11, The formule Joy the rate of flow into a presure well can be decived simi. Wily to Bqe3 10, starting with the expression Q = KAS and An rem, heave ‘The rate of flow Q from a well, the drawdows (=A), the radius of the cicle of influence R are interrelated as ji feted in Bg, 3.10. In order that the value of R may be <0 fant the rate of replenishment of underground water must equal 10.Q. Hence, for the purpose of approximate computa {he solution of well problems with Dupuit’s formula it oe es eo howe m is the thickness of the eonfied water bearig strate, Worerasing between the limits x= t for y= d and xR ibe assumed that Pte (3MBM fy = D, the Ba 2.13 Becomes corn substitution in Ba3., Qa Emo. > ge ERD=d) Toe, ie) Gay, ioe, CQ) Tog ¢ CQ) The rate of ow Q is seen to be propoctional to the draw Hin (D8) = h. The yield per unit dromdown, or specite Hywity of artesian wells has been observed to remain faily isle at all reasonable values of deiwdown, The Eq, 3.14 fy be cewriften as follows : Values of C and K for a wellean be determined by measure of Q and of d under wo or more diferent rates of flow fs evident from £q.312 that where the dravdown (D:d) is compared with (D+ 4) the value of Q vaties approxi as (Dd), This linear relationship between the rate of tnd drawdown leads to the definition of the spelfie padi va well as the rate of flow per unit of drawdown, us Foot of dravdown Qtose (Rie) n= oie Ris G5) exptesed in gallons per ainute p 10 Interference of Wells: Under some conditions the construc. an ——— 9] BB of sol tage well maybe ether impact ow arin srtoce aie vet |My tile the ination of «gionp oF smal wells mt) be Farr aeajr and economically accomplished. Factors such at tne palates ibility oF the area to the heyy equipment required for r50 well and the high cost of travsporting large * pipes to the site may be among the important considers. Ps ina situation such as chis small wells can be grouped in PP pattera so give the equivalent performance of a much Yt ingle well, The sroupiog of wells however, presents problems dve to oce among them when operating simultaneously. Tnterference "two oF more wells occurs when their cones of depression Pvive. thus reducing the yield of the individual wells The own at aay point on the composite cone of depression is lb Fig. 3.11 Hydeaulies of Flow for a Well through an Artesian AG® Water Supoly Ground Water me qu to the sum of ie drmedownt at tat noise 2 Sektion + Apptying col pbcng pimped apertey,_ Yo waa th 60 peyioR Eg ee) oe wane schray ina wot aected by iatverace® Sp fare eet eed wane by the amos of deamdowe | then > ated by ce feria, To oes WU we cotper nit of drawdown commonly caled tee eg oe agi: custo cetuce\, ape) ees nt PE iigiae, sont sana ceompanee ty RES wee pom the same quenty of ater from 1M vel syere_ not subject to interferes, fat ol o> Fg Os? = 1300 gpm Example 2 Petree Be ia iS, seme cen ecrh Ae ane er ee Wa distance of 24 ft 7 a ‘isune; Ro1025N, K=0.009 L Ra10250, 009 epm af Soliton + Appyng Eq. 316 Qe aye 2.0%) (2001700, fog, (MBS 324 = Teague cltion onl te Jo apace BEWEAS SFY ayo od hu mul tatereene of e968 BANE ar is ot practeal for ccopomicfetons one ReeuENTHIE tac aunt, 10H Sieimle LT a epee aorlabe proprions, For walt oe 1 ery paspons,spasngs of 25010500 fet OE wyells a re tobe. saivfeciony. Spucingt ey Be SM Fer acter ini cia salt ce wee, Bs Sree is CE aaats ase, coms erotint TS sed Wty and icknea of he aguilrare mmch 4 saree elas lan i0| ure DE ae sae gaming water from tbe same aguer stated st fal heir rate of discharge shall Be together ‘Combined rate of ow from two 2x 40=410 gpm 3.11 Inflation Gallery + An infiltration gallery may be an ie foceary era ee ase eae pod rel ato norm 0h dn of dan tran pi Ts nao ls sh Mucted (1) as marginal drai rT ney an on lo. ia ‘wigles to the underf Reick Wi tthe aden of io, 0) fete adored : ipland flow is travelling and (4) above seat ae end sg_host ae ao ee a ee We 500 ft facilitate inspection and maintenance, Dai taal Mh fee 2 ee Wer eine 2 ley rice ton sop wet pms fr wet am A Inn ali, mit deeing "on nae however, infiltration rates of 700 to SOR ot ‘qollery length are not uousual. a QQ = pveoplel With a well of 1B iaoh ia. dime ay “dep af 10D te below sie Teel of water able OF a Seah an te_ we Being pumped is 0 ft AB OU water whee sample, sh effective sie ofthe sol 18 Se ti rum is 090 mm. ant poroiy 830% amd vereingcouteient of permeability i 1260 EP ‘The Dem own a aacuned to be 1000 fe Wht is ime BG fate of discharge of tbe wellin gpm %Ground Watr “ tis ype of aren ed ohn peat or asus lealada nae diameter throughout the full depth of the well, ® 30 wa Design ; A tubewell is simply ete atest cin Aleeaiaes vanes Fase te aire of a tabewell isthe dewga of its sereen principal FXG see sign of the ssrea, the following information is nose ff the underground strata, and @) ible: $4 nite aress_of seen openings for sleced widths oF slot openings: a ae (@) Geologie formation > gan anaes of eagle, By foe | sited eee eae pene ete oe suc | ot of seen gasing throogh a ecrics ofstandand sites from OO1 inch WHgl li tip) | bei Veins fa an om 6 om re cclatd to dernier feat lfeonee esac ltiaate ( a stor epeninge, Generali, well serens are designed toretaia 9) Sore oF the formation materials depending ‘pon the saul 50% one, For proteeion of the scream against corosin rete, the entrance velocity it generally considered 16 ‘determined by diviging the des fps The entrance velosity it ws ofthe wellin els by tbo total are of the susn oP in sf ‘The taal atea ofsercen openings isthe arca of the ope provided pe foot of the sren_mutilid by the see Proveenin fi. Most mafacturere provide ables sho eof sereen for cuch size of soreen di fopen area pet 10 or or varius widiks of slot opetings, Table 3.3 it Se bi ree of one of thes. From hs able it is sen) 2 a ‘an s sa i oa ‘xample 1 Design the screcn of a well fr owing ‘ ofa wl fon te Fling data Thickness of the aquifer = 60it ao Sio san of tie seen.” = 20 fhinch diametet sereen contains 25 square of screen length, A 10 f¢ Tenth of s in 250 sq iach of totel open are4s ‘4 No, 20 slot, fof open area per foot tereen would therefore ont Dischar “Theo are mnfaly two ses of src :—(1) Teesope Sea Dela = 334 apm and 12, Pipe Bize (0S) of 1O'See, The teecope St Seunaee Wace Dis * ete = aise 20d fe) aged for casts where the diamacter of the seen Sufficently smaller than the secre gandared pipe to permit the sreen 30 be Teely ls TMrough she pipe. The pipe sis or UD-izo screens Lave #58 serra ameter os the corresponding size of the standard Qu AV= 334 gpm=0.74 cf. Aco 0. TA alt = 10°69 inch.a Water Sinoly From Table; 33, open area for 2” “PS soreen size and slot No20, the open area per foot length of 2 inch dia well 4s 25 5q inch. Length of screen = 1066/25 = 42.64 f, say 43 ft 4.13. GrandnaterCatecion; Discovery and dewopmet of 2 crops a very complated rinsing onde Fe aurtaning of pernnt scl, bilos ad ate tars ‘Te pupa of is setion is to ase tl crest constuction fextes of gronater developmen seer worsted withthe rat of provndate, a sae anne mens for th waitenanoe and cue of cael ss bee andor te coservnsion ofthe ou. Common Features of Coletion Works : Pumping is the cent eatute of the most groundwater works, For salsfactoy perform fhe auetion lit, including entrance and pipe losses, ust eld below 05 fl. When the water table further down than wenetive pipe leading to the pump and the pumping uit it cern be_iowered below ground level, of individual well must equipped with dcep-vell pumps: ‘Wellsinking is a specialized art that has evolved slong counber of more of Yess regional lines. The engineer must gi Tie due auiation to the drilling operations. aa the dea ibiity and exeaomy of the proposed developrents and Tution of ie eofletion works. In addition, be is called {Ap to avec the soe, number and arrangement of wells @ fo speai’y the pumping and appurtenant equipment, (3) 10 vine that a eliable contractor is eimployed, (4) 10 super fhe tering and development of completed walls, (5) to hat the wells and pipes are properly disafeced before te fed in scivice, ond (6) t0 assure the prevention of conta ation of the operating supply from both surface and und _ground sourees of polation Ground Water 3 The, size, aumber, and arrangement of wells are determined by the amount and depth of water to be taped, the hydrology and nydraulcs of available aquifers, and proposed methods of pumping, Well diameters should be dimensioned in concordance with drawdown and yield, However, wellsinking methods and space requirements for pumping machinery actually govern well ize more eften thin do bydraulis considerations, Strainers or fr screens and riser pipes should be large enough to keep sntrance loses and other flow resistances within reasonable Timits st maximum pumping rates, Riser pipe veloctiss are fovnmonly held davn to 2 to 3 fysee Construction methods depend primarily on the ture of the wil or rock to be penetrated. Costs of construction vary with five, depth and design, and with the equipment and expesience al drillers. EMicent design and operation of ‘well systems. fe question of depth, spicing, diameter, pumping rave, and her ology, bydrology and. Iyurauies of the souress In_goneral, tubewolls are of two types i shallow tobewells und ey Tabewas Shallow bewells aro those which are sunk upto. the botiom Wf the first aquifer and do not penet quicluae # eto Deep tubshells ae Tro which cross more than one squifers, Hersfore, the shallaw tubewells of one localay might be the Mico tubewells: of another and. viewers. (Of nurse, conven ly tubewells under 100 fi deep are classed as shallow tube- Wels, According to. 1H sOavention of the Direecorate oF Public Hosith Engineering (Bangladsh), shallow tubewelis are 0 dsep and deep tubewells ae wore then 200 fe sep, Pritiewetts are extensively used for urban and ulin, indutial water supplies snd Tor agiestorst water lle use cpl er pate ieee See hakeent sce eiatan CONE aide 17% 107 diameter fs tnuvicipal tubewell (Fig. 3.12) Vts ofa Municipal Tahewell: The following are the win pars3 Sump pipe: Thi to 5’ in length wsed at the bottom of Jonest stein Water Supply j 1e small length of plain pipe generally 4 is called io AT eitom Seat Fig. 312 Deep Tubewell = ee Grouna Water 85 sump pipe, Tae object of this pipe is to provide a space where ind aid other heavy particles entering the well during pumping nay settle dows, Thickness of the pipe should be minimum, snd i diameter is equal to the diameter of the stulaer to It is fixed. Bottom of the sump pipe should be sealed by a seal plate or a bal plus. Stainer: During. boring, soll samples are taken fom every layor and at Toast at every 10-1. (5 Mt. in cate of test boring) yndestats chart are deawn showing and describing the diferent layers of the sub.soi, Layers of coarse and medium sand and fravel ase considered water bearing strata, Coarser the sand, the Fever wil be ics yield. Ascetaining the water bearing strata loves at which staisers have to he Sed are determined, Strainer pity the most important past ina eabewell as such Ife and ‘of a tubewell depends on the ight type of strainer soy particular aquifer and its grain size, The size of soreen yenings should be carefully selected to it the grading of the water bearing ovation and ae the maximum open area per foot of sercen Will ensure minimum velotity through such openings, minimum Jon los through the sereen and consequently les drawdown, upd snd gravel in each individual strata of 1 liad Pipes Thesa are ordinary plain pipes placed in the hnwster bearing sata. These are placed opposite to strata of ond aed clayey soll, The thicksess of blind pipes is 17". pipes and strainers ave connected by means of thread or limes welded, Housiog Pipe: The ferger diameter plain pipe on top in 1 the pump bowels ars yoused is known a= housing pipe, Hie internal diameter of housing pipe depends upon the odopted. on and may vary betacen 10” to 15", The thickness of owing pipes is 4” inch. The housing pipe and the blind pipe 4» jowed togetier by means of tapered reducing sosket,Water Supply Mons o Teer Sinking? cist wing stout wal depead unos teop wa The wells have te adtntae of PO0g seetaateesgur.Sich dep water kel be of eon ‘contained by scp he nel fanitary quality ues it a All deep wells a from saves ot fares tm oveding. rok frase The aucesul Sinking of led well ei saat wining, pez, tot, ad cqunment AONE vrei whole af slatog well’ may te inde (1) Stand Weg, a Callan sovepipe metho. (2) Heng, mth Tay Coed etd, and” (5) Hyéraute oar method stofrd Motil : Tie stds) eto ives pee cance Min cits oraely tried and coped id cre Mie fs sated t te dling of els fo Se cyto the hrs rok, wodifentons Meikced med cue he wiletco!” meiod a Wk TONE (Sth holiow rod span he ope to spr Fete Watcrn pimped ino te fp af the wl bees sorte and ebolow fou. The water tees ata Sree coh nts i the i ad re trowh Oe ol TPE tte euungs it nd proiting counts a or fe nal lutea of the (0 cettings without the Fiest used in California, Tt consists Cateria Stovenlpe Metta! rmiod dn erst sllovlepont 1 cov Sel onder ith all ning by means of yale js, maar iooleinch and 2c 44 long mt the anh Colin ween daarien ae, wei) one se ut sipping, wits Shoe the joint of the outer ead faling may bl Ghose nr ender Teint and cut em freer by ening thes wih & ick, ees lated aod sinks At sokisg progress, the i Poe ven or aad of excavation, 8 eral inne Pr Ground Water 87 sing being removed by ase of a baler or clamshell bucket The California stovspipe method as been wed on wells 6 0 36 ‘meh in diameter and upto 200 deep. Jelting Method : Jetting is accomplished by means ofa drill Pipehaving a nozzie of a drill bit on the lower end, Water pumped down through the dnll pipe and escapes throush the ‘kill bit, which is raised, lowered and turned slowly. The Hream of water Toosens materials and the watet rising throug’ (ho casing Hits the fnely divided cuttings from tho well, This fcthod of filling is suitable in soft, unconsolidated lluviat Akposits, depths upto 400 to $00 ft.” In suitable materials, well can be sunk by this method faster than by any other hacthod, Core-Dritt Method wits diamond or tit Core drills consist of a Hollow but armed el tecth on ‘annualar circumference of the The hollow bic is attached to a driling rod and rotated, WoterDeing used! to remove the eutions. Rotary Driling Method : tn rotary drilling, a cutting bit is itched co @ hollow drill rod rotated rapidly by an envine Whiven rolary table, Either water or a suspension of eolloidat flay is pumped dosa the drill pipe, flows through openings ia Whe bit, and transports the loosened materials to the surface. The clay suspensions are designed to reduce loss of drilling fuid Jno permeable formations, lubricate the rotating dell pips, bind th wall agsinst caving, and suspend the euttings Insjllaion of Tebewells: Afler the boring of the woll has Jen completed t9 the desired depth. tho Hind pipes and stainers Me {0 be loward and fixed to the postion. The bore hole is Ways to be drilled a little more than the installed depth of a ll, Sos to make allowance of materials whien may eave in Ife shrouding of the well, Strainers are to be located opposite Whler bearing strata to draw water from them. This is done by wvvobling on the ground together with the whole length of the