processes

Review
Non-Alcoholic and Craft Beer Production
and Challenges
Liana Claudia Salant, ă 1 , Teodora Emilia Coldea 2, * , Maria Valentina Ignat 2 ,
Carmen Rodica Pop 1 , Maria Tofană 1 , Elena Mudura 2 , Andrei Bors, a 2 ,
Antonella Pasqualone 3 and Haifeng Zhao 4
1 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; liana.salanta@usamvcluj.ro (L.C.S.);
carmen-rodica.pop@usamvcluj.ro (C.R.P.); maria.tofana@usamvcluj.ro (M.T.)
2 Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
maria.socaci@usamvcluj.ro (M.V.I.); elena.mudura@usamvcluj.ro (E.M.); andrei.borsa@usamvcluj.ro (A.B.)
3 Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, Via Amendola,
165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy; antonella.pasqualone@uniba.it
4 School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China;
hfzhao@scut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: teodora.coldea@usamvcluj.ro; Tel.: +40-264-596-384




Received: 13 October 2020; Accepted: 27 October 2020; Published: 30 October 2020


Abstract: Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world and the third most
popular beverage after water and tea. Emerging health-oriented lifestyle trends, demographics,
stricter legislation, religious prohibitions, and consumers’ preferences have led to a strong and
steady growth of interest for non-alcoholic beers (NABs), low-alcohol beers (LABs), as well for craft
beers (CBs). Conventional beer, as the worlds most consumed alcoholic beverage, recently gained
more recognition also due to its potential functionality associated with the high content of phenolic
antioxidants and low ethanol content. The increasing attention of consumers to health-issues linked
to alcohol abuse urges breweries to expand the assortment of conventional beers through novel
drinks concepts. The production of these beers employs several techniques that vary in performance,
efficiency, and usability. Involved production technologies have been reviewed and evaluated in this
paper in terms of efficiency and production costs, given the possibility that craft brewers might want
to adapt them and finally introduce novel non-alcoholic drinks in the market.

Keywords: brewing; dealcoholization; non-alcoholic beer; craft beer; flavour

1. Introduction
Beer is one of the oldest fermented drink and most widely consumed alcoholic beverages in
the world, produced 4th-millennium B.C. in the East, and later spread in ancient countries such
as Egypt and Rome [1]. The brewing process can be divided into the following steps: Malting,
milling, mashing, boiling, cooling, fermentation, maturation, filtration, carbonation, microbiological
stabilization, and packaging. However, the advanced techniques have allowed brewers to produce
beer in a more sophisticated and efficient way [2]. The huge popularity of beer arises from its pleasant
sensory attributes and favorable nutritional characteristics as well as its lower cost, compared to other
types of alcoholic beverages [2,3]. Also, beer gains interest due to the potential medicinal properties
as a valuable source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants providing various health benefits [4].
Studies are suggesting that moderate beer consumption has significant effects on health, such as
reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, blood cholesterol level, diabetes, osteoporosis, dementia,

Processes 2020, 8, 1382; doi:10.3390/pr8111382 www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2020, 8, 1382 2 of 23

and many others [5–8]. The potential health benefits of moderate beer consumption are restricted by
the negative consequences of its alcohol and energy content [9]. However, there is potential to enhance
the bioactive compounds of beer whilst reducing the alcohol and energy content through innovative
brewing approaches, in terms of ingredients, brewing methods, and type of fermentation [10].
The production of beers with low alcohol content is a fast-growing segment in the global beer
market [11]. Over the last few decades, multiple beer types and beer-like beverages have been developed
worldwide, using different brewing process, technologies, and raw ingredients [12]. In Germany,
a country with a vast tradition in beer production, according to the Reinheitsgebot, the sole ingredients
used for obtaining beer are water, malted barley, hops (Humulus lupulus L.) and yeast [13,14]. The case
is different in other countries, where laws governing beer production are less stringent and brewers
have more flexibility. Wheat, rice, rye, oats, maize, unmalted barley, and to a lesser extent sorghum,
millet, and cassava have all been used in brewing [15].
Thus, carbohydrate sources (adjuncts) like cereals (malted or unmalted) and sugar syrups are
the most widely used, usually in conjunction with barley malt. Wheat and oat are commonly used as
adjuncts due to their ability to promote foam stability, and before the use of hops, other bitter herbs
(e.g., spruce twigs, pine needles and tree branches), spices, and flowers are added to spread different
sensory profiles and to design special beers [16–20]. Moreover, from ancient times different fruits have
also been used in brewing as sources of fermentable extract and as well as flavoring ingredients [12,15].
Fruits, wine, or honey are inoculated in the wort of beer due to their natural yeast sources. Perhaps
given the global trend of wanting a healthier lifestyle and of improving product qualities, in the last
decade the market of special beers has evolved significantly offering additional product traits such as
enhanced functionality, new flavors, and tastes. These improvements went beyond the use of hops,
which are nevertheless vital for the brewing industry [21], as they contribute significantly to the sensory
properties of beer [22–24]. Lately, microbreweries are dedicated to the production of special beers,
using fruits, honey, herbs, or spices to enhance the aroma and to provide flavors and colors that cannot
be obtained from grains [25–27].
The brewers need to keep up with the consumers’ interests and needs while designing novel
beers [28]. Brewers have adapted to such demands with continuous improvements and attempts to
minimize the alcohol content of their products while maintaining other characteristics [29]. Consumers
are looking for products as close as possible to the conventional types, from a sensory point of view,
especially in what regards flavor characteristics [3,30].
A regular or conventional beer is an alcoholic beverage produced by the saccharification of starch
and the fermentation of the resulting sugar. Beers can vary in alcohol content, bitterness, pH, turbidity,
color, and most importantly, flavor. Beers are distinguished mainly according to their visual appearance
(color and turbidity) and fermentation process. Currently, a wide variety of beers are available and
most of them belong to one of three groups: High (or top) fermentation, known as ale; low (or bottom)
fermentation, known as lager; non-alcoholic-beers (NAB), which includes the low-alcohol beers (<2.5%,
v/v) and alcohol-free beers (≤1% v/v) [31]. Low-alcohol beer (LAB), also known as “low alcoholic
beer,” “lower-alcohol beer,” “low-point beer,” “alcohol-reduced beer,” and sometimes referred to as
“light beer,” has different definitions and the alcohol by volume limits depend on laws in different
countries [29]. In Germany, the USA, and in China, this limit is no more than 0.5% v/v; in Spain,
the maximum value is 1% v/v alcohol; while in France, is of 1.2% v/v alcohol [32]. In Islamic countries
such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, where alcohol consumption is prohibited by law,
non-alcoholic beers (NABs) contain less than 0.5% v/v alcohol and represent an alternative to other
non-alcoholic beverages because these provide some of the main bioactive components of traditional
beer [33].
Over the past decade, there has been a global rise in the consumer interest in craft beers (CBs),
particularly in traditional ales, and lagers, which are distinctively flavored, have a unique quality value
and overall particular sensory properties [15]. Besides CBs are produced locally, in small quantities,
are unpasteurized, unfiltered, and without added nitrogen or carbon dioxide pressure [34]. There are
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 3 of 23

three major categories of brewers making CB and these are brewpubs, microbreweries, and regional
craft breweries [35]. CBs are usually distributed regionally after they are produced in microbreweries
following the basic brewing principles while using different adjuncts and yeast types, according to
their consumers’ preferences [36].
Nowadays, NABs are experiencing an unprecedented boom on the craft side of the market.
This segment of no/low ABV beer has changed drastically and quickly mainly due to the consumer
demand (sportives, mothers, drivers, etc.) and advanced technology to brew non-alcoholic beer.
This review’s purpose is to evaluate and discuss the production techniques of special beers such as
NABs, LABs, and CBs focusing on the methods employed to improve their sensory characteristics
appeal and to improve their popularity among consumers’.

2. An Overview of Non-Alcoholic and Craft Beer

2.1. Market Landscape and Consumers Preference

A beer’s quality is measured by a complex set of sensory characteristics that include appearance,
aroma, taste, and texture as it is an incredibly versatile beverage, served in various locations such
as clubs, bars, and restaurants. Given this context, there will always be a high demand for beer,
particularly from male consumers. The common aim to improve public health without spoiling
consumers’ enjoyment of certain beer types is an important matter for brewers and retailers [37].
Consumers are becoming ever more educated in what constitutes the appropriate flavor notes and
“freshness” of beer [38], therefore there is a great challenge to try and reinvent certain beer types or to
come up with completely new beer assortments. The future trends of beer production and products is
best forecasted based on past statistics. As we can see, according to the European beer trends statistics
report 2019 edition [39], in 2018, the top four beer producers of Europe consisted in Germany, with an
overall beer production of 93,652 in 1000 HL, followed by Poland (42,603 in 1000 hL), United Kingdom
(42,282 in 1000 hL), and Spain (38,134 in 1000 hL). Another report, the contribution made by beer to
the European Economy [40], indicated that in 2018, more than 32 million hectoliters were exported
from EU-28 countries outside the EU, which embodies over 8% of total production. This consists of
large global brands, craft beers, and specialty brands made for export. It was also stated that there
is increased investment in innovation, especially to produce new craft brews, expanding production
lines to include cider and stout and to develop new beer flavors. Variety is looked for in all markets,
therefore although conventional beer production is still heavily in the lead, craft beers, followed by
specialty beers, alcohol-free, and low-alcohol beers, being so unique one to another would surely gain
increased interest as time goes by. For example, the production of NAB (including malt beverages)
increased in Germany from 5.4% in 2012 to 7.3% in 2018, while in Netherlands it went from 1.5% in 2012
to 5.2% in 2018 [40]. Having this in mind, it is still thought that economies of scope can prevail over
economies of scale, at least in what regards beer production. Moreover, it is supposed that standard
ale and lager consumption will decrease as consumers progressively choose to drink ‘Better, not more’,
getting out of the comfort zone and into the experiment area [41].

2.1.1. Non-Alcoholic Beers: Alcohol-Free and Low-Alcohol Beers

In the late twentieth century, the efforts of breweries to expand NAB assortments were driven
mainly by the following goals: (1) to reach an increase in overall production by designing new products
in countries with highly competitive markets; (2) to provide beer consumers with alternative products
that can be consumed prior or during their daily activities (driving motor vehicles or operating
machinery, practicing sports) or under certain conditions (pregnancy, medication) incompatible with
alcohol consumption; (3) to enter beverage markets in countries where alcohol consumption is forbidden
due to religious prohibitions. Although sales figures of beers having low alcohol content did not fulfill
the initial optimistic expectations, today we are looking at a fast-growing segment of the beer market,
worldwide [42]. Globally, NABs and LABs market experienced a total volume growth of 20% between
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 4 of 23

2011 and 2016 and is forecasted to grow another 24% until 2021. Middle East, Africa, and Western
Europe are the biggest markets in terms of volume and value [29]. Particularly, German LAB market is
one of the biggest in the world.
A consumer’s perception of NAB quality is usually based on a complex combination of expectations,
which are associated with the impact of some sensory properties such as color, foam, flavor and aroma,
mouthfeel, and aftertaste [36,43,44]. Some of these sensory perceptions are out of the brewer’s control,
however in the case of those directly influenced by the brewing and packaging processes, beer flavor
and aroma control are the most significant [44]. Factors that must meet consumers’ demands include
the appearance and flavor profile of each beer variety. Appearance can be influenced by impurities
and might result in increased beer turbidity affecting the product’s quality. Other important factors
that influence the consumers’ consumption habits are bitterness degree, alcohol content, along with
the packaging’s volume, design, and ease of transportation and storage [45]. Due to health and safety
reasons, or to social regulations, the beer market is witnessing a significant rise in the consumption of
NAB, especially because it lacks the disadvantages associated with high alcohol contents. Globally,
alcohol consumption is the third major health-risk factor with harmful consequences and serious social
implications [46,47]. Thus, when considering the potential health benefits of beer, careful consideration
should be given to novel brewing techniques and yeasts that could help to moderate or minimize
alcohol content whilst optimizing the flavor and potential health effects [10,48,49]. The development
of beverages that can influence consumers into more positive patterns of alcohol consumption is
a challenge for all those involved in this industry [37]. Developing new beer products can deliver
additional benefits (color, antioxidant properties, different taste, and smell), which could attract new
customers, including not only existing consumers of beer but new non-beer-drinkers, as well [50].
Moreover, consumers are willing to spend more money on specialty beer, which normally has less
alcoholic content compared to some beers and wines [51]. NAB consumers seek a product as close
as possible to regular beer, but the dealcoholization processes give these beer types a different taste
and overall sensory characteristics, which is sometimes reflected in modest consumer acceptance.
LAB produced by limited fermentation is often characterized by a worthy off-flavor and sweet taste,
which are not the usual common traits of beer. However, the slight separation from beer-like flavors
towards a fruitier flavor might prove to be beneficial in terms of consumer acceptance [29].
Taste is a key factor in beverage choice given that through the tongue, compounds that impart taste
can be sensed directly. The aroma, on the other hand, is linked to any volatile compound arising out of
the beverage that can be perceived on the nose or retro-nasally, on the back of the mouth [43]. The main
components associated with flavor are alcohols, phenols, esters, carbonyl compounds, and organic
and fatty acids [52,53]. The marketing issues or labeling problems have been reviewed by Bellut and
Arendt [29] and it was concluded that product labeling is a powerful tool for creating specific sensory
expectations that can influence the consumer’s choice.
Microbreweries usually lack a laboratory for quality control of beer [54]. From a technological
point of view, it is a complex operation to maintain the taste profile of the NAB by removing alcohol [37].
Unfortunately, beer is exposed to chemical reactions starting with the moment it gets transported out of
the production plant. Given the actual trend of big brewing producers to accede in global beer market,
this involves longer time spans through which the product passes until it is consumed, contributing
to an increasing risk over its quality. Malfliet et al. (2008) [55], distinguished as the most sensitive
key marker constituents of flavor instability being trans-isohumulones, aldehydes (namely furfural,
hexanal, 2-methyl-propanal, 2-methylbutanal, and 3-methylbutanal), proanthocyanidins, flavonoid
content, and other physical parameters such as total bitterness, beer color, cold, and permanent
haze formation.
The overall sensory experience of drinking a beverage is associated with different emotions. In the
study conducted by Silva et al., 2016, beer is associated with positive emotional responses, such as
“adventurous” and “energetic”, while NAB evokes neutral and negative emotional responses, such as
rational, conscious, and disappointed. This is because NAB is not treated as a different beverage,
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 5 of 23

being instead perceived as a substitute for conventional beer. To secure success, some strategies to
improve acceptability and image of NAB need to be adopted. In communication and advertisements,
NAB should be associated with positive emotions for a higher level of congruency between expectation
and experience [56], and it should be promoted for its already proven and potential benefits.

2.1.2. Craft Beer

Globalization has a decisive role in the evolution of the craft beer market, thereby the world
is becoming a place of fast knowledge and information transfer. One of the results of globalization
was the promotion of local traditions or specific local resources by creating and promoting beverages
such as craft beers, which are diverse, atypical, and high-quality products [57]. There is not one
recognized definition, still according to Brewers Association craft brewer is a small and independent
brewer. The distinctive of craft beer and craft brewers is innovation by developing new types of
beer. In the USA, a small brewery is the one, whose yearly production does not exceed 24,000 hL and
in Europe the production does not exceed 20,000 hL [58]. Consumers’ rising interest in CBs began
over the last years a trend known as “the craft beer revolution”, which was first observed in the
United States of America, around 1970 [59]. In the USA, in 2018, CB sales grew at a rate of 4% by
volume, while in the UK, the Society of Independent Brewers Association reported an increase in
craft beer production of 0.8% amongst its members [10]. In Europe, new and small craft breweries
are making their appearance steadily and with great potential, since an annual increase of around
10% in microbreweries’ revenue is expected until 2021 [60]. The European CB map is exemplified
in three geographically and culturally related cases of Belgium and Germany that both have a rich,
but distinct beer history and culture, and the Netherlands, where specialty beers are comparably a
rather new, but still influential phenomenon. The Belgian consumer and tasting organization, Zythos,
emphasizes that a company can only be called a “brewery” if they brew beer in their own facilities [61].
Craft beers are constantly increasing their market share, against the products of large multinational
beer companies. This trend is influenced by several factors, such as: Per capita income growth, the
availability of alternatives toward the production of high-quality beers, increased health concerns, and
the emergence of new government regulations [62].
The development of craft brewing markets, however, was uneven in time and space [57].
Taking into consideration the number of new CBs available on the market every year, it is interesting
to observe the “hyper-differentiation” phenomenon. The particularity of CBs is very appreciated
by consumers and this lowers the importance of their prices, the main factor for choosing food and
beverage [63]. According to the study conducted by Pokrivčák et al., 2019, consumers’ choice for
CBs are generated by a desire for more knowledge, new taste experiences, and an attitude against
mainstream beer consumption [35].
Consumers seem to prefer CBs because they have a variety of flavors, such as notes of malted barley,
chestnut, and honey, which might increase the probability of perceiving craft beers to be of a higher
quality. Moreover, their consumption has become, in a qualitative approach, experienced-based and
emerging from a desire for identity and distinction. CB consumption is perceived by consumers
as an experience that offers pleasure, enjoyment, a sense of identity and belonging, self-fulfillment,
social recognition, and sustainability [36]. Also, consumption of CB is perceived as an indication of
social distinction and shows an affinity with a group united around this category of products [35].
The producers emphasize the typical and distinctive flavor of these products, due to the addition of
fruits, herbs, and spices that can transform regular beer into specialty beer, together with other aroma
ingredients and fermentable substrates [51,64]. Above all the ingredients mentioned, hops are without
a doubt the most used and the driven force of most craft breweries. This ingredient has a crucial
impact on beer quality. The hopping rate increased from 4.1 g α/hL (2010) to 4.3 g α/hL (2012) and
it is expected to continue to increase due to the growing craft brewing sector [65]. Dry hopping is
a technique that has been used by brewers to increase the hop aroma and flavor of beer for centuries.
Throughout the 21st century, dry hopping has become an increasingly popular method among craft
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 6 of 23

brewers to impart intense hoppy aroma and flavor to beer [66]. The dry-hopping procedure reported
by Lafontaine and Shellhammer, 2018 lasted for 24 h at 13.3–15 ◦ C with 200, 386, 800, and 1600 g
hop/hL unhopped beer treatment rates. Both the aroma intensity and profile of beer were influenced
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
by the number of hops added. Dry-hopping rates higher than 800 g/hL contributed to the formation of
aromas
to the associated
formation more with associated
of aromas herbal/tea more
than citrus and is not than
with herbal/tea recommended
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400–800 g/hL. that impact
Most of thebeer bitternessthat
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extracted via
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bitterness procedure
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is not recommended the agitation
because is not herbal/grassy
it can impart recommendednotes because it can
and extract
impart herbal/grassy
polyphenols responsible notes and astringency
of beer extract polyphenols
[66]. The responsible of beer astringency
main compounds that influence [66].the
The main
sensory
compounds
properties that influence
of craft beers are the sensory
organic properties
acids, sugars, of hopcraft beers
bitter are organic
acids, acids, sugars,
esters, terpenoids, hop bitter
polyphenols,
andacids, esters,
carbonyl terpenoids,Given
compounds. polyphenols, and carbonylprocesses
this, the fermentation compounds. Given
dictated by thethis, the fermentation
inoculated yeasts are
processes
vital for the dictated
aromaticby the inoculated
profile yeastsbeer
of the resulted are vital
[15]. for the aromatic profile of the resulted beer [15].

3. 3.
NABNABand
andLAB
LABBrewing
BrewingProcess
Process

TheThe methods
methods used
used for for obtaining
obtaining NABNAB or LAB
or LAB have have
had ahad a dynamic
dynamic development
development in the
in the last last
decades,
in decades, in with
conjunction conjunction within the
the increase increase
market demand,in market
driven by demand, driven
restrictive byconsumption
alcohol restrictive alcohol
policies
inconsumption policies inawareness
UE and the increasing UE and the increasing
about awareness
the benefits about the
of moderate beerbenefits
drinking of [56].
moderate beer
Although,
drinking [56]. Although, until recently were implemented mostly in multinationals,
until recently were implemented mostly in multinationals, requiring considerable investment in requiring
considerable
production andinvestment
marketing, inthe
production and marketing,
present dynamics in thethe present
market dynamics
allows in the market allows
the implementation the
of these
implementation of these methods even on a small scale. Thus, the technologies have
methods even on a small scale. Thus, the technologies have been reviewed and evaluated in this paper been reviewed
inand evaluated
terms in thisand
of efficiency paper in terms of
production efficiency
costs, relatedand
to production costs,
the possibility related
that craft to the possibility
brewers that
could adapt
craftintroduce
them, brewers could
them toadapt them,
a niche introduce
market, them toobtain
and quickly a niche market,
return and quicklyGenerally,
on investment. obtain return
NABon or
investment. Generally, NAB or LAB beer production processes can be divided into
LAB beer production processes can be divided into two major groups, namely physical processes and two major groups,
namely physical processes and biological processes. Physical processes can be based on thermal
biological processes. Physical processes can be based on thermal treatments or membrane separations.
treatments or membrane separations.
3.1. Techniques for Complete or Partial Alcohol Removal
3.1. Techniques for Complete or Partial Alcohol Removal
3.1.1. Thermal Treatments
3.1.1. Thermal Treatments
The post-fermentation techniques focused on the complete or partial removal of the alcohol
The
(ethanol) post-fermentation
from the original beertechniques
by thermalfocused on the
treatments complete
are falling filmorevaporation,
partial removal of the alcohol
continuous vacuum
(ethanol) from the original beer by thermal treatments
rectification, and thin layer evaporation (Figure 1). are falling film evaporation, continuous
vacuum rectification, and thin layer evaporation (Figure 1).

Figure 1. 1.Graphical
Figure Graphicalrepresentation
representationofofthermal
thermalprocesses
processes used
used to
to obtain non-alcoholic beer
obtain non-alcoholic beer(NAB)
(NAB)and
and
low-alcohol beer (LAB), adaptation from [42,67].
low-alcohol beer (LAB), adaptation from [42] and [67].

3.1.2. Falling Film Evaporation

The falling film evaporation consists in the following: The beer is pre-boiled under vacuum
conditions, in an even thin film, enters the heating tubes through a distribution device in the head of
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 7 of 23

3.1.2. Falling Film Evaporation

The falling film evaporation consists in the following: The beer is pre-boiled under vacuum
conditions, in an even thin film, enters the heating tubes through a distribution device in the head of
the evaporator, flows downward at boiling temperature using gravity and co-current vapor flow and
is partially evaporated. The process takes just a few seconds per pass. A vapor separator dissociates
the alcohol-rich vapors from the dealcoholized beer concentrate, which are further condensed in
a condenser. This technology is very accessible due low maintenance of the evaporator, as there are no
moving parts and no wear, due to its high efficiency [68]. The main process parameters controlling the
dealcoholization degree in the falling film evaporator are the heating steam supply and the evaporation
temperature adjustable by the vacuum pump-control.

3.1.3. Vacuum Rectification

The technique consists in the following steps: The filtered beer is pre-heated in a heat exchanger,
volatile compounds and CO2 are stripped in a vacuum degasser, and thereafter, in the vacuum
column, the alcohol is released from the beer at 42–48 ◦ C, recovering the aroma components from
CO2 by spraying with dealcoholized beer or water, and redirecting them into dealcoholized beer [42].
This method offers a production capacity of 4–200 hL of alcohol-free beer per hour with less than 0.05%
ABV. Moreover, the alcohol vapors obtained as a by-product can be capitalized, per se, for vinegar
production through acetification [33].

3.1.4. Thin Layer Evaporation

The centrifugal thin layer evaporator (Centritherm system or alternatively Spinning Cone Column)
operates under vacuum conditions at low temperatures (35–60 ◦ C) generated using steam and pressure
from 60 to 200 mbar. The beverage enters the evaporator through a feed tube and injection nozzles,
which distribute it to the underside of the hollow rotating cone. Centrifugal force instantaneously
spreads the beer over the entire heating surface in an extremely thin layer (approximately 0.1 mm).
The beer passes across the heating surface in less than one second. The concentrated and dealcoholized
beer collects at the outer edge of the cones and then exits the evaporator through a stationary product
tube. The vapors removed from the beer rise through the center of the cone and enter an exhaust pipe
that transfers them to an external condenser. The Centritherm evaporators are designed with 1–12
hollow cones, which correspond to production capacities of NAB from 0.5 to 100 hL/h, respectively,
allowing the production of beer having an alcohol content below 0.05% v/v when a rectifying column is
coupled to the evaporator [33,42]. The disadvantages of this process are the high energy costs and the
need to install an additional evaporator in the plant. The advantages and disadvantages of the main
thermal processes are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of capacity output, equipment needed, and advantages/disadvantages of the

main thermal processes used in NAB and LAB production [42,67,69].

Capacity Extra Set Up Needed Advantages/Disadvantages

Falling film evaporator
Vacuum Rectification
Thin layer Evaporation Centritherm
− evaporator column
+ low acquisition and operation
− vapor separator
cost, high efficiency, easy to
− vapor condenser
1–150 hL/h construct and easy to clean.
− rectifying column for
− final product with considerable
flavor compounds
losses of flavor compounds
recovery (optional)
− heat plate exchanger
− sensory properties of NABs are
− vacuum degasser
4–200 hL /h significantly changed, high energy
− rectifying column
requirements
cooler
+ easy to operate, service-friendly
− centrifugal evaporator
and hygienic
0.5–100 hL/h − external Condenser for
− high maintenance expenditure,
volatile compounds
high energy requirements
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 8 of 23

3.2. Membrane Separation Processes

Membrane separation processes (Figure 2) can be broken down into nanofiltration, reverse osmosis,
Processes 2020,
osmotic 8, x FOR PEER
distillation, REVIEW
dialysis, and pervaporation. They offer some competitive advantages compared 8 ofto
25
other physical NAB production processes like mild operational temperatures, low energy consumption,
compared
little to other
or no need physical
for using NAB agents,
enhancing production processes
reduced like
operating mild
costs operational
[70], temperatures,
but still additional low
equipment
energy
from consumption,
existing little
is required or no
apart need
from thefor using enhancing
standard agents, reduced operating costs [70], but
industrial plants.
still additional equipment from existing is required apart from the standard industrial plants.

Figure 2. Graphical representation of membrane-based processes used to obtain NAB, adaptation

from [69].
Figure 2. Graphical representation of membrane-based processes used to obtain NAB, adaptation
3.2.1.from
Reverse
[69]. Osmosis
The reverse osmosis (RO) process requires that the filtered beer flows tangential to the membrane
3.2.1. Reverse Osmosis
surface, and ethanol and water permeates the membrane selectively when the transmembrane
The substantially
pressure reverse osmosis exceeds(RO)
theprocess
osmotic requires
pressure of that the[67].
beer filtered beer flows
The process unfolds tangential to the
in three stages:
membrane
The surface,
concentration and
phase, ethanol
when and water
the permeate, permeates
consisting the water,
of alcohol, membrane
CO2 , andselectively when the
aromatic substances,
transmembrane
is removed frompressure
the beer,substantially
increasing the exceeds
alcohol the osmotic
until desiredpressure of beer [67].
concentration; theThe process unfolds
diafiltration phase,
in three
when stages: The concentration
demineralized phase, when
water quantitatively the the
replaces permeate,
permeate consisting of alcohol,
previously removed; water, CO2, and
the make-up
aromatic
phase, substances,
when is removed
demineralized waterfrom
refillsthe
thebeer, increasing
retentate to the the alcohol
initial volumeuntil
ofdesired concentration;
beer, further the
lowering the
diafiltration
alcohol phase,
content. Due when
to the ROdemineralized
and the CO2water removalquantitatively
during process, replaces the permeate
carbonation previously
of the final product
removed;
is requiredthe make-up
[68]. phase,
According to when
Catarinodemineralized
et al. (2007),water
largerefills the retentate
molecules, such asto the initial
aromatic volume of
compounds,
beer,mostly
will further lowering
remain at thethe alcoholside
retentate content.
of theDue to the RO
membrane, even and the utilizing
when CO2 removal during process,
low temperature and
carbonation
high pressure of [71].
the final product
Research is required
shows that the [68]. According
reverse osmosisto Catarino et al. (2007), large
is not economically molecules,
feasible for the
such as aromatic
production of beercompounds,
with an alcoholwill percentage
mostly remain less at the0.45%
than retentate
[72].side of the membrane, even when
utilizing low temperature and high pressure [71]. Research shows that the reverse osmosis is not
3.2.2. Dialysis feasible for the production of beer with an alcohol percentage less than 0.45% [72].
economically
In obtaining NABs through a dialysis process, a semipermeable membrane separates beer and
3.2.2. Dialysis
dialysate (aqueous solution), which flow in countercurrent, the exchange of substances occurring
practically only byNABs
In obtaining means of diffusion
through [73]. process,
a dialysis The contact time and the membrane
a semipermeable concentration gradient
separates beerat and
the
membrane determines compound exchange degree. Although resembling the RO, in the
dialysate (aqueous solution), which flow in countercurrent, the exchange of substances occurring dialysis
method, there
practically is no
only by concentration stage, [73].
means of diffusion thereThe
is nocontact
post-carbonation of the
time and the NABs needed
concentration [68], and
gradient no
at the
required high-pressure pump, generating lower operational costs.
membrane determines compound exchange degree. Although resembling the RO, in the dialysis
method, there is no concentration stage, there is no post-carbonation of the NABs needed [68], and
3.2.3. Osmotic Distillation
no required high-pressure pump, generating lower operational costs.
Osmotic distillation is a beer dealcoholization process carried out at low pressure and temperature,
3.2.3.low
with Osmotic Distillation
interaction between the membrane and the permeate and retentate, a method that has
a high energy efficiency
Osmotic distillation compared
is a beer to RO or distillation [74].
dealcoholization The carried
process downsideoutof at
thelow
process is that and
pressure the
volatile compounds
temperature, with lowCOinteraction
2 are lost in the process
between thus it requires
the membrane additional
and the permeateinvestment in a arecovery
and retentate, method
that has a high energy efficiency compared to RO or distillation [74]. The downside of the process is
that the volatile compounds CO2 are lost in the process thus it requires additional investment in a
recovery unit [73]. The selectivity of the process is determined by the equilibrium between the liquid
and vapor concentration in the system, since the component that presents the highest partial pressure
suffers the highest permeation rate of the membrane [74].
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 9 of 23

unit [73]. The selectivity of the process is determined by the equilibrium between the liquid and vapor
concentration in the system, since the component that presents the highest partial pressure suffers the
highest permeation rate of the membrane [74].

3.2.4. Pervaporation
The pervaporation process utilizes selective semipermeable membranes to separate alcohol
through diffusion in its gas phase at low temperatures. The difference in chemical potential of the
separated fluids generate displacement of alcohol molecules and permeate the membrane in the
direction from the highest alcoholic concentration to the lowest [33].
Aside from beer dealcoholization, the pervaporation technology can also be used to extract and
concentrate volatile aroma compounds from beer, by manipulating the temperature and suitability of
the membrane constituents accordingly [75,76], and subsequently add them to the final NABs [70].
The literature presents other methods researched in lab scale conditions like supercritical
CO2 extraction [42], nano filtration [77], absorption on hydrophobic zeolites [42], and freeze
concentration [68], but without current advances of technology and craft beer NAB appliances.
The main advantages and disadvantages of membrane processes used in NAB production are
presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison of pressure/temperature output, equipment needed, and

advantages/disadvantages of the main membrane processes used in NAB production [67,74,75].

Pressure/Temperature Extra Set Up Needed Advantages/Disadvantages

− high energy consumption, low flux rate,
− reverse osmosis equipment
high pressure requirement, significant
10–60 bar − carbonation equipment
Reverse Osmosis losses of volatiles
5–20 ◦ C − high-pressure pump
+ lower costs than that of a conventional
cooling system
distillation system
+ low operational costs and very low
10–60 bar − dialysis equipment
Dialysis working temperatures
(1–6 ◦ C) cooling system
− lack of body in the final product
+ higher energy efficiency than RO or
− osmotic distillation equipment
20–80 bar distillation
Osmotic Distillation − volatile compounds recovery unit
5–20 ◦ C, − depletion of main volatile compounds
− high-pressure pump
than RO
+ the most effective membrane process
1 bar − pervaporation equipment for the recovery of aroma compounds in
Pervaporation
10–20 ◦ C − separate beer dealcoholisation unit beverages
− partial ethanol removal

3.3. Biological Processes

The biological methods (Figure 3) of the NAB production based on limited alcohol formation can
be divided according to the production equipment they require, such as traditional brewery equipment
requirements (changed mashing process, arrested or limited fermentation process, cold contact process,
and utilization of special yeast) or use of special equipment (continuous limited fermentation). Clearly,
the most exploited technologies by beer crafters and large-scale industrials are those that do not require
further investments as often combinations of strategies are used, while the continuous immobilized
cell process is a promising but niche technology.
 Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 10 of 23

Figure 3. Graphical representation of membrane-based processes used to obtain NAB (Compilation

from Encyclopedia Britannica’s brewing process).
Figure 3. Graphical representation of membrane-based processes used to obtain NAB (Compilation
from Encyclopedia
3.3.1. Changed MashingBritannica’s
Process brewing process).
The
3.3.1. fermentative
Changed Mashingpotential
Processof the wort, accounted for by fermentable sugars, will determine
the potential alcohol content in beer. By changing the mashing process, consequently, the profile of
wort The fermentative
sugars potential
can be changed of the wort,
to further limit accounted
the alcoholfor by fermentable
formation. A wortsugars, will determine
fermentability the
of about
potential alcohol content in beer. By changing the mashing process, consequently,
25–30% is needed to produce a low-alcohol beer [78]. Thus, a wort with a low fermentable sugar the profile of wort
sugarscan
content canbebeattained
changedby tofollowing
further limit the alcohol
strategies formation.
such as: A wort of
(1) Inactivation fermentability of about
β-amylase enzyme, 25–30%
which is
is needed
sensible to to produce
a higher a low-alcohol
mashing beer [78].
temperature (>75 Thus,
◦ C);a(2)
wort with
cold a low
water maltfermentable
extractionsugar content
obtaining can
wort
be attained
with by following
some fermentable strategies
sugars; such as: the
(3) reducing (1) Inactivation
fermentable of β-amylase enzyme, which
extract/unfermentable extractisratio
sensible
by
to a higher mashing temperature (>75 °C); (2) cold water malt extraction obtaining
adding other grains such as maize or rice to barley; (4) re-mashing of spent grains to produce a second wort with some
fermentable
extract sugars;
with very (3) amounts
small reducing of thefermentable
fermentablesugars.
extract/unfermentable
Two modifications extract ratio
of the by adding
original other
method
grains such as maize or rice to barley; (4) re-mashing of spent grains to produce
are known: (a) Extrusion cooking of the spent grains prior to the second extraction and (b) acidic a second extract with
very smallof
hydrolysis amounts of fermentable
spent grain to yield a sugars.
secondaryTwowort modifications of the original
with a significant content method are known: (a)
of non-fermentable
Extrusion cooking of the spent grains prior to the second extraction and (b)
pentoses [42,68,70]; (5) use of barley varieties with β-amylase deficient with wide variations acidic hydrolysis of spent
of
grain to yield a secondary wort with a significant content of non-fermentable pentoses [42,68,70]; (5)
b-amylase thermostability [3,73]. These processes will generate a higher quantity of nonfermentable
use of barley varieties with β-amylase deficient with wide variations of b-amylase thermostability
sugars residue in the wort and subsequently unpleasant sweetness in the NABs, higher risk of microbial
[3,73]. These processes will generate a higher quantity of nonfermentable sugars residue in the wort
contamination, and a wort-like flavor. For ensuring successful beer production, mixed corrective
and subsequently unpleasant sweetness in the NABs, higher risk of microbial contamination, and a
measures are necessary, and these include vigorous wort boiling for lowering the level of aldehydes,
wort-like flavor. For ensuring successful beer production, mixed corrective measures are necessary,
wort acidification, limited fermentation, and color and bitterness adjustments.
and these include vigorous wort boiling for lowering the level of aldehydes, wort acidification,
limited
3.3.2. fermentation,
Arrested andFermentation
or Limited color and bitterness
Processadjustments.
This
3.3.2. approach
Arrested is perhaps
or Limited the most popular
Fermentation Processway to produce NAB and LAB. Arrested or limited
fermentation processes are focused on keeping a low ethanol content by removing yeast after a partial
This approach
fermentation (stopped is perhaps the most
fermentation popular
through way toorproduce
filtration NAB and
centrifugation) orLAB. Arrested
by creating or limited
conditions
fermentation processes are focused on keeping a low ethanol content by removing
to inhibit the yeasts activity (limited fermentation through rapid cooling to 0 C, pasteurization) ◦ yeast after a partial
at
fermentation
the same time (stopped
restricting fermentation
or disablingthrough filtration
the wort-like or centrifugation)
flavor impression. These or by production
creating conditions
methodsto
inhibitwith
operate the yeasts
the sameactivity (limited
equipment fermentation
available throughbrewery,
in a traditional rapid cooling
but theyto 0require
°C, pasteurization) at the
accurate and swift
same time restricting or disabling the wort-like flavor impression. These production
analytical control [32,42]. The disadvantages of these methods are triggered by the fact that limited methods operate
with the same
fermentation timeequipment
and inadequate available in a traditional
conversion of wort tobrewery,
beer might butresult
they inrequire
a finalaccurate and swift
product deficient
in aromatic compounds but with a powerful wort characteristic [33,79]. Researches show that forlimited
analytical control [32,42]. The disadvantages of these methods are triggered by the fact that both
fermentation
arrested time fermentation
or limited and inadequate conversion
processes, an of wortgravity
initial to beer from
might4.0 result
to 7.5inwt.
a final product
% is deficient
favorable and
in aromatic compounds but with a powerful wort characteristic [33,79]. Researches
that brewing at high gravity (20 wt %) enhances the formation of higher alcohols and esters. Further show that for both
arrested or limited fermentation processes, an initial gravity from 4.0 to
sensorial corrections of volatiles can be accomplished by: (1) Fermenting at a higher temperature; 7.5 wt. % is favorable and
that
(2) brewingwort’s
inhibiting at high gravity
oxygen (20 wtwhich
content, %) enhances
increases the formation of
significantly thehigher alcohols and
ester formation esters.
by ale Further
yeasts [68];
sensorial corrections of volatiles can be accomplished by: (1) Fermenting
or (3) the addition of flavorings (e.g., isoamyl acetate) to cover the “defects” [43]. at a higher temperature; (2)
inhibiting wort’s oxygen content, which increases significantly the ester formation by ale yeasts [68];
or (3) the addition of flavorings (e.g., isoamyl acetate) to cover the “defects”[43].
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 11 of 23

3.3.3. Cold Contact Process

This method can be easily adopted because it uses the same equipment as traditional beer
fermentation. The so-called “cold contact process” uses low-temperature (0–5 ◦ C) fermentation [68].
The yeast’s primary metabolism is decelerated reducing carbonyl compounds and ethanol production.
The amino acids are converted into aldehydes, which concur to the formation of off-flavors. The
cold-fermented NABs have characteristics like those of common beer [3].

3.3.4. Utilization of Special Yeast

This method of NAB production is associated with two different approaches: One based on the
selection of specific strains and the other on genetic modifications of brewing yeast. Specific strains of
the genus Saccharomyces and Saccharomycodes are incapable to ferment maltose; the main sugars in the
wort, however, are able to ferment fructose and sucrose, generating a lower ethanol content but a high
residual extract content and a high proportion of glycerol and sugar alcohols [3]. Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii offers limited application for NABs since it requires oxygenation of beer to consume ethanol
under aerobic conditions and has negative effects on the flavor and colloidal stability [42]. The use of S.
ludwigii for NABs generates better results than the latter, offering sweet notes from the high residual
maltose and maltotriose. Like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it is unable to ferment the latter and it produces
liveliness and fullness in beer with higher alcohol and ester formation, with barely perceptible worty
off-flavor. The genetic approach is not yet largely accepted by the consumers and consequently craft
brewers will not risk and implement it in their breweries.

3.3.5. Continuous Fermentation

This process consists of the use of yeasts attached to a carrier material, such as diethylaminoethyl
cellulose (DEAE-C), calcium alginate, calcium pectate, or sintered glass. The carrier material and the
yeast are placed in a reactor, where the wort flows and generates increased biomass concentration
and accelerated transformation of wort into beer [33]. In a brewery, this process could generate
advantages consisting of lower capital, production, and manpower costs, although investment is
required in immobilization support, low temperatures (2–4 ◦ C) for limiting yeasts’ growth and
metabolism, and anaerobic conditions for preventing an oxidation phenomenon responsible of off
flavor development. Different technologies for immobilization exist, as reported by Montanari et al.
2009, but are adapted to regular beers and are improbable to be applied in craft brewers due to the
difficulty to control the process parameters (e.g., temperature, concentration of dissolved oxygen) for
producing NABs [68].
Both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beers contain residual fermentable sugars that are highly
susceptible to spoilage organisms. Good production hygiene is important for the microbiological
stability and safety of the beverages [48], but in order to ensure them, the craft brewers have
at their disposal multiple physical and biological solutions. The physical techniques include
traditional techniques like thermal processing, filtrations and use of weak organic acids (sorbates,
benzoates, sulphites), and emerging non-thermal preservation techniques like high-pressure processing,
hydrodynamic cavitation, ionizing irradiation, pulsed high-voltage electric field, and ultraviolet
irradiation treatments. Biological techniques, mainly used to obtain more “natural” products, include
preservation with natural antimicrobials obtained from herbs, spices and their derived essential oils and
extracts, or bio-acidification of wort with selected microbes showing good antimicrobial properties [80].

4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Alcohol Removal Techniques

Craft brewers have several options available to obtain a new recipe for NAB or LAB and develop
their portfolio on a growing market segment. As presented in Table 1, the most important factors that
affect craft brewers’ decisions revolve around the necessary investment and the final product quality.
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 12 of 23

The thermal methods could be used to produce a LAB with up to 0.05% alcohol, increased output,
and low operation costs but will require a high investment and will generate significant volatile
compounds loss and some thermal stress on the beer inducing oxidation reactions.
The membrane separation processes are the most advanced in the industry available for alcohol
free beer production and offer better advantages than the thermal methods regarding the final product’s
flavor and the possibility to reincorporate extracted beer volatiles. However, these processes have the
drawback of having a high investment and operational cost.
Most biological processes have the advantage of using the same equipment from the traditional
beer fermentation, therefore are easy to adapt them to the regular processes. Although the beers
produced will have a sweet and worty taste, this can be turned into an advantage by brewers by
developing beers with different flavors for millennials or can be improved with different technological
additives. Brewing experience is necessary to control the processes since well-equipped control
laboratories are rarely found in this niche. The investment in immobilized yeast reactor is not likely
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
to be adopted due to the high output required to generate profit, which is not characteristic of craft
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
brewers. In TableTable33.are presented
Comparison the main
of necessary processes
investment andused in LAB
operational costsproduction.
of the main processes used in
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
LAB
Tableproduction, adaption
3. Comparison after [33].investment and operational costs of the main processes used in
of necessary
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
Table 3. Comparison of
LAB production,
Table necessary
adaption
3. Comparison investment
after and operational
[33].investment
of necessary
INSTALLATION costs
and operational of the
costs main
of the
OPERATIONAL mainprocesses used
used in
processes BEER in LAB
production,
LAB
PROCESS
adaption after
production, [33].
adaption after [33].COSTS
Table 3. Comparison
Processes
Processes
2020,
2020, of necessary
8, x 8,
FORx FOR
PEER
PEER
REVIEW INSTALLATION
REVIEW COSTS
investment and operational costs QUALITY
of the main processes used in OPERATIONAL BEER
12 of
1223
of 23
LAB
PROCESS
BIOLOGICAL
production, adaption after [33].
Processes PROCESS
Processes
2020,
2020,
8, x 8,
FORx FOR
PEER
PEER
REVIEW
REVIEW COSTS COSTS
INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION COSTSCOSTS
OPERATIONAL
OPERATIONAL QUALITY
BEER BEER
QUALITY
12 of1223
of 23
Table PROCESS
PROCESSES
Table3. Comparison
3. Comparison
BIOLOGICAL of necessary
of necessary investment
investment andand
operational
operational
costs
costs
of the
of the
main
main
processes
processes
usedused
in in
BIOLOGICAL 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW INSTALLATION
Processes 2020, PROCESSES COSTS COSTS
OPERATIONAL QUALITY
BEER 12 of 23
LAB
TableLABPROCESS
Changed 3. mashing
production,
3.production,
PROCESSES
Table Comparison adaption
Comparisonadaption
ofafter
after
of necessary[33].
necessary [33].
investment
investment andand
operational
operational
costs
costs
of the
of the
main
main
processes
processes
usedused
in in
ChangedBIOLOGICAL
mashing process COSTS $$ COSTS
$$$$ QUALITY
Changed
LAB LAB process
production,
PROCESSES mashing
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after
[33].[33].
Table 3.
BIOLOGICALComparison of necessary investment
INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION $$ and operational costs
OPERATIONAL of
OPERATIONAL the main processes used
BEER
BEER 12inof
Processes
Processes
Cold2020,
Cold
2020,
Yeast8, Contact
PROCESS
x 8,
FOR
PROCESS
Yeast
x FOR
PEER
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PEER
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1223
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Changed
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PROCESSES mashing
production, adaption after [33].
COSTS
COSTS COSTS
COSTS QUALITY
QUALITY
Processes
Processes
2020,2020,
Special8, x 8,
FOR
yeast x FOR
PEER
PEER
REVIEW
REVIEWINSTALLATION
INSTALLATION $ OPERATIONAL
OPERATIONAL
$$ BEER
BEER 12 of
1223
of 23
Cold
Table Special
PROCESS
Table PROCESS
Yeast
process
3. yeast
Contact of necessary
Comparison
3. mashing
Comparison of necessary $$
investment
investment andand
operational
operational
costs
$$$$
costs
of the
of the
main
main
processes
processes
usedused
in in
Changed
BIOLOGICAL
BIOLOGICAL COSTS
COSTS
INSTALLATION COSTS
COSTS
OPERATIONAL QUALITY
QUALITY
BEER
$$ $$
Processes 2020,
Immobilized 8, x FOR
Yeast PEER REVIEW $$$$ 12 of 23
Immobilized
Cold
LAB
Table Special
LABPROCESS
TableYeast
production,
3.production,
process
PROCESSES
PROCESSES
Comparison
Yeast
yeast
Contact
adaption
3. Comparison adaption
ofafter
after
of necessary[33].
necessary [33]. $$
investment
investment andand
operational
operational
costs
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of the
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main
processes
processes
usedused
in in
BIOLOGICAL
BIOLOGICAL COSTS COSTS QUALITY
THERMAL
Processes
Processes
Processes
2020,
THERMAL2020,PROCESSES
8,2020,
x 8,
Immobilized FORx 8,
FOR
PEER
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Changed
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LAB Special
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PROCESSES
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production, adaption
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[33].
of necessary [33]. $
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Thin
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layer
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PROCESS Evaporation
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BEER
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LAB PROCESSES
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Table 3.yeast
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3.production,
Comparisonmashing
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of necessary
of necessary[33].
COSTS
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and
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Processes 2020, 8, 1382 13 of 23

and Saccharomyces pastorianus (synonym Saccharomyces carlsbergensis) are the two species widely used
as starter cultures for the production of the two most categories of industrial beer, which are ‘ale’ and
‘lager’ beers, strains known as the top-fermenting and bottom-fermenting yeasts [49,86]. A perfect
model of an organism may be considered Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its short replication time, simple
cultivation, sporulation efficiency, rare pathogenicity, and small genome size have made it an ideal
research organism and placed it at the front of many scientific advances [87]. These strains of yeasts
have become dominant, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae, due to their alcohol tolerance and rapid
fermentation rates, which are ideal for commercial beer production [10]. The current approaches have
led to the exploration of various yeasts in the brewing process. This, akin to many of the developments
in modern beer production, special beer production is largely driven by commercial reasons and for
improving the product’s biological properties [10,15].
In this context, Saccharomyces boulardii is a new type of yeast, that acts as a probiotic yeast and
tends to produce less alcohol. The probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii is capable of fermenting
brewery wort and optimizing the process variables led to improved production of volatile compounds
by this yeast. The obtained product has similar sensory qualities with the traditional product, high
commercial characteristics, and lower value of pH, which helps to maintain the beer’s shelf life [88].
It has also been described by Mulero-Cerezo et al. (2019) that Saccharomyces boulardii show higher
viability during the fermentation process, which is ideal for producing a craft beer containing viable
probiotic cells [34]. Several studies demonstrated that Saccharomyces boulardii can generate bioactive
compounds in fermented beverages thus improving their functionality [89,90]. Other strains, such as
Saccharomycodes ludwigii, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii [10], Torulaspora delbrueckii, Pichia kluyveri [49],
Lachancea thermotolerans [91], and Brettanomyces spp. [92], have been assessed as candidates, producing
a beer that is acceptable to consumers, commercially viable, and low in alcohol.
The new trend in brewing biotechnologies involves non-Saccharomyces yeasts in the fermentation
process given the improvements they can produce in sensory quality and differentiation, especially in
craft beers and low-alcohol beers [62]. For example, Brettanomyces spp. are essential in the production
of lambic-style beers [86], where they contribute with flavors that are not normally produced by
Saccharomyces spp. Often, Brettanomyces spp. can produce smoky, barnyard, spicy, and medicinal
flavors in beverages [87]. On the other hand, Brettanomyces can produce β-glucosidase, an enzyme
responsible for the hydrolysis of glycosides, commonly found in the hop and other sources. Therefore,
this could increase or modify the hop aroma due to the numerous released monoterpenes, which are
the key aroma substances from hop [86].
Lachancea thermotolerans is a yeast that can be used successfully in the making of craft beers because
of its ability to ferment until 4–9% v/v producing high amounts of lactic acid from sugars and interesting
effects in beer aroma. It is also a good candidate due to the natural biological acidification during the
fermentation process [62]. Interestingly, Lachancea thermotolerans also can produce lactic acid, which can
affect both flavor and mouthfeel. The beers obtained at the lower fermentation temperature (14◦ C) are
associated with sensory-related words such as fruity, floral, sour, clove, melon, and strawberry [91].
Moreover, the ability to produce significant amounts of lactic acid make that strain suitable to be used
in the production of acidic beers without the involvement of lactic bacteria [62]. Studies conducted by
Zdaniewicz et al. (2020) confirmed that the Lachancea thermotolerans strains can produce lower alcohol
as compared to Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains [93].
Torulaspora delbrueckii is another versatile yeast suitable for beer production [62], as it exhibits
low alcohol production ability [94] due to its inability to utilize maltose [95]. This strain has the
added advantage of being resistant to the various stress factors encountered during brewing [87]
and to produce 2-phenyl ethyl acetate, a floral ester with positive floral aroma, that increases during
fermentation [62]. Canonico et al. (2016) reported that the beers obtained with Torulaspora delbrueckii
were characterized by a good aromatic profile and a low alcohol content (2.66% v/v) [96]. Following
other studies [95,96], this yeast was found to be suitable for brewing applications.
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 14 of 23

Pichia kluyveri strain can be used for producing NAB or LAB owing to its limited ability to ferment
glucose whilst significantly changing hop compounds into positive flavor compounds [57,97]. Pichia
kluyveri produces much less diacetyl compared with the Saccharomyces cerevisiae brewers’ yeast strain.
Also, the production of desirable ester compounds is high and leads to a lower production of unwanted
acids such as octanoic acid and decanoic acid [95].
Zygosaccharomyces rouxii is the most xerotolerant yeast; this high osmotic tolerance could potentially
be used in high gravity brewing since some strains have shown to ferment all wort sugars [97]. This yeast
strain is also considered suitable for producing fermented beverages with low alcohol content because of
its total or partial inability to ferment maltose [49]. After a fermentation process with Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii, esters and higher alcohols are the main flavor-active compounds identified in beer [95].

6. Compounds Involved in Special Beers’ Stability and Quality

6.1. Impact of Polyphenols on Beer Flavor Stability

Over the past years, many beer endogenous antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds and
Maillard reaction products, were reported as responsible for beer flavor stability. Of these, phenolic
compounds are considered as the most important due to their potential health benefits [98–101] and
their implications in beer processing. The greatest quantity of phenols comes from malt, 80%, and the
difference, from hops. Additionally, malt characteristics (variety, malting process) and beer technology
(mashing, fermentation, and conditioning) significantly influence the antioxidant activity of final
beer [102], its enrichment in polyphenols, and also its flavor stability [103]. Recent findings [104]
proved that optimizing the specific mashing parameters (temperature, rest duration for some enzymes
during saccharification) could improve the phenols content and the wort antioxidant activity. Specific
malt varieties were identified as having high total phenols content and antioxidant activity, which can
be used to optimize the flavor stability of beer. The same study [103] indicated that adjusting
malting and mashing parameters (increasing the kilning temperature, prolonging the protein rest,
and saccharification rest time) is essential for increasing the levels of phenolic compounds and
antioxidant activity of worts, which will positively impact beer’s quality.
During maturation, beer composition is enriched in volatile compounds, but when stored,
some unwanted compounds are inevitably formed. These beer aging products differ depending on the
various beer types, lager beer being reported as the most sensitive [105]. Given this, it is impossible to
establish some specific storage parameters. The overall beer aging results in decreasing the bitter taste,
increasing the sweet one, and the formation of unwanted volatile beer aging markers [106]. The final
beer’s content of phenols is related to the beer process applied and the raw materials being used.
Some phenolic compounds are of particular interest because they may influence sensory attributes
like flavor, foam, color, and colloidal stability. Despite the association of polyphenols with turbidity,
they present a special capacity to improve the oxidative and flavor stability. During beer processing,
important amounts of phenols are lost through trub separation, by their adhesion to yeast cells during
fermentation, by elimination during beer conditioning, and by their overall decreasing trend during
storage. Some polyphenols contribute to beer bitterness, therefore, being important compounds overall,
new methods are necessary to retain and reintegrate them in beer using perhaps extracts able to
positively fulfil beer’s flavor and taste.

6.2. Prenylflavonoids
Prenylflavonoids are contained in hops and are recognized for their various benefits (antioxidant,
anticarcinogen, antimicrobial, estrogenic, efficient in osteoporosis, anti-inflammatory, antiviral) over
human health in the context of moderate beer consumption [99]. In what regards the effect on
beer quality, prenylflavonoids possess antioxidant activity, and ensure foam stability, adding to the
prolonging of microbial and flavor stability during storage. In our previous studies, we presented the
methods through which these compounds can be efficiently capitalized in beer [107–109].
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 15 of 23

Still, large amounts of prenylflavonoids are removed throughout the process, as the brewery’s
by-products. The amount of prenylflavonoids found in brewers spent hops (discharged through hot
trub–0.2–0.4 kg/hL beer) varies depending on multiple factors such as raw material quality, dosage in
wort, wort composition, and boiling parameters. During alcoholic fermentation and beer conditioning,
the concentration in prenylflavonoids is considerably reduced due to their adherence on yeast’s cell
walls. Spent yeast represents the second by-product of brewing industry (1.5–3 kg/hL beer).

6.3. Beer Color

One of the main aspects related to beer stability during storage is beer’s tendency of changing color.
Malfliet et al. 2008 [55] found that beer changes color especially in the first 60 days of storage at 30 ◦ C,
with a similar color change also resulting after a nine-month interval of storage at 22 ◦ C, a similarity that
suggests the importance of storing temperature to beer color. Another study conducted by Cao et al.,
2011 [110], discovered an almost linear increase of beer color during storage at room temperature,
explained by the formation of Maillard reaction products and oxidative degradation of polyphenols
during the pasteurization process [110]. In terms of special beers colors adjustment, the melanoidin
malt addition plays the role of a coloring agent of pale lager beer and positively enhances the beer flavor
stability [15,111]. Storage without oxygen and at low temperature is recommended so as to minimize
the synthesis of pigments [112]. Moreover, in the study conducted by Callemien and Collin, 2007,
for the beer samples, it has been shown the impact of catechin in the color increasing through storage.

6.4. Haze Stability

Phenolic compounds play an important role in beer’s quality and in its haze stability, with catechin
and epicatechin being involved in both haze formation and beer colloidal stability. Almost 80% of
catechins originate from malt, the rest come from hops. Catechins are involved in beer stability due
to their affinity to proteins therefore obtaining optimal concentration of catechins becomes essential.
Brown beer represents a rich source of catechins (46.4 mg CE/100 mL [101], 14.1–37.5 mg/100 mL [113].
Moreover, it is important to take note of the fact that catechins and epicatechins are also involved in
the beer’s bitter taste [101]. The studies of McMurrough et al., 1992, 1996, have revealed that flavonoid
dimers are also important for haze formation [114,115].

6.5. Protein in Beer—Influence on Beer Flavor Stability

Nitrogenous compounds are the second major class of nutrients after carbohydrates. Malt provides
simple nitrogen sources for the yeast, such as aminoacids. Besides aminoacids, wort contains
ammonium and some di- and tripeptides. Almost the entire free amino nitrogen (FAN) content of
wort is used by yeast for their growth. The level of FAN strongly influences the content of higher
alcohols, ester vicinal diketones, and hydrogen sulfide formation owing to the function of amino
acid metabolism in the formation of these flavor compounds. Unfortunately, high temperatures and
high dissolved oxygen concentrations contribute to a high FAN utilization, finally leading to flavor
imbalances [116].

7. Beer Enhancements and New Special Beer Designs

It was shown so far that beer encompasses carbohydrates, nitrogen compounds, phenolic
compounds, ethanol, vitamins, lipids and melanoidins, volatile compounds, antioxidants, flavors,
aroma inducers, and emulsion stabilizers [117]. As discussed in the previous chapters, there is
an increased interest in reinventing conventional beer to make it more attractive.
Beers can be redesigned by using alternative ingredients or by adding other foods to the original
ingredients list. Such examples are commercially available Italian ale style beers made by adding,
throughout the fermentation process, natural foods such as chestnut, cocoa, coffee, green tea, honey,
liquorice, and walnut. The resulted products had their nutritional values assessed in comparison with
regular beers. It was concluded that most of the studied special beers (4.5%–9.0% ABV) possessed
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 16 of 23

considerably higher antioxidant activity, total polyphenols, and flavonoids contents than the five
conventional beers (4.6%–6.6% ABV) included in the study. Most of those reinvented beers were
enriched with catechin, epicatechin, rutin, myricetin, quercetin, and resveratrol. Moreover, enhanced
contents of phenolic acids such as ferulic, p-coumaric, syringic, and sinapic acids were found in the
reinvented beers as compared with regular ones. This indicated that adding natural foods during
the fermentation process resulted in the production of beers with improved antioxidant activity and
superior phenolics profile [118]. Moreover, beers rich in phenolic antioxidants exhibits higher quality,
more stable flavor and aroma, foam stability, and longer shelf life with respect to beers with lower
antioxidant activity.
A study emerged at the beginning of 2020 regarding fruity beers (5–8% ABV), mainly beers
produced by adding apple, apricot, cherry, grape, orange, peach, plum, or raspberry to the fermentation
process. The studied samples of such industrially produced assortments were assessed as having
an increased antioxidant activity and a quantitatively augmented phenolics profile. Compared to
conventional beers (4.8–7.0%), the content of phenolic acids such as chlorogenic, neochlorogenic,
p-coumaric, and caffeic acids, was higher in fruity beers. Beers obtained using cherries showed the
highest overall values, followed by the ones obtained with the addition of grape, plum, and orange [119].
As previously mentioned, fruit-infused beers such as those obtained by adding Aronia berries
during the fermentation process have increased polyphenol content and antioxidative capacity [120].
Another study focused on the production of special fruit ale beers (3.6–5.63% ABV) with different
concentrations of barley malt and persimmon juice, from the ‘Rojo Brillante’ variety. The resultant
beers met the quality standards of regular beers and were rich in citric and lactic acid [13].
Another study investigated how the addition of propolis to a craft beer brings a potential increase
in bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity. Propolis addition resulted in a reduced oxygenation
and fortified the phenolic content of beer, content typically reduced through processes such as boiling,
filtration, bottling and storage [121]. Besides the beer increasing functionality, the propolis addition
could be a potential premise to improve the stability and shelf-life of craft beer. Increasing interest in
beer research comes with red sorghum as a beneficial added ingredient as it is an interesting source of
stilbenoids, which also possess a high antioxidant activity [122].
The evolution of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity was also assessed throughout the
brewing process [123]. It was shown that the antioxidant activity did not change during the process.
Contrarily, the polyphenolic content encountered a 3-fold increase after fermentation attributed to
a better extraction of polyphenols in the presence of ethanol. In another study, the late hop addition
resulted in a significantly higher antioxidant activity of these beers. A high dosage late hopping was
beneficial for sensory stability of beer [124].
Different beer alternatives are designed for those suffering of celiac disease, a condition
characterized by intolerance to the gluten proteins found in barley and wheat. In this regard,
rice malt beers (4.59–5.12 % ABV) were produced in a traditional manner using different rice malts,
showing that such gluten-free beers can be considered alternatives to regular beers [19]. Adding fruits
and other natural foods to beers or making them gluten-free is a sure way to increase their health
appeal and become even more commercially attractive.

8. Conclusions
Special beers are becoming more popular and the consumption of NAB is increasing. Still,
the benefits of moderate consumption are more complex to discuss and require further study. Brewers
try to offer NABs with a wide range of assortments but with a conventional beer taste. As presented
in this review, different studies have been performed focused mainly on the optimization of sensory
characteristics and nutritional profile while new researches are in progress.
Craft breweries are prone to many challenges due to the lower production volume; moreover,
access to market and efficient distribution solutions are deemed as main challenges with expensive
charges. These products will gain new consumers and could fulfill the market requirements for
Processes 2020, 8, 1382 17 of 23

products with health-promoting properties. In their support, advertising will play a powerful role by
creating a positive message around special beer.
Ensuring special beer’s flavor stability represents an ongoing issue of brewing involved actors,
becoming one of the main technological challenges. This requires a deep understanding of the processes,
equipment, and systems in place. Future studies on special beer need to be focused on characterizing
the raw materials, chemical composition, different yeasts, and fermenting bacteria to modulate flavor
and other sensory properties of beer for an increasingly demanding consumer. Their popularity will
increase from working on innovation, sustainability, functionality, and authenticity.
Finally, it seems that beer consumers are increasingly curious about trying out different flavors
and beer styles, most likely because they are looking to have a more diverse experience when drinking
beer as they do not consume beer only for its alcohol content. As in any other markets, brewers need
to decide if they are looking to offer a unique and safe product or if they prefer to produce a commonly
accepted one with an adaptive personality, hence characteristics. This decision can only be taken after
knowing the consumers demands. In this sense, it is worth noting that currently, harmful drinking
patterns are declining in Europe and consumption behavior are changing towards lower strength
products such as lower alcohol and non-alcohol varieties within the beer category. Given this, there is
an acute need for more in-depth research on beer production techniques as it is difficult to recommend
one or the other, this being up to the brewers’ final interest and with expected positive and negative
outcomes. Regardless of the selected brewing technology, the main scope of a brewer would be to
meet consumers wishes, to keep them safe and satisfied.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.C.S. and T.E.C.; writing—original draft preparation, M.V.I., L.C.S.,
C.R.P., T.E.C., and A.B.; writing—review and editing, L.C.S., M.V.I., A.P., and A.B.; supervision, L.C.S., T.E.C.,
M.T., A.P., E.M., and H.Z.; funding acquisition, L.C.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by a grant from the European Foundation for Alcohol Research (ERAB),
Belgium, project number Ref EA 15 45.
Acknowledgments: The publication was supported by funds from the National Research Development Projects
to finance excellence (PFE)-37/2018–2020 granted by the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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