2.

2 Oxygen Transport: Effect of Intensity

The study investigated the oxygen uptake kinetics of sprinters and endurance runners at
different exercise intensities. The sprinters exhibited lower VO2max values compared to
endurance runners, aligning with previous research (Stirling et al., 2008). Notably, the modeling
of VO2 kinetics revealed that sprinters displayed a larger VO2 slow component, which initiated
earlier in exercise compared to endurance runners. This discrepancy could be attributed to the
higher proportion of type II muscle fibers in sprinters, necessitating their recruitment during
high-intensity exercise due to the fatigue of initially recruited fibers (Kilding et al., 2005). This
contrasts with the more sustained recruitment of type I fibers in endurance runners. These
findings are consistent with studies linking the VO2 slow component to the proportion of type II
fibers in the contracting muscles. (Granier et al., 1995)
At severe exercise intensities, sprinters' VO2 slow component amplitudes were significantly
greater than those of endurance runners, likely reflecting the greater reliance on type II fibers
(Sabapathy et al., 2005). Additionally, a correlation was observed between the VO2 slow
component and electromyography mean power frequency (EMG MPF) in endurance runners,
highlighting the potential influence of muscle fiber type on oxygen uptake kinetics. (Borrani et
al., 2001)
These outcomes contribute to a deeper understanding of oxygen transport mechanisms in
differing athlete populations. Sprinters' larger VO2 slow component and earlier onset during
severe exercise can be attributed to their higher proportion of type II muscle fibers (Poole,
1994). This knowledge enhances our comprehension of the interplay between muscle fiber
composition, exercise intensity, and oxygen kinetics. (Qi et al., 2007)
2.2.1 Convective Oxygen Transport:

Convective oxygen transport refers to the process by which oxygen is transported within the
body through the bloodstream. During exercise, the heart pumps oxygen-rich blood from the
lungs to the muscles and tissues that are in need of oxygen for energy production. The oxygen
molecules bind to hemoglobin in red blood cells, allowing for efficient transportation to the
working muscles (Jones, 1999). The process of convective transport involves the coordinated
efforts of the heart, blood vessels, and the respiratory system.

In the context of the study, the authors are investigating how exercise modality (running vs.
cycling) impacts oxygen uptake kinetics during heavy exercise. Oxygen uptake kinetics refer to
how quickly the body can increase its oxygen consumption to meet the increased demand
during exercise. The authors found that the convective oxygen transport process, as reflected in
the rate of oxygen uptake, differed between running and cycling, possibly due to differences in
muscle contraction patterns and the involvement of various muscle groups. (al, 2011)
2.2.2 Diffusive Oxygen Transport:
Diffusive oxygen transport, on the other hand, is the movement of oxygen from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower concentration. This process occurs within tissues and cells
where oxygen diffuses from the capillaries to the surrounding cells that require oxygen for
metabolic activities.

In the context of the study, the authors discuss how the slow component of oxygen uptake
kinetics (the continued rise in oxygen consumption during prolonged exercise) might be
influenced by factors related to muscle contraction patterns and muscle fiber recruitment.
(Jones, 1999) They propose that during cycling, a greater recruitment of type II muscle fibers
may occur, which are less efficient in terms of oxygen consumption. This could lead to a greater
reliance on diffusive oxygen transport mechanisms, possibly contributing to the observed
slower component of oxygen uptake during cycling compared to running.

2.2.3 Oxygen Uptake Kinetics

Oxygen uptake kinetics, the rate at which the body consumes oxygen during the onset of
exercise, is a critical parameter that provides insights into the metabolic response and efficiency
of oxygen utilization (Grassi B, 2003). Understanding the dynamics of oxygen uptake kinetics is
essential in evaluating an individual's aerobic capacity and performance potential.
The investigation by Unnithan et al. delves into the intriguing area of oxygen uptake kinetics,
focusing on trained adolescent females (Unnithan VB, 2015). The study explored the differences
in oxygen uptake kinetics between trained and untrained groups, shedding light on the
potential effects of training on the physiological mechanisms that regulate oxygen delivery,
utilization, and metabolic adjustments during exercise (Unnithan VB, 2015).
Oxygen uptake kinetics are influenced by various factors, including muscle fiber type
composition, oxidative enzyme activity, and vascular adaptations (Pringle JS, 2003). Trained
individuals often exhibit faster oxygen uptake kinetics, reflecting their enhanced ability to
rapidly match oxygen demand with oxygen delivery during exercise (Bailey SJ, 2009). This
adaptation can have implications for both endurance and high-intensity intermittent activities,
making it a crucial consideration for athletes, particularly in sports characterized by varying
exercise intensities.

2.2.3.1 Incremental Exercise

The investigation of oxygen uptake kinetics is crucial in understanding the dynamics of the
metabolic response to exercise (Bailey SJ, 2009). In the study by Unnithan et al., the authors
explored the oxygen uptake kinetics in trained adolescent females [2]. The results of the study
revealed significant differences in the pV˙ O2 time constant and mean response time between
trained and untrained female adolescents (Unnithan VB, 2015). Specifically, the pV˙ O2 time
constant was found to be 25% faster in the trained group compared to their untrained peers
(Unnithan VB, 2015). This finding is consistent with previous research that demonstrated faster
oxygen uptake kinetics in trained individuals compared to untrained counterparts (Grassi B,
2003) (Marwood S, 2010).

Moreover, the study suggested potential implications of these oxygen uptake kinetics findings
on soccer performance. Faster pV˙ O2 kinetics were associated with better aerobic energy
system activation and a reduced reliance on non-aerobic energy sources during intermittent
exercises (Marwood S, 2010). This is particularly relevant for soccer, where intermittent high-
intensity activities are common (Marwood S, 2010). Evidence from previous studies also
suggests that enhanced muscle oxidative enzyme activity and fiber type adaptations contribute
to improved oxygen utilization and faster oxygen uptake kinetics (Eriksson BO, 1973) (Krustrup
P, 2010).

2.2.3.2 Constant Workrate

In the context of oxygen uptake kinetics, the examination of constant work rate exercises
provides valuable insights into the body's ability to maintain a steady-state level of oxygen
consumption. This phase, known as the "steady-state," signifies the point at which oxygen
demand matches oxygen delivery, resulting in a balanced metabolic state during sustained
exercise (Grassi B, 2003). The study further explores how training influences the time taken to
achieve this steady-state level of oxygen uptake during constant work rate exercises (Unnithan
VB, 2015).

The steady-state oxygen uptake kinetics are influenced by multiple factors, including muscle
fiber characteristics, cardiovascular adaptations, and metabolic responses. Trained individuals
often exhibit faster adjustments in oxygen uptake during the early phases of constant workrate
exercises, reaching the steady-state more rapidly (Koppo K, 2004). This enhanced oxygen
uptake kinetics can contribute to improved endurance performance, as the body can efficiently
adapt to the oxygen demands of sustained exercise.
Fundamentals of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) in Exercise Physiology
Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) is an innovative non-invasive technique that has gained
substantial traction within the realm of exercise physiology (Bellotti, 2013) (Fontana, 2014). It
operates by utilizing near-infrared light to detect changes in the concentration of oxygenated
(oxy-Hb) and deoxygenated (deoxy-Hb) hemoglobin in both muscle tissue and the brain
(Hamaoka, 2019).This technology offers a unique window into real-time observations of muscle
oxygen utilization and blood flow dynamics during various exercise regimens (Grassi, 2016).
Notably, NIRS has emerged as an indispensable tool for investigating the intricacies of exercise
intensity domains, encompassing the likes of Critical Power (CP), Maximal Lactate Steady State
(MLSS), and Respiratory Compensation Point (RCP) (ones, 2008).Through its capacity to
delineate metabolic boundaries characterizing diverse exercise intensities, NIRS contributes
significantly to our understanding of physiological responses elicited by exercise stimuli
(Tschentscher, 2013).
However, while NIRS presents numerous advantages, it is accompanied by inherent limitations
(Crum, 2017). For instance, its effectiveness heavily depends on localized measurements,
potentially limiting the extrapolation of data to broader physiological contexts (Ferrari, 2011).
Additionally, accurate calibration procedures are crucial to ensure reliable and valid results
(Fletcher, 2009). Despite these challenges, a notable study discussed in the provided text
exemplifies the efficacy of NIRS in identifying commonalities between exercise intensity indices
(Bellotti, 2013). This study underscores the utility of NIRS in assessing changes in the
deoxygenated hemoglobin boundary ([HHb]BP), a pivotal marker of physiological transitions
during exercise (Fontana, 2014).
The application of NIRS in exercise physiology is substantiated by a body of research (Murphy,
2019). (Bellotti, 2013) explore the potential of NIRS in determining the maximal lactate steady
state in healthy adults. (Fontana, 2014) investigate the role of NIRS in ascertaining the
Respiratory Compensation Point in healthy individuals. Moreover, (Jones A. M., 2008) delve
into muscle metabolic responses in relation to the "critical power," utilizing advanced
techniques like 31P-MRS. Collectively, these references underscore the broad applicability and
significance of NIRS in enhancing our understanding of exercise physiology.

Muscle Oxygenation in Incremental Exercise Testing

The assessment of muscle oxygenation using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) devices has
emerged as a valuable technique in understanding physical performance and physiological
responses during exercise (Farzam, 2018) (Wilkinson, 2019). This study focused on utilizing the
Humon Hex® device to measure muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2) in the quadriceps of subjects
over 45 years of age engaged in Nordic Walking (Karatzanos, 2010).The study involved a stress
test on a treadmill, divided into phases, with a modified Bruce ramp protocol to ensure
exhaustion. Unlike previous NIRS studies predominantly involving young male athletes, this
investigation provided insights into middle-aged adults of both sexes (Inglis, 2017).

Results indicated that SmO2 decreased with increasing exercise intensity until an inflection
point, consistent with previous findings (Inglis, 2017). Individual variation in the timing of this
inflection point was observed, likely attributed to factors like physical condition. Additionally,
the study revealed that SmO2 continued to decrease as exercise intensity progressed, reaching
exhaustion, while a gradual increase in SmO2 during the recovery phase was noted (Farzam,
2018). This rise in SmO2 during recovery could be linked to the "super-compensation principle"
of training. Importantly, this study demonstrated the applicability of the Humon Hex® device in
guiding training intensity for Nordic walking practitioners, potentially eliminating the need for
pre-performing stress tests (Wilkinson, 2019).

While this research was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting and involved limitations
such as the absence of walking poles, it highlighted the practical utility of NIRS in exercise
training. The references utilized encompassed a range of studies, contributing to the
discussion's comprehensive overview of muscle oxygenation in exercise testing.
References:
Stirling et al., 2008; Kilding et al., 2005; Granier et al., 1995; Barstow et al., 1996; Borrani et al., 2001;
Poole, 1994; Wakeling, 2004; Qi et al., 2007; Sabapathy et al., 2005; Cleuziou et al., 2004; Berger et al.,
2005; Vanhatalo et al., 2011.

Jones, A. M., & McConnell, A. M. (1999). Effect of exercise modality on oxygen uptake kinetics during
heavy exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 80(3), 213-219.

Grassi B, Pogliaghi S, Rampichini S, Quaresima V, Ferrari M, Marconi C, Cerretelli P (2003) Muscle

oxygenation and pulmonary gas exchange kinetics during cycling exercise on-transitions in humans. J
Appl Physiol 95:149–158.

Unnithan VB, Roche DM, Garrard M, Holloway K, Marwood S (2015) Oxygen uptake kinetics in trained
adolescent females. Eur J Appl Physiol 115:213–220.

Pringle JS, Doust JH, Carter H, Tolfrey K, Campbell IT, Jones AM (2003) Oxygen uptake kinetics during
moderate, heavy and severe intensity submaximal exercise in humans: influence of muscle fibre type
and capillarization. Eur J Appl Physiol 89:289–300.

Bailey SJ, Wilkerson DP, DiMenna FJ, Jones AM (2009) Influence of repeated sprint training on
pulmonary O2 uptake and muscle deoxygenation kinetics in humans. J Appl Physiol 106:1875–1877.

Bailey SJ, Wilkerson DP, DiMenna FJ, Jones AM (2009) Influence of repeated sprint training on
pulmonary O2 uptake and muscle deoxygenation kinetics in humans. J Appl Physiol 106:1875–1877.

Unnithan VB, Roche DM, Garrard M, Holloway K, Marwood S (2015) Oxygen uptake kinetics in trained
adolescent females. Eur J Appl Physiol 115:213–220.

Grassi B, Pogliaghi S, Rampichini S, Quaresima V, Ferrari M, Marconi C, Cerretelli P (2003) Muscle

oxygenation and pulmonary gas exchange kinetics during cycling exercise on-transitions in humans. J
Appl Physiol 95:149–158.

Marwood S, Roche DM, Rowland T, Garrard M, Unnithan VB (2010) Faster pulmonary oxygen uptake
kinetics in trained versus untrained male adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42:127–134.

Rampinini E, Sassi A, Azzalin A, Castagna C, Menaspa P, Carlomagno D, Impellizzeri FM (2010)

Physiological determinants of Yo-Yo intermittent recovery tests in male soccer players. Eur J Appl Physiol
108:401–409.
Eriksson BO, Gollnick PD, Saltin B (1973) Muscle metabolism and enzyme activities after training in boys
11–13 years old. Acta Physiol Scand 87:485–497.

Krustrup P, Christensen JF, Randers MB, Pedersen H, Sundstrup E, Jakobsen MD, Krustrup B, Nielsen JJ,
Suetta C, Nybo L, Bangsbo J (2010) Muscle adaptations and performance enhancements of soccer
training for untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol 108:1247–1258.

Phillips SM, Green HJ, MacDonald MJ, Hughson RL (1995) Progressive effect of endurance training on
VO2 kinetics at the onset of submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 79:1914–1920.

Grassi B, Pogliaghi S, Rampichini S, Quaresima V, Ferrari M, Marconi C, Cerretelli P (2003) Muscle

oxygenation and pulmonary gas exchange kinetics during cycling exercise on-transitions in humans. J
Appl Physiol 95:149–158.

Unnithan VB, Roche DM, Garrard M, Holloway K, Marwood S (2015) Oxygen uptake kinetics in trained
adolescent females. Eur J Appl Physiol 115:213–220.

Koppo K, Bouckaert J, Jones AM (2004) Effects of training status and exercise intensity on phase II VO2
kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:225–232.

 Bellotti, C., Calabria, E., Capelli, C., & Pogliaghi, S. (2013). Determination of maximal lactate
steady state in healthy adults: can NIRS help? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
45(6), 1208–1216.

 Crum, E. M., O’Connor, W. J., Van Loo, L., Valckx, M., & Stannard, S. R. (2017). Validity and
reliability of the Moxy oxygen monitor during incremental cycling exercise. European Journal of
Sport Science, 17(8), 1037-1043.

 Ferrari, M., Muthalib, M., & Quaresima, V. (2011). The use of near-infrared spectroscopy in
understanding skeletal muscle physiology: recent developments. Philosophical Transactions of
Royal Society A, 369, 4577-4590.

 Fletcher, J. R., Esau, S. P., & MacIntosh, B. R. (2009). Economy of running: beyond the
measurement of oxygen uptake. Journal Applied Physiology, 107, 1918-1922.

 Fontana, F. Y., Keir, D. A., Bellotti, C., De Roia, G. F., Murias, J. M., & Pogliaghi, S. (2014).
Determination of RCP in healthy adults: can NIRS help? Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,
17(3), 316–320.

 Grassi, B., & Quaresima, V. (2016). Near-infrared spectroscopy and skeletal muscle oxidative
function in vivo in health and disease: a review from an exercise physiology perspective. Journal
of Biomedical Optics, 21(9), 091313.

 Hamaoka, T., & McCully, K. K. (2019). Review of early development of near-infrared

spectroscopy and recent advancement of studies on muscle oxygenation and oxidative
metabolism. The Journal of Physiological Sciences, 69(1), 799–811.
 Jones, A. M., Wilkerson, D. P., DiMenna, F., Fulford, J., & Poole, D. C. (2008). Muscle metabolic
responses to exercise above and below the "critical power" assessed using 31P-MRS. American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 294(2), R585–R593.

 Murphy, M. H., Lahart, I., Carlin, A., & Murtagh, E. (2019). The Effects of Continuous Compared
to Accumulated Exercise on Health: A Meta-Analytic Review. Sports Medicine, 49(1), 1585-1607.

 Tschentscher, M., Niederseer, D., & Niebauer, J. (2013). Health benefits of Nordic walking: a
systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44(1), 76-84.

1. Farzam, P., Starkweather, Z., & Franceschini, M. A. (2018). Validation of a novel wearable,
wireless technology to estimate oxygen levels and lactate threshold power in the exercising
muscle. Physiological Reports, 6(7), e13664.

2. Karatzanos, E., Paradisis, G., Zacharogiannis, E., Tziortzis, S., & Nanas, S. (2010). Assessment of
ventilatory threshold using near-infrared spectroscopy on the gastrocnemius muscle during
treadmill running. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 40, 206–211.

3. Inglis, E.C., Iannetta, D., & Murias, J. M. (2017). The plateau in the NIRS derived (HHb) signal near
the end of a ramp incremental test does not indicate the upper limit of O2 extraction in the
vastus lateralis. American Journal of Physiology Regulatory Integrative and Comparative
Physiology, 313, R723–R729.

4. Wilkinson, T. J, White, A. E. M., Nixon, D, G, D., Gould, D. W., Watson, E., L. & Smith, A. C. (2019).
Characterising skeletal muscle hemoglobin saturation during exercise using near-infrared
spectroscopy in chronic kidney disease. Clinical and Experimental Nephrology, 23, 32-42.
Fundamentals of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) in Exercise Physiology

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) is a non-invasive technique that measures changes in the

concentration of oxygenated (oxy-Hb) and deoxygenated (deoxy-Hb) hemoglobin in muscle tissue and
the brain using near-infrared light. NIRS has gained prominence in exercise physiology research for its
ability to provide real-time insights into muscle oxygen utilization and blood flow dynamics during
exercise. It has been utilized in studies investigating various exercise intensity domains, such as Critical
Power (CP), Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS), and Respiratory Compensation Point (RCP). NIRS
offers valuable information about the metabolic boundaries that define different exercise intensity
domains, facilitating the understanding of physiological responses to exercise. However, NIRS has
limitations related to localized measurements and calibration requirements. Notably, the study
discussed in the provided text demonstrates the use of NIRS in establishing commonalities between
these exercise intensity indices by analyzing changes in [HHb]BP (deoxy-Hb boundary). References
supporting NIRS applications in exercise physiology include Bellotti et al. (2013), Fontana et al. (2014),
and Jones et al. (2008).

Muscle Oxygenation in Incremental Exercise Testing:

The assessment of muscle oxygenation using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) devices has emerged as
a valuable technique in understanding physical performance and physiological responses during
exercise. This study focused on utilizing the Humon Hex® device to measure muscle oxygen saturation
(SmO2) in the quadriceps of subjects over 45 years of age engaged in Nordic Walking. The study involved
a stress test on a treadmill, divided into phases, with a modified Bruce ramp protocol to ensure
exhaustion. Unlike previous NIRS studies predominantly involving young male athletes, this investigation
provided insights into middle-aged adults of both sexes. Results indicated that SmO2 decreased with
increasing exercise intensity until an inflection point, consistent with previous findings. Individual
variation in the timing of this inflection point was observed, likely attributed to factors like physical
condition. Additionally, the study revealed that SmO2 continued to decrease as exercise intensity
progressed, reaching exhaustion, while a gradual increase in SmO2 during the recovery phase was
noted. This rise in SmO2 during recovery could be linked to the "super-compensation principle" of
training. Importantly, this study demonstrated the applicability of the Humon Hex® device in guiding
training intensity for Nordic walking practitioners, potentially eliminating the need for pre-performing
stress tests. While this research was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting and involved
limitations such as the absence of walking poles, it highlighted the practical utility of NIRS in exercise
training. The references utilized encompassed a range of studies, contributing to the discussion's
comprehensive overview of muscle oxygenation in exercise testing.

References:
Bellotti, C., Calabria, E., Capelli, C., & Pogliaghi, S. (2013). Determination of maximal lactate steady state
in healthy adults: can NIRS help? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 45(6), 1208–1216.

Fontana, F. Y., Keir, D. A., Bellotti, C., De Roia, G. F., Murias, J. M., & Pogliaghi, S. (2014). Determination
of RCP in healthy adults: can NIRS help? Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 17(3), 316–320.

Jones, A. M., Wilkerson, D. P., DiMenna, F., Fulford, J., & Poole, D. C. (2008). Muscle metabolic responses
to exercise above and below the "critical power" assessed using 31P-MRS. American Journal of
Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 294(2), R585–R593.

Farzam, P., Starkweather, Z., & Franceschini, M. A. (2018). Validation of a novel wearable, wireless
technology to estimate oxygen levels and lactate threshold power in the exercising muscle. Physiological
Reports, 6(7), e13664.

Karatzanos, E., Paradisis, G., Zacharogiannis, E., Tziortzis, S.,& Nanas, S. (2010). Assessment of
ventilatory threshold using near-infrared spectroscopy on the gastrocnemius muscle during treadmill
running. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 40, 206–211.

Inglis, E.C., Iannetta, D., & Murias, J. M. (2017). The plateau in the NIRS derived (HHb) signal near the
end of a ramp incremental test does not indicate the upper limit of O2 extraction in the vastus lateralis.
American Journal of Physiology Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 313, R723–R729.

Wilkinson, T. J, White, A. E. M., Nixon, D, G, D., Gould, D. W., Watson, E., L. & Smith, A. C. (2019).
Characterising skeletal muscle hemoglobin saturation during exercise using near-infrared spectroscopy
in chronic kidney disease. Clinical and Experimental Nephrology, 23, 32-42.