BSW-129

Research Methods
in Social Work
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Social Work

Block

4
DATA PROCESSING AND TABULATION
Unit 1
Data Processing: Editing, Coding and Measurement 157
Unit 2
Data Analysis, Interpretation and Report Writing 170
Unit 3
Basics of Statistical Techniques 183

155
 BLOCK 4 INTRODUCTION
Block 4 of the course on ‘Research Methods in Social Work’ is on ‘Data
Processing and Tabulation’. This block has three units which will discuss
data processing including editing, coding and tabulation of data. In unit 1
titled, ‘Data Processing: Editing, Coding, and Measurements’, various ways
of data processing like data cleaning, preparing codebook and master chart,
developing analytical model for data analysis and levels of measurement like
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio are discussed. Unit 2 is on ‘Data Analysis,
Interpretation and Report Writing’. This unit explains analysis of data and
preparation of research report. Classification and categorization of data are
discussed in detail to develop uni-variate, bi-variate and multi-variate tables
for analysis. The format and intricacies of preparing research report are also
described in detail. Unit 3 of the block is on, ‘Basics of Statistical Techniques’.
In this unit, certain basic statistical techniques used in social research have been
discussed. This unit differentiates between discrete and continuous series of
data and describes applicability of measures of dispersion. It helps to develop
insight into use of statistics for data interpretation and analysis.
The three units of this block provide comprehensive understanding of data
processing and tabulation.

156
UNIT 1 DATA PROCESSING: EDITING,
CODING AND MEASUREMENT
*Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Editing Data
1.3 Coding Data
1.4 Developing frame of analysis
1.5 Concept and Levels of Measurements
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Suggested Readings

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After data collection is over, next crucial stage in the research process is data
processing. It entails editing, coding and tabulation of data. After reading this
unit, you should be able to:
• data cleaning,
• prepare codebook and master chart,
• develop analytical model for data analysis; and
• understand various levels of measurement like nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio, that form the basis for further analysis.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
After the collection of data from the respondents has been completed, the next
step is processing of the information. A researcher has to make his/her plan
for each and every stage of the research process. He/she has to decide what to
do with the information and how to find answers to the research questions and
how to prove or disprove the hypothesis formulated in the study. The process of
finding answers to these questions is called Data Processing. Data processing
refers to certain operations such as editing the data, coding and displaying data.
Having collected data in a study, the researcher must quantify them, put them
in computer-readable form, and analyze them statistically. Irrespective of the
method of data collection, the information collected is called raw data or simple
data.
It is often said that "facts (data) never speak for themselves." Rather, they must
be interpreted. That interpretation will be influenced by the objectives set out,
theoretical framework and prior research; and ultimately will be communicated 157
*
Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik, Department of Social Work, University of Delhi
Data Processing and in the form of a research report, book, or article that will be available for other
Tabulation researchers and readers to examine and review.
It may be noted that sometimes researchers do not pay much attention to data
processing and developing analysis plan as he/she believes that it is computer
assistant's job to do data processing and analysis. However, in such cases,
researchers run the risk of ruining the entire research efforts as they have to
remain contented with the results given by computer assistant which may not
help in meeting the research objectives. To avoid such situations, it is essential
that data processing is planned in advance and computer assistant is instructed
accordingly. A tentative plan of data analysis should be ready even before
entering into the data collection stage.

1.2 EDITING DATA

The first step in processing the data is called editing which means that
the data should be cleaned. It should be free from any inconsistencies and
incompleteness.
Many a times the researcher or the investigator either miss entries in the tool
of the data collection or enter responses which are not legible. They many a
times do not take into cognizance of the categories such as ‘no response’ or ‘not
applicable’ meticulously. Moreover, researcher or computer assistant either
misses entries in the questionnaire or interview schedules or enters responses
which are not legible. Therefore, it is essential to clean the data in the first
step and make it free from inconsistencies and incompleteness. This process
of cleaning the data is called editing. In cases where the data are not cleaned
up, inconsistencies will be observed in tabulation of data and at the end the
analysis will not be reliable. Editing consists of scrutinising the completed
research instruments of all the respondents, taking one at a time and trying to
minimise, as far as possible, errors, incompleteness, misclassifications and gaps
in the information obtained from the respondents. Sometimes even the best
investigators or researchers can:
a) forget to ask a question
b) forget to record a response
c) wrongly classify a response
d) Write only half a response
e) Write illegible.
These problems can be minimized by going through each interview schedule
or questionnaire deeply, checking the contexts for completeness and checking
the responses for internal consistency. The usual methods used to edit the data
include:
By Inference – Certain questions in a research instrument may be related to one
another and it might be possible to find out the answer to one question from the
answer to another. For example: if in the preceding question, the respondent
says he/she is unemployed and bed ridden, in the next section he cannot say that
158 he is earning Rs. 2000, being a contractual worker.
By Recall – If the data are collected by means of interviews, sometimes it might Data Processing:
be possible for the investigator to recall what the respondents have replied. Editing, Coding And
Measurement
However, one has to be very careful as the researcher might introduce new
errors at this stage, if he/she is not able to recall effectively and may imagine a
response.
By going back to the respondent – If the data have been collected by means of
interviewers and the questionnaires contain some identifying information which
lacks clarity, the researcher/investigator may visit the respondent/ or send an
email/ phone up to clarify or ascertain an answer. This is, of course, expensive
and time consuming, but definitely adds quality to the collected data.
It is possible to do editing of data in either of the following ways:
1. Examine answers to one question/ variable at a time. In this way, all the
filled-in schedules or questionnaires are examined again and again for the
number of questions contained in the tool of data collection.
2. Examine answers to all questions at the same time by examining all the
responses of one respondent in one go.

1.3 CODING DATA

Having ‘cleaned’ the data, the next step is to code it. Coding of data involves
assigning of symbols (numerical) to each response of every question. The
purpose of giving numerical symbols is to translate raw data into numerical
data which is possible to be computed, classified and tabulated. The task before
the researcher or investigator is to give number to each response carefully. The
process of assigning codes to various type of questions (such as open ended,
closed ended, factual matrix and contingency) differs depending on the nature
of questions included in the instrument of data collection. For example, a closed
ended question may already be coded and hence it has to be just included in
the code book whereas coding of open ended questions involves operations
such as classification of major responses and developing a response category
of ‘other’ for responses which was not given frequently. The classification of
responses is primarily based on similarities and differences among the responses.
However, it is very essential to ensure that the responses are mutually exclusive
and response category for each question are exhaustive in nature. The matrix
questions have to be coded taking into consideration each row as one variable.
Briefly, the following steps are needed to be performed in terms of coding
quantitative data:
Assigning Codes and Developing Code book
Pre-testing code book
Coding the data
Verifying the coded data
Assigning Codes and Developing Code book
A code book provides a set of rules for assigning numerical values to answers
obtained from respondents. Let us take an example of following data and prepare
159
Data Processing and a code book. A sample of questions have been picked up from a research study
Tabulation undertaken by the author.
A sample of questions

Sl. Respondent No Responses Codes

No. Arranged
1. Age 1 20-25 1
2 25-30 2
3 30-35 3
4 35-40 4
2. Designation 1 Worker 1
2 Supervisor 2
3 Manager 3
3. Establishment Public/Private/ 1
Government 2
3
4. Educational Status Illiterate 1
Primary 2
Middle School 3
High school 4
Graduate 5
Post Graduate 6
6. Marital Status Married 1
Unmarried 2
Widow 3
Divorce 4
7. Do you work Yes 1
No 2
8. If, No, Please specify the Do not like work 1
reason for not working Did not get job 2
Family disliked 3
Other’s specify 4
N.A. 5(Not
applicable
for all
those who
said yes)
9. Welfare Activities available at your work place
1. Crèches & Day Care Nursing Yes No
Maternity Benefits If yes, then your degree of
Canteen satisfaction
Rest place for women Satisfied Partly Satisfied
Toilet Dissatisfied

(Not Applicable for all those who said No to Question 7)

160
Developing a Code Book- Data Processing:
Editing, Coding And
For almost all programmes, data are entered in a specified format. This format Measurement
includes:
Column No.
Question No.
Variable Name
Response pattern
Code
The code book for the previous questions will incorporate:

Col. Q. No. Variable Name Response Code

No.
1-3 Sl. No. ID Actual Serial No. Same as
Question No.
4 1 Age 20-25 1
25-30 2
30-35 3
35-40 4
5. 3 Designation Worker 1
Supervisor 2
Manager 3
6. 4 Establishment Public 1
Private 2
Government 3
7. 5 Educational status Illiterate 1
Primary 2
Middle School 3
High School 4
Graduate 5
Post Graduate 6
8. 6 Marital Status Married 1
Unmarried 2
Widow 3
Divorce 4
9. 7 Work Status Yes 1
No 2
10. 8 No, Reason Do not like work 1
Did not get job 2
Family disliked 3
Others 4
N.A. 5
161
Data Processing and
Tabulation
11. 9 Welfare Activities Yes 1
Available crèche/ day No 2
care
12. 9 Maternity Benefits Yes 1
No 2
13. 9 Canteen Yes 1
No 2
14. 9 Rest Place for Women Yes 1
No 2
15. 9 Toilet Yes 1
No 2
16. 9 Satisfaction crèche FS 1
PS 2
DS 3
17. 9 Satisfaction- Maternity FS 1
benefits PS 2
DS 3
18. 9 Satisfaction –Canteen FS 1
PS 2
DS 3
19. 9 Satisfaction – Rest place FS 1
for women PS 2
DS 3
20. 9 Satisfaction- Toilet FS 1
PS 2
DS 3
Thus, it is seen that in total 28 variables have been generated from 9 questions.
The last question 9 will not be applicable to all the people who are unemployed
and have answered ‘No’ to question 7. This must form a part of editing of
data to ensure that all those who have answered Yes to question 7 should have
answered question 9 and similarly all those who answered ‘No’ to question 7
will not be asked to answer question 8.
Pre Testing Code Book
Once a code book is designed, it is important to pre-test it for any problems
before the researcher codes his/her data. A pre-test involves selecting a few
questions in schedules/ questionnaires and actually coding the responses to
ascertain that there are no problems in coding. It is possible that the researcher
may not have some responses and therefore will not be able to code them.
At this stage, it is possible to make appropriate modifications in the already
constructed code book.
Coding the Data
Once the code book is finalised, the next step is to code the raw data. The
process of transferring data from the tool of data collection of each respondent
162 to a sheet based on codes in column and respondents number in the row is called
actual coding or transferring data either manually using 'master chart' or details Data Processing:
in computer through MS Excel spread sheet or Statistical Package for Social Editing, Coding And
Measurement
Sciences (SPSS). A sample of marks chart prepared on the basis of responses
from 5 respondents (20 variables and nine questions) is given below:

Sat. Rest place for women

Rest place for women

Maternity benefits

Toilet satisfaction
Canteen benefits
Marital Benefits

Satiisf. Crèche
Marital status
Work status
Not reason

Canteen
Design.

Crèche

Toilet
Estb.
Edu.
Spss
1
2
3

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) How do you edit data?
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163
Data Processing and
Tabulation 1.4 DEVELOPING FRAME OF ANALYSIS
Developing a frame of Analysis
The last step in the processing of data comprises of developing a frame of
analysis so as to be able to find answers to the research questions framed in the
beginning of the research study. A frame of analysis should specify:
• Which variables the researcher is planning to analyse?
• How they should be analysed?
• How more one needs to work out?
• Which variables the researcher needs to combine to construct major
concepts?
• The statistical procedures that are needed in analysing the collected data?
Frequency Distributions
It is always advised to get the frequency distribution of all the variables used in
the research study. This type of exercise helps us in understanding the nature
of data collected as well as the nature of statistical analysis the data can be
subjected to.
Cross Tabulations
Cross tabulations analyse two variables, usually independent and dependent or
attribute and dependent, to determine if there is a relationship between them.
The sub categories of both the variables are cross-tabulated to ascertain if a
relationship exists between them.
Statistical Procedures
It is always better to ascertain, in the beginning of analysis, the statistical
operations that are needed to be performed. This is especially useful in rejection/
acceptance of the hypothesis framed in the research proposal.

1.5 CONCEPTS AND LEVELS OF

MEASUREMENT
The concept of measurement refers to the process of describing abstract
notions in terms of specific indicators by assigning numbers to these elements
or indicants following certain rules and procedures. Through this process,
various facets of a social behaviour or event or phenomenon are converted into
measurable indicators. This measurement of social behaviour or phenomenon
is an essential prerequisite of data interpretation and analysis in social science
research, because of several reasons. One of the important reasons for measuring
social behaviours/ events/ phenomena is to facilitate the researcher find trends
and meanings and determine the effects of a set of variables and accept or reject
hypotheses formulated at the beginning of the research.
To facilitate better understanding, let us take a hypothesis – “the students
of high school with lower self-confidence score lower marks in their class”.
164
Testing of this hypothesis requires a formal theoretical framework where ‘self- Data Processing:
confidence’ would be related systematically to 'marks' in a causal fashion. One Editing, Coding And
Measurement
part of the testing process would consist of procuring a list of marks of say class
VIII students of a school. Other part of the testing of hypothesis would be to
administer a psychological test to measure ‘self-confidence’ among the students
of class VIII. Matching the scores of ‘self-confidence’ and marks attained in last
examination would help in testing the hypothesis. Thus, abstract concepts like
‘self confidence’ is to be converted into numbers to measure the variables under
the study. Measurement allows the researcher the opportunity of using variables
in hypothesis to determine the cause-effect relationship between variables or at
least appraise associations or linkages between variables.
Monette et. al (1986) defines measurement as a process of describing abstract
concepts in terms of specific indicators by the assignment of numbers or other
symbols to this indicator in accordance with rules.
Broadly, measurement tells whether a variable is present or absent, but in actual
practice, it is more complex process, which involves operations to determine
the extent to which a variable is present or absent. Let us take an example as
follows:
A social worker working with youth living in slum community has asked the
following questions:
1. Are you employed? yes/no
2. If yes, how much is your monthly income?
3. Tick the appropriate response: "Government's skill development
programmes have been able to reduce unemployment rate in the country".
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
The three questions attempt to measure some aspects of youth in slum areas.
The first question measures one aspect by determining presence or absence
of a characteristic ‘being employed’ among youth in slum areas. The second
question tries to measure the degree of income. The third one is a reaction or
comment to a statement which could be one of the responses in a sequence of
responses, which in turn can be converted into scores and would measure the
phenomena in question more specifically.
The concepts and variables, which are the basic elements of social research,
cannot be normally observed directly. Most characteristics of personality or
social life like anxiety, tension, self-esteem, poverty, marginalization, social
exclusion, etc., cannot be seen but only inferred from some indicators. Though
overt behaviours may be observed and recorded, say, child being physically
abused, but mental processes and personality dispositions are the abstract notions
165
Data Processing and which cannot be measured directly. For this, psychological tests and scales are
Tabulation often used that are constructed in a scientific and systematic manner.
Levels of Measurement
Social phenomena can be measured in various ways, such as by asking questions
or observing /noting behaviours. The level of measurement differs depending
on the type of information gathered. The levels of measurement refer to a set of
rules that define permissible mathematical functions that can be performed on
numbers/scores produced by a measure. There are four levels of measurement
namely - nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
Nominal level of measurement:
It is the most simple level of measurement. When a variable is classified into
several nominal sub-classes, it is said that the variable under study is measured
on a nominal level. For example, the variable sex has two nominal subclasses
- male and female. Similarly, religion may be studied under four sub-classes,
depending upon the characteristics of the population under study as - Hindu,
Muslim, Sikhs and Christians.
Ordinal level of measurement:
When the relative positions of objects or persons with respect to some
characteristics are defined, measurements are possible on ordinal levels. The
fundamental requirement of the ordinal level of measurement is that one should
be able to determine the order of positions of respondents or subjects in terms
of characteristics under study. Ordinal level of measurements are considered to
be of higher level than nominal level. In addition, to being mutually exclusive
(characteristic of nominal level of measurement), the categories have a fixed
order. For instance, level of education can be measured on an ordinal level as:
Illiterate
Literate but no schooling
Up to Primary
Up to Middle School
Up to High School
Up to 12th standard
Up to graduation
Post graduation and higher
Interval Level of Measurement
Interval level between the categories of measurement have equal spacing, in
addition to the characteristics of nominal level (mutually exclusive) and ordinal
level (having fixed order). In interval measures, the positions are not only
ordered either in ascending order (lower, middle, higher) or in descending order
(higher to middle to lower) but the interval of measurement are also equal.
Stated in other words, the distance between the positions is equal, such as the
166
degrees of a temperature scale or thermometer. For example, an interval level Data Processing:
of measurement could be the measurement of anxiety in a student between Editing, Coding And
Measurement
the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same as that of a student who scores
between 40 and 41.
Ratio Level of Measurement
In this level of measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal
intervals, can have a value of zero as well. The zero in the scale makes this
type of measurement different from the other types of measurement, although
the properties are similar to that of the interval level of measurement. In the
ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have
an equivalent distance between them. For example, income can be measured
at ratio level of measurement because it has an absolute zero (no income, at
least in money terms, not in terms of economic status). Moreover, a person
having monthly income of Rs.15000 has thrice as much earning as a person
with monthly income of Rs. 5,000. Most of the functions can be performed on
data measurement on interval scale.
A researcher needs to keep in mind the type of data gathered and level of
measurement those data would fall into so as to interpret and analyze the
findings properly.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Describe briefly “nominal level of measurement”.
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1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed various stages of data processing. Data processing
refers to certain operations such as editing, coding, computing, preparation of
master chart, etc. Many times, a researcher or computer assistant may either
miss entries in questionnaire or interview schedule or enter responses which
are not legible. These types of discrepancies can be rectified by editing the
data. Coding of data involves assigning of numbers to each response of every
question. The purpose of giving numbers is to translate raw data into numerical
data, which can be counted or tabulated. With the help of a codebook, data can
be transferred to a master chart. Keeping in view the objectives of the study,
analytical models are set up in such a manner so as to facilitate comparisons
and depict the relationships between variables. Lastly, concept and levels of
measurement are delineated in terms of four main types as - nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio.
167
Data Processing and
Tabulation 1.7 KEY WORDS
Data : It is factual information (as measurements
or statistics) used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation.
Hypothesis : It is a tentative explanation based on theory
to predict a causal relationship between
variables.
Data editing : It is the activity aimed at detecting and
correcting errors (logical inconsistencies) in
data.
Coding : A procedure for transforming raw data into a
standardised format for data analysis purposes.
Coding qualitative data involves identifying
recurrent words, concepts or themes. In
quantitative research, coding involves
attaching numerical values to categories.
Nominal level variables : Variable categories, which are simply given
names or labels.
Ordinal level variables : Variable categories which carry names or
labels but which indicate some rank order.
Interval level variables : Variable categories which carry names or
labels indicating some rank order, having
equal distance between adjacent categories,
but have no true zero.
Ratio level variables : Variable categories which carry names or
labels, indicate some rank order, have equal
distance between adjacent categories, and
have a true zero.

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kerlinger Fred R. (1964). Foundations of Behavioural Research, Harrisburg:
Stackpole Co., London.
Burns, R.B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Goode, W.J. and Hatt, P.K. (1952). Methods of Social Research. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Kothari, L.R. (1985). Research Methodology, New Delhi: Vishwa Prakashan
Lal Das, D. K. (2000). Practice of Social Research: A Social Work Practice.
New Delhi: Rawat Publications
Blalock, Hubert, M. (1972). Social Statistics, New York: McGraw Hill
168
Ruane, J.M. (2005). Essentials of Research Methods: A guide to Social Science Data Processing:
Research. Melbourne: Blackwell Publishing. Editing, Coding And
Measurement
Rubin, A. & Babbie, E. (2001). Research Methods for Social Work (4th Ed.).
California: Wadsworth
Monete, Duane R. (1986). Applied Social Research Tools for the Human
Services, Chicago: Holt
Siokin, R.M. (1955). Statistics for Social Sciences. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Nicola, B., Richard, K. & Rose Mary, S. (2003). SPSS for Psychologists: A
Guide to Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows, Palgrave Macmillan.

169
Data Processing and
Tabulation UNIT 2 DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION
AND REPORT WRITING
*Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data Tabulation and Analysis
2.3 Data Interpretation and Presentation
2.4 Report Writing
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Key Words
2.7 Suggested Readings

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After data processing, interpretation and analysis of data are done and research
report is prepared. After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• classify, categorize and re-categorize data,
• develop uni-variate, bi-variate and multi-variate tables for analysis; and
• learn format and intricacies of preparing research report.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of data analysis is to prepare the data as a model where relationships
between the variables can be studied. Analysis of the data is made with reference
to the objectives of the study and research questions. It is also designed to test
the hypotheses, if any. Analysis of data involves re-categorization of variables,
tabulation, explanation and causal inferences.
The first step in data analysis is the critical examination of the processed data
in the form of frequency distribution. This analysis is made with a view to draw
meaningful and precise inferences and generalizations.
In data processing, we have discussed about the classification of responses very
similar to the process of classification in categorization and re-categorization.
The process of categorization is in accordance with the objectives and hypotheses
of the study and is arrived at with the help of frequency distribution. Re-
categorization is a process of again arranging categories using statistics so as to
facilitate further analysis. This helps the researcher to justify the tabulation.
Every research activity is concluded by presenting the results and discussions
in a report format. The reporting of a research study depends upon the purpose

170 Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik, Department of Social Work, University of Delhi
*
with which it was undertaken. Research reports follow a certain standard pattern, Data Analysis,
style and format, details of which are discussed in the unit. Interpretation and
Report Writing
2.2 DATA TABULATION AND ANALYSIS
Data analysis is resorted to at the end after all the data are collected and
processed. It involves a number of closely related operations that are performed
to summarize the collected data and organize it in such a manner that it will yield
answers to the research questions (or suggest hypothesis or research questions
if no such questions or hypothesis had been initiated in the study). It primarily
aims at:
• Describing and summarizing data
• Identifying relationship between variables.
• Comparing variables
• Forecasting or making predictions
Analysis of data involves re-categorization of variables, tabulation, interpretation
and drawing inferences.
Re-categorization
It is a process of arranging data in such a manner that the entire data is
summarized and classified in such a manner that it becomes possible for the
researcher to draw inferences out of the data. For the purpose of analysis,
responses to a statement may be assigned scores or weightage. These scores
or weightage are summated and re-categorized as high, medium and low. The
basic principle in the process of categorization or recategorization is that the
categories thus obtained must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. In other
words, the categories have to be independent and not overlapping. It must be
borne in mind that the categories are independent of each other as well as are
mutually exclusive and exhaustive in nature.
Tabulation
Tabulation is a process of presenting data in a compact form in such a way
so as to facilitate comparison and establish the existing relationships between
the various variables. It is in fact an orderly arrangement of data in rows and
columns. This also helps the researcher to perform statistical operations on the
data to draw inferences. Tabulations can be generally done in the form of Uni
variate, Bivariate or Multivariable tables.
Uni Variable Analysis
Univariate analysis refers to tables, which give data relating to one variable.
Univariate tables are also commonly known as frequency distribution tables
and they show how frequently an item is repeated. The distribution may be
symmetrical or asymmetrical. The properties of a distribution can be found out
by various measures of central tendencies. However, the researcher is required
to decide which is most suited for the analysis. These frequency tables are
generally prepared to examine each of the independent and dependent variables.
For example, the following table is univariate. 171
Data Processing and Table 1.1
Tabulation
S. No. Awareness about Legislation Frequency
1. Fully Aware
2. Rarely Aware
3. Not Aware
Bi-Variate analysis
When a researcher is interested in determining the relationship between two
variables simultaneously, he/she resorts to bi-variate analysis. For this, the data
pertaining to the variables are cross-tabulated. Hence, a bi-variate table is also
known as cross table. A bi-variate table presents data of two variables in column
percentages and row percentages simultaneously. An example of a bi-variate
table is given below:
Table 1.2
Level of Awareness towards the Act and Educational Level

Awareness Educational Level

about the Highly Educated Educated Not Educated Total
Act
High
Medium
Low
Total

Tri –Variate Analysis

Sometimes, a researcher might be interested in knowing whether there is a
third variable which is affecting the relationship between two variables. In
such cases, he/she has to examine the bi-variate relationship by controlling the
effect of the third variable. Let us take an example. In the above case, if the
researcher intends to examine whether there is effect of gender on the bi-variate
relationship, he/she may study the three variables simultaneously.
Table 1.3

Aware- Male Female

ness Highly Edu- Not Total Highly Edu- Not Total
about edu- cated edu- edu- cated edu-
the Act cated cated cated cated
High
Medium
Low
Total

Tabulation
Tabulation is a process of presentation of data in a compact form in such a
way so as to facilitate comparisons and show the involved relations. It is an
172
arrangement of data in rows and columns. Tabulation can be generally in the Data Analysis,
form of uni-variate, bi-variate and tri or multi-variate tables. Interpretation and
Report Writing
The objectives of tabulation are:
• To conserve space and minimize explanation and descriptive statements.
• To facilitate the process of comparison and summarization.
• To facilitate detection of errors and omissions
• To establish the basis of various stated computations
Basic Rules to be followed while tabulating data include:
1. Tables should be clear, concise and adequately tilted.
2. Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy identification and
referencing.
3. Column heading and row heading of the table should be clear and brief.
4. Units of measurement should be specified at the appropriate places.
5. Explanation footnotes concerning the table should be placed at appropriate
places.
6. Source of information of data should be clearly indicated.
7. The columns and rows should be clearly separated with dark lines.
8. Demarcations should also be made between data of one class from that of
another.
9. Comparable data should be put side by side
10. The figure in percentage should be approximated before tabulation.
11. The figures, symbols, etc., should be properly alligned and adequately
spaced to enhance clarity and readability.
12. Abbreviations should be avoided
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What do you understand by re-categorization? Explain briefly.
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173
Data Processing and
Tabulation 2.3 DATA INTERPRETATION AND
PRESENTATION
Data Interpretation is the process of making sense of numerical data that has
been collected, analyzed, and presented. It is the process of attaching meaning to
the data and establish meaning out of the data. Interpretation demands fair and
careful judgments as it reflects theoretical and analytical ability of the researcher
to penetrate into the data and identify the variables exhibiting relationship. It
is also better and advisable to involve fellow researchers to look at the data
and understand their viewpoints regarding the same. Following points need
attention while interpreting data:
1. Major chunks of data must be divided into smaller portions and
interpreted.
2. Qualitative data should be interpreted based on thematic analysis while for
quantitative data, levels of measurement are used and statistical inferences
are drawn.
3. The analysis of numerical information may begin from interpreting data
based on frequencies and then for further analysis correlation and other
statistical tools may be used.
4. Findings may be inferred based on theoretical frameworks and research
trends observed in literature review.
In the next unit, basic statistical techniques are discussed in detail so as to help
in interpretation of data.
Data presentation is a process of organizing data into logical, sequential and
meaningful categories and classifications to make them manageable and easier
to interpret. There are three ways of presenting data:
1. Textual: Statements with numericals and numbers that serve as supplements
to tabular presentation.
2. Tabular: A systematic arrangement of related data, in which classes of
numerical facts or data are presented in the form of rows and columns.
Preparation and appropriate placement of tables in the text is very important.
Tables help the reader to get a quick view of the data and comprehend vast
data at one go. However, too many tables may confuse the reader.
3. Graphical: Data may be presented in the form of graphs and charts. They add
to the value of the research report. They include charts, maps, photographs,
drawings, graphs, diagrams, etc. The important function of a figure is to
represent the data in a visual form for clear and easy understanding.
Some of the frequently used types of graphs and charts in social research are:
Bar graph
Linear graph
Pie chart
174
Pictogram Data Analysis,
Interpretation and
Ratio chart Report Writing

Histogram

2.4 REPORT WRITING

The last step in the research process is the writing of the research report. This
step is most crucial as it is through the report that the findings of the study and
their implications are communicated to the supervisors and readers. As a matter
of fact, even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted
research study and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little
value unless they are effectively communicated to readers. Most people will not
be aware of the amount and quality of work that has gone into the study, while
much hard work and care might have been put in at every stage of the research,
what all readers see is the report. Therefore, the whole purpose of working so
hard is defeated if appropriate justice is not done in writing the report. The very
purpose of writing the report is to be able to communicate to the readers the
nature of methodology followed in doing research and in deriving the findings
at which one has arrived. Thus, the quality of report is dependent on:
• written communication skills,
• clarity of thoughts,
• ability of expressing thoughts in a rational and sequential manner,
• knowledge of the subject area.
The use of statistical procedure definitely enhances the quality of work done
by the researcher. It also reinforces the validity of one’s conclusion and
arguments. The use of graphs, tables and diagrams at appropriate place is likely
to make the report more attractive and easier to understand for its readers. The
most important point to be kept in mind while writing a research report, is its
intended readers. A report directed to fellow social scientists will be different in
certain respects from a report which is meant for lay persons. Whoever are the
audiences, two general considerations must weigh heavily in the minds of the
researchers engaged in writing their research reports:
1. What does the audience (or readers) want or need to know about the
study?
2. How can this information be best presented?
The main difference between research and other writing is in the degree of
control, rigorousness and caution required. Research writing is controlled in
the sense that you need to be extremely careful about what you write, the words
you choose, the way ideas are expressed and the validity and verifiability of
the basis for the conclusions that are drawn. What most distinguishes research
writing from other writings is the high degree of intellectual rigour required.
Research writings must be absolutely accurate, clear, logical, crises and free from
ambiguity. Assumptions regarding the knowledge of readers about the study,
should be avoided. Statement being made in the report should be convincing
to the researcher and he/she should be able to support whatever he/she is 175
Data Processing and writing with valid and scientific arguments. One needs to avoid philosophical
Tabulation or superficial language in the report. Even the best researchers, make a number
of drafts before writing up their final report. The success will depend on how
intelligently it is planned to meet all the objectives it has to fulfil.
A research report should essentially satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should present all the material that is pertinent to the study.
2. It should present the subject matter according to a preconceived plan, based
on a logical analysis and classifications of the pertinent material.
3. It should make this plan so evident that it can be easily understood by the
readers.
4. It should be written in a simple, concise style that does not permit any
possibility of misinterpretation.
5. It should be supplemented with tables & graphs.
6. It should incorporate annexures and references.
The conventional view of the research process held by most researchers is that
he/she starts with a formal theory from which he/she drives some hypotheses,
frames objectives, develops tools of data collection and actually collects
data. The data collected is analyzed to see whether or not these hypotheses
are confirmed and lays down this sequence of steps in his/her research report.
However, if the research result supports something different which is instructive
and has a more enlightening insight, then it is desirable to adopt the framework
in which findings offer new insight which can be conveyed to the readers. It
must be remembered that the report writing is not a mechanical process, instead
it is largely a matter of good judgment. The judgement typically dawns upon
a researcher when he/she thoroughly understand his/her data and appreciates
what is so outstanding about them.
CONTENT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Before the researcher starts writing the report, it is a good practice to develop
an outline, and chapterization plan. This means deciding how you are going
to divide your report into different chapters and planning what will be written
in each chapter. In developing chapterization plan, the objectives of the study
provide immense guidance. It is important to develop the chapters around the
main theme of the research study. Depending upon the importance of a theme,
either devote a complete chapter to it or combine it with the related theme to form
one chapter. The title of each chapter should be descriptive of the main theme,
should be able to communicate its main thrust, should be clear and concise. The
first chapter of the report in most of the cases is entitled “Introduction”, which
should be a general introduction to the study, covering most of the project
proposal and pointing out the deviation, if any from original plan. The chapter
introduces the reader to the theme and theoretical frame work around which
the entire work is based. In this chapter, the researcher should introduce the
background and the nature of the problem under investigation. If the enquiry
was planned with a view of making some contribution to certain aspects of a
176 social theory, the researcher should summarize the theory and develop linkages
between the two. The report should not contain a lot of jargons except when Data Analysis,
there is no feasible alternative to it. It needs to be ascertained that the knowledge Interpretation and
Report Writing
base of the reader is slightly strengthened through this chapter.
Towards the last section of Introduction, it is desirable that the researcher
introduces his/her own study mentioning the rationale of the present study. This
affords a smooth transition into the research under study.
Some researchers club the review of literature carried out by them prior to
conducting the present research, with the first chapter. The remaining may
restrict the first chapter to include the subject matter of the main topic of
research and its supporting theoretical framework. They use the second chapter
for reviewing the available theoretical literature as well as empirical research
studies undertaken, related to the title of the research. At the end, the researcher
must add a paragraph on overview of the literature reviewed by him and justify
the reason for undertaking the present research. The justification must be
supported by appropriate reasons and should be based on reviewed studies and
the findings of the previous researches undertaken.
The third chapter is mostly related to the method and design of the study. The
readers of the report do like to know in detail how the research was carried
out and what its basic design was like. The readers want to know the nature of
research design used, main objective of the study, sampling method adopted and
the scale or tool of data collection. All this information is usually incorporated in
the third chapter. At the end, the researcher must add the limitations encountered
by him in conducting the study.
The next chapter usually provides information about the study population. Here,
the relevant social, economical and demographic characteristics of the study
population should be described. This chapter serves two purposes:
1. It provides readers with some background information about the population
from which the data was collected. The information so collected can be related
with the findings to the type of population studied.
2. It helps to identify the variance within a group. The researcher may want
to examine how the level of satisfaction of the consumers of a service provider
with their age, education and gender, etc.
This Chapter is usually entitled “socio, economic, demographic characteristics
of the study population”. This chapter could be retuned around the following
sub headings:
• Introduction
• Respondents by age
• Respondents by gender
• Marital Status of the respondents
• Respondents by the education
• Annual average income of Respondents
• Nature of Dwelling etc. 177
Data Processing and The title and content of the subsequent chapters depend upon the listed aims
Tabulation and objectives contained in the study. If the research study has framed any
hypothesis, they must be appropriately put to test using statistical tests and
reported in these chapters. As the content of each project is different, these
chapters will be different too. As indicated earlier, the title of each chapter
should reflect the main thrust of the contents.
The outline should specify the sub section of the chapter. These sub sections
should be developed around the different aspects of the theme being discussed
in the chapter. If the researcher plans to correlate the information obtained
from one variable with another, specify the variable and plan the sequence for
discussion of the variable. In deciding this, the linkage and logical progression
between the sectors have to be kept in mind. Though the way the researchers
organize their writing is extremely individualized, however, the following
pattern may seem to be helpful when writing about the information obtained
in response to a question (variable). It could be as if the researcher is providing
answers to the following questions.
• Why does the researcher think it is important to study the variable? What
effects, in his/her opinion, may this variable have on the main variable the
research is trying to explain? (This is where the researcher tries to provide
his/her own rationale for studying the variable).
• In the case of cross tabulation, what relationships have other studies
found between the variables that are being analyzed (reviewed literature is
integrated)
• Developing relationships between two variables, thereby proving or
disproving the framed hypothesis.
• Interpretation of findings, followed by conclusions.
• The explanation of the conclusion arrived at.
It is significant to note that the literature reviewed has to be utilized appropriately
by the researcher along with a finding at which he/she has arrived. The researches
may like to add a separate chapter on discussion or may like to interpret it
appropriately in each chapter along with his/her findings. The last chapter in
the report is usually on summary, conclusion and recommendations for further
studies. The entire information in this chapter is however based on the findings
from the research study carried out by the researcher.
After the research findings are summarized, the researcher must incorporate
references followed by the appendices. There are several well established
systems for writing references. References mean a list of the books, articles and
other related material consulted by the researcher for his scholarly work. The
bibliography is more exhaustive in nature as it may contain all related books,
articles, etc., on the topic of the research. In social science, some of the most
commonly used systems for giving references are:
• The Harvard system
• The American Psychological Association system
178
• The American Medical Association system Data Analysis,
Interpretation and
• The McGraw Hill system Report Writing

• The Modern Language Association system

• The Footnotes system
The appendices usually contains the raw tools used for data collection, details
of statistical tests and other material which the researcher believe that reader
will be interested to knowing. The appendices may also contain tables of data
which are complex and extensive and could not be accommodated in the main
chapter.
The style of report
It is advised that the researcher should read and reread his own writing taking
the role of an intelligent but non-professional reader. He should at each point ask
himself whether he has himself understood the concept he is trying to explain
in his report, whether it is unambiguous and so forth. Sometimes, it may be
helpful to have someone else (friends & reviewers especially those unfamiliar
with this subject matter area) read the draft and comment upon it. If they find
something unclear, their observation needs to be respected.
A few decades ago, it was conventional to use third person passive voice in a
scientific reporting. By and large the same practice is still being adhered to by
large number of researchers, but now some researcher especially while reporting
qualitative research make use of ‘I’ or ‘We’ and active voice.
Lastly, it can be summed up by adding that the research report, by and large
scientific reporting, must be presented in the most artistic manner. The researcher
is the creator of his research and hence must exercise the freedom in reporting
his findings in the most innovative manner.
A Period for Criticism and Revision
When the researcher has completed the rough draft, he/she should lay it aside
for a day or so, if possible, until it can be criticized objectively as though it was
the work of another person.
1. Make a general examination of the report as a whole
a) Check the balance and proportion of parts
b) Verify the soundness of the structural pattern
c) Discover any obvious cause of possible confusion
2. Consider the title, table of contents, introduction and synopsis in relation to
each other
a) Make sure these parts are in agreement
b) Study the introduction carefully; determine whether the subject, purpose
of the study and plan has been mentioned clearly

179
Data Processing and 3. Analyze the terminal section
Tabulation
a) Check its agreement with the introduction
b) Discover any point where the researcher has confused objectives or
limits of the project
c) Consider whether the researcher has reinforced the proper points of
emphasis
4. Check the system of headings
a) Have the headings been used consistently?
b) Do they agree with the table of contents and with the plan outlined in
the introduction?
5. Examine the text
a) Check if the transitions from one topic to another has been smooth?
b) Are paragraphs too long?
c) Is there coherence within the paragraph system?
d) Is the sentence structure clear and grammatical?
e) Is the choice of words and their order, effective?
6. Finally, consider whether the report as whole accomplishes what it is
expected to do
a) Does it fulfil the requirements of a report?
b) Does it accomplish the purpose of the report?
Read your text aloud. Listen for repetition in sentences, words or phrases. Watch
for sentences that are either too short and abrupt or too long and complicated.
Consider if your text reads easily and smoothly.
If possible, before preparing the final draft, submit the report to a person
qualified to give constructive criticism.
Check the final draft for typographical errors.
A Check List for Major Contents
A. Problem
1. Is the problem clearly stated?
2. Is the problem significant?
3. Are the hypotheses or the researchable questions clearly stated?
4. Are they logically deduced from some theory or problem?
5. Is the relationship to previous research made clear?

180
B. Design Data Analysis,
Interpretation and
6. Are the assumptions of the study clearly stated? Report Writing

7. Are the limitations of the study stated?

8. Are important terms defined?
9. Is the research design fully described?
10. Is the research design appropriate?
11. Are the population and sample described?
12. Is the method of sampling appropriate?
13. Are the controls described and appropriate?
14. Is the research design free of specific weaknesses?
C. Procedure
15. Are the data gathering methods described, appropriate, and properly
used?
16. Are the validity and reliability of the evidence established?
D. Analysis
17. Are the analysis methods appropriate and properly applied?
18. Are the results of analysis, clearly and properly presented?
E. Conclusions
19. Are the conclusions substantiated by the evidence, drawn logically,
stated clearly?
20. Are the generalization and inference logical and applicable to the
population from which the sample was drawn?
21. Is the tone of report impartial and scientific?
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the basic requirements in a research report? Describe.
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181
Data Processing and
Tabulation 2.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, data analysis and presentation have been delineated and intricacies
of writing report are discussed. Based on the objectives of the research study,
data interpretation and analysis is done. Uni-variate analysis provide data
related to one variable and bi-variate tables present data of two variables in
column and row simultaneously. Tri-variate and multi-variate analysis have
more than two variables. Data interpretation relies on nature and type of data as
well as the research objectives. Tables and charts/ graphs add to the quality and
presentation of research report. Format and procedure of writing research report
in accordance with academic writing rules are provided in the unit.

2.6 KEY WORDS

Statistical Analysis : It is the application of statistical processes
and theory to the compilation, presentation,
discussion, and interpretation of numerical
data.
Data Analysis : The process by which data are organized to
better understand patterns of behaviour within
the target population. Data analysis is an
umbrella term that refers to many particular
forms of analysis such as content analysis,
cost-benefit analysis, network analysis, path
analysis, regression analysis, etc.
Data : Information collected through surveys,
interviews, or observations. Statistics are
produced from data, and data must be
processed to be of practical use.

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Lal Das, D. K. (2000). Practice of Social Research: A Social Work Practice.
New Delhi: Rawat Publications
Goode, W.J. and Hatt, P.K. (1952). Methods of Social Research. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Kothari, L.R. (1985). Research Methodology, New Delhi: Vishwa Prakashan
Anastas, J.W. (1999). Research Design for Social Work and The Human
Services (2nd ed.) New York: Columbia University Press
Rubin, A. & Babbie, E. (2001). Research Methods for Social Work (4th Ed.).
California: Wadsworth
Burns, R.B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Ruane, J.M. (2005). Essentials of Research Methods: A guide to Social Science
Research. Melbourne: Blackwell Publishing.
182
 Data Analysis,
UNIT 3 BASICS OF STATISTICAL Interpretation and
TECHNIQUES Report Writing

*Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Statistical Methods: Functions
3.3 Measures of Central Tendencies
3.5 Measures of Dispersion
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Suggested Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, certain basic statistical techniques used in social research have been
discussed. After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• calculate mean, median and mode,
• differentiate between discrete and continuous series of data and application
of statistical formulae accordingly,
• understand applicability of measures of dispersion; and
• develop insight into use of statistics for data interpretation and analysis.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Numerical data collected in research studies can be analyzed quantitatively
using statistical tools in two different ways - descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. Descriptive analysis refers to statistically describing, aggregating, and
presenting the constructs of interest or associations between these constructs.
Inferential analysis refers to the statistical testing of hypotheses (theory
testing). In this unit, basic statistical techniques used for descriptive analysis
are given and briefly inferential analysis is mentioned. As mostly researchers
rely on computer software like SPSS for data analysis and interpretation, a
rudimentary familiarization with statistical techniques would go a long way
in ensuring which technique is to be used in which type of data. Failing in this
basic understanding would not only jeopardize the entire research efforts but
also make the researcher confused and caught up amidst huge data.
As discussed in earlier units, Uni-variate analysis, or analysis of a single variable,
refers to a set of statistical techniques that can describe the general properties
of one variable. Uni-variate statistics include: (1) frequency distribution, (2)
*
Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik, Department of Social Work, University of Delhi 183
Data Processing and central tendency, and (3) dispersion. The frequency distribution of a variable is
Tabulation a summary of the frequency (or percentages) of individual values or ranges of
values for that variable.
Bi-variate analysis examines how two variables are related to each other. The
most common bi-variate statistic is the bi-variate correlation (often, simply
called 'correlation'), which is a number between -1 and +1 denoting the strength
of the relationship between two variables.

3.2 STATISTICAL METHODS: FUNCTIONS

The knowledge of statistics helps the social workers in arriving at inferences as
per the research objectives. These statistical procedures are largely becoming a
part of all the social science researchers. They enhance the effectiveness and the
efficiency of the services provided by the professional social workers. Statistics
is, thus, a branch of applied mathematics and helps the researcher to understand
the complex social phenomena better and lend precision to his/her data. It is this
field of mathematics which is the subject matter of this unit.
Definition
The most comprehensive definition of statistics has been given by Prof. Horace
Secrist who defined statistics as aggregates of facts affected to marked extent
by multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated
according to reasonable standards of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner
for a predetermined purpose and placed in relation to each other.
This definition clearly points out certain characteristics which numerical data
must possess in order to be called statistics. These include:
• Statistics are aggregates of facts.
• Statistics are affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes.
• Statistics are enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standard of
accuracy.
• Statistics are numerically expressed.
• Statistics are collected in a systematic manner.
• Statistics are collected for a predetermined purpose.
• Statistics should be placed in relation to each other.
Statistical Methods
The large volume of numerical information gives rise to the need for systematic
methods which can be used to organize, present, analyze and interpret the
information effectively. Statistical methods are primarily developed to meet this
need. Croxton and Cowden have given a very simple and concise definition of
statistics. In their view ‘Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical data. This definition clearly points
out four stages in a statistical investigation namely: collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of data. However, to the above stages one more
184 stage may be added and that is the organization of data. Thus, statistics may
be defined as the science of collection, organization, presentation, analysis and Basics of Statistical
interpretation of numerical data. Techniques

Functions of Statistics
The following are the important functions of the science of statistics:
• It presents facts in a definite form.
• It simplifies mass of figures.
• It facilitates comparison.
• It helps in formulating and testing of hypothesis.
• It helps in making predictions.
• It helps in the formulation of suitable policies.
Statistics and Computers
The development of statistics has been closely related to the evolution of
electronic computers as it is possible to perform millions of calculations in
mere seconds with the help of computers. In spite of the fact that it is possible to
do all the calculations with the computer, statistics does not lose its importance
as it is possible to draw inferences only if the researcher has comprehensive
knowledge of what to do with the data and which in turn is possible only if the
researcher has the knowledge of statistics. It enables the researcher in making
sense out of the available data. The knowledge of statistics helps the researcher
in taking decisions regarding applicability of various tests with the help of
computer. Therefore, while analyzing the data the importance of statistics
cannot be underestimated.
In statistics we need to learn about the measures dealing with one variable, two
variables and more than two variables. The basic measures which summarize
the data into one figure are the measures of central tendency and dispersion.
The measures used to determine relationship between two or more than two
variables are called measures of correlation. The description in this chapter is
restricted to measures of central tendency and dispersion.
Measures of central tendency describe how the data cluster together around a
central point. There are three main measures of central tendency: the mean, the
median and the mode. The measures of dispersion commonly used are range,
quartile deviation, mean deviation and the standard deviation.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the functions of statistics?
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Data Processing and
Tabulation 3.3 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES
It is often essential to represent a set of data by means of a single number which
in its way is descriptive of the entire set. Obviously, the figure which is used to
represent a whole series should neither have the lowest value in the series nor
the highest value, but a value somewhere between these two limits, possibly
in the centre. Such figures are called measures of central tendency or simple
average.
Ungrouped Data
The data collected for the purpose of a statistical inquiry are simple figures
without any form or structure. Data obtained in this way are in a raw state for
they have not gone through any statistical treatment. This shapeless mass of
data is known as ungrouped data or raw data. Consider the data presented in
Table 3.1
Table 3.1: Marks in Social Research obtained by 20 students.

Roll No. Marks Roll No. Marks

1 15 11 15
2 17 12 18
3 18 13 7
4 10 14 8
5 13 15 9
6 11 16 20
7 8 17 13
8 12 18 11
9 13 19 12
10 19 20 13
Ungrouped data presented in this manner are not capable of being rapidly or
easily interpreted.
Grouped Data
In order that data may be more readily comprehensible, grouping further
reduces the bulk of these data. A first step in such a grouping would be
achieved by representing the repetitions of a particular mark by tallies instead
of corresponding to any given marks in the frequency of that class (usually
denoted by the letter ‘f’) as shown in table 3.2
Table 3.2: Tally Sheet showing the marks obtained by 20 students

Marks Tally Frequency

7 1 1
8 11 2
9 1 1
10 1 1
11 11 2
186 12 111 3
 Basics of Statistical
13 111 3 Techniques
15 11 2
17 1 1
18 11 2
19 1 1
20 1 1
Total 20 20
Discrete and Continuous Data
Data may be either discrete or continuous. A discrete series is formed from data
which are capable of exact measurement. In other words, certain kinds of data
are discrete in that not all values are possible. A family may have exactly 1, 2,
3 or even 4 children but it cannot have an integer. It has to be a whole number
which is capable of being counted. Such data would give rise to discrete data
(Table 3.3)
Table 3.3: Frequency Distribution: Discrete data

No. of children/family No. of couples

0 6
1 7
2 11
3 15
4 1
Total 30
Certain other kinds of data are continuous in that all values are possible. That is,
there are certain items which are not capable of exact measurement like weight
or height. We cannot count the number of students whose height are exactly
160 cm. In such cases the data are given in relation to groups or class intervals.
For example, we can count the number of students whose height are between
155 cm and 165cm. These types of data are called continuous data (Table 3.4)
Table 3.4: Frequency Distribution: Continuous Series

Height in Cm. No of students

frequency (f)
150-155 12
156-160 15
161-165 18
166-170 17
171-175 15
176-180 14
Total 91
Class Intervals
Each group of five consecutive values of heights, namely, 150-155, 155-160,
160-165, etc., is called class. Since each class includes five values, 05 is the
187
Data Processing and magnitude or width of the class, commonly known as class interval. The first
Tabulation figure of each class is called its lower limit, and the last figure of each class
is known as the upper limit. Every class interval has a mid- point which is
mid-way between the upper and lower limits. Table 3.5 illustrate the lower
limits, upper limit and mid point of the classes, taking the above example into
consideration.
Table 3.5: Lower limits, Mid Points and Upper limits in continuous data

Intervals Mid point Lower limit Upper limit

150-155 152.5 * 150 155
156-160 157.5 155 160
161-165 162.5 160 165
* E.g. 150+155 = 152.5
2
There are three important measures of central tendency used in social work
research, the mean, the median and the mode.
The Mean
The mean is the most common of all the averages. It is relatively easy to calculate,
simple to understand and is widely used in social work research. The mean is
defined as the sum of the values of all the items and dividing the total by the
number of items. An example will help us learn how to calculate the arithmetic
mean. Let us suppose that eight students receive 54, 58, 60, 62, 70, 72, 75 and
77 marks respectively, in an examination, the mean of marks will be:
54+58+60+62+70+72+75+77 528
Mean = ————————————————— = ——— = 66
8 8
In calculating arithmetic mean of a continuous series, we take the mid-value of
each class as representative of that class (and it is presumed that the frequencies
of that class are concentrated on mid-point), multiply the various mid-values by
their corresponding frequencies and sum of the products is divided by sum of
the frequencies.
Illustration
Table 3.6: Distribution of Rag Pickers by their Daily Income

S. No. Daily Income Number of

(in Rs.) Rag-Pickers
1 110-130 15
2 130-150 30
3 150-170 60
4 170-190 95
5 190-210 82
6 210-230 75
7 230-250 23
188 Total 380
Solution: Basics of Statistical
Techniques
Daily Income Mid-values Number Rag- m x f
(in Rs.) (m) Pickers (f)
110-130 120* 15 1800
130-150 140 30 4200
150-170 160 60 9600
170-190 180 95 17100
190-210 200 82 16400
210-230 220 75 16500
230-250 240 23 5520
∑f = N = 380 ∑mf = 71120
Calculation:
Lower limit + Upper limit 110 + 130
*Mid-value = ——————————————— = ———————
2 2
240
= ————— = 120
2
— ∑ m f ∑ m f
X = ———— = ————
∑ f N

71120
= ————— = 187.16
380
Mean = Rs.187.16 (approximately)
Solution:
Table 3.7

Monthly Mid- No. of Deviation Step Total

wages values workers from deviation deviation
(in Rs.) (m) (f) assumed (d) fd
mean. 180
(dx)
110-130 120 15 –60 –3 –45
130-150 140 30 –40 –2 –60
150-170 160 60 –20 –1 –60
170-190 180 95 0 0 0
190-210 200 82 +20 +1 +82
210-230 220 75 +40 +2 +150
230-250 240 23 +60 +3 +69
N=380 Σfd = 136

189
Data Processing and Σfd
Tabulation Mean (X) = a + ——— × i
N
Where ‘a’ stands for the assumed mean, Σfd for the sum of total deviations, N
for total number of frequencies and ‘i’ for class interval. Now substituting the
values in the formula from the table we get :
136
= 180 + ——— x 20
380
= 180 + 7.16
Mean = Rs. 187.16 (approximately)
Merits
Arithmetic mean is most widely used in practice because :
• It is simplest average to understand
• It is easy to compute.
• Value is rigid
• Takes into consideration all the items.
• Value is reliable- sampling stability
Limitations
• Since the value of mean depends on each and every item of the series, extreme
items- very small and very large unduly effect the valued average.
• Mean cannot be computed in open end classes, we need to go by
assumption.
• It is a good mean only when population follows a normal distribution.
The Median
The median is another simple measure of central tendency. We sometimes want
to locate the position of the middle item when data have been arranged. This
measure is also known as positional averages. We define the median as the size
of the middle item when the items are arrayed in ascending or descending order
of magnitude. This means that median divides the series in such a manner that
there are as many items above or larger than the middle one as there are below
or smaller than it.
In continuous series we do not know every observation. Instead, we have record
of the frequencies with which the observations appear in each of the class-
intervals as in the following Table. Nevertheless, we can compute the median
by determining which class-interval contains the median.

190
 Table 3.8: Daily Income of Rag-Pickers Basics of Statistical
Techniques
Daily Income in Rs. Number of Rag- Cumulative
pickers (f) frequencies (CF)
110-130 15 15
130-150 30 45
150-170 60 105
170-190 95 200
190-210 82 282
210-230 75 357
230-250 23 380
N=380

In the case of data given in Table 3.8 above the median

value is that value on either side of which N or
2

380
___ or 190th items lie. Now the problem is to find
­ 2

the class interval containing the 190th item. The cumulative frequency for the
first three classes is only 105. But when we move to the fourth class interval 95
items are added to 105 for total of 200. Therefore, the 190th item must be located
in this fourth class-interval (the interval from Rs. 170 – Rs. 190).
The median class (Rs. 170 – Rs. 190) for the series contains 95 items.
For the purpose of determining the point, which has 190 items on each
side, we assume that these 95 items are evenly spaced over the entire class
interval 170–190. Therefore, we can interpolate and find the values for 190th
item. First, we determine that the 190th item is the 95th item in the median
class: 190–105 = 85. Then we can calculate the width of the 95 equal steps from
Rs.170 to Rs. 190 as follows:
190 – 170
—————— = 0.21053 (approximately)
95
The value of 85th item is 0.2105 x 85 = 17.89. If this (17.89) is added to the
lower limit of the median class, we get 170 + 17.89 = 187.89. This is the median
of the series.
This can be put in the form of formula:
N/2–C
X = L + ——————— x i
. f
Where
191
Data Processing and X = median,
Tabulation
L = lower limit of the class in which median lies
N = total number of items
C = cumulative frequency of the class prior to the median class.
‘f = frequency of the median class
i = class interval of the median class.
380
———— - 105
2
= 170 + ——————— x (190 – 170)
95
190 – 105
= 170 + ——————— x (190 – 170)
95
85
= 170 + ——— x (190 – 170)
95
= 170 + (0.8947 x 20)
= 187.89 (approximately)
Median Income = Rs.187.89 (approximately)

Merits & Limitations of Median

Merits
 It is especially useful in case of open end classes since only the position and
not the value of items must be known.
 It is also useful in unequal class intervals.
 Extreme items do not affect the median as they do to the mean.
 Skewed distribution where Arithmetic mean would be distorted by extreme
values, the median is especially useful.
 Most appropriate average in dealing with qualitative data.
 The value of median can be determined graphically whereas mean cannot
be determined graphically.
 It gives us the middle value of the distribution which is mostly required.
Limitations
 For calculating median, it is necessary to arrange the data.
 Since it is a positioned average, its value is not determined by each and
every observation.
192
 Not capable of further statistical treatment. Basics of Statistical
Techniques
 The value of median is affected more by sampling fluctuations, than the
value of arithmetic mean.
 The median in some cases cannot be computed exactly as the mean. This
is true when number of items included in the series is even and that too in
discrete series.
The Mode
Another measure, which is sometimes used to describe the central tendency of
a set of data, is the mode. It is defined as the value that is repeated most often
in the data set. In the following series of values: 71, 73, 74, 75, 75, 75, 78,
78, 80 and 82, the mode is 75, because 75 occurs more often than any other
value (three times). In grouped data the mode is located in the class where the
frequency is greatest. The mode is more useful when there are a larger number
of cases and when data have been grouped.
Calculation of Mode
The first step in calculation of mode is to find out the point of maximum
concentration with the help of grouping method. The procedure of grouping is
as follows:
i) First the frequencies are added in two’s in two ways: (a) by adding
frequencies of item numbers 1 and 2; 3 and 4; 5 and 6 and so on, and (b) by
adding frequencies of item numbers 2 and 3, 4 and 5, 6 and 7 and so on.
ii) Then the frequencies are added in three’s. This can be done in three ways:
(a) by adding frequencies of item numbers 1, 2 and 3, 4, 5 and 6, 7, 8 and
9; and so on. (b) by adding frequencies of item numbers 2,3 and 4; 5, 6
and 7; 8, 9 and 10; and so on and (c) by adding frequencies of item
numbers 3, 4 and 5, 6, 7 and 8, 9, 10 and 11 and so on.
If necessary grouping of frequencies can be done in four’s and five’s also. After
grouping, the size of items containing maximum frequencies is circled. The
item value, which will contain the maximum frequency the largest number of
times, is the mode of the series. This is shown in Tables given below
After the process of grouping locates the class of maximum concentration the
value of mode is interpolated by the use of the following formula.
f1 – f0
Mode (X) = L + —————— × i
2 f1 – f0 – f2
Where X stands for the mode, L is the lower limit of the modal class, f0 stands
for the frequencies of the preceding class, f1 stands for the frequencies of the
modal class, f1 for the frequencies of the succeeding class and i stands for the
class interval of the modal class.

193
Data Processing and Illustration:
Tabulation
Table 3.9: Weekly Family Income (in Rs.)

Weekly Income Number of families

100 – 200 5
200 – 300 6 = f0
300 – 400 15 = f1
400 – 500 10 = f2,
500 – 600 5
600 – 700 4
700 – 800 3
800 – 900 2
Total N = 50

Table 3.10: Location of Modal Class by Grouping

Weekly Income F(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

100 – 200 5
11
200 – 300 6 26
21
300 – 400 15 31
25
400 – 500 10 30
15
500 – 600 5 19
9
600 – 700 4 12
7
700 – 800 3 9
5
800 – 900 2

Table 3.11: Analysis Table

Column Class Containing Maximum Frequency

100 - 200- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800-
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1
4 1 1 1
5 1 1 1
6 1 1 1
No. of times
1 3 6 3 1
a class

194
Therefore 330-400 group is the modal group. Using the formula of interpolation, Basics of Statistical
viz., Techniques

f1 – f0.
X = L + ——————— x i
2 f1 – f0 – f2
— 15 – 6
X = 300 + ———————— × 100
2 × 15 – 6 – 10
9
= 300 + —— × 100
14
= 300 + 64.29
= 364.29 (approximately)

Merits & Limi♠tations of Mode

Merits
• It is the most frequently occurring value- hence in greater demand.
• Mode is not unduly affected by extreme values.
• Can be used in open-end distributions
• Mostly used to describe qualitative phenomenon eg. Consumer preference
of different products of daily use.
• Value can be determined graphically.
Limitations
• The value of mode cannot always be determined eg. Bimodal series.
• Not capable of further statistical treatment.
• The value of mode is not based on each and every item of the series.
• It is not a rigidly defined measure with the use of different formulas we get
different results.
• Not much in use.
Usefulness of Mode
1. Used when most typical value of a distribution is desired.
2. Especially useful in skewed distribution.

Relationship between Mean, Median and Mode

Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

195
Data Processing and
Tabulation Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Define the terms measures of central tendency.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

3.4 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

In social work research, we often wish to know the extent of homogeneity and
heterogeneity among respondents with respect to a given characteristic. Any
set of social data is values, which are heterogeneous. The set of social data is
characterized by the heterogeneity of values. In fact, the extent to which they
are heterogeneous or vary among themselves is of basic importance in statistics.
Measures of central tendency describe one important characteristic of a set of
data typically but they do not tell us anything about this other basic characteristic.
Consequently, we need ways of measuring heterogeneity – the extent to which
data are dispersed and the measures, which provide this description, are called
measures of dispersion or variability.
Range
The range is defined as the difference between the highest and lowest values.
Mathematically,
R(Range) = mh – mL
Where mh and mL stand for the highest and the lowest value. Thus, for the data
set; 10, 22, 20, 14 and 14 the range would be the difference between 22 and 10,
i.e., 12. In case of grouped data, we take the range as the difference between the
midpoints of the extreme classes. Thus, if the midpoint of the lowest interval is
150 and that of the highest is 850 the range will be 700.
Semi-Inter-Quartile Range or Quartile Deviation
Another measure of dispersion is the semi-inter-quartile range, commonly
known as quartile deviation. Quartiles are the points, which divide the array
or series of values into four equal parts, each of which contains 25 per cent of
the items in the distribution. The quartiles are then the highest values in each of
these four parts. Inter-quartile range is the difference between the values of first
and the third quartiles.
Thus, where Q1 and Q3 stand for first and the third quartiles, the semi-interquartile
range or quartile deviation.
Q 3 – Q1
196 Q.D. = —————
2
Calculation of Quartile Deviation (QD) Basics of Statistical
Techniques
Table 3.12: Weekly Family Income in (Rs.)

Weekly Income Number of families

100 – 200 5
200 – 300 6
300 – 400 15
400 – 500 10
500 – 600 5
600 – 700 4
700 – 800 3
800 – 900 2
Total N=50

Table 3.13

S. No. Weekly Income Number of Cumulative

(1) (in Rs.) Families Frequency (CF)
(2) (3) (4)
1 100 – 200 5 5
2 200 – 300 6 11 = c
3 Q1 – 300 – 400 15 = f 26
4 400 – 500 10 36 = c
5 Q3 - 500 – 600 5=f 41
6 600 – 700 4 45
7 700 – 800 3 48
8 800 – 900 2 50
Total N = 50
– C
Q1 = 11 + ————— (I)
F
12.5 – 11
= 300 + ——————— × 100
15
1.5
= 300 + ——— × 100
15
= 300 + (0.1 × 100)
= 300 + 10
= 310
– C
Q3 = L1 + —————— (I)
5 197
Data Processing and 37.5 – 36
Tabulation = 500 + —————— × 100
5
1.5
= 500 + ——— × 100
5
= 500 + (0.3 x 100)
= 500 +30
= 530
= Q3–Q1
= 530 – 310 = 220
Q 3 – Q1
QD = ——————
2
220
= ———
2
= 110
Quartile Deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion. If quartile deviation is
to be used for comparing the dispersion of series it is necessary to convert the
absolute measure to a coefficient of quartile deviation.
.Q3 – Q1
—————
2 Q3 – Q1
Symbolically, coefficient of Q.D. = ——————— = —————
Q3 + Q1 Q3 + Q 1
—————
2
Applying this to the preceding illustration we get,
Q 3 – Q 1 530 – 310 220
Q.D. = —————— = —————— = ———— = 0.26 (approximately
Q3 + Q1 530 + 310 840
Mean Deviation
Quartile deviation suffers from a serious drawback; they are calculated by taking
into consideration only two values of a series. As a result, the composition
of the series is entirely ignored. To avoid this defect, dispersion is calculated
taking into consideration all the observations of the series in relation to a central
value. The method of calculating dispersion is called Mean Deviation.

198
Illustration: Basics of Statistical
Techniques
Table 3.14: Weekly Family Income (in Rs.)

Weekly Income Number of families

100 – 200 5
200 – 300 6
300 – 400 15
400 – 500 10
500 – 600 5
600 – 700 4
700 – 800 3
800 – 900 2
Total N = 50

Solution :
Table 3.15: Weekly Family Income (in Rs.)

Weekly Mid No. of Cumulative Deviation ‘f | d |

Income Value families frequency from
(f) median
400 | d |
100- 150 5 5 250 1250
200
200- 250 5 10=C 150 750
300
Median 300- 350 15 = f 25 50 750
Group 400
400- 450 10 35 50 500
500
500- 550 5 40 150 750
600
600- 650 4 44 250 1000
700
700- 750 3 47 350 1050
800
800- 850 3 50 450 1350
900
N = 50 7400

199
Data Processing and
Tabulation Step Procedure Application to Table 3.15
1 Calculate the median N
of the distribution ——— – C.
2
X = L + ——————— × ‘I
‘f

50
——— – 10
2
= 300 + ——————— × 100
15

25 – 10
= 300 + ————— × 100
15

15
= 300 + —— × 100
15

= 300 + (1 × 100)
= 300 + 100 = 400
2 Find mid-points of 100+200 300
each class = ————— = ———— = 150,....
2 2
3 Find absolute | 150 – 400 | = | – 250 |
deviation – |d| of = 250,.....
each mid – points
from median (400)
4 Find total absolute 5 × 250 = 1250,.....
deviation by
multiplying the
frequency of
each class by the
deviation of its mid
– points from the
median
(f | d | )
5 Find the sum of F | d | = 7400
products
of frequency and
deviations
( f |d | )
6 Compute Mean f|d|
Deviation 7400
l (X) = ————— = ——— = 148
200
N 50
Standard Deviation Basics of Statistical
Techniques
The most useful and frequently used measure of dispersian is standard deviation
or root-mean square deviation about the mean. The standard deviation is defined
as the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations about
the mean. Symbolically.
d2
= ———
N
Where a (Greek letter sigma) stands for the standard deviation, Σd2 for the sum
of the squares of the deviation measured from mean and N for the number of
items.
Σ d2
α = ———
N
Where a (Greek letter sigma) stands for the standard deviation, Σd2 for the sum
of the squares of the deviation measured from mean and N for the number of
items.
Calculation of Standard Deviation
In a continuous series the class intervals are represented by their midpoints.
However, usually the class-intervals are of equal size and thus, the deviations
from the assumed average is expressed in class interval units. Alternatively,
step deviation is found out by dividing the deviations by the magnitude of the
class interval. Thus, the formula for computing standard deviation is written as
follows;
∑ fd2 ∑ fd2
α = ———— – ———— × t
N N
Where ‘i’ stands for the common factor or the magnitude of the class-interval.
The following example would illustrate this formula;
Table 3.16: Weekly Family Income (in Rs.)

Sl No. Weekly Income Number of families (f)

1 100 – 200 5
2 200 – 300 6
3 300 – 400 15
4 400 – 500 10
5 500 – 600 5
6 600 – 700 4
7 700 – 800 3
8 800 – 900 2
N = 50 201
Data Processing and Table 3.17
Tabulation
S. No. Weekly Mid Number Step fd d2 Fd1
Income values of deviation
(m) families from ass.
(f) Ave (450)
(d)
1 100 – 200 150 5 –3 –15 9 45
2 200 – 300 250 6 –2 –12 4 24
3 300 – 400 350 15 –1 –15 1 15
4 400 – 500 450 10 0 0 0 0
5 500 – 600 550 5 +1 5 1 5
6 600 – 700 650 4 +2 8 4 16
7 700 – 800 750 3 +3 9 9 27
8 800 – 900 850 2 +4 8 16 32
N = 50 Σfd = – 12 Σfd = 164
2

Step Procedure Application to Table 3.17

1 Find the mid-points of the 100+200 = 300 = 150,....
various classes ———— ——
2 2
2 Assume a mid-points as
450 = assumed average
average, preferably at the centre
3 Take the difference of each mid-
point from the assumed average
(450) and divide them by the (1) 150–450 =–300/3= –3…
magnitude of the class interval to
get step deviation (d)
4 The deviations are multiplied by (–3) (5) = –15
the frequency of each class (fd) (–2) (6) = –1

5 Find the aggregate of products of Σ fd = –12

step 4 (Σ fd)
6 Square the deviations (d2) (–3) (–3) = 9,...
7 Squared deviations are multiplied 9 × 5 = 45,...
by the respective frequencies (fd2)
8 Find the aggregate of products of Σ fd2 = 164
step 7 (Σ fd2)
9 Compute standard deviation with
 

the help of the formula  
 


 




 

202
 Basics of Statistical
 Techniques

= 1.795 × 100
= 179.51 (approximately)
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Define the term measures of dispersion.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

3.5 LET US SUM UP

Knowledge of statistics helps the social worker in two ways. First, the knowledge
allows the social worker to be able to analyse the data and draw inferences.
Second, as a consumer of researches it enables him/her to understand the
analysis of data used in research reports.
Ungrouped data are not capable of being rapidly or easily interpreted. In order
that data may be more readily comprehensible data can be grouped.
Mean, median and mode are the three measures of central tendency. Mean is
the arithmetic average of a distribution. It is computed by dividing the sum of
all values of observations by the total number of values. Median is a point in
an array, which divides a data set into two equal halves in such a way that all
the values in one half will be greater than the median value and all the values
in other half will be smaller than the median value. Mode is a most frequently
occurring value in a distribution.
The range, and standard deviation are the most commonly used measures of
variability. The range is the difference between the two extreme values. The
square root of the average of the squared deviations of the measures or values
from their mean is known as standard deviation.

3.6 KEY WORDS

Central Tendency : The typical value in any data array that
represents the middle position.
Descriptive Statistics : Statistical methods used to illustrate the
meaning of the data in a study without drawing
any inferences.
Frequency : The number of observations for a variable.

203
Data Processing and Mean : Another word for average; in a distribution
Tabulation of ordinal or scale values, the sum of scale
values divided by the number of values being
considered.
Median : In a distribution of ordinal or scale values,
the exact mid-point so that 50% of the values
fall higher and 50% of values fall lower in the
distribution.
Mode : In a distribution of nominal, ordinal or scale
values , the most commonly occuring value.
Ungrouped Data : Data in the first of simple figures without any
of nominal, ordinal or scale values , the most
commonly occuring value.
Continous Series : We have record of the frequenies with which
the observation appear in each of the class-
intervals.
Range : The difference between two extreme values.
Semi-Inter-Quartile Range : The Difference between the values of first and
the third quartiles.

3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Faherty, Vincent E. (2008). Compassionate Statistics: Applied Quantitative
Analysis for Social Services. London: Sage
Blalock Jr., H.M. (1960). Social Statistics. New York: McGraw Hill Book
Company, Inc.
Nicola, B., Richard, K. & Rose Mary, S.(2003). SPSS for Psychologists: A
Guide to Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows, Palgrave Macmillan.
Montcalm, D. & Royse, D. (2002). Data Analysis for Social Workers. London:
Allyn and Bacon
Laldas D.K. (2000). Practice of Social Research: Social Work Perspective. New
Delhi: Rawat Publications
Elhance, D.N. (1984) Fundamental of Statistics, Kitab mahal, Allahbad.
Freud, J.E. (1977), Modern Elemenatary Statistics, Prentice hall, New Delhi.
Gupta, S.P. (1980), Statistical Methods, S. Chand, New Delhi.
Lal Das, D.K. (2000), Practice of Social Research: A Social Work Perspective,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
Philip, A.E. et. al. (1975), Social Work Research, and The Analysis of Social
Data, Peragon Press, Oxford.
Sanders, D.H. et. al (1975), Statistics A Fresh Approach, Mc Graw Hill, New
204 Delhi.