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Metabolismos Traslocación Citokininas
Metabolismos Traslocación Citokininas
Abstract
Kudo T, Kiba T, Sakakibara H (2010) Metabolism and long-distance translocation of cytokinins. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 52(1), 53–60.
have been identified; the active cytokinin species are the free-
Introduction
base type (Mok and Mok 2001). In addition to their action
Higher plants are composed of multiple organ systems that as inducers of cytokinesis, cytokinins are also involved in
are functionally differentiated, such as photosynthetic and regulating various biological processes: senescence (Gan and
non-photosynthetic organs and vegetative and reproductive Amasino 1995; Kim et al. 2006), apical dominance (Sachs
organs. Plant organs interact with each other to optimize both and Thimann 1967; Tanaka et al. 2006; Shimizu-Sato et al.
metabolic and developmental processes to allow the organism 2009), root proliferation (Werner et al. 2001, 2003), phyllotaxis
to accommodate to environmental inputs. For these mutual (Giulini et al. 2004), and reproductive competence (Ashikari
interactions, local and long-distance communication among et al. 2005). To regulate such plant developmental processes,
cells and organs are essential. Messenger molecules, such as cytokinin activity must be finely controlled.
phytohormones, mRNA, small RNAs and proteins, are involved Cytokinin activity in an organ is regulated at diverse steps,
in this communication system and are transported throughout including de novo synthesis, activation, conjugation, and degra-
the plant by the vascular system (Ruiz-Medrano et al. 2001; dation. Spatial distribution of cytokinin signaling systems (i.e.
Mouchel and Leyser 2007; Liu et al. 2009). Cytokinins, a class receptors and response regulators) specifies the domain in
of phytohormones, are one of these long-distance messengers which a cytokinin response can occur. In addition, local and
transported through the plant vascular system. long-distance transport systems are involved in regulating
Cytokinins are defined as substances that induce cytoki- cytokinin action. In the present review, we summarize the
nesis in the presence of auxin. To date, a variety of nat- role of cytokinins as a signaling messenger with focus on
ural cytokinin species, including trans-zeatin (tZ), N 6 -(2 - the biosynthesis, transmembrane transport, and long-distance
isopentenyl)adenine (iP), cis-zeatin (cZ), and their conjugates translocation. For an update on intracellular cytokinin signal
C 2010 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences
54 Journal of Integrative Plant Biology Vol. 52 No. 1 2010
transduction, readers are directed to other excellent reviews (ATP), to generate iP-ribotides. These iP-ribotides are then
(Hwang et al. 2002; Heyl and Schmülling 2003; Kakimoto 2003; hydroxylated to tZ-ribotides by CYP735A1 or CYP735A2 (Takei
Mizuno 2004; Argueso et al. 2009). et al. 2004b). On the other hand, biosynthesis of cZ is initiated
by tRNA-IPTs that catalyze the prenylation of tRNA using
Cytokinin Metabolism in Higher Plants DMAPP; however, the enzyme for cis-hydroxylation has yet
to be identified in plants. Conversion of iP-, tZ-, and cZ-
In the past decade, our understanding of cytokinin biosynthesis riboside 5 -monophosphate to their active forms occurs by two
has greatly progressed due in large part to the identifica- pathways: the LOG and two-step pathways. In the former,
tion of key pathway genes encoding adenosine phosphate- cytokinin riboside 5 -monophosphates are directly converted
isopentenyltransferase (IPT; Kakimoto et al. 2001; Takei et al. to free-base cytokinins by LOG (Kurakawa et al. 2007). In
2001a; Sakamoto et al. 2006), tRNA-isopentenyltransferase the latter pathway, the ribotides are dephosphorylated to the
(tRNA-IPT; Miyawaki et al. 2004, 2006; Sakamoto et al. 2006), ribosides and subsequently converted to free-base cytokinins
cytokinin trans-hydroxylase, CYP735A (Takei et al. 2004b) and (Chen and Kristopeit 1981a, 1981b), but the corresponding
the cytokinin nucleoside 5 -monophosphate phosphoribohydro- genes have not yet been identified.
lase, LONELY GUY (LOG; Kurakawa et al. 2007). Based on Inactivation of cytokinins is carried out by degradation
these findings, a basic scheme for the cytokinin biosynthesis or conjugation. Degradation is catalyzed by cytokinin oxi-
pathway was proposed (Sakakibara 2006; Hirose et al. 2008; dase/dehydrogenase (CKX; Galuszka et al 2001; Schmülling
Kamada-Nobusada and Sakakibara 2009) and is illustrated in et al. 2003; Figure 1). Glucose-conjugation to cytokinins occurs
Figure 1. at the N3, N7 and N9 positions of the purine ring, or in the
In Arabidopsis, the initial step of iP and tZ biosynthesis is hydroxyl group of the prenyl side chain. Recent studies have
catalyzed by IPT using dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) and demonstrated that the degradation step plays an important
adenosine 5 -diphosphate (ADP), or adenosine 5 -triphosphate role in regulating cytokinin activity (Werner et al. 2001, 2003;
Ashikari et al. 2005).
Traditionally it was thought that cytokinins were synthesized
in the root and transported to the shoots through the xylem
(Letham and Palni 1983; Beveridge et al. 1997). However,
recent studies on the spatial distribution of cytokinin metabolism
have demonstrated that cytokinins are produced not only
in roots, but also in various sites within the aerial parts of
the plant. In Arabidopsis, the IPT genes are expressed in
numerous organs including roots, leaves, stems, flowers, and
siliques (Miyawaki et al. 2004; Takei et al. 2004a), whereas
the CYP735A genes are expressed predominantly in roots
(Takei et al. 2004b). Recent studies on the LOG family genes
in rice and Arabidopsis suggest that activation of cytokinin
occurs in nearly all parts of the plant (Kurakawa et al. 2007;
Kuroha et al. 2009). Superimposition of the expression patterns
for the IPT and CYP735A genes, in Arabidopsis, reveals the
differential distribution of de novo synthesis pathways for iP and
tZ. For instance, AtIPT3 is expressed in phloem tissue in rosette
leaves, whereas expression of CYP735As in rosette leaves is
scarcely detectable. Alternatively, both IPTs and CYP735As
Figure 1. Simplified model for cytokinin biosynthesis and are expressed in roots. Such differential distribution of these
degradation pathways. cytokinin biosynthesis genes might be important to produce
Blue arrows indicate reactions for enzymes with known genes, and
the various cytokinin species in underground and aboveground
grey arrows indicate pathway genes that remain to be identified.
organs.
In this scheme, only biosynthesis and degradation steps are il-
lustrated; further details can be found in Sakakibara (2006). CKX,
Cytokinin Transport across
cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase; cZ, cis-zeatin; DMAPP, dimethy- the Plasma Membrane
lallyl diphosphate; iP, N 6 -(2 -isopentenyl)adenine; IPT, adenosine
phosphate-isopentenyltransferase; LOG, LONELY GUY; tRNA-IPT, As cytokinins are a mobile class of phytohormones, it is
tRNA-isopentenyltransferase; tZ, trans-zeatin. likely that higher plants have import and export systems to
Cytokinin Metabolism and Translocation 55
Long-Distance Transport of Cytokinins but not the iP-type cytokinins (Matsumoto-Kitano et al. 2008).
Wild-type shoot-scions recovered the iP-type cytokinins in the
In higher plants, long-distance translocation of cytokinins is mutant root-stocks to normal levels, whereas the tZ-type cy-
mediated by the xylem, an acropetal transport system that tokinins were only partially recovered (Matsumoto-Kitano et al.
occurs by transpiration flow, and the phloem translocation 2008). Reciprocal grafting experiments also restored visible
system that delivers photosynthate throughout the body of the mutant phenotypes, such as defects in the thickening growth of
plant. Systemic translocation of cytokinins was implied by early roots and inflorescence stems (Matsumoto-Kitano et al. 2008).
tracer experiments. Although radioactive cytokinins applied Summary of this grafting study is illustrated in Figure 4A and C.
to leaves are strongly retained at the treated site, a small Cytokinin translocation via the xylem is controlled both by
proportion of the labeled cytokinins are translocated to other environmental and endogenous signals. The tZR content and
plant parts (Vonk and Davelaar 1981; Badenoch-Jones et al. flow rate of the xylem sap are significantly increased by nitrate
1984; Abo-hamed et al. 1984; Letham 1994). In xylem sap, the supplement in barley (Samuelson et al. 1992) and maize
major form of cytokinin is tZR (Beveridge et al. 1997; Takei et al. (Takei et al. 2001b), implying that tZR acts as a messenger
2001b; Hirose et al. 2008), and in phloem sap, the major forms for nitrate signaling. Xylem cytokinins upregulated by nitrate
are iP-type cytokinins, such as iPR and iP-ribotides (Corbesier supplement induced the accumulation of cytokinin-responsive
et al. 2003; Hirose et al. 2008). Thus, it is conceivable that gene transcripts in leaves (Sakakibara et al. 1998; Takei
plants might use tZR as an acropetal messenger and iP-type et al. 2001b). In Arabidopsis roots, the accumulation of AtIPT3
cytokinins as systemic or basipetal messengers (Figure 3). transcripts is induced by nitrate, followed by that of tZ-ribotides
This hypothesis is supported by a recent grafting experiment and tZR (Takei et al. 2002, 2004a) (Figure 3). Furthermore,
using an atipt1;3;5;7 mutant, in which the content of both in an AtIPT3-deficient mutant, the nitrate-dependent accu-
iP-type and tZ-type cytokinins decreased in comparison with mulation of cytokinins was markedly reduced or diminished
wild-type plants (Miyawaki et al. 2006). Wild-type root-stocks (Takei et al. 2004a), indicating that AtIPT3 is a key gene
recovered the tZ-type cytokinins in the mutant shoot-scions for the nitrate-dependent de novo biosynthesis of cytokinins.
56 Journal of Integrative Plant Biology Vol. 52 No. 1 2010
Future Perspectives
Over the past decade, identification and characterization
of cytokinin-related genes has greatly advanced our under-
standing of cytokinin metabolism and signal transduction;
however, to fully elucidate the global signaling system for
Figure 3. A model for long-distance cytokinin transport cytokinins, the following issues need to be resolved. First,
through the plant vascular system. tZ-type and iP-type cytokinins are differentially distributed
in xylem and phloem tissues, implying that they transfer
In the xylem (pale red column) and phloem (pale blue column), tZR
different biological messages. At present, the physiological
and iP-type cytokinins are major transported species, respectively
meaning of side chain structural variation remains to be
(Corbesier et al. 2003; Hirose et al. 2008). Supplying nitrate to
solved. An important approach to answering this question
Arabidopsis roots induces expression of AtIPT3, a cytokinin biosyn-
is to use loss-of-function mutants of CYP735As, in which
thesis gene (Takei et al. 2004a) (indicated by circled red letters),
tZ-type cytokinin is expected to decrease or disappear. In
which subsequently upregulates the translocation of cytokinins (tZR)
addition, further characterization of ligand specificity and
through the xylem (red broken arrow). Cytokinin trans-hydroxylases
functional differentiation of cytokinin receptors will provide
(CYP735A1 and CYP735A2 in Arabidopsis) are involved in the
a basis to address this question. Second, it is now known
synthesis of tZR (Takei et al. 2004b). Xylem cytokinins (tZR) are
that nitrate acts as an environmental variable to control long-
translocated acropetally (red arrow) by the transpiration stream
distance cytokinin transport. However, additional factors are
(cyan arrow). Nitrate ions are also transported via xylem (black
likely to be involved in regulating this transport system. For
arrow) and assimilated into amino acids in the leaves. Phloem
instance, light conditions also affect cytokinin delivery to the
cytokinins (iP) are translocated systemically or basipetally (blue ar-
shoots by changing the transpiration rate (Boonman et al.
rows). Cytokinin biosynthesis and response (purple arrows) occur at
2007). Elucidation of mutual interactions between cytokinin
numerous sites throughout the plant. CK, cytokinin; iP-CK, N 6 -(2 -
delivery and these factors will be necessary in order to full
isopentenyl)adenine-type cytokinins; IPT, adenosine phosphate-
understand the physiological role of long-distance cytokinin
isopentenyltransferase; N, nitrogen; tZ, trans-zeatin; tZR, trans-
translocation for plant growth and development.
zeatin riboside.
Cytokinin Metabolism and Translocation 57
Agricultural Implications
An increase of agricultural food production worldwide over the
past four decades has been associated with a remarkable in-
crease in the use of fertilizers (Hirel et al. 2007). Concomitantly,
this fertilizer usage also caused environmental concerns such
as the eutrophication of freshwater (London 2005) and marine
ecosystems (Beman et al. 2005). Since the world population
is growing, it will be essential over the foreseeable future
that increases in food production be achieved without further
negative impacts on the global environment. To meet this
important requirement, plant scientists will need to advance
our understanding of approaches that can be used to develop
crop plants with enhanced nutrient use efficiency. Plant produc-
tivity can be regulated by two factors: the morphological (e.g.
grain number) and metabolic (e.g. uptake and efficient use of
nutrients) attributes. Cytokinins are closely relevant to both of
these characteristics.
←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
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