Simon Fischer - Practice (Violin) (2004, Edition Peters)

•
by 1mon is ch er
250
step-by-step
practice
methods
for the violin
LONDON • FRANKFURT • LEIPZIG • NEWYORK

Peters Edition Limited
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First published 2004

© 2004 by Hinrichsen Edition, Peters Edition Limited London
2nd impression, 2006
ISBN 1 84367 008 9
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Copyright Acknowledgements
Bart6k: Roumanian Folk Dances (arr. Szekely) Ki·eisler: Sicilienne
©Copyright 1926 by Universal Edition and for the USA by Boosey & Hawkes, ©Copyright 1997 Schott Musik International, Mainz & Carl Fischer Inc.,
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Bloch: Nigun Kreisler: Rigaudon

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Elgar: Chanson de Matin
©Copyright 1899 Novello & Company Limited. Reproduced by permission. Kreisler: Variations on a theme of Corelli
©Copyright 1910 B. Schons Soehne, Mainz. Copyright renewed 1938.
Elgar: Sonata in E minor, op. 82
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Messiaen: Theme et variations
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©Copyright 1921 by Schott & Co, London. Reproduced by permission.
Glazunov: Violin Concerto
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Hubay: Bolero, op. 51 no. 3
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Ki·eisle1·: Caprice Viennois, op. 2
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Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro Sibelius: Violin Concerto in D minor, op. 47

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Introduction VII
Index of music examples 306
General index 332
Part 1 - Fast passages The shorter the string, the nearer the bridge 59
Tempo 1 Bow pressure and pitch 60
Practising very slowly 1 Evenness 61
Practising at performance tempo 2 Bowing on open strings,
Speeding up with the metronome 2 fingering on adjacent strings 61
Fast runs: controlling the speed 3 Equalizing l"'I and V 64

Stopping the finger while continuing
low fingers 4
with the bow 66
Holding down the fourth finger 4
Tone exercise using dynamics 67
Practising extra-close to the string 5
Building up from small amounts of bow 68
Staying close after a shift 6
Sustaining 69
Fast fingers 7
Different qualities of the bow at heel
Blocks 11 and point 69
Co-ordination 14 Pushing the wood of the bow down
towards the hair 70
loops 16
Long, slow, sustained strokes:
Adding one note at a time 21 developing control 71
Groups 24 Balancing double stops: varying the weight 72
Clarity 27 Balancing double stops: tremolo 73
Drop-outs 27 Avoiding an unintentional diminuendo 74
Separate bows - staccato accented legato 32 Angle of the bow to the bridge 76
Playing on open strings 34
Rhythm practice 36 Part 3 - IZey strokes
Accent practice 43 Chords 77
Distance from the bridge 77
Part2-Tone Pivoting 78
Quality 47 Intonation 79
Describing the sound 48 Bow balance and contact 80
Playing a phrase on each soundpoint 48 Isolating specific fingers 81
Building individual notes 52 Joining chords to each other 82
Deepening the tone: pulsing 54 Splitting the chord: bow division 82
Improving listening 56 Placing the fingers in time before the bow 83
Point of contact 57 Non-split chords: sustaining 84
Angle of strings to the floor 57 Detache 86
The higher the string, the nearer the bridge 58 Simple detache: smooth bow changes 86
Simple detache: using slurs as a model 87 Working up or down the bow 1 14
��
Accented detache: proportions 87 Long, slow, sustained strokes:
practising at a slower tempo 1 15
Marte/e 88
Saving bow: exaggeration 1 16
Designing the stroke 88
Using enough bow: exaggeration 1 17
Adjusting the bow hold 88
Catching the string 89 Using enough bow:
gradually speeding up 1 18
Vibrato accents 89
Releasing between strokes 90
Part 4 - Left hand
Staccato 90
Isolating the left hand from the bow 119
Note about rhythm and accent practice 90
Using slurs 1 19
Legato slurs 90
Using double stops 1 22
Using spiccato as a model 91
Playing without the bow 1 22
Saving bow 91
Curved bow strokes 92 Trills 123
String crossings 92 Playing without the trill 1 23
Metronome practice 92 Speed: height of finger 1 23

Speed: direction of movement 1 23
Spiccato 93
Clarity: adding notes one at a time
Legato slurs 93
in tempo 1 24
Height and length 93
Clarity: adding notes one at a time
Amount of hair 94 while pausing 1 25
Soundpoint 94 Using other fingers as models 126
Forearm rotation 95 Timing the rhythm of the turn 1 26
Co-ordination 95 Inaudible change of bow 1 27
Area of bow 96 Sustaining trills while playing another line 1 28
Colle-spiccato 96
Vibrato 128
Sautille 97 The track 1 28
Legato slurs 97 Area of fingertip: pad or tip 129
Taking fingers off the bow 97 Correcting over-wide vibrato 1 30
Based on spiccato 98 Vibrato pulsing 1 30
Curved bow strokes 98 Speeding up with the metronome 1 33
Area of bow 99 Vibrato not as a substitute for tone 1 33
Ricochet 99 Tone not as a substitute for vibrato 1 33
Experimenting with proportions 99 Varying speed and width 1 34
Experimenting with string crossing 1 00 Using another finger as a model 1 35
Legato slurs 1 00 Continuous vibrato:
String crossing 101
holding down fingers 136
Playing close to the new string 101 Continuous vibrato:
dropping and lifting fingers slowly 1 37
Crossing early 1 02
Vibrato accents 1 38
Staying close to both strings in
repeated crossings 1 05 Double stops: isolating fingers 138
'Click' practice 106 Harmonics 139
One action, not two 1 08 Playing fingers separately 1 39
Bow division 110 Double stops: practising individual fingers 1 39
Even, cantabile bowing 1 10 left-hand pizzicato 140
Using less bow when a note is important 1 1 1 Angle of plucking 1 40
Two-thirds - one-third - two-thirds 1 13 Stopping the string 1 40
arpeggios 141 Building the run in groups 191
Note about rhythm and accent practice 141 Using an ordinary fingering as
a model 1 92
Vibrato 1 42
Playing scales as music 1 42
Bowing patterns 1 43 Part 6 - Intonation
Metronome practice 1 44 The feel of the hand and fingers 193
Improvising 1 48 Holding down fingers 1 93
Chromatics: isolating the shift 1 49 Square and extended finger shapes 1 94
Short-cuts: thirds, sixths and Filling in spaces between notes 1 95
fingered octaves 1 50
Practising without rhythm or real tone,
learning notes only 196
Part 5 Shifting
Tone-semitone patterns 1 96
-
Playing the same notes in

The feel of the hand and fingers 153 different positions 200
Memorizing the feel of the position 1 53 Starting a phrase on different keynotes 20 1
Using glissando to measure the shift 156 Playing the same fingerings on
Comparing shifting to a different finger 156 different strings 202
Comparing shifting to adjacent notes 157 Extensions: dividing the distance 203
Semitone shifts with one finger 1 58 Extensions: notes before or after 206
Substitutions 159 Uniform intonation 207
Intermediate notes 160 Testing, relating, comparing 207

Classical shifts 1 60 Tuning scales: three stages 210
Romantic shifts 1 63 Same notes, different octaves 212
Combination shifts 1 65 Sharps and flats 214
Exchange shifts 166 Wide and narrow semitones 214
Ascending shifts: practise three ways 1 69 Fast intonation 215
Position-finding using intermediate notes 170
Isolating individual notes 216
Timing the shift 172 Marking arrows 216
Speed of shift 1 72 Accents 216
Slow arrival speed 172 Playing intervals not notes 217
Taking time from the note Tuning to a piano, then adjusting
before the shift 1 75 sharps and flats 218
Missing out the note before the shift 1 77
Double stops 218
Co-ordination: overlapping with
the previous bow 1 79 Using the 'third tone' as a point
of reference 218
Playing i n one position 181
Using the third tone to tune
lightening the shift 182 single stops 220
Releasing the hand and fingers 1 82 Thirds: naming intervals and
Ghosting 1 82 spacing of fingers 22 1
'Trilling' shifts 1 83 Thirds and fingered octaves:

placing in blocks 222
Isolating t he shift 186
Thirds: using the perfect fourth 223
Harmonics 188
Tuning perfect fifths 224
Shifting to a harmonic 1 88
Playing one string at a time while
Sustaining natural harmonics fingering both strings 225
without the finger 1 89
Leaving fingers down to have time
Chromatic glissando 190 to listen 227
Speed of glissando 190 Tenths: moving from one to another 228
Part 7 - Freedom and ease Hand movements in forearm rotation 266
r
Releasing the left hand 229 Proportions of forearm and upper arm 267
Keeping a space between the Beginning and ending notes 268
thumb and first finger 229 Rapid string-crossing passages:
Rotating the thumb 229 leaning the elbow against the wall 268
Lightening the thumb 230 Forearm rotation on one string 269
Releasing fingers with the base joint localizing actions 270
of the first finger 230
Back and neck 271
Releasing held-down fingers 23 1
Playing without the chin on the chin rest 27 1
Releasing between finger actions 23 1
Placing the chin on the chin rest 27 1
Stop-release 233
Counter-exercising 272
Building up from pp 234
Hip joint 274
Independence: light left hand,
heavy right hand 235
236
Part 8 Further essentials
Using spiccato
-
Non-vibrato 236
ABC practice 275
Finger action 237
Repetition practice 280
Angle and height of knuckles 237
Straight wrist 238 Rhythm 282
Moving fingers from the base joints 239 Singing and tapping subdivided pulse
while playing 282
Placing fingers gently 240
Subdividing 282
Timing the finger and bow for fast playing 245
Bow accents to mark rhythmic groups 284
Widening the hand at the base joints 246
Finger accents as rhythmic aiming-points 285
Basing the hand position on
the upper finger 246 Lifting off at the last possible moment 286
= note value
Extending the reach of the Dotted patterns 287
fourth finger 250 Sound + silence 288
Thirds and fingered octaves 25 1 Playing the rest 288
Releasing the right hand 253 Playing the dot or tie 289
Bow-hold flexibility 253 Mental rehearsal 290
in f passages
Playing without the first finger Memory 292
254
Practising from memory 292
Playing without the first finger:
lifted strokes 254 Aural 292
Balancing with the fourth finger 255 Visual 292
Pulling in with the third finger 255 Tactile 293
Releasing the right arm 256

Intellectual 293
Supporting the wrist in the upper half 256 Looking and thinking ahead 294
Bowing from the elbow 257 Feeling relationships between notes 294
Levering into the string with the elbow 258 Accenting weak-memory notes 295
Spreading the fingers for leverage 259 Playing under tempo,
exaggerating expression 296
Flat or tilted hair 259
Technical basics 297
Active and passive strokes 260
Experimenting with proportions 297
Arm or hand leading string crossing 262
Defaults: building good habits 299
Returning for the next stroke as
part of the last 264 Practising performing 304
Forearm rotation 265 Playing-through practice 304
Repeating the movement 265 Performing a short phrase 305
The music examples in Practice, drawn from the page 207); you might play the passage with slurs
standard solo violin repertoire, illustrate typical instead of separate bows to make sure that the
musical and technical demands that arise during left-hand fingers are even (Using slurs, page 119);
the normal course of playing. you might work on clarity, co-ordination and
What are the practice methods for?
purity of tone by playing only the first note, then
the first two notes, then the first three notes, etc.
Some of the practice methods are ways of improv (Adding one note at a time, page 21).
ing tone, intonation, shifting, vibrato, relaxation, Then you might improve the tone by playing the
and so on. Some are ways of finding out what the phrase at different distances from the bridge
problems actually are. Often we know that some (Playing a phrase on each soundpoint, page 48); then
thing is not quite right, but we do not know what you might decide to work on the bow strokes by
it is or why; or we can get a piece only so far and playing the passage on open strings, without the
then we feel stuck, and do not know what to do left hand (Bowing on open strings, fingering on
next to improve it. adjacent strings, page 61); and so on.
Some of the practice methods are ways of trying Once you are familiar with the five practice
to cause yourself problems, so that afterwards methods outlined above, you might use all of them
what you actually have to do feels easier. Some within the space of just a few minutes. In other
methods build and improve technique at the same words, they become integrated and merged into
time as making a specific passage easier to play, so a general, seamless, intuitive approach to practice.
that each time you practise them your technique
grows or strengthens. Then all other passages of Some methods take longer to do, and can use up
that type take less time to learn because they feel an entire practice session. An advanced player
easier to play in the first place. may spend a whole day practising, say, the last
movement ofthe Tchaikovsky Concerto in rhythms
Making fast progress and accents (Rhythm practice, page 36; Accent
practice, page 43).
Whatever stage you are at in learning a piece, the
One thing improving another
fastest progress comes from being able to look at
a phrase or passage from many different angles.
Then it is much easier to isolate whatever changes One practice method often improves another at
need to be made, either musical or technical. The the same time. After practising a passage using
more ways you have of taking a passage apart and rhythms, accent practice feels easier to control.
putting it back together again, the better. Practice After practising in rhythms and accents, you are
contains a large repertoire of widely varied methods, then starting at a much higher level when you go
and you can quickly move from one to another, on to practise the same passage in other ways, e.g.
improving the phrase or passage with each new by beginning slowly then gradually speeding up
approach. with the metronome (Speeding up with the metro
nome, page 2).
How long do they take?
Most of the practice methods should end up as Combining practice methods
something that you do for a matter of seconds, The different practice methods also become in
even if they take half a page to describe in words, tegrated when you use several at the same time.
and five minutes to do for the first time if the idea Speeding up with the metronome is good to apply
is new to you. For example, once you know how to rhythm or accent practice. At the same time as
to lighten shifts by repeating them up and down tuning a double-stop passage by playing only one
very quickly ('Trilling' shifts, page 183), it becomes line at a time (Playing one string at a time while
something that you do without thinking about it, fingering both strings, page 225), you could also be
as part of the normal flow of practice. placing the fingers with extra lightness (Building
Working on a short phrase of separate-bow six up from pp, page 234), or practising in rhythms,
teenth-notes (semiquavers), you might check the or practising without the thumb on the neck of
intonation by relating each note, one at a time, to the violin (Lightening the thumb, page 230). At the
other notes or fingers (Testing, relating, comparing, same time as improving the tone by making deep,
VII
rounded accents with the bow (Deepening the tone: and fingers remain free from any tension or strain,
pulsing,page 54), you could be playing without so that by the end of playing a symphony or a
vibrato (Vibrato not as a substitute for tone, page concerto they feel as light, balanced and free as
1 33), or practising string crossings by playing they did at the beginning. The practice methods
them as a double stop (Crossing early, page 1 02) . explore how to add thousands of moments of
Doing one thing at a time
release to every phrase and passage, and to base
technique on everyday principles of proportions
Equally, the most effective practice often consists and mechanics. There are also a few key exercises,
of doing one thing at a time, rather than trying to for releasing the back and neck, to use as a part
fix everything all at once. The different methods of daily practice.
and approaches presented in Practice make it easy Part 8 (Further essentials) touches on more
to take just one feature of playing and focus on general areas. Memory (page 292) outlines various
it exclusively. ways to strengthen playing from memory, and
You may decide to work through your entire how to make these a routine part of practice. The
concerto looking only for chances to use more key principles of Mental rehearsal (page 290),
bow (Using enough bow: exaggeration, page 1 17); which form the foundation of everything that we
or concentrate only on keeping the bow near do on the violin, musical as well as technical, are
enough to the bridge (Point of contact, page 57); included here.
or check that you really are balancing the weight Part 8 also includes Technical basics (page 297),
of the bow at every opportunity, rather than a brief summary of some important points of
gripping it (Balancing wi'th the fourth finger, page technique.
255). You may decide to check intonation by going
through the whole piece, thinking only about Enjoying making music
tuning the open-string notes to the open strings,
and tuning all the sharps and flats to the natural The more ways you have of practising, the more
directly above or below (Uniform intonation, page you can combine them to find new, unique,
207) . You might focus on shifting, practising all personal practice routines and methods. Ap
the intermediate notes (Intermediate notes, page proached in this way, practising is an endlessly
1 60), so that afterwards - even if you forget about creative process. It is always stimulating, interest
'shifting' altogether, and just concentrate on the ing and rewarding; you get fast, wide-ranging
music - you have a feeling ofgreat technical security results in the shortest possible time, and achieve
because of the foundation work you have done. the ultimate aim: to be able to make music with
out anything getting in the way.
Improving your playing overall
The great Russian violinist Nathan Milstein was
Part 7 (Freedom and ease) looks at ways to make once asked what he thought about while he was
playing feel easy and effortless. The ideal, achieved playing. 'Nothing, really,' he replied, 'I am just
by many string players, is that the arms, hands trying not to spoil the music!'
Acknowledgements
Preliminary drafts of Practice were shown to a
number of teachers, players and students, and I
am grateful for the many helpful comments I
received. Particular thanks to Enrico Alvares,
Raymond Fischer, Guido de Groote, Kyra Hum
phreys, Peter Lale, and Shirley Turner, for check
ing in detail through several versions of the
manuscript. Shirley's help was also invaluable in
choosing the photographs. Thanks also to Ian
Baird, Walter Carrington, Alice Colby, Dorothy
DeLay, Emanuel Hurwitz, Yfrah Neaman, Maciej
Rakowski, Liz Watson, and many others, whose
suggestions and encouragement for the project
are gratefully acknowledged.
Thanks also to Tim McNally, of Thames Infor
mation Systems Ltd, for keeping my computer
and software up-to-date and functioning.
Finally, I am very grateful to Jennifer King who Jennifer King marking the start of
modelled for the photographs. one of the photo sessions
art
Practising very slowly

Tempo
The legendary teacher Ivan Galamian was once asked which
practice method, out of all the different ways of practising, would
he consider to be the very best if he could choose only one. He replied: 'Playing through at half speed,
because it gives you time to think.' 1 1 See also Playing under
tempo, exaggerating
The benefit that comes from playing through under tempo, with the luxury of plenty of time to plan, expression, page 296;
measure and control the playing, is that when you speed up again there is still a feeling of having plenty Some other ways to use
playing-through practice,
of time. no. 5, page 305.
Exactly how slowly depends on the type of piece or passage. If it is only moderately difficult, a little under
tempo may be enough. If it is of great complexity and difficulty, a quarter the tempo or even slower may
be appropriate. You do not have to keep to one tempo. Play some passages more slowly than others; play
some notes more slowly than others within the same passage or phrase.
As well as phrases or passages, practise bigger sections under tempo as well - even whole movements at
a time.
Example 1 Beethoven: Sonata in F, op. 24 ('Spring'), mov. 3, b. 18
q.
1f
. b_,it
. Ht I t wF
i1 v
ti .
1
F t r [J
v
tcresc.E
v 0
0 0
"t 7·
p
#f'
p
J #
r r f 1f 1f I
4 4
t I t J) "t 1r w
v v
D D
(1) 1 (2)
ar
0 0 0 0
��2
l
"t "t "t "t
(1) Play very slowly, using a long stroke on the string.

(2) Play very slowly, using spiccato.
Example 2 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 111
hLJ #j j d j j Ju! #C f j q= j 11d j d j d j n! t f I J

i1
3
�»# "
cresc. poco a poco
� 3
i1
(1) 2 1
2
dolce sostenuto - - - -
• Practise as in Example 1.
1.
Practising at performance tempo
r Slow practice is a quick way to learn because it gives you time to think. Another way is to play a phrase
or passage over and over again at performance tempo.
'You cannot run before you can walk' may be true, but practising a passage at the speed you want to end
up at can be one of the fastest ways to learn it.
• Practise the phrase or passage at performance tempo, even if you are in the early stages of learning
it, and even if it is a struggle to get through it.
• Listen and note what happens, and decide what to do differently next time, and then repeat.
S peeding u p with the metronome

Gradually speeding up from a slow tempo to a fast one, using a metronome, is an easy and effective way
to build individual phrases or complete passages. You can also use it for playing through entire movements.
• The four main factors of playing are pitch, sound, rhythm and physical ease. Practise at each speed
until:
Every finger falls easily in tune
2 Every note is clean
3 Every note is rhythmically exact
4 The passage feels physically comfortable and easy to play
• Then increase the metronome to the next speed - practise it again until in tune, clean, in time, and
feeling easy - increase the metronome to the next speed, and so on. The ideal is to continue speeding
1 As well as practising at up until you can play a passage faster than you need to play it in performance.1
the speed he wanted to
play at, the Russian violinist
Nathan Milstein always Some different ways t o speed u p with the metronome:
made a point of practising
the fast movements of a 1 Start at a slow, comfortable tempo, and speed up in such small steps that you do not notice the
concerto ten points on the difference. The metronome speeds could be as follows:
.h = 80, 84, 88, 92, 96, etc., then:
metronome faster than he
wished to play them, and
J
the slow movements ten
60, 63, 66, 69, 72, etc., then:
= 60, 63, 66, 69, 72, etc.
points slower. After all, =
J
suppose the conductor
took the orchestra much
faster or slower, in any
particular passage, than 2 10 steps forward, 5 steps back: increase by 10, then decrease by 5, then increase by 10, etc.
Milstein had expected:
Milstein wanted to make J = 60, 70, 65, 75, 70, etc.
sure that he would be able
to play well whatever 3 Start at a medium tempo. Then increase by, say, 5 if you play it very well; decrease by 5 if there is
happened.
any improvement you could make in pitch-sound-rhythm-ease.
4 Alternate slow and fast while gradually increasing the tempo:
.h = 80 J = 80 Ji = 84 J = 84 Ji = 88 J = 88 .h = 92 J = 92 .h = 96 J = 96, etc.
Examples Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Allegro, b. 5
�#I 6 F r t t r r c F r 1J
i1
0 4 0 0
J
-(IJ -fllJ
J
0
p f
Vieuxtemps: Concerto no. 5 in A minor, op. 37, mov. 1, b. 109
A suitable starting tempo for these examples might be Ji = 80. If you cannot play the passage 'perfectly'
at any particular tempo, it does not necessarily mean that you should not go on to the next tempo. It
may be better to continue speeding up, so that when you return to a slower tempo it then feels much
easier at that speed than it did originally, and you can now play it better anyway.
Tempo
Fast ru ns: controlling the speed

Strengthen rhythmic control in fast runs by practising speeding up and slowing down. The more evenly
you can make each accelerando or ritardando, the more under control the passage is. Use the following
patterns:
• Slow-fast-slow
Fast-slow-fast
Fast-slow
Slow-fast
See also Exercise 31, page 67.
Example 1 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 1, b. 1 0
Av 1
c E
1 bp r f f[t w
� Slow aceel. Fast rit. Slow
f _Fast rit. Slow accel. Fast
Fast rit. Slow
Slow aceel. Fast
Example 2 Bruch: Scottish Fantasy, op. 46, mov. 1 b. 37
Slow aceel. Fast rit. Slow

Fast rit. Slow accel. Fast
Fast rit. Slow
Slow accel. Fast
Example 3 Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. 1, b. 40
Slow aceel. Fast rit. Slow

Fast rit. Slow accel. Fast
Fast rit. Slow
Slow accel. Fast
Example 4 Chausson: Poeme, op. 25, b. 151

+
This practice method can also be used where the note values are not all the same.
• Start at any of the points marked '+', playing the speed variations from there to the end of the bar.
Fast passages
, Low fingers
Keeping the fingers near to the string is good not only for fast
LOW
r
passages, but as a general rule throughout most playing. The easiest
finger action comes when the fingers 'hover' above the strings, ready
to fall directly onto their notes (Fig. l a) . Lifting and dropping the finger then uses far less energy than
when it moves several centimetres above and/or away from the string (Fig. lb).
The fingers can be likened to helicopters, or vertical take-off planes, which hover above the landing-pad
before landing, as opposed to ordinary aircraft which approach the runway from afar.
Fig. 1
(a) Fingers ready to fall onto their notes (b) Fingers raised too high and too far back
Holding down the fourth finger

Depending on the shape of the phrase, it is sometimes possible to hold the fourth finger down on an
adjacent string while playing the other fingers. This may feel awkward, and you may have to play slowly,
but holding down the fourth finger stops the others from lifting too far from the string. Afterwards,
playing normally without holding down the fourth finger, it will feel much easier to keep the fingers close
to the string.
• Playing on the E string, hold the fourth down on the A. On the G string, hold the fourth down on the D.
• On the middle strings, you can hold the fourth finger down on an upper or lower string, but the
greatest benefit comes from holding it down on the lower string.
Example 1 Beriot: Scene de Ballet, op. 100, b. 70
&1 fffff f f
1 r rttr r r f r r r r r rqr r r 1 #F f f r�r r r D
2,.,.-.._ > > 2
i1
v
�
6 6 6 6
• Play double stops, or hold the fourth finger down silently and play only the upper line:
i1�
,,t- 3]. 3:.�

4 4 4
J
3
J J
IJ1
1 1 �
3 3 3 3
J,
qE§i qu f Ii:1 :
3 1 1
r
3
.
' ��
Example 3 Schumann: Sonata in A minor, op. 1 05, mov. 2, b. 8
E
v
, 0 >
Low fingers
In this example the held-down finger is written as an x-note:
Practising extra-dose to the stri ng

• Practising by exaggeration, play with such low fingers that they barely clear the strings at all when
they lift. This should cause many impurities in the tone, but afterwards lifting the fingers only a little
further will seem very easy and natural.
' �H## £
Example 1 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 3, b. 81
::� g� = J� r E F r [ F r r I f L r E F [ F
� r#J J J J J J � I $2
4 o 1
= "'
H ff � � c=
-
;I
J
• Begin at a slow tempo with very low fingers. Gradually increase the tempo without lifting any higher:
After the C# move the fourth
straight across to hover just
above the G string
�
'--' 2 :J.,_j
3 4 1 2 3 4 '
/' After lifting the Almost touch the string
Almost touch the string with the third fourth keep it a lmost with the third while
and fourth fingers while playing the B touching the A string playing the D#
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K219, mov. 1, b. 49
f
2
r f�
v
'till# r"':
1
r I :F] J.
0
r t rt r
4
F
v
tf?f r r
----..
0
ll
Barely clear the Position the third

string when you a lmost touching the Barely clear Position the fourth
lift the second string before dropping the string when almost touching the
3
&tt11# 1/
�v �
Very slow �
r
you lift the third string before dropping
t r F�F
1
t t f? r
0 3� 4
r
�
0
r 1:F1 J.
v
tf?f f
Barely clear the string
'
Barely clear the string
when you lift the third when you lift the fourth
Example 3 Brahms: Sonata no. I in G, op . 78, mov. 1, b. 3

v 2
v
2
i1
1 4 2
Almost touch the string with Almost touch the string with Keep the fourth close to
the third while playing the E the third while playing the F# the string while playing the G#
Fast nassa!les 5'

Low fingers
Staying dose after a shift
Be particularly careful to keep the fingers close to the string after an ascending shift (Fig. 2a), rather
than raising them upwards and outwards from the string (Fig. 2b) .
e During the shift arrange the fingers into their correct spacing for the notes that immediately follow
the shift.
e Arrive on the shifted-to note with the other fingers already hovering above their notes.
Example 1 Rode: Concerto no. 7 in A minor, op. 9, mov. 1, b. 98
""
Position the third and fourth directly a bove
�
their notes, almost touching the string
4! 4 4
"" g
Slow shift, arriving on the B
1 1 4
�-
Slow shift, arriving on the Dtt
in the same shape as (2)
.ijt .i ii_ x
in the same shape as (1)
3
"-
3
(3)
ti1±# 1111 Q »c r r F r f f£
( 1) (2) Ii
1 II
e
�
�
I
tt_ tt
r
1 #
1 ..0. = =
(1) Pause on the first finger B (marked '+' in the example above) . During the pause, arrange the third
and fourth fingers so that they are just above the string over their respective notes (Fig. 2a) .
(2) Do the same while pausing on the D# ('++') . Positioning the third and fourth fingers just above the
string, aim 'low' with the third finger to avoid its being pulled up too high by the following extended
1 See Extensions: notes fourth finger. 1
before and after, page 206
(3) Pause on the note before the shift. Shift slowly to the B or D#, changing the shape of the fingers
during the shift so that you arrive in the same shape as (1).
Fig. 2
(a) The fingers are ready just above their respective ( b ) T h e fingers have too f a r t o travel t o reach t h e
notes string
Example 2 Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy, op. 25, Introduction, b. 49
"" 4* 4
0 0
Position the second, third and fourth directly Slow shift, arriving on the
above their notes, almost touching the string F in the same shape as (1)
trrml
1 32 jt
- ..o. _
I;;�
(1)
�b -
e Practise as in Example 1.
Fast fingers
'Fast fingers' is one of the most important elements of technique.
fi It refers to the speed of dropping or raising fingers, not the speed
of the passage. You can use fast fingers in slow passages.
The faster the finger drops onto the string or raises from it, the later the dropping or raising must begin.
The later the finger drops or raises, the longer the time between each finger action.
The longer the time between each action, the slower the passage feels.
• Play through any moderate-to-fast phrase, passage or section at a very slow tempo, while dropping
and lifting the fingers very fast.
• Wait until the last possible moment before moving each finger - keep the finger still for so long that
waiting just another instant would cause the note to be late; then lift or drop extremely fast.
Example 1 Vivaldi: Concerto in G minor, op. 12 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 41
• Play very slowly, sustaining the tone f so that the string vibrates widely. The wider the string swings
from side to side, the faster the finger must drop and lift.
• Listen to the 'ping' as the fingers drop onto, or lift from, the string. 1 1 Producing a 'ping' with
the left fingers, while not
Lift the
�bl' r f � r� r f r r 11
Lift the used in deice or legato
Drop fast Drop fast third fast second fast
passages, is also one of
--....... ,,----...._ - ......._
the keys to clarity, articula
tion and precision.
I
2 There are two things ne
f 1 cessary to produce a ping:
3 \i 3,/
Play with a ringing tone
Drop fast Lift fast
(mp to f.f), the string
vibrating widely and
evenly.
2 Lift and drop the fingers
2 2
very fast. They need to be
---- --- fast (rather than heavy) so
that the string changes
from one length to
another as quickly as
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1, b. 47 possible. See Placing
fingers gently, page 240.
• Practise as in Example 1:
\i \i ,/
Drop fast Drop fast Lift fourth finger
* u111 ! f f r 19F r r r
very fast
r r r
��
2 ------
1r
( 1)
f sostenuto
• Use fast spiccato or sautille as a further practice method to gain the feeling of moving the fingers fast,
at the last possible moment. The fingers have to lift and drop very fast to co-ordinate with the bow:
2
:�tt11 i I i t Ii t I i II i t I
b
1 1
simile
Fast fingers
r �e e�r ��
rr e 1r f r r t
4
I f 1r
3
Di
When practising 'slow tempo fast fingers' place prepared fingers on the string as normal, without undue
1 see Placing fingers gently, speed or impact. Fingers played with separate bows should be 'placed' fast rather than 'dropped' fast.1
page 240
• Play very slowly, sustaining the tone f.

• Lift and drop the fingers with exaggerated speed, listening to the 'ping' with each drop and lift-off
when playing slurred notes. Begin the movement towards or away from the string at the last possible
moment, a fraction of a second before the bow moves.
• Raise, drop or place all the other fingers very fast.
Lift the
Prepare Lift the Place fast fourth fast Lift the
�tif
Drop fast Drop fast fourth fast second fast
�
� � ,/
i1
x r
�
tTf r
�
Ut * f * f
�
�,/ � ,/
*
2 2 2
+=
- �
f /' /' /'

Place fast Lift the Lift the
third fast third fast
• Fast spiccato or sautille:
tttttttt1ttttttttttttttttl f f i
i1 2
simile
Example 4 Handel: Sonata in D, op. 1 no. 13, 2, b. 30
oo �·fofo �3
mov.
I g f r; r F r r tf Ft r r I f F
2
4 + + +
• Place the fingers marked '+' on the string gently,

• Raise or place all the other fingers very fast, at the last possible moment.
Place fast
r
Place fast Place fast �
#r
Place fast Place fast Place fast
r J F r r
2
r F
� � � �
f r
4 3 2 0 0 0
)(
0
/' ' ' ' '
Prepare Lift the Lift the Lift the Lift the
fourth fast fourth fast third fast third fast
err�errerrrrrrrrtttttttt''ttrrrrrerrrrrr
i1
2 4
etc.
Fast fingers
Example 5 Chausson: Poerne, op. 25, b. 177
3 3
Place first and third fingers, Drop (first and third

Lift second and
\i
then lift second and fingers) and lift
\i \i
fourth very fast
2
-----.___
V fourth very fast (fourth finger) very fast
�
-&�l'I, 8 4r ttttr 1f_tif_l 1qr M�r qr
4
4r 1 ��-
f sostenuto 7' 3 ��- etc.
Drop (fourth finger) and lift
(first finger) very fast
�
Ii
$�1'!il 4tteteteh�!Cftftfiii r r r re r r Ii tttt; ) I) tttt; )

4
simile etc.
Example 6 Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 2 1 , b. 155
3 3 3 3 3 0 '--/ j J JJJJ J
'--/
::::=- '--/
poco piu meno ====-
The dropping action should generally be fast (unless playing a specific dolce), but because the lift-off
action is pulling against a resistance it should feelfasterto equalize the two actions of lifting and dropping.
• While pausing on each lower note, touch the string and lift off again as quickly as if touching something
very hot:
Drop and lift
the fourth finger
very fast
,/
&�:f ffi ea hr
/':'.
simile
• Then play the passage as written, feeling the same fast drop and lift-off.
simile
1rTr m � 11@ @ � I J)
1
1 2--" 0
9
,. Fast fingers
Example 8 Vivaldi: Summer (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 2, mov. 3, b. 48
v
Y'�HFFe�r 1qfffHrcrcr Er l[�E c r F r r

4
r
IF
r
restez
r ��m
Fast lift-off, at the last possible moment, is often helpful in building good co-ordination:
Place the third finger, then
lift the fourth very fast
Very slow v ,/
Jf Ht Ff 1qHfitrr;rr rf 1 c�c r; Erg� n w;o 1 f

4 3
• Play at a very slow tempo. At each '+' lift the preceding finger off the string with exaggerated speed,
at the last possible moment before the bow moves.
Pull the finger back from the base joint so quickly that you almost cannot see it move - one moment
the finger is on the string, the next moment it is exaggeratedly far away from the string.
Move each finger 'back', i.e. a movement to the right, rather than 'up'. Keep the shape of the finger the
same when lifted from the string as it was when on the string. See Figs. 3a and 3b.
Fig. 3
(a) The finger exaggeratedly p ulled back for practice (b) Do not allow the finger to straighten l ike this as it
purposes lifts off the string
Example 9 Faure: Sonata in A, op. 13, mov. 3, b. 4
It t F r IC r t t iv �
> >
It t tr
It is often most helpful to practise separate-bow passages first with slurs.
• Play at a very slow tempo with fast fingers, listening to the 'ping' with every lift-off:
Lift the Lift the Lift the
....,.
fourth fast second fast
....,. ....,.
third fast Lift the Lift the
,�I� f n r 1r r
� ....,.
third fast second fast
� ....,.
4
�
IF
�
f /I
Sustain the bow solidly
r r r F Fflr
during the lift-off
Blocks
Playing slurred notes at a slow tempo, you can raise Fig. 4

and drop each finger as an individually directed
action. As the playing gets faster, at some point a
speed limit is reached making it more difficult to
direct each finger individually.
To play faster, raise or drop groups of fingers
together, in a fan-like shape (Fig. 4) . The fingers all
move at the same time in one single action, but they
touch or leave the string one after another. In most
cases you need a combination of individual finger
actions and blocks; in the very fastest playing you can
use blocks almost exclusively. The fingers ready to drop together as one action
Example 1 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 1, b. 298
Ascending
• First clarify the tone-semitone pattern of the fingers by dropping them onto the string together. This
is like playing a double or triple stop on one string, so that the upper finger is the only one you actually
sound, the lower fingers on the string remaining silent. Drop the fingers together as one action.
e Begin slowly, and gradually speed up:
3
2
1
• Then, before dropping the fingers, 'hover' the fingers above the string. Arrange the tips so that the
lowest finger is closest to the string, the highest finger furthest from the string (Fig. 4) .
• Drop them together as before, one action bringing both or all the fingers towards the string at the
same time. Because the lower finger starts off nearer the string than the upper finger, it contacts the
string an instant before the upper finger and the two notes sound very fast:
�MH J <#�) !#p

'Hover' in the air
3
A
close to the string 2
Dp D
� 3 3
2 1
J�
0
JJ
2 0 0
( -..- )
�
Drop two fingers Drop three fingers
with one action with one action
Descending
• Before lifting the fingers, arrange them all on the string in their correct tone-semitone patterns.
• Lift the fingers off the string together as one action.
• Lift the fingers at a slight angle so that the upper fingers leave the string a fraction before the
lower fingers.
Lift three fingers

with one action 3
� 2
1 0
�
Lift four fingers with one action
Fast nassages 11
Blocks
Exmnple 2 Tchaikovsky; Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 99
v v
r >
t
r
7
mf cresc.
� �
Lower finger 4 3
i
f1
silent ">I 2
i
Y--;;
3
� tt# @ E21' tt� � I

0
Example 3 Vivaldi; Autumn (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 41
• Arrange the fingers on the string, in tune, before lifting them all off at once with one action:
�tly
Lift three fingers
---�
Place sil with one action
Bar 4 1
4 r;r=m-
;; 0
- � _m_)_
1 -�
Lift two fingers
Bar 42 Place silently with one action
IJ:j J�
3 3
, �,
2 0 2
J
1 1
( .... )
Example 4 J. S. Bach; Concerto no. 2 in E, BWV1 042 mov. 1, b. 12
�
Lower finger Drop two fingers
4ttb r ·
silent with one action
">I 4 ">I
� �
3
p t?f c Ip c Ip I
3
II r · v t
v 1 v 1
Example 5 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. 2 in E, BWV1 0 4 2 mov. 3, b. 113
Lower finger Drop two fingers

silent 3 with one action
YJr:
'#b 0: a f1 (� 1 (§9 gr (1
3
E J1iP-
3 2
I
1 2 1 v ">I
1
2
Blocks
It is often helpful, and sometimes necessary, to stop the bow on the string before placing the next block or
finger.
e At each '!! ' stop the bow on the string; place the next fingers; then continue:
Lift the first finger a fraction Lift three

of a second after the fingers with
bow begins to move one action
� �1" F /7 0 /7 ...) �
\;. V
(•)��
\;.
u
,,
/'
Place silently
0 /7 .I'---.:'. /7 " , ( i!!!S ) ,, (4ii" ) EJ0 (°4)��"---:"'J
·�
,,
/7
Example 7 Wieniawski: Scherzo-Tarantelle, op. 1 6, b. 40
Lower finger silent

\;.
�Pb£t71 If f
�
2 1 3
2
ft IJ 1" i i30 I g:
Drop two fingers
with one action \;.
$�bi(71\ lff CJ I@ I;
Example 8 Chausson: Poeme, op. 25, b. 1 76
mf
Lower finger silent

\;. 3
i1�2
i
Drop two fingers
with one action
\;.
i
Fast passages 1 3.
Co-ord i nation
Good co-ordination means that the finger completely stops the
string before the bow moves, i.e. the left fingers lead and the bow
follows,
When co-ordination is not good it means that the finger is a fraction of a second late, fully stopping the
string only after the bow has already begun to move. Because the finger is not stopping the string
completely, the note begins with 'fuzz' and lacks clarity.
• Improve co-ordination by placing the fingers a fraction of a second too early, before the bow has
finished playing the previous note. This is called 'overlapping' .
After practising overlapping for only a short time, when you play the passage again normally, you will
1See also Co-ordination: notice a dramatic improvement in co-ordination. 1
overlapping with the
previous bow, page 1 79
Example 1 Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Allegro, b. 3
• Play the same length of stroke, and in the same part of the bow, as in the passage itself. Keep the bow
firmly sustained in the string.
tfj � rf @
• Begin with a clear, solid extra note caused by dropping the finger 'too early':
0 4
�"a w � n n ra 1 0 0 0 @ 1 c c:1
'----' '-...__./ � ._____,, 4 0
/'
Very smooth, sustained slurs
• Then gradually shorten the extra note until it is only a fraction of a second early - the same degree
early as the finger would be late if the co-ordination were poor:
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 1 6, mov. 1, b. 1 06
This method of placing the fingers slightly too early works just as well with mixed bowings of slurred
and separate notes.
• Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible:
14 Fast oassages
Co-ord ination
Example 4 Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, mov. 1, b. 86
Example 5 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. 2 in E, BWV1 042, nwv. 1, b. 53
,H11"1 1 o tl±J a 00ft 1 aL2JJ a 0nr: 1

i1
$tt " ,-.� ,.�1ffi.f- f' � ,.A-F�

Example 6 Vivaldi: Concerto in G minor, op. 1 2 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 7
Overlapping is a general cure-all for poor co-ordination, and is equally effective when the passage is not
so fast.
Fast passages 15
Loops
Play groups of notes forwards and backwards, making 'loops' that
are played round and round in a circle. An extremely powerful
method, this is one of the quickest ways to gain control and fluency.
There can be three notes in a loop or as many as seven or more. For example, playing in groups of five
notes:
• Play the first five notes in their correct order and then play backwards, in reverse order, to the beginning
again. In other words play notes 1-2-3-4-5, followed by 4-3-2.
• Repeat continuously, learning how to play the loop in tune, with an even tone, even rhythm, and with
ease.
• Then do the same beginning on the second note of the passage, and so on to the end.
Example 1 Tchaikovsky: Three pieces, op. 42, Meditation, b. 53
7
F I
• Three notes forward, one note back:
�
Repeat many times
Ir F C r I
2
1f �
f t f I
1 see 'Trilling ' shifts, • Because the loops both ascend and descend, 'trilling' the shifts is a particularly appropriate and
page 1 83
effective exercise to do at the same time: 1
1 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
Repeat many times
• Four notes forward, two notes back:
16 Fast nassa!Ies
Loops
• Five notes forward, three notes back:
£JmJJJ J ;JeJ J. IJ
Ii Ii rit.
fr;-- v 3 v
> >
1
2 '---' 1
sul G
Practising separate-bow passages in loops, use long slurs as well as separate bows. 1 1 See Using slurs,
page 1 1 9.
Repeat many times
v Ii v
2 2
1
simile
�ij
t �J #J �1 � j �2 I #] �1 � � �2 � I� � �1 � j �2 I� �� I
v 6 Ii 6 v 6 Ii 6
2 2 2
1
simile
�� I 11: .:�; #� � � � � � � ; � � � � � � : ii
Ill Five notes forward, three notes back:
Ii
2 1 2 2 1 2
� � �j #J J J j J J j l #J J J � �=-� J j I
v
1 2 1 2 2
Ii
2 2
v
�� J J� � � J j2 I
simile
Fast passages 17
Loops
Example 3 Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 2 1 , mov. 1, b. 37
ff
• Miss out any groups of notes that do not need loop practice, i.e. playing the loop feels so easy that
there is no point in practising it. In this example any group which does not include a shift has been
omitted.
�bI 1 :
J j J j J J :J j j J :J j
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
�---
Repeat many times
�b j J j J
1
�
1
simile
r
I 1 E f1
�
r
2
1 �
F f L 1
2
1 fW l fTI1 2 2
I
� � II:j
t j j :J J J j J j :J J J j J J :J
6 6 6 6
1 1 1 1 1
0
3 1 2 2 2 1
�
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
� "
�� 1 � 1 0J11 @�W11 1
� jf@ fu b� {rfffftc r1Eifih11

simile
1
f 2
II 1 1 2
II 2 1
II 1 1 2
3
18 Fast oassages
Loops
e 'Trill' the shifts:
Example 4 Beethoven: Concerto in D, op. 6 1 , mov. 3, b. 137
Practising in loops can also be helpful for learning bowing patterns.

n n
0 0 .
Repeat many times
n V
J j �j J j J j I
�
0 1
�
J0 J . 1 �
�
2 0 0
J
[ j [ ;z I
J;�
v
F [ F
v
0� d
• Practise loops in rhythms and accents, for example:1 1 See Rhythm practice,
page 36; Accent practice,
page 43
0
n
>
0
Fast passages 19
Loops
-�=-====== f
• Three notes forward, one note back. First play all slurred, and then play the separate or mixed bowings:
Il
i1
411# 1 11 , ft ft f H r ftH ftft ft f tf £H frfrfrf r11

3 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Repeat many times
4 1111 1 11 J r f f f r e r f f f r f r f f f r f r f f f r:, 11
i1
. 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
6 6 6 6
#3 #3 #3
I I I
Ii3
t f f f f f f f f t ff f f t f t F t t f �q� f 1 t � � f �qf I
v v 1
v i1 1 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 2
4 "#
simile 6
�#� r
n #� #ey # 0 qf' FF f11Fff FF F#�I 11f FF i Ff I
i1
I I
i1 2 V 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 3
i1
fj f
1 1 2 2 2 2
' 1111
4 1111 1 11 ,f r f f f f f r f r f f f f f r11
Ii
· 20 Fast oassages
Adding one note at a time
Adding one note at a time gives you the opportunity to consider
each note individually. As well as being very good for building
passages up technically, it is also helpful for quick memorization.
e In each of the following examples, use the same amount of bow (in the same place in the bow) as in
the passage itself.
• Play with musical feeling, rather than only mechanically.
Example 1 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 1, b. 152
• Working up from the beginning, accent and lengthen each final note:
etc.
• Working down from the end:

�
I f3
Ii
1 W3 2 3 3 I
2 1 3 3 2 1 3 I
'
& �li � 1 f Ii
1 1 1 3 1 F
4
r r
1 3 I
etc.
• You can also use other notes as points to work up to, or to work down from:
� �12 � I �� 1 g0 z7 � � 1 E3 z£ � �1 I
Ii
2 0
r etc.
�[ �
� �12 �1 �
1 r 1r I r1 i1r # I �
r
r1 tic
Ir #f f i1r #r r
etc.
�
1 rm rml
�
� �b � I � � I � � � 1
Ii
1 etc.
21
Example 2 Beethoven: Romanze in F, op. 50, b. 28
4� �
• Working down from the beginning, accent each final note:
4 � Ii3 v4 � 3 1 v4 � 3 1
v v
f Wfii t
� � t U11 t [ fi 1 t f Et tr I
2
4�
v
• Working up from the end:
• Working up from after the shift:

3 4
:�
v
3
�� j I� � �r r
Ii Ii
f I£
e
II
Ii
Example 3 Dvorak: Romance, op. 1 1 , b. 81

+
5 cresc. �====== !P
Remember to use the same stroke, in the same part of the bow, as when playing the passage normally.
In this case, the notes marked with dots are played with barely separated, short detache strokes on the
string.
11 Working down from the end:
Example 4 Bloch: Nigun (no. 2 from 'Baal Shem'), b. 35
tfB 1 f r�,
Sva - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 + Sva - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1
v
31
[ t

v v
' j 1 i1 i l blt JiE1 i 1i#iE1 i 1 irill1 i 1 &rffi1 i I

2 6
• Working up from the beginning, accent each final note:
'
v Ii
�#11 i 1 W 1 qfl 1 W 1 'f qfF 1 i 1 'h qfF 1 i 1 fnwff 1 W 1

� 1
Fast oassages 23
Groups
Playing at slower speeds you can direct each note with an individual
rou ps mental command. As the playing gets faster, at some point you reach
a speed limit where it is impossible to direct each action individually.
To play faster, combine groups of notes into one unit, with all the notes in that unit played together
under one mental command, The number of notes, or the type of note-pattern, depends on the specific
1 The exa mples shown are passage. In general, the faster the passage, the larger the group of notes seemingly under one command. 1
all of fast passages, but the
same principle of playing
two or more notes with Slow speeds: One note = one unit = one mental command
'one command' naturally
applies throughout almost
Fast speeds: Two or more notes = one unit = one mental command
all playing, and is one of
the single most important • Practise in beat groups, with a short pause between each.
aspects of technique and
music making. It is like • Feel each group of notes as 'one action', made with one mental command.
speaking fluently in
phrases and sentences, o Gradually speed up using a metronome. Begin at a moderate speed and increase to as fast a tempo
with stresses on particular as possible.
syllables or words, as
opposed to pronouncing
each syllable or word one
at a time.
Practising in groups is
also a g reat aid to
memorization.
4
p3 · t 2. 1 . 2 1 2 1
i1
&u a f e t , fHt 1 : II f t 1 f t t f11 t t#t t 1 £ f ttt #t 1

i1
Repeat many times simile
o Repeat each group many times so that the actions of playing the individual notes merge into one.
Finally, instead of many individual actions, it feels as if one single action plays all the notes of the
group together.
Example 2 Vivaldi: Winter (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 4, mov. 1, b. 26

2
o Begin with groups of four notes:
&j1i1.�1 11 hf c r y
i1
o Then build groups of eight notes, all of which can be played as 'one action', under one mental command:
' b1\b I II: r �ir r f r f �ir

1 0 0
t F �15
1 0
r f r f �15 r t
0
i1 i1
F Repeat many times

:1
2
24
Groups
Example 3 Paganini: Mota perpetuo, op. 1 1 , b. 1
II: r F E r r F [ r I p r O' tJ j] rE F r f f r r I r F E r U c; �
staccato
dolce
Carry on over to the first note of the next group to build greater continuity.
e First play in groups of four notes, adding the first note of the next group.
e Repeat each group until the notes merge into one action:
• Then play in groups of eight notes, adding the first note of the next group:
� 1 11 ,F rr n: G[ H P 1 : 1 r re j ;J H p P
Repeat many times
. 1 1
simile
� r EFEf F E r �1 y 1 r r r r c r r; � 1 y
I
E±
-;,- . 4
Ir t t t t r I
.
2 leggiero
G
-
f �J U �; J J I J J J PO 0 I J Q J 4 # 4 I J 4 J � J � I J
3
2 . .
. •
.
• First play groups of three notes, adding the first note of the next group. Repeat each group until the
notes merge into one action.
• Then play groups of six notes, adding the first note of the next group.
Example 5 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, 1, b. 78

4
mov.
• Practising with accents is a simple way to get the feeling of groups of notes played under one mental
command. In this example aim for only four 'commands' rather than as many as sixteen:
1> �1 1� €
4
>
4
Hr H kr E f t: r F r 1 r
Ii
fa fa fa fa
fa
• Then repeat without accents, but with the same feeling of each group of notes needing only one
command.
Groups
Example 6 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 1 9, mov. 1, b. 108
2 0
�
• Otherwise playing in tempo, pause slightly between each group:
t #f=
2
11
Ii
2 2�
v
F f t F
�
ffft ffff
v
!
Ii
f
�
�I# c
Y:;
� 151 // 151 /tj/
• In a typical Mozart pattern like this (two slurred, two separate), the third and fourth notes of each
beat are like an up-beat to the next slurred notes. Therefore you could also practise the groups as
follows:
¢ #$ ff
2
Ii
t1
2 2
Ii v
f t iW
2
tj f f
Ii v
�
�#11#
Y:;
r
tE
•
J,@- 157 _J
157 /jl 151
Example 7 Vieuxtemps: Concerto no. 5 in A minor, op. 37, mov. 1, b. 111
2
•
'---""" i
' ' I
In staccato runs it is especially important to reduce the number of 'commands' by thinking in bigger
groups, i.e. one command for four notes instead of four commands. Then there is a feeling of the staccato
'playing itself ', yet with you remaining in control of it. This is also a good way to break the run down
into smaller sections for more concentrated practice on each part of the run.
• Play each group in the same part of the bow as it would be in the run.
• Practise in groups of four notes, adding the first note of the next group:
• Then put the run together, adding one group at a time. Work up from the beginning of the run:
• Also work down from the end of the run in groups of four:
1 1 1 2 3 4 0 1 etc.
Clarity
Every note in a fast passage must be clear. Clarity is more important
Cla rity than sheer speed, since fast passages usually sound more brilliant
when played a fraction more slowly - but with every note clear -
than when played a little faster but with some of the notes not clear.
D ro p-outs
Notes that 'drop out' are notes which, in a group of notes that should be even, are played shorter and/or
more quietly than the surrounding notes. The most common notes to drop out are:
The note before or after a change of position (Examples 1, 3, 8)
2 The note before or after a change of string (Examples 2, 4, 5, 9, 10)
3 The note before or after a change of bow (Examples 3, 4, 5, 7)
1 See Placing fingers gently,
4 Prepared fingers1 (Examples 6, 8)
page 240
5 Fingers lifted too early2 (Examples 11, 12) 2 See Lifting off at the last
possible moment, page 286
• Equalize notes that drop out by playing them longer and louder than the surrounding notes. 3 3 As with any purely techni
cal p ractice method it is
worth remembering that
Example 1 Bloch: Nigun (no. 2 from 'Baal Shem'), b. 22 ( 1 ) if you know exactly
what you want musically
without overlooking a
single note, and (2) if you
listen, then such a thing as
a note dropping out will
occur less often in the fi rst
place.
ad lib. Nevertheless, some notes

need more technical
strengthening than others.
scale comes out as follows (x-notes = the note barely sounding) :

• Suppose you notice that you cannot really hear the notes before the shifts (marked '+' above), i.e. the
14
f pp f pp f
• Practise by performing the opposite; play the drop-outs longer and louder. Play the other notes up to
tempo:
14 sf
f sf
31
1
3 4
+ 0
�
f IL f f
.
>
v 0 �
"t
r 3f J
(1)
� tt !� I'
!":'.
f I� f3 f I � I
v 0 v sf 0
r 3f r
"t "t
(1) The string crossing may make the middle note of the triplet weak, making the triplet come out as
strong-weak-strong. The middle note may be weakened further if the third finger is not ready on the
string in time before the bow. The x-notes represent the notes barely sounding.
(2) Practise playing the middle note longer and louder than the outer notes.
Exaniple 3 Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in G minor, op. 1 08, mov. 4, b. 9
ef
3 0
The notes before or after the shifts must be given their full musical value to avoid the passage coming
out as follows (x-notes = the note barely sounding) :
• Practise:
ef ef
Exaniple 4 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 1, b. 105
J bJ 1 JJJ
v�
JJJ
i1 �
b _J_
3
; _J_
' j ¢ 1,:
,,,-___
2
r 'F1 I r1
I
- - -
f 'P CL!
0 3
CL!
0 0
CL!
0
The third note of each triplet, since it occurs before a change of bow and wide string crossing, must be
given its full musical value to avoid the passage coming out as follows:
m D- "! bn "! D "!

i1 V,----._
''
3 ,----.. ,----.. ,----..
' tt «I' f:3

2
r F I f I F
- "!
f
L__ 3 _J CL! 1
'P 0 3 L__ 3 _J 0 CL! 1 CL!
L__ 3 _J 0 L__ 3 _J CL!
2
0
• Practise:
& ti
fi
3
2
1e
f, 'P CL!
0 3
1 'P CL!
0
1 'P CL!
0
2 'P CL!
0
Clarity
Ex ample 5 Beriot: Concerto no. 9 in A minor, op. 104, mov. 1, b. 62
The second note of each triplet must be given its full musical value to avoid the passage coming out
as follows:
. .
v I'- I'-
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
e Practise :
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
sf sf sf sf sf sf sf
Exmnple 6 Vivaldi: Summer (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 2, mov. 3, b. 116
Except for the open strings, the second note of these slurs is a prepared finger. It will tend to drop out
if the finger is not ready on the string before the higher finger lifts off.
• Practise:
4 0
I]
> >
• Also practise under one or two slurs:
Example 7 Vivaldi: Autumn (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 87
f t f r j
�
IJ
The last note of a run should be played 'well' so that it becomes a platform on which the top note
can sit.
f r
II
f f
(1) The note before a change of bow may easily drop out (x-note = the E barely sounding) .
(2 ) Build the last note of the run by playing it extra-long and with extra tone.
Clarity
Example 8 Paganini: La Campanella, op. 7, b. 105
2
4 40 2
4� R '
2
lJ Ii
o
2
3
Fr � If
Ii
r f
0
1
t=r
r
(1 )
[
2
2 1
an
/':'\
4 111 2
4 2
3
e
If
1
E �
Ii
f
0
J
-
r r I
(2)
sf
(1 ) Thedouble-stopped first finger (marked '+' in the Example) is both a prepared finger and the note
before the shift. It may easily drop out completely if it is not ready on the string before the bow.
(2) Practise by accenting and sustaining the up-bow.
� ��t
1 See co-ordination, page 1 4 (3) As well as pausing and accenting, put the finger down early.1 Start slowly, and gradually speed up:
2 2 2
2 1
4 '1 v
Ii
J 11 £
(3) 4 1
r
4� 4 2
3
r t fl ef
'
f1 f 1 II
Ii
Example 9 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 30, b. 11
b�
+
E F r r r F
b� �
r r r r
(1)
II
f f
b� �
(2) E c E F II
(1 ) TheB� (marked '+' in the example) is often lost altogether, partly because in this phrase the A string
is an easily-missed middle string between the D and the E strings; partly because psychologically the
player is looking ahead to gripping the E string with the bow to play the staccato fourth note.
(2) Practise by accenting and sustaining the A string.
30 Fast nassa!les
Clarity
Example 10 J . S . Bach: Partita no. 3 in E , BWV1006, Preludio, b. 119
0
E f f t.. f [ F r �ff[f r f
4
1
p
f p f p f
(1) The middle string of each slur must be given its full musical value to avoid the note dropping out.
(2) Sink the bow deeply into the middle string of the slur.
Example 11 Hubay: Bolero, op. 5 1 no. 3, b. 49
�
If the notes marked '+' are lifted too early:1
� I C 1F H I FfMt kp, l j@Jj@ 8f¥ 1 @tJ)

1 See also Lifting off at
the fast possible moment,
3
Ii
,..----._ 2 2
page 286
• Practise:
Example 12 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1, b. 59
If the notes marked '+' are lifted too early:
U f F E I Fr · f f Cf' F r @" · t f Q · tj I @ J
f
Practise:
0
•
"--"
f
Fast passages 31
Clarity
Separate bows - staccato - accented legato
Use this three-step method to help every note in a slurred passage speak clearly and equally with the
others:
1 Separate bows. Notice the clarity when you give each note a new bow. Later, each note should be
as clear as this when you play with the slurs. Play expressively, rather than mechanically, as though
the music were actually meant to be played with separate bows.
2 Staccato. Begin slowly, 'biting' the beginning of each note individually. Gradually speed up as far as
you can, although it does not need to be very fast to be very effective.
For the purposes of this practice method use solid, on-the-string staccato, i.e. like a rapid series of
tiny martele strokes, not flying staccato (where the hair leaves the string after each note) .
3 Accented legato. Slightly accent each note within an otherwise legato stroke.
Separate bows, on the string

v4
ti
>
f
6 6
2 Staccato
3 Accented legato
v4
ti
>
f
6 6
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 3 in E, BWV1006, Gavotte en Rondeau, b. 51
• First play a separate bow on each note. Then play staccato, and then accented legato:
32 Fast nassages
Clarity
• Polish individual phrases:
Separate bows Staccato
i1
v i1
Repeat each bar several times
Accented legato
Example 3 Brahms: Sonata no. 1 in G, op. 78, mov. 3, b. 101
mf cresc.
• First play a separate bow on each note, either on the string or spiccato, and then as follows:
p molto legato e tranquillo
Example 5 Prokofiev: Concerto no. 2 in G minor, op. 63, mov. 1, b. 241
� 0 2
0 2 1 3 0
� �
· � · · ·
Fast oassages 33
Playi ng on open stri ngs
This is a central practice method that immediately improves independence of the hands, legato bowing,
and individual bowing patterns.
• Play the bowing pattern on open strings to focus on the bow without the distractions of the left hand.
Example 1 J. S . Bach: Partita no. 3 in E, BWVl 006, Preludio, b. 1 7

A AD
�"11"1 1 Pc;c1erc1er1c.herc.herc.her1c.h0rg.herc.1lw1 F
f
This is a well-known example of alternating clockwise and anticlockwise string crossings:
J � J
� i II: J
0 0
J0 J
0
j J J J J J : 11
Practising on open strings is a quick way to get the feel of the unexpected string crossings in the second
bar (marked '+' above) :
�2 f F [fffr f f F If rr r r [ I�
0 0 0 0
F r F F r F F r
1 2 2
cresc.
p
Example 4 Beethoven: Sonata in C minor, op. 30 no. 2, mov. 1, b. 55
• Play on the string as well as spiccato:
JJ
v
J J J 1D
(.) (.) �p : 0
(.) (.) 0
34 Fast nassaSies
Clarity
o "-3 . �. "- t=tr 0 3 4 o . . . e. .

.
�� r
4
Jj3 I It
· f... Ff r Lf I
tr
2 j £@ t e f t t b f t ci C f... F· t j . J �
tr
Fi
1
...
4 r:
- :___.; ... ... ...

5 bi
· ?g · � � �
I
�
= 4
� · f!!- � - 3
I •
0 3
f J J f J € tr
tr r. tr
CJ r r r z tt r f t t J f j J I
1
�
tr
�j = ct r F t r 1
�
�* j =ra J Juj J F ¢ f t I f @
# 1 J� 0 3 11J J d J � J J � I <!l
3 1
#.
:J
2
Example 6 Brahms : Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 3, b. 37
_,£ ffl u rt I ffl fd jJ p I J11 f3 j JJ � I

v 3
0 0 ft
... ... ... 1 1
0 ' •
"" ... I
.
• • •
•
•
'
� fP R j j j� I y JP J J j J j J I J J j J j J J J j J j J I )
6
. . . . .
Example 7 Mozart: Sonata in E minor, K304, mov. 1, b. 1
�ti 1e p I r r I [ cf 1 1r FF I r · E! I � rr Il � IJ � r r I:
i1
• Practising on open strings is also helpful for slower passages, for example when working on the evenness
and smoothness of the bow strokes:
� lh n0 I � j I r. Efl j
0
Jr IJ 13 l;J J J I J £l 1 3J J J I J
Ii
v
espressivo
Fast passages 35
Rhythm practice
Practising i n rhythms i s a key practice method, and one o f the fastest
Rhyt h m and easiest ways to improve many different types of medium-tempo
to fast passage work. Use it on anything from short phrases to large
sections at a time,
1 'What counts is not the Everything in playing is a matter of 'command-response', i.e. a mental command followed by a physical
strength of the muscles, response. Both the command and the response must be instantaneous: many mistakes are simply the
but their responsiveness to
the mental directive. result of there having been a delay in one or the other. When a passage is fluent it means that the mental
. . . The player has to present
picture is entirely clear and the fingers and bow respond at lightning speed. Then the hands and fingers
the mind-muscle unit with seem to know on their own where they are going.
problems to solve,
problems that proceed Rhythm practice works by setting the mind a series of timing and co-ordination problems to solve. In
from the simple to the ever solving them the mental picture of the passage becomes clearer, and the physical response to each mental
more complex. Any scale
or passage that the player
command becomes quicker. 1
can perform with a g reat
many different rhythms,
Rhythm practice is a thorough way to get rid of all drop-outs in one go. 2 It is also a quick way to memorize
accentuations and bowings a phrase or a passage.
is one that has been
completely assimilated by
the mind and muscles.'
Ivan Galamian: Principles of Basic rhythms
Violin Playing and Teaching
(New Jersey, 1 962), 5 . There are endless combinations and variations of rhythms you can use, but for normal practice purposes
it is rarely necessary to go beyond the following simple two-note, three-note and four-note dotted patterns.
2 See Dropouts, page 27
_[_! [_! !
Two-note pattern
__
Three-note pattern
or
3
Four-note pattern
or
The goals of rhythm practice

The four main factors of playing are pitch, sound, rhythm and physical ease. Practise each rhythm
variation until:
Every note is in tune
2 The tone of every note is pure
3 The rhythms are even and precise
4 The passage feels easy to play in that rhythm
Repeat the rhythm practice on many different occasions. Continue until you can play the passage in a
particular rhythm pattern with each of these four key points excellent.
Timing of fingers
Rhythm practice is more effective when you move fingers at the last possible moment, rather than moving
them slowly towards the string during the dotted note.
Bow stroke and place in the bow

Practise in the same part of the bow, using the same type of stroke, as you use for the passage normally,
If the passage uses a lifted stroke such as spiccato, practise it in rhythms using that stroke. Also practise
it in rhythms using a solid stroke on the string.
If it is a separate-bow passage, the main rhythm work will normally be in separate bows; but also practise
the passage in rhythms using slurs, with many notes in one bow. (See Example 3, page 38.)
36 Fast passages
Rhythm practice
Using the metronome
The goal is to be able to play a passage accurately and easily, in rhythms, without a metronome; but
using one in the early stages of practice can save a lot of time. The essential thing is not to slow down
or distort the rhythm in order to get round awkward groups of notes, and the metronome is a sure way
to achieve this.
In Example 1 (this page) an average metronome speed for the two-note dotted rhythm might be .J = 1 1 0.
In Example 2 (page 39) an average metronome speed might be .J = 1 00.
For very tight rhythmic control set the metronome twice as fast, i.e. in a passage that has four quarter
notes (crotchets) in a bar use the metronome in eighth-notes (quavers) . Example 1 might then be played
at Ji = 220.
Combine rhythm practice with speeding-up practice. 1 Example 1 might then be played starting at .J = 60, 1 See Speeding up with
the metronome, page 2
and then 70, 80, 90, up to 1 60 or as far as possible.
Two -note patt ern

e Begin the two-note pattern on the first note of the passage, and then on the second note of the passage.
Example 1 Handel: Sonata in D, op. 1 no. 13, mov. 2, b. 24
LJ starting on the second note. Either begin up-bow on the second note, or play the first note as an
3
up-beat:
'Mii# �) I J. JJ. j uua f1rid I c:JfjfJr'!fJf-±f JU I

i1 v 0 2
of the basic dotted pairs (j"' since this is almost the same as
playing U starting on the second note. (But see the four-note pattern on page 40.)
It is not necessary to practise the reverse -
Example 2 Schubert: Sonata in A, op. posth. 1 62, mov. 1, b. 20
(J
3
starting on the first note:
�"11# .1Wucr t-;r J 1 L; cJ b c� 1 l

(J
3
starting on the second note. Either begin on the second note, or play the first note as an up-beat:
�M11# .1%£{r .rttrJr +Ci i Q d uOO Ozu

Rhythm practice
0
0
-�===== !
Before practising separate-bow passages in rhythms, it is often beneficial first to practise the rhythms
slurred:
Three-note pattern
• Start three-note patterns on the first note, on the second note, and on the third note of the passage.
Example 1 Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 1 08, mov. 4, b. 107
(il starting on the first note:
.r f
2
! f f� 4 3
� 4
I
! t 1f
4 3
(il starting on the second note:
0 2 2 4 3 4 3
q E __
�1
__
4 3 0 3
(il starting on the third note:
� f qr
I F' �--
-------
ff r=
� j 'ry· • f rfJr
E
Jn
'7\
g
.J ...
4 4 3 3 2 0 3 1
Rhythm practice
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 3 in E, BWV1006, Preludio, b. 36
UJ starting on the first note:
UJ
i� � �· �4
starting on the second note:
o �4
:@ 11 n !p l1 c tr r .rt f ! t E£r I ta F :1ir Lltf FJJ I f l)
f:.· • e
v >
Ii >. 1 . > >. > 1 _
Example 3 Bruch: Scottish Fantasy, op. 46, mov. 3, b. 22
t1J starting on the first note:
t1J starting on the second note:
UJ starting on the third note:
Fast oassae:es 39
Rhythm practice
Example 4 Sibelius: Concerto in D minor, op. 47, nwv. 1, b. 246
UJ starting on the first note (marked '+' in the Example) :
� "03 1€1! fjJ ffl l"@B 1€itt!f ti

3
I
UJ starting on the second note:
�
(ff�1Jf�l4i'1fff150¥1€1J1EJ!Ei
UJ starting on the third note:
� (ffJii$: m: 1tf: ;ft "'4: �t a=r: #$·

Four-note pattern
• Start four-note rhythm patterns on the first note, on the second note, on the third note, and on the
fourth note of the passage.
4 f'
H
� I J 3 �#J ¥ jJ J j J j 3 bJ Ff I F 5 [ r bl ; i ti r r r r15 r I �
»
� r
n
, , , ,
# 3
ll
1
,�11wf?NJ· f)J'J. I Jjaii=. k �- 1 Qibr c.i=

1
I St�r CiflU° I p
U l:..f'
� �wJ\l g1»� . jiUJ. l nF

� n v 4 1 4
�
� J1 . d 0" . I z @
o �c�- � # o 3
= 1 =1 Gr [JO' I
1
'
4
Rhythm practice
� tt�#@ fl,3 )ttf.fP · SF I Q d "ticJ f I Q' bt 0;; · 1-c.:r wr Q'

1
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWVl.004, Corrente, b. 7
ii
u u·
� � • �
·
� vv �
�<f)lpJO · gf I JJ�. u z IU&i
· � 1=
n n
j
v v n
u u· starting on the third note:
ii
Example 3 Elgar: Sonata in E minor, op. 82, nwv. 2, b. 31
u u·
·
starting on the first note:
�ti ff @at · 4 4 1"f�U· 1 "i

1 11� 0 1 1 4
Fast passages 41
Rhythm practice
u u· starting on the second note:
&01P·) 1 11U- cf Ei ttVl gt · qtt · 1"r � �f' t-=;"�

u u· starting on the third note:
& <11(6.ffFJ tr ifEJu�

4 4 U� · 1 c}ff f �i
4 0 1 1
u u· starting on the fourth note:
4 1 ct fft
& <11� Wu W:uaf 4 t�c:l4 0 1 1
Example 4
i14 Faure: Sonata in A, op. 1 3, rnov. 4, b. 205
1111u q
0 e't f qr e qr •t •r qr t 1'E op®
1 1 1 :rr 1
&
[_1'[
i14
&1111" (1) 1 'f' eqr et

3
't'nt
42 Fast nassa!les
Accent practice
Like rhythm practice, practising with accents is one of the fastest
ways to improve a passage and can be used as extensively.
0 Us e as little effort as possible to play the accents. 1 1 While playing each

accent be alert to your
• Pitch, sound, rhythm, ease: practise each accent pattern until every note is in tune, the tone of every hands, fingers, lower and
note (including the accents) is pure, the rhythm is exact, and the accent pattern feels easy to play. upper arms, shoulders and
neck. Make sure that you
• Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible. (The faster the tempo, the less do as little as possible to
make the accent - e.g.
accent.) not pressi ng harder into
the chin rest when you
Combine accent practice with speeding-up practice.2 Accent practice is also a quick way to memorize a play a heavier bow stroke,
passage. or pressing the fingers of
the accented notes harder
than the non-accented
Basic accent patterns ones. Make sure also that
e First play one accent in each group starting with the first note, and then the second, third and fourth: you are very relaxed in
Jm Jm Jm Jm Jm Jm Jm Jm
between accents. See
Localizing actions, page
270.
> > > > > > > >
2 See Speeding up with

e Then play two accents, on the first and second, second and third, third and fourth, and first and the metronome, page 2
fourth notes:
Jm Jm
> > > >
Jm Jm
> > > >
Jm Jm
> > > >
Jm Jm
> > > >
• It may also be helpful to play accents on the first and third, and second and fourth notes:
Jm Jm
> > > >
Jm Jm
> > > >
• Create each accent not only by making the note louder than the surrounding notes, but also by making
the surrounding notes quieter than the note you wish to emphasize. This avoids having to make too
heavy an accent. 3
3 The same applies to
vi brato accents or extra
Exmnple 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, I<.218, mov. 1, b. 166
vibrato expression: when
you want the vi brato on a
particular note to stand
out, it is usually best to
give less vibrato on the
notes before and after -
otherwise the extra
vibrato that is needed to
create the accent or
The dotted notes in this passage may be played on the string, half-off, or completely off the string. expression can become
excessive.
Whichever stroke you eventually use, first practise the passage on the string with accents, and then off
the string (with accents) if appropriate.
• Accent the first; second; third; fourth of each group:
Fast passages 43
Accent practice
• Accent the first and second; second and third; third and fourth; first and fourth of each group:
> >
• Accent the first and third; second and fourth of each group:
>
Example 2 Vivaldi: Spring (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 47
e Accent the first; second; third:

i1
�ti11#1 f c t r t f r c t t f r r E f r c e f 1 f
1
c r rr r
> > > >
B
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
�ti11#1 t E C f t t E C f t t f E r f 5 f f F f f 5 r : f
i1
r
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
�ttu#u f r E t t f r E t t f r F f E f r F f E : f
�
b b b b
> > > >
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Accent practice
• Accent the first and second; second and third; first and third:
i1
�ttb e 3E r t r3 F e 3r r t n3 F e 3a r e n3 r e 3r o e r3 r 1 f
1 > >
> >
I'
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
�ttb 8 3r r t r3 F 8 3r r t r3 F 8 3r r f r3 r 8 3r r f 3r r I f
i1
1 > > > > > > > >
Example 3 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWVl 004, Giga, b. 6
• Accent the first; second; third notes of every group of three:
>
4
• Accent every other note starting on the first note, and starting on the second note:
i1
• In groups of four, accent the first and second; second and third; third and fourth; first and fourth:
i1
Accent practice
Example 4 Vaughan Williams: The Lark Ascending, b. 3
• Keep the bow very evenly and smoothly sustained throughout:
etc.
Example 5 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1, b. 102
f dim.
' tt# Ef; ctr 'Tf1 �� p
> > > > > > > >
W 1tt �j � 1tt �
Ii Ii
' tt11 r r F r r f etc.

II
r r f r r: f etc.
II
> > > > f f P f f P f f P f f p f
Ii Ii
' tt � 1tt 11
1 1 ff 1tf �1 1
11
6 r 6 r 6 r etc. r r r r 6 6 etc.
P f f P f f p f f P f f P f P f f P f f P f f p f f
rt
Fig. 5
lity
Divide the area from the bridge to the fingerboard

into five 'soundpoints' (Fig. 5) :
1 Near the bridge
2 Between the bridge and the central point
3 At the central point
4 Between the central point and the fingerboard
5 At the fingerboard Five soundpoints
Near the bridge the string has a great deal of tension and feels hard under the bow. Playing in 1 st position,
the bow has to be very heavy and slow to engage the string. Near the fingerboard the string feels looser
and softer. The bow has to be light and fast to avoid crushing the string. 1 1 An effective fi rst step for
elementary students is for
Every sound is the result of: (1) a particular speed of bow with (2) a particular amount of pressure. Both them to press the string
of these are dependent on (3) the tension of the string at that particular distance from the bridge. down with their index
finger (i.e. without the
At every distance from the bridge there is a certain amount of speed, combined with a certain amount bow), first on soundpoint
of pressure, that produces the freest and, when wanted, the widest possible vibration of the string.
5 and then again on
soundpoint 1 . Gently
To get this 'widest possible vibration', tone production is based on speed of bow, not pressure. Unless pressing and releasing the
string a few times makes
darker, denser colours are required, speed of bow is always the first question, pressure the second question. its tension and elasticity
Even when playing near the bridge, the flow of the bow and the distance from the bridge dictate the i m mediately clear: looser
and softer on soundpoint
degree of pressure, not the other way round. The art of bowing is always one of 'stroking' the string, 5; tig hter and harder on
however heavily this must be done because of the 'hardness' of the string near the bridge, rather than of soundpoint 1 .
'pressing' the string. The student shou Id then
play a few simple strokes
on the same soundpoints,
To avoid low-frequency, crushed or 'tearing' sounds, or to avoid flattening the pitch2 of the notes: 'feeling' the string with the
hair of the bow instead of
• If the speed of bow does not change but you increase the pressure - move nearer the bridge with the index finger.
If the speed of bow does not change but you move nearer the fingerboard - decrease pressure
2 See Bow pressure and
• If the pressure does not change but you decrease the speed of bow - move nearer the bridge pitch, page 60
If the pressure does not change but you move nearer the fingerboard - increase the speed of bow
• If the soundpoint does not change but you decrease the speed of bow - decrease pressure
If the soundpoint does not change but you increase the pressure - increase the speed of bow
To avoid high-frequency, squeaking (harmonic) sounds, or to avoid the tone losing its substance:
• If the speed of bow does not change but you decrease the pressure - move nearer the fingerboard
If the speed of bow does not change but you move nearer the bridge - increase pressure
• If the pressure does not change but you increase the speed of bow - move nearer the fingerboard
If the pressure does not change but you move nearer the bridge - decrease the speed of bow
• If the soundpoint does not change but you increase the speed of bow - increase pressure
If the soundpoint does not change but you decrease the pressure - decrease the speed of bow
Ton e 47
Quality
Describing the sound
Describing tone is one of the fastest ways to improve tone production. The principles of tone production
are simple, and almost entirely to do with proportions of speed, pressure, and soundpoint.
Scraping, tearing, crushed, lower-frequency sounds = too much pressure (or too slow) .
Whistling, fizzing sounds of harmonics and high frequencies = too little pressure (or too fast) .
When you describe tone in terms of proportions the description can be brief, and in most cases no more
than six or seven words.
1 See also Improving 1 Play a bow stroke (a note, or a group of notes slurred), and listen closely to the sound. 1
listening, page 56
2 Describe the sound in terms of speed, pressure, soundpoint and evenness. For example:
'Too fast near the bridge (or too light)'
'Too heavy near the fingerboard (or too slow)'
'The right balance of speed, pressure and soundpoint until the middle of the bow; then the sound
point changed slightly and there was the crushed sound of too much pressure; then the speed, pressure
and soundpoint were in balance again.'
'Good until just before changing bow when the bow speed suddenly increased, resulting in a slight
whistling in the tone.'
3 Repeat the bow stroke, listen, describe, and so on. Continue until the stroke is exactly as desired and
the tone is entirely free of blemish.
Describing sound in terms of speed, pressure and soundpoint quickly becomes both automatic and
immediate. Having gone through the process of using words, you soon find yourself doing the same thing
unconsciously, from moment to moment of playing.
Playing a p h rase on each soundpoint

Learning a phrase or passage on all five soundpoints, one soundpoint at a time, is one of the 'master
methods' of practice on any string instrument. It instantly increases your sensitivity to the feel of the bow
in the string so that you immediately gain the finest control. Practising on all five soundpoints is helpful
2 See also Soundpoint, whatever the soundpoint you will eventually use, and whatever the stroke. 2
page 94
You can practise individual notes and phrases on each soundpoint one at a time, or you can play through
entire pieces all on one soundpoint at a time. Work on soundpoints brings remarkably fast improvement
in tone and control however it is used.
Example 1 Corelli (arr. Leonard) : La Follia, op. 5 no. 1 2, b. 1
r IC
i1
• Begin on soundpoint 5 . Use fast, light strokes. Experiment with the proportions of speed and pressure,
trying a little faster bow speed, a little slower, a little heavier, a little lighter, until you are sure that
the string is vibrating as widely as possible during each note, with a ringing, resonant tone.
• Repeat on soundpoint 4. Although still fast and light, the strokes are now slightly slower and heavier
than on soundpoint 5 . By experimenting as before, find exactly the right speed and pressure to make
the strings vibrate as widely and as evenly as possible on each note.
• Repeat on soundpoint 3. By now the bow pressure is significantly heavier than it was on soundpoint
5, and the speed of bow slower.
• Repeat on soundpoint 2. Now the weight of bow may be considerable, and the speed of bow much
slower. Sink the bow heavily into the strings, feeling the different give of the hair and wood in different
3 See also Different parts of the bow. 3
qualities of the bow at heel
and point, page 69 e Repeat on soundpoint 1 with as slow and heavy a bow as necessary. Note that it is often possible
(and desirable) to play near the bridge with quite a light stroke.
e Having arrived on soundpoint 1, repeat again on soundpoints 2, 3 and 4, finally arriving back on 5 .
I n most cases it is possible to find proportions of speed, pressure and soundpoint that work, especially
since you are always completely free to vary the tempo and the dynamics as much as necessary.
Quality
Soundpoint 5 Soundpoint 4
� ! 11: r r D I 11r : 11 r r D 1 11r

Fi Fi
2
*
� 2 �
'PP
Repeat many times p
Sound point 3 Soundpoint 2
I
� f
Soundpoint 1
Soundpoint 2
r Ir 1r r r I H..
�
/:'.
II
Fi Fi
!':'. 2 �·
etc.
mf Very slow and heavy f
Soundpoint 3 Soundpoint 4 Soundpoint 5
�jl f 1r r v II'PP r D II
Fi Ii Ii
2 ,..-..._ 2 ,..-..._
mf
etc.
p
etc.
r etc.
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 2 in D, K2 1 1 , mov. 1, b. 22
r
Ii
� �1 J
4
E ;j�
v
p-
3
• On the E string you have to bow extremely lightly on soundpoint 5 . If the string is simply too soft to
play there, or the bow is scraping against the corner of the violin, squeeze the soundpoints closer
together so that soundpoint 5 is a little closer to the bridge.
• Practise the first phrase:
:11 f 1f
Ii Fi Ii
�"11 t 11J E
4 4 4
r r E:J� r � II
v
p-
;j
Repeat many times mp f
Ii Ii
-$"11 f r v IF 1f r 1r
4 4
r II r II
v .0. v
ff f Very slow and heavy
• Practise the next phrase in the same way:
:fl r r r r
Soundpoint 5
�"11 11 rn
Soundpoint 3
r r
Soundpoint 4
II II
� �
3 'PP Repeat many times mp 3 f 3
F
Soundpoint 1
r
Soundpoint 2
�tt11 r r r 11 r r r I
� �
ff 3 '---- 3----'
f Very slow and heavy
/l l'l
Quality
Example 3
&�8 f f f j f r I [ ( [ ( ( l j J J j J j I'
J. S. Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWV 1001, Presto, b. 1
• In low positions the G string feels too hard near the bridge so you have to play very slowly and heavily,
1 See The higher the string, sometimes slowing the bow almost to a halt.1 If a specific passage simply cannot be played there, or
the nearer the bridge,
page 58
if there is little to be gained from doing so, then go only as far as soundpoint 2:
I CJ fJ fJ I
p etc. mf etc.
rw J J 1a r r r r r r 1r r r J J J 1
etc. ff Very slow and heavy etc.
Example 4 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 1 3 7 no. 2, mov. 4, b. 63
2 See Height and length, Although the primary proportions to consider in spiccato are height and length, 2 in the moment that the
page 93 hair is in contact with the string the usual proportions of speed, pressure and soundpoint apply.
& 2 r I rp E Efl l#CTJ £JO I J II E I c;-r Ept l#CTJ fJJ I J

I
p Fast and light 3 mp 3
, -c mf
I r:·r
3
EU
3
11100 JJJ I J rr 3
·
I c :;r EU l#L!EJ ;JJJ IJ
3 3
f Very slow and heavy 3
·
I
Example 5 Elgar: Chanson de Matin, b. 30
®
�
l t!J_J 1ise:J
® CD ®
sonore 2 1
mf
CD @ @ = approximate soundpoints which might be used in this passage.
e Play on each soundpoint, one at a time, to develop tone and 'feel', even when the soundpoint does
not stay the same in the actual passage.
& " 2 1 �J :
v v v
2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1
� etc. � etc. � � etc.

J
Soundpoint 1
14� II
Soundpoint 2
v v
4 2 1 4 2 1
etc. etc.
f Very slow and heavy
Quality
� � 2
r·
��
f ffrf I r.
Ii
4::b «I'
�
I
p sotto voce ma espressivo
DI
-==:::: :::>-
D
-==:::: :::>-
I0
e Practising on each soundpoint is good whatever the dynamic of the actual passage. This passage is
probably best played somewhere around soundpoint 3-2. Even so, practise on all five soundpoints:
� � � ��
Soundpoint 5 Soundpoint 4 Soundpoint 3 Soundpoint 2 Soundpoint 1
,,,..0...--- � � �
�I II: .. espressivo
:11 simile
II I I I
Ii
�M1� f1
f espr. ff
Practise high-position passages on each soundpoint from the fingerboard to the bridge, even though the
short string-length means you should be near the bridge. 1 You simply have to play extremely lightly near 1 See The shorter the
the fingerboard to get proportions of speed, pressure and soundpoint that work. string, the nearer the
bridge, page 59
Another approach is to begin nearer the bridge and squeeze the five soundpoints closer together. In this passage
soundpoint 5 may have to be midway between the bridge and the fingerboard, i.e. the old soundpoint 3:
Sound point 5 Sound point 4 Soundpoint 3 Sound point 2 Sound point 1
� � � � �
Ii
4M I� e�e e i e�e e r e�e e r e�e e r e�e F r

• Take a rhythmic feature of a passage and repeat it on one note, on each soundpoint.
• Whatever the soundpoint you will use in the end (in this case beginning between 3 and 2 and ending
up between 2 and 1) experiment with the speed and pressure on all five soundpoints to explore the
whole range of the how's depth of contact with the string.
• Use exactly the same type of stroke and length of bow as in the passage.
• On each soundpoint find the balance of speed and pressure that makes the string vibrate the widest.
Soundpoint 5
� � � � � � � � � � � � /"'""'
�M112 II u EJ EJ 1 U EJ EJ 1 U EJ EJ 1 U EJ EJ .
Ii v Soundpoint 4 Soundpoint 3 Soundpoint 2
p � f ff
Soundpoint 1
� � � � � � � � � � � ,,-.__ ,.,--.-.
{.\ {.\ {.\ {.\ {.\ {.\ Sound point 2 Sound point 3 Soundpoint 4
�"11 U EJ EJ 1 U EJ U 1 U EJ EJ 1 U EJ EJ:1
f ff f mp
Tone 51
Quality
Building individual notes
• Practise selected notes on their own. Experiment with speed of bow, pressure and distance from the
bridge until finding the desired tone quality.
• Then add vibrato.
Example 1 Sarasate: Playera, op. 23 no. 1, b. 4

+
3
� � I J. I J. I J. I J. I J. l g. l g. l g IJJJJg
(1 ) (2) (3)
I J. j J JJ
Same tone
ii v \! ii 3
senza vibrato Add vibrato � �
( 1 ) Play without vibrato. Experiment with different distances from the bridge, with different bow speeds
and pressures, to find exactly the desired tone.
Hear the music in your mind: during the third beat of the down-bow, imagine the sixteenth-notes
(semiquavers) and 'feel' them in the contact of the bow and the string. During the first beat of the
up-bow, imagine the triplet and the tied A.
(2) When you are completely satisfied with the tone quality and expressiveness throughout the whole
length of the stroke, add vibrato without changing anything else: keep the speed-pressure-soundpoint
design of the stroke exactly the same as before.
(3) Then without stopping, play straight in to the passage itself, finding exactly the same tone as before.
Example 2 Dvorak: Sonatina in G, op. 1 00, mov. 1, b. 1
If
ii
�� 2 1 fo fo
r r
• The strokes here are fast-slow, heavy-light, and slightly shortened.
Fast Slower
Heavy Lighter
I 4J J IJ :1
(1)\! ii \! v (2) ii v
fo fo .
Repeat many times fo fo
3 vibrato
senza vibrato
( 1 ) Play without vibrato. Experiment with different distances from the bridge, with different bow speeds
and pressures, to find exactly the desired character, tone and type of stroke.
(2) Playing straight from (1 ) into (2) without stopping, add vibrato without changing anything else - keep
the speed-pressure-soundpoint design of the stroke exactly the same as before. The vibrato should
1 See Vibrato accents, be fast-slow and wide-narrow because of the fast-slow and heavy-light bow stroke. 1
page 89, 1 38
Example 3 Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Praeludium, b. 21
+
3
r 1e
ii3
f r r
Andante
�� B f J Il l J 1� j J A
1 2 ii2 ii3
J
0
�
0
rtt. -
• Practise the top B on its own. Play whole bows close to the bridge. Play with the same intensity and
attack as if you were in the middle of an exciting performance.
• First play without vibrato, experimenting with bow speed and pressure to find exactly the right
combination to make the string vibrate the widest.
Quality
�tiUJ
Whole bows near the bridge
3
f f f , 11 1 J f f f : 11
senza vibrato Repeat many times vibrato
t F ir r t 1r r r 1t r 1f r
Ii
t
4 ------- ------- �
� Ii
dolee
� tt11#1 2 II: � � � � � � : Il : t � � t � � : 11
� ------ ------- -------
senza vibrato Repeat many times l vibrato
e Without vibrato play the three G#'s many times while experimenting with the feel and tone on different
soundpoints. Adjust the speed and pressure on each soundpoint until you find exactly the desired
tone quality.
The bow speed will be slightly fast-slow, the pressure slightly heavy-light, with a space between the
strokes.
Example 5 Ysaye: Sonata, op. 27 no. 4, mov. 1, b. 1
• First, use the entire bow length. Play near the bridge, playing deeply into the elasticity of the wood
of the bow, hair, and string. Adjust the speed and pressure until you find exactly the desired tone
quality. Then add vibrato.
$tit 11 1! 11� @o
(1 ) Whole bows near the bridge (2)
j :II:
'I' : II
Ii Ii
: Ill :
Ii Ii v v
3 v 1 1
0 0 0 0
ff senza vibrato vibrato senza vibrato vibrato

Repeat many times
• Then using this tone as a model, practise the note in context with the right amount of bow, aiming
to produce the same quality.
Example 6 Brahms: Scherzo (Sonatensatz), Wo02, b. 1
g.
g .
J.
> >
j
• Experiment at different distances from the bridge to find the ideal soundpoint:
�I
11
Soundpoint 5 Soundpoint 4 Soundpoint 3 Soundpoint 2
�'b ft ll ' g J g J g g Ill J. g g J g. g lll 'g g g J g. g lll ' g g. g J g g

Ii Ii Ii Ii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
p Fast and light mp mf f Slow and heavy
Repeat many times
Torn' S3
Quality
f
The C (marked ' + ') needs to be played close to the bridge. Find how to make the string vibrate widely
and freely on other soundpoints to sensitize the arm and hand to the feel of the bow in the string.
The string length of such a high note is too short to play near the fingerboard, but you could start at
around soundpoint 3.
• At each soundpoint first play without vibrato. Find exactly the right amount of speed and pressure
to make the string vibrate widely and freely.
• Then add vibrato without in any way changing the combination of soundpoint, speed and pressure.
v
Soundpoint 3
q4
r; Soundpoint 2 Soundpoint 1
q q q q q
4"" i I= f f 111 f f Ill f f :ill f f Ill f f =Ill f f :I
mp senza vib. vibrato
= =
f senza vib. vibrato
= =
ff senza vib. vibrato

Repeat many times
Example 8 Saint-Saens: Concerto no. 3 in B minor, op. 6 1 , mov. 1, b. 28
Ir l#f
+
r
>
J
v 0
I J J 3
2 > 0 >
"
> > > > >
• Experiment at different distances from the bridge to find the ideal soundpoint:
v
Sound point 4
v Soundpoint 3 Soundpoint 2 Soundpoint 3
4"111 l = J , J ,
i1 i1
Repeat many times
f f f II
0
simile
• Then find exactly the same tone and contact with the string when playing the double stop in context.
Deepening the tone: pulsing

Tone production is usually based on speed of bow, not pressure (as outlined on page 47) . Nevertheless,
when required the bow must sink deeply into the string for largeness and fullness of tone and to create
great musical stature. As often as not, we need to play right down into the belly of the violin, as it were,
rather than playing purely horizontally 'along the surface of the string'.
• Play smooth, deep accents within an unbroken legato stroke, malting a throbbing or 'pulsing' effect.
Begin each accent not with a sharp attack, but by sinking the bow deeply into the string. The tone of
each pulse should be deep, rich and entirely free of scratch, scrape or bite.
Play near enough to the bridge for the string to be able to take the weight of the bow. Experimenting
with speed of bow and pressure, and feeling the give of the wood of the bow, hair and string, see how
deeply into the string you can go without breaking the tone.
Begin at a moderate tempo, later playing a little faster.
• Then play without the pulses. The point of the exercise is to keep the same depth of contact, through
out the whole length of the bow, as that which you had at the deepest point of each individual pulse.
Quality
Example 1 Glazunov: Concerto in A minor, op. 82, mov. 1, b. 1
J I J. J) J #J J. 3 I qJ.
v 3 1 1
dolce espressivo
e Each sixteenth-note (semiquaver) represents one smooth, rounded accent played deeply into the string:
JJJJ I li!!llJJ J M J 4 4 4 J 1 �J J J J oJ"J

v 3 1 1
� � ------
espressivo
� j." r J.
ii
J'.n ·
v
¥
p semplice ===�
• Do not release the bow too much between pulses, so that there is a feeling of deep sostenuto throughout.
• See how deeply you can bow into the string with each pulse - not because you want to play loudly in the
end, but because you want to explore all the different feelings of the contact of the hair with the string.
'--'
11,ffi ffi ffi�J j J 1 �11
1
espressivo
G ii
1 v
espress.
e Begin with two pulses on each sixteenth-note:
• Playing slower than the usual tempo, repeat with four pulses on each sixteenth-note:
Example 4 Mozart, Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 1 9, mov. 1, b. 46
f�v I E F
ii
2
9 Playing slowly, feel the hair sinking deeply into the string with each note:
Tone 55
Quality
Improvi ng l istening
Listening is the single most important element of playing a musical instrument. If you do nothing else but
improve your listening, so that you 'hang your ears on the sound' and are able to catch every sound that comes
1 See also Describing the out of the instrument, this alone improves the overall standard of playing immediately and dramatically.1
sound, page 48
One way of thinking about sound is that it gives you instant 'feedback' on what you are doing to the instrument.
There is a difference between 'instant feedback' and 'delayed feedback':
You are driving a car and you turn the steering wheel anti-clockwise. You can see the car turning to the left. The degree of
turn is fed back to you so that you can adjust your movement of the steering wheel in order to obtain the effect you want.
Your hand is on the tiller of a boat. You move the tiller one way . . . but the boat is slow to respond so you push the tiller
further over. Then the boat starts to turn and as it turns too much you push the tiller the other way. The boat swings wildly
from side to side because you cannot adjust your movement of the tiller to give the right amount of turn, This is because
there is a delay in the effect of your action being fed back to you. The same thing happens in a shower bath. You open the
hot tap but the shower still seems cold, so you open the hot tap further. Suddenly the shower scalds you . . . Because there
2 Edward de Bono: is a delay in the feedback it is difficult to get the temperature right. 2
Wordpower (Penguin
Books Ltd. 1 979), page 99 'Listening' enables us to gain complete control because in effect we are using the instant feedback of the
sound to adjust what we are doing from second to second of playing.
The question is, what do we listen to in the sound? The tone of a string instrument is made up of many
3 See Using the 'third tone' different sounds. These include sympathetic vibrations, harmonics and overtones,3 acoustic beats, vibrato
as a point of reference,
page 2 1 8
'throbs' or 'pulses',4 extraneous sounds of too much or too little bow pressure or speed,5 surface noise
- as well as the sound of shifts, the 'ping' as fingers drop or lift, 6 bow changes, and so on. All of these
4 See Vibrato pulsing,
page 1 3 0 sounds are clearly audible to the player even if many may not be apparent to the audience.
5 47
See page • Improve listening by using some of these qualities of sound to 'hook' your attention on to: concentrate
6 See Example 1 , page 7 on one aspect of sound at a time while playing through a phrase or short passage.
Background resonance
Background resonance can be heard in the ringing-on of the tone after the bow is lifted from the string.
This is most audible on open strings (but see margin note 2, page 1 40) . You can also hear it while the
bow is playing, the non-stop background resonance being clearly distinct from the principal sound.
• Listen to the ring carrying on during sustained notes, or between lifted strokes like spiccato; listen
during changes of bow or string, and so on.
Sympathetic vibrations
Stopped A's, G's, D's and E's cause the open strings to vibrate in sympathy. Play first-finger A on the G string
and see how the open A string vibrates. Notice how the tone has a tight, closed quality when the stopping finger
is even slightly sharp or flat (even though the open string may still vibrate visibly) . When the finger is right in
the middle of the note, the open string vibrates the widest and the note has a broad, open quality.
• Stop and listen to every stopped G, D, A or E. Adjust the note (roll the finger very slightly above and
below the note) to find the pitch that makes the open string vibrate the widest.
Surface noise
The sound ofthe hair's friction with the strings is another sound completely distinct from the principal sound.
The closer to the bridge you play and the higher the left hand position, the louder the background surface noise.
• Play a few notes and listen to the surface noise. The more regular you can make it, i.e. the more even
the volume and texture of the surface noise, the better the principal sound will be.
Acoustic beats
1 Play A on the D string in unison with the open A. Sustain both notes deeply in the string, one
centimetre from the bridge, drawing the bow very evenly and balancing it equally on both strings.
2 Move the stopped A very slightly out of tune. Listen to the steady, rhythmic throb that this produces.
The bigger the difference between the two notes, the faster the beat. When the two notes are exactly
the same pitch, there is no beat.
3 Gradually move the finger lower on the D string, pausing on different pitches to hear the beat getting
faster and faster, Continue until the finger reaches F#, Even with the notes this wide apart, you can
still hear them as a very fast beat,
A perfectly in-tune octave does not have a beat. An in-tune perfect fifth does have a beat, but while you
are tuning the violin listen to the beat getting faster and slower as you move the pegs.
Instead of one player producing acoustic beats with an out-of-tune unison, two players can achieve the
same effect playing one note each, even if they stand a large distance apart.
• Concentrate on one double stop at a time. Hear the two notes as an acoustic beat, rather than hearing
only the two separate notes themselves.
56 Tone
Quality
Joins between strokes
The string stops vibrating for an instant when the bow changes direction (play separate bows on the open G
and look at the string in the middle), so four quarter-notes (crotchets) played with separate bows will never
sound like a whole-note (semibreve) . You can sometimes create an illusion of one, unbroken sound at the bow
change, depending on the acoustic you are playing in, especially if the note changes at the same time as the bow.
e Listen to each join from down-bow to up, or up-bow to down. If there is a space between the strokes,
listen to the sound quality at the very end of one stroke, the silence in bet'-':een, and the quality at
the very beginning of the next stroke.
e If playing legato, try to create the illusion of a continuous tone through the bow change, resulting in
a seamless connection. This depends very much on good co-ordination, since many impurities of tone
at the bow change are due to the finger being late more than anything to do with the bow. 1 1 See Co-ordination,
page 1 4
Sound of shifting
• Listen to the sound of the finger moving lightly along the string. The instant feedback it provides
means you always know exactly where you are and can easily arrive on the new note perfectly in tune.
It is essential to avoid bowing too near the fingerboard too much

. bi nt Of contact of the time. Playing near the fingerboard is the place of least effort
for the bow and strings so the bow automatically moves there,
following the line of least resistance, unless you actively prevent it from doing so. Cellists need constantly
to push in towards the bridge; violinists need constantly to pull in towards the bridge.
2 N o colours should be
Nearer the bridge, the bow is able to sink more deeply into the string or to 'bite' the beginning of a note, allowing excluded, and playing only
all kinds of accents and articulations that are impossible nearer the fingerboard where the string is much softer. 2 near the bridge is as
undesirable as
playing only
Angle of strings to the floor near the finger
board. But as
The neck and the body of the violin are joined at an angle. If the body is parallel to the floor the strings well as possible weakness
slope down away from the bridge (Fig. 6a) . There is then a natural tendency for the bow to slide down of tone or attack, if you
habitually play too near
towards the fingerboard. Note the sharp angle of the strings to the floor if the body of the violin itself the fingerboard there may
slopes down (Fig. 6b) . also be an uncomfortable
feeling of having always
To counteract this, hold the scroll higher so that the strings, not the body of the violin, are parallel with to hold back, since the
the floor (Fig. 6c) . At times it helps keep the bow near the bridge if you raise the scroll even higher, so bow cannot sink deeply
into the string without
that the strings actually slope down towards the bridge (Fig. 6d) . the sound breaking.
• Play for extended periods with the scroll exaggeratedly high, or at least as shown in Fig. 6c. 3
Fig. 6
3 Teachers of elementary
students sometimes use a
ping-pong ball to help
children learn the feeling
of keeping the violin in
playing position. The
strings must be level for
the ball to stay in one
place, without rolling
backwards and forwards.
(a) Violin level with the floor: the strings slope down (b) Note the sharp slope of the strings if the violin
away from the bridge itself slopes down
(c) The violin has to slope up for the strings to be (d) Raising the scroll makes the strings slope towards
level with the floor the bridge
Tone 57.
Point of contact
The h ig her the stri ng. the nea rer the bridge
1 See Fig. s , page 47 Which soundpoint1 to use depends not only on context and personal taste, but on the physical properties
of the strings. In 1st position near the bridge the G string feels too hard under the bow. Near the finger
board the E string feels too soft, unless the very lightest flautando is required.
Leaving aside musical considerations, the optimum places to bow the open strings are roughly as follows:
.. j
()
0
The same basic proportions then apply to stopped notes on each string.
• Practising by exaggeration, begin further from the bridge than normal, and gradually move in closer to
the bridge than normal. Afterwards, the correct amount of change will feel entirely natural and automatic.
CD @ ® ® ® = soundpoints
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. 1 in A minor, BWV1 04 1 , n10v. 1, b. 126
2 4 4 0 2 3 2
�
®
' a JJ J J w 1 �J MJ1J JJJ 1 4liJ ·q_fJ 1 1'f r:rw1f rzr 1

2 -- --
®
�
®
b
1
• Exaggerate the change of soundpoint by beginning far from the bridge. Gradually move closer to the
bridge throughout the passage.
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 1 g, mov. 1, b. 44
® ® ®
• Make the new colour on the top A by playing closer to the bridge.
Example 3 Kreutzer: Etudes ou caprices, No. 3 1, b. 5
• After exaggerating the soundpoints the correct degree of movement will feel natural and automatic.
1i
3
r r f
2
It f f
1 3 2
4 »11 1� #J. � �
2 1 3 2
3 1
J E � � F
1
®
CD
® ®
58
Poi nt of contact
Th e sho rter the stri ng. the nearer the

To keep the right proportions of bow speed, pressure and distance from the bridge, the bow should
usually move closer to the bridge as the left hand plays higher up the fingerboard. Long shifts (i.e. big
changes of string length from long to short) often require a visibly obvious movement of the bow towards
the bridge. 1 1 See Length of string and
soundpoint, page 297
The shorter the string length the less weight the string can take from the bow. Therefore, although the
high notes the bow must play lightly near the bridge, even when playing f.
rule is that the nearer the bow is to the bridge the more weight it must inject into the string, when playing
• Exaggerate the change of soundpoint by beginning nearer to the fingerboard, and moving closer to
the bridge, than you need do ordinarily. Afterwards, the correct degree of movement will feel entirely
natural and automatic.
CD ® ® ® (j) = soundpoints
Example 1 Wieniawski: Legende, op. 17, b. 1 44
sul G +
3 3
1 2 � 2
• Play the Eb (marked '+') softly, very close to the bridge, with a pure tone. Gradually play more heavily:
j : ill : j j : ill : j j : ill : j j :1

v v v v
n 3 n 3 n 3 n 3
p p p mp p mf p f
® CD ® CD ® CD ® CD
Example 2 Tchaikovsky: Three Pieces, op. 42, Meditation, b. 77
'¥
• Exaggerating the change of soundpoint, play the trill very lightly and close to the bridge.
Example 3 Sibelius: Concerto in D minor, op. 47, mov. 1, b. 101

® CD +
®�
�@arfb!: �111 ,1i,�J
o
�·
D
�
2 ° 2
pocof
• Double stops can take more weight from the bow because it is shared between the two strings. Play
the double stop marked '+' very deeply into the string, close to the bridge.
sul G _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Tone 59
Point of contact
Bow p ressure and pitch
The left hand fingers are sometimes blamed for out of tune notes that are actually the fault of the bow.
Too much bow pressure, too far from the bridge, 'bends' the pitch of a note flat.
The further from the bridge the softer the string, and the less weight it can take before the pitch wavers.
2 The higher the string the thinner it is, and the less weight it can take.
3 The shorter the string the less weight it can take.
Bow pressure alone - do not move the finger
0 r0 F0 j0
Use bow pressure alone to play the D# Sul A '-i
r f I
\,i
Alternate between an open E and a D# by using too much bow pressure. Bowing around soundpoint 3
or 4, keep the bow speed the same while increasing the pressure until the note changes pitch. The pitch
of the note is easiest to 'bend' when playing in higher positions because of the short string length.
�
+
f1 f�F E''E ft
4 3
�b j4 IJ J J H�
Ii Ii Ii >
<I'
J J
Ii Ii Ii ,-- 3 ---, Ii
2 2
ff
The G marked '+' can sound as an Ftt if played heavily on soundpoint 3, even if the left finger is in tune.
n,/
® CD Sustain Sustain (.\.
Ef f�F FTI
(1) (2) \,i 4
*� j f f
v v >
f
Ii
1 I
p f ----
ff CD
( 1 ) Exaggerate by beginning p on soundpoint 3, and then move very close into the bridge.
(2) Otherwise playing up to tempo, pause on the top G, holding the bow deep in the string near the bridge.
Example 2
Do not let the F# and D waver
*�! r 1r e r t 1t r 1f r r
1 \,i
t
1 2
r e � � �
• At the top of a scale of thirds take particular care to play near enough to the bridge and to give the
right amount of weight for each string. The A string is weaker than the E string; both strings are short;
the more-sensitive A string is even shorter than the E.
� ; ��+--0----(-
-+-- -�+-+-?) -+-- I ��:;t-t---i-f-:_;--� -----rt- l---t JfJ-r---
Example 3 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1004, Sarabanda, b. 1
Keep the Bb steady Keep the Bb steady

Do not let the F and a e
�r ---i- ---=i-
F
0 fKZt
---+-�
/1 eep h e F stea dY wh'I1 e pivoting

4 Keep both notes steady . .
from the G-D to the D-A strings
• Even in first position, constantly remain alert to over-pressing or playing too near to the fingerboard.
Evenness
·Even ness Bowing on open strings,

fingeri ng on adjacent strings
True independence means that the actions of one hand do not inadvertently influence the other. This
three-step practice method immediately exposes and cures any disturbance to the bow stroke caused by
the left hand.
Play a simple bow stroke on the open string. Do not yet make this stroke the same as the one you
will use in the passage. Make a point of not thinking about the music: the aim is to remind yourself
what a smooth, even, relaxed bow stroke feels like, unrelated to the music.
2 Continue bowing on the open string, but now while drawing the bow hear the music clearly in your
mind. The bow stroke should now be the same as the one you will use in the actual passage, i.e. even,
or fast-slow, heavy-light, crescendo, and so on. Listen closely to the tone to make sure there are no
unwanted accents, or areas where the tone fades, or areas where the bow arm loses its smoothness or
ease.
3 Repeat the same stroke on the open string, again hearing the music in your mind, but now finger the
notes on a different string from the one you are bowing. Play with the same intensity of expression
as when you are playing the music normally, and with vibrato, the only difference being that you are
bowing on one string and fingering on another.
The bow stroke will become smoother and more flowing after the shortest amount of practising in this
way, and a new resonance will come into the tone. Used on a regular basis this practice method transforms
the overall playing. Applying it to notes, phrases or whole passages, use it frequently in every practice
session.
14�
sul G
IJ
v 7
()
con forza
f
,�
Finger on the D string
Sing the melody
v \i
� J11��
v� 7
Even, 'neutral' Bow on the G string
in your mind
li: g g : ill: g : Ill : - I u :1

bow strokes -.......__
-��1J1
(1 ) c v (2) Ii (3)
g
If
8:
-
u 2
f ! -====
(1 ) Remind yourself of the feeling of an easy, smoothly flowing bow arm, playing with a rich, deep tone.
Forget about the Bruch Concerto for the moment.
(2) Still without any fingers, play the bowing pattern while singing the melody in your mind. Play deeply
into the string with full expression, staying near enough to the bridge to be able to do this without
squashing the tone. (In this example, play around soundpoint 3 in the low positions, around sound
point 2 in the high positions.)
(3) Still playing espressivo in the bow, silently finger the passage on the D string (shown as x-notes) . Take
care not to introduce any bumps or unevenness into the strokes.
'
Example 2 Brahms: Sonata no. 2 in A, op. 100, mov. 1, b. 3
#
I f:ifJ .
Ii Piano:
fimo
r r
==--
Ii �
Finger on the E string
(3) ti- 1 J J
Practise a neutral, Sing the melody Bow on the A string
even diminuendo in your mind
I r· I
Ii Ii
(1 ) 0 (2) 0
====� 0
P =====�
• Practise as in Example 1 .
.......-- ·
r
w; ,
Evenness
Example 3 Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 2, b. 1 72
e Silently finger on the D string while bowing the open E string:
• The exercise is equally effective if you bow on a different string from the one used in the passage,
even though the feeling of playing the string is different. Silently finger on the E string while bowing
the open A string:
Example 4 Paganini: 24 Caprices, op. 1, No. 1 7, b. 9
• Sustain the open D string evenly, and with deep sonority, while silently fingering the scale:
3
e Practise the slur. Silently finger on the A string while bowing the open E string.
e
Ii
Vibrate the silent notes as normal, with an expressive feel in the fingers.
0
'M!l e tJ J J t
3
r f
1 2 4
e Practise the trill. Silently finger on the E string while bowing the open A string:
j) J j
v fr
M
0
Evenness
Example 6 Moxart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K21 8, mov. 1, cadenza (Joachim)
b
3
�"11 �
Ii
f 2
o. $ 1� brillante
e Sustain the open G string while fingering silently up to the top:
Example 7 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, cadenza
ff legato
• Sustain the open G string while fingering silently up to the top. (The first two notes will sound as written.)
Ii
� �· · "'-open
Sustainstritheng r
G
Exaniple 8 Sibelius: Concerto in D minor, op. 47, mov. 1, b. 41
mt 3 1 0 E5 5
f ====-
• Sustain the open G string while fingering the passage silently on the upper three strings:
r r
Evenness
Equal izing r-1 and V
Down-bows often have a tendency to come out more heavily than up-bows. This is partly because the
lower half of the bow is heavier than the upper half; partly because of the feeling that down-bows go with
gravity, and up-bows go against gravity; partly because at the heel the bow hand is directly above the string.
These factors may cause a heavy-light pattern in alternating down- and up-bows which spoils the musical
line.
• Strengthen up-bows by giving them extra weight, or by using the down-bow as a model.
Exmnple 1 Bruch: Concerto in G minor, op. 26, mov. 1, b. 16
ff marcato
Check the power and quality of up-bow attacks by using a down-bow attack as a model. Alternate between
up-bow and down-bow until the up-bow attack is exactly the same as the down-bow.
• Make these two bars sound identical:
:1
Model Copy
r
Ii v
efz
Exam,ple 2 Brahms: Sonata no. 2 in A, op. 1 00, mov. 1, b. 31
IF If
Ii + Ii +
�tiu# ! m: 1i j
Ii Ii
I J2 r lr
v
v v Ii
(ef,z ef,z) (ef,z ef,z)

• To play the up-bows marked '+' attack the string hard, from the air, near the point. Practise as follows,
making the second and fourth bars of each group sound identical.
�tiu» 2 I e: I J. I J. I d: I f I d:
Model Copy Model Copy
lllf
Ii
1r: :1
Ii
Ii Ii Ii v
Ii v
efz
2 efz 2
efz efz efz efz efz efz
Exam,ple 3 Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 2, b. 32
J J2
A A
molto cresc. ff
• To gain greater evenness, practise with reversed (upside-down) bowing, alternating with the correct
bowing until both bowings sound identical.
I
(1 ) (2) (3)
J �> I�3 ll : g J �2 I�3 J1 �2 I�3 :ii J> �2 I�>3

v Ii v Ii Ii v Ii v
� � g>1 J
v Ii v A A Ii v Ii v
J1
A A A A A A
li
2 1
( 1 ) There may be an inadvertent accent on the first and third beats.
(2) Alternate between reversed bowing and the correct bowing until they sound identical.
(3) Play the correct bowing with an extra accent on the second and fourth beats.
Evenness
Ii
Example 4 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1004, Giga, b. 19
��11 Fft 1f r ; CU � J j J iJ�j j j j j � I OI!

+
r r�
(1 ) Ii4 4 (2) ' v
LJ a
r...
>"= 4 4
(1 ) The down-bows may come out louder than the up-bows.
(2) The first note should not be too accented since it is the end of the preceding phrase. Begin a new
colour on the lower A and crescendo through the dominant seventh to the G. The up-bow E (marked
'+' in the Example) needs a lot of extra power for it not to sound too weak. Practise with an accent
and a pause.
5 b.
Ii
Example Prokofiev: Sonata in D, op. 94 bis, mov. 1, 42
3 3
Ii1 (2) v1 Ii v Ii v 4 ( ) Ii1
��H 3 �4 3 � 3 �4
(1 )
� � � � �� II �Ii �v �Ii �v �� I � � � � ��

f p f f p f etc. p f p p f p etc. etc.
(1 ) The down-bows may come out louder than the up-bows.
(3) Play the correct bowing with an extra accent on the up-bow eighth-notes (quavers) .
• As well as practising spiccato passages with reversed bowing, also practise with all down-bows, and all
up-bows. Note the evenness of the strokes when they all go in the same direction, and use that evenness
Ii Ii Ii Ii Ii Ii Ii Ii (2) v Ii v Ii v Ii v Ii (3) Ii v Ii v Ii v Ii v
as a model for the correct bowing.
(1 )
��I .J f E B f f E B ii f f f B E E E B ii E E E B E E E B II
v v v v v v v v Ii v Ii v Ii v Ii v > > > >
( 1 ) Practis e all down-bows, all up-bows. Note the evenness.
(3 ) Play the correct bowing with an extra accent on the second and fourth eighth-notes of each group.
Evenness
Example 7
Elgar: Sonata in E minor, op. 82, mov. 1, b. 9
Ii
vE
v >
f p mf f f 11
( 1 ) The notes in the upper half of the bow should not come out weaker than those in the lower half.
(3) Experiment with un-hooked, separate bows to use as a model of evenness for the correct bowing.
Stopping the finger whi le continuing with the bow

A good way to isolate the bow from the left hand, and to build up a phrase gradually, is to stop the fingers
and continue with the bow on its own. Gradually add more notes one at a time until the whole phrase
is complete.
Exmnple 1 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 1, b. 139

v
f f f v I ff
v
If F'
�
If
�
f r f
- - -
pp tranquillo
lo If 1
v v
t r f I r II t r r
espressivo
�# r f
�
- - -
� �
- - -
0
v v
�# l r r r If r IE 1t r r r If F' v lf
�
- - - � �
- - -
b. 108
f
Example 2 Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, mov. 1,
'� B 2
i1
31 24 1 2 1 2 2
Evenness
Tone exercise using dynamics

• Gain greater evenness and control of the bow by practising passages with crescendos and decrescendos.
Afterwards you will notice that your right hand feels more sensitive and responsive to the constantly
changing feelings of the hair-string contact in all parts of the bow.
• Use the following patterns:
- f - p
p-f
p
f -
f - p
p - f
See also Exercise 4, page 3.

3
i1
p -====== ! =======� p
f ========- p �===== f
f ========-- p
p --===== f
F
i1 v
p f =======- p
f ======- p -====== f
f ======�- p
p -�===== f
Example 3 Beethoven: Concerto in D, op. 6 1 , mov. 1, b. 1 74
1t
3 3 4
� §
1
f
1
� � ttH J J J § f f
_
4
., F
� �
i1
r
�
0
0
p f p
f p f
f p
p f
F.7
'
TAn P
Evenness
B u i ld i ng u p small bow
The shorter the bow stroke, the easier it is to keep the bow speed and pressure even.
• Practise a stroke or phrase by beginning with a very small amount of bow and gradually increasing
it to the desired length.
1, b. 1
4
Example 1 Grieg: S onata in C minor, op. 45, mov.
4 0"'
�
l J J j lg qj Jj �n
Play through a stroke, phrase or passage in the middle of the bow, using only 5 centimetres of bow.
Apart from using so little bow, play as normally as possible: up to tempo and with full dynamics and
expression. Feel how all the strokes, when confined within such a small amount of bow, are very
concentrated and even.
2 Still in the middle of the bow, play through again with slightly more bow - perhaps 7 centimetres.
Produce the same concentrated tone that you had before when you were using less bow.
3 Continue to repeat the phrase, adding a little more bow each time, until using more bow than you
need to.
4 Then do the same in reverse. Starting with more bow than you will eventually use, with each
play-through use a little less bow until again using only 5 centimetres in the middle of the bow.
�� (I' 0
FJ 1r ¥ r 1r
� �
"f
"g�n ( E --===
espress.
sf ====
(1 )
(2)
(3)
(4)
( 1 ) Play the first bar, and the first note of the second bar, at the extreme heel using no more than 1 0
centimetres of bow.
• Sustain the sound solidly and evenly, sinking the hair of the bow deeply into the string.
• Still using no more than 1 0 centimetres, repeat higher and higher up the bow:
- at the point-of-balance
- in the middle
- between the middle and the point
- at the extreme point
(2) Start again at the extreme heel using 20 centimetres of bow. Repeat in the middle and at the point.
(3) Then use half the bow length, playing the phrase in the lower half, the middle and the upper half.
(4) Finally, use whole bows.
Throughout, keep the same feeling of contact with the string that you had when using the smallest amount
of bow.
Sustai n i n g
Different qual ities of the bow heel point
. 'fhe bow has different qualities of give depending on where in the bow you play.
'
Notice how the hair of the bow gives but the wood remains rigid (Fig. 7a) .
Sit the bow on the string a few centimetres away from the frog. Press the bow down as hard as you can.
Do the same at the point. Rest the bow on the string a few centimetres from the tip and press down as
hard as you can. Notice how the hair remains rigid but the wood of the bow (at the middle of the bow)
bends easily (Fig. 7b) . 1 Playing in the middle both the hair and the wood give equally. 1See The give o f the wood
of the bow and the hair,
of give in the hair and the wood.

Play short strokes in the lower half, the middle, and the upper half, feeling the different proportions page 297
Find the same feelings in the bow in specific strokes or phrases.
Fig. 7
Playing at the extreme heel, the hair gives, and the (b) Playing at the extreme point, the wood gives, and
wood of the bow is rigid the hair i s rigid
Example 1 Brahms: Hungarian Dance No. 1, b. 1
mf espressivo
(1 )
Ii
J : Ill: J :1
Near heel Middle Between middle and point
J J J J J
v
;eel the hai r giving

f
2 2 the wood giving
-
Feel the hair and the wood giving Feel
�
(2) Hair Wood Hair
""
Wood"" ""
. I J.
k
J
" M
)
� �
Hair and/' wood /'
Hair and wood
(1) Play a few notes near the heel. Playing quite heavily into the string, feel how the hair gives easily with
every bow stroke but the wood remains rigid (Fig. 7a) . Notice how your right hand and fingers respond
to the bow and vice versa.
Repeat in the middle, feeling how both the hair and the wood have equal give and springiness.
Repeat in the upper half between the middle and the point. Feel how the hair is now much more
rigid, especially near the point where it has no give at all (Fig. 7b) . Feel how the wood (at the middle
of the bow) gives easily with every bow stroke.
(2) Find the same feelings in the bow when playing the passage itself. Play slowly, exaggerating the give
in the hair and the wood.
Tone 69
S u sta i n i n g
0
11
>��
tf ��===
-....,/
3
(1 ) Upper half
f f f I
Mi1 ddle
If
Near heel
J J J r r r
f Feel the hair giving Feel the hair and the wood giving Feel the wood giving
(2)
Hair Hai r and/' wood Wood

Pushing the wood of the bow down towards the hair

The more heavily the bow sinks into the string, the more the hair and the wood of the bow, and the
string, want to spring back to their state of greatest relaxation. Bowing a string instrument is more a
matter of playing with these forces of springiness in the hair and wood of the bow, than of holding and
manipulating the physical bow itself.
Pushing the wood of the bow down towards the string is an extreme practice method which may sound
harsh at first, but which can produce very fast results in broadening and deepening the tone.
• Place the bow on the string not too far from the bridge. Look at the middle of the bow. Without
moving the bow along the string, push the wood at the middle of the bow down until it is almost
touching the hair.
• Keep watching that distance between the hair and the wood, making sure that it remains exactly the
same, while you bow up and down.
Note that the middle of the bow is the only place the wood can come close to the hair. Keep your
eye on the middle of the bow wherever in the bow you are playing - heel, middle or point.
• Play very, very slowly. Adjust the speed and pressure so that the sound remains as pure as possible.
Example 1
1 24 31 24 31 24 31 24 31
&t i j J i I� r r r 1r
f
toHolthed thehaiwood g eachnearrest 31 Same distance at end of stroke v24 Same distance at end of stroke Ii31
r duri ndown Ii
/"::\ /"::\
-----
/' /' /' /' /'

Keep the same di s tance Same di s tance Same di s tance Same di stance Same di s tance
and during the stroke at start of stroke during the stroke at start of stroke
thebetween
hair atthestartwood
of stroke
70 Tone
Sustaining
Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 1 0, b. 1
J 1 j
J ?J J J jj
J0 j J A
0
I;
Keepdownthethroughout
wood pushed Keepdownthe throughout
wood pushed
·.111 r // E\ // // E= F r r
v ,/ ii v ,/
II � Ef"
/':\ /':\ /':\ v ii v
f"
H E // E // E ::: ·. E � II
I!
E
r: // r:
/! ,',I
�=- :
Stopwithethout
bowreloneasithengstring Stop
on thethestribowng
Repeat using a note on the A string, and on the D and G strings.
Then find the same feeling in the bow during the string crossings. While the bow is stationary on the
string at the end of the bow stroke, pivot silently from one string to another while keeping the wood
of the bow held down throughout:
wood pushed Keep the wood pushed down

Keepdownthethroughout
�tt F
� v
while pivoting to the string A
ii ,/
r J
v ii v ii v
r J J
/":'.
/":'. /':\
/":'. /":'. /':\ /":'.
g
151 // 151 /11 zr/ 151 //
bow/freloneasithengstring
Stopwithethout /f
Keep the wood pushed down
while pivoting to the string D
• Then find the same feeling in the bow when playing the passage normally: play deeply into the
springiness of the stick.
Long, slow, sustai ned strokes: developing control

• To improve long, slow, sustained strokes, practise holding them for much longer than you need to. At
the same time practise a few dynamic variations. Afterwards the long note in the passage will feel
much easier to control.
Example J. S . Bach: Concerto no. 1 in A minor, BWV1 04 1 , mov. 2, b. 30

+
Play near the bridge as slowly and as evenly as possible, at about J\ = 40-60. The slower the better.
• Using whole bows on each string, down-bow and up-bow, sustain the bow for as long as possible.
•
11 : :1
ii
l2l1
� : lll: lm
v
�I .. j
p f ===� p p -=== f p -===== f f ===- p ! ===- p
:f Ill :
bi:
ii
: Ill :
Im
II
«1 0 0
:
f ::=::=- p --==== f ::=- p -=::: ! ---- p ---
Tone 71
Susta i n i n g
Balancing double stops: varying the weight

• Experiment with different degrees of weight on each string to find the best balance of the bow.
Exmnple 1 Vivaldi: Autumn (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 3, mov. 3, b. 30
f f f f I f--�-� I f f f f f I� 1W
1
� �
1 1 1 1
mf
r r 11 f EE EE f r r f EE EE f r r
f
f f f f
� & f Ef Ef I f r r I f Ef Ef I f r r I f Ef Ef I f r r I f Ef EE I f r r I
f f f f
P mp mf f
Practise a phrase of double stops playing the lower string f, the upper string p .
Staying f on the lower string, gradually play more and more loudly on the upper string until the tone
•
•
Repeat the other way round. Keeping the upper string f, play the lower string gradually louder until
is balanced evenly.
•
both strings are equal.
Example 2 Francie Sonata in A, mov. 2, b. 225
J.�
� & 1\JJf 3'f$ {j 1 : I I t
It is especially important to find the right balance of weight on the chord marked '+' because while the
A is an open string, i.e. full length, the F# makes the E string less than half as long.
The bow must be much lighter on the E string in this chord than on the A string, because the shorter
1 See The shorter the string the length of string the less pressure it can take from the bow. 1
the nearer the bridge,
page 59; Length of string • Practice as in Example 1 :
and soundpoint, page 297
P mp mf f mf mp f f f f f f
� q1 F f F f f f 111 f F F F F F :1
2 There are tonal advant
ages in playing the lower
note of an octave louder
than the upper note : ,
(special colours consisting
f f f f f f p mp mf f mf mp
of a solid body of sound
with a 'sheen' on top).
When first and second
·� € �
Example 3
�
violins play in octaves, in a Bloch: Nigun (no. 2 from 'Baal Shem'), b. 53
t [J U t tf
� t
quartet or orchestra, the
� t
4 4 4
lower line often plays more ii
� 2:g f E
loudly than the upper line.
r
There are also intonational
advantages. If octaves are
not exactly in tune they can
be made to seem as if they
are in tune if the lower
note is played louder
than the upper note.
The lower note of an octave is often played louder than the upper note.2
Playing the lower note
louder should not be • Practise a phrase of octaves holding both fingers down but sounding only the lower note of
• Then begin to add the upper note. Begin with the lower note f and the upper note ppp .
confused with the fact that each octave.
the hand position in
• Keeping the lower note f, play the upper note gradually louder and louder until it is clear, though
playing octaves is based
more on the upper finger.
not as loud as the lower note.

72 Tone
S u sta i n i ng
4 F·
Play only the lower l i ne, placing the x-notes silently Lower line f, upper line 'PPP
gF F t t � €F F t t
t1'r Ir r 1 f f tJ 1rt· £r r 1 E E Ll 1
41 41 41 41
f f
4
p
€F F F· €F F
pp
�t
4
f
•
£r r 1 E E Ll !Ir
f
Ir r 1 E E Ll 1 �
Balanci ng double stops: tremolo

e Tremolo the bow across the strings as a quick practice method to balance the bow perfectly on each string.
�
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1004, Ciaccona, b. 133
+
��12
fi
• Find how to play the tremolo very fast and perfectly evenly, each note sounding clearly.
4
• Play the tremolo at the same dynamic, and at the same distance from the bridge, as the actual double stop.
2
Example 2 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 4, b. 1

fi
�
+ 2
4i e t W
4
f
4i I 1 rtr·Ut5tqtrt5t 5tr: t : 111N tr tr t rtrtrtrtrta F

2 2
11
• Also practise in dotted rhythms, keeping the bow very close to both strings:
� �j,11 i j,� IWD � Ip 1 q; 83p j,� i1D I � 1rup �; i,D I ; ��

fi 2
+ 2 2 2 2
0 1 3
1 3
=======��
� t II bPr4 f r f f f r f f f F [ G F r F r r F f E f 5 f r f F II
� -------
F f f F
3
0
Tone 73
Susta i n i ng
Avoiding an u n i ntentional d i m i n uendo

Since the bow does not automatically sink into the string, but wants always to release to its state of great
est relaxation, many unintentional diminuendos may occur unless you are careful to sustain the tone.
• If you notice that you are allowing the bow to make a musically unwanted diminuendo, practise by
doing the opposite: play the phrase or passage with a crescendo. Afterwards, the normal sustaining
will feel easier and automatic.
Exam,ple 1 Beethoven: Sonata in D, op. 12 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 81
4 1�
• Practise with a crescendo to avoid a diminuendo before the subito p :
� 2 3
Exam,ple 2 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 1, b. 181
To avoid =====-
• Play in the same part of the bow, using the same length of bow, as when playing the passage normally.
Exam,ple 3 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 66
f# JJ
J iJ
#J�
B
--====== � JJ
J�
;J
-==== -==== --======
ToPractiavoised =====- --======
�
--======
Exam,ple 4 Brahms: Scherzo (Sonatensatz), Wo02, b. 28
ff --=====
In the bar marked '+' avoid an excessive diminuendo on the Ab or Eb so that the line is sustained, as an
unbroken wave, through to the other side of the marked diminuendo.
• Playing up to tempo, practise with a long, sustained stroke on the Ab and Eb, with full vibrato:
Ir
74 Tone
Susta i n i n g
Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 2 1 , b. 76
nless marked otherwise, it is especially important to crescendo to the top of a brilliant run:
Practise
Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 3, b. 265
l k� �
> E
j) J c rJ f t E I WCQ f;Jf iJ?:fFJ

v
�
Practise ef
To avoid p
J. S. Bach: Partita no. 3 in E, BWV1 006, Preludio, b. 49
Ii
'""#' I en m m I JJn: J sm BD I p1a a P3J J j a a lj

p
f f
• Crescendo to the subito p ; diminuendo to the subito f (avoiding an unwanted crescendo) :

Ii
4
4
+ +
51 ff ff t
v
• On the up-bow attacks marked '+', avoid playing fp or pfp . Exaggerate playing full, equally sustained
quarter-notes (crotchets) by playing the strokes longer, with a slower bow, deeper in the string, and
nearer the bridge, than normal.
4 f"r.\
Slow bow, near the brid�ge v Long pause v
l� t
,/
� j- ff
t:\
ff
ff
Tone 75
Susta i n i ng
Ang l e the bow the bridge

Although the bow is usually parallel to the bridge you can move it closer to the bridge, or further away,
1 See Angle of the bow to by angling the bow slightly, 1 Angling the bow is useful either for sustaining the bow near the bridge or,
Holding a long, sustained, f stroke near the bridge, bow slightly 'out' on the down-bow (Fig, 8a) and
the bridge, page 302
by allowing the bow to drift to the fingerboard, for making a perfect diminuendo.
•
slightly 'in' on the up-bow (Fig. 8b) so that there is less chance of the bow wandering away from the
bridge.
Note that when the bow is 'out' the point of the bow points back, towards your left shoulder. The
smallest amount of angling the bow is enough to hold a constant soundpoint.
• Bow 'in' towards the end of the down-bow to allow the bow to move to the fingerboard.
Fig. 8
(a) The bow angled out (b) The bow angled i n
Examples Beethoven: Romanze i n G, op. 40, b. 56
�v
Out I n
f sf
Messiaen: Theme et variations, Fifth variation, b. 1
In Out Out In
ff.ff
Bart6k (arr. Szekely) : Roumanian Folk Dances, No. 4, b. 19
oO� � � �
ii Out In Out In
F 1r f f
2
f � f" i 1v
f
3
Chausson: Poeme, op. 25, b. 65
2 3
Rode: Concerto no. 7 in A minor, op. 9, mov. 1, b. 80
F F r Ir
In
ritard. f
76 Tone
art
D istance from the bridge

In four-string chords the bow often has to move towards the bridge
during the chord. An alternative to moving towards the bridge is to
play the upper strings more gently; but in a powerful chord, the bottom strings need to be played a little
further from the bridge, and the top strings a little closer to the bridge. 1 1 See The higher the
string, the nearer the
bridge, page 58
• Practising by exaggeration, begin the chord near the fingerboard and end it near the bridge. Afterwards,
a normal amount of pulling in to the bridge will feel natural and automatic.
Example 1 Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 3, b. 4
2 1
(1) (2) (3)

Soundpoint 4
4 {1 1 n
1
�
fl I
7' Crushed 7'
Scratched Soundpoint 4
(1 ) If the four-string chord marked '+' is played on soundpoint 2, the bottom two strings may easily be
scratched. 2 2 See Fig. 5, page 47
(2) If the chord is played on soundpoint 4, the upper two strings may easily be crushed.
(3) Practising by exaggeration, play the bottom strings on soundpoint 4, and the top strings on sound
point 2.
Example 2 Bart6k (arr. Szekely): Roumanian Folk Dances, No. 1, b. 12
1f rU
+
,,......._..
• Exaggerate the change of soundpoint as follows:

CD @ ® ® = soundpoints
rs h
Key strokes 77
Chords
"I
Exmnple 3 J. S. Bach: Sonata no. 2 in A minor, BWVI 003, Puga, b. 7
2 JJ
fl 1 (3 :f3 I'
j)
v 1
fl
+ +
1 11�
4
1
The chords in the second bar are usually played as 'three-two' or 'three-two-one' chords (see page 84) .
Nearer the bridge the curve of the four strings is more rounded and the strings have greater tension; it
becomes more difficult to catch all three strings at once. Nearer the fingerboard the strings are flatter
and softer under the bow; it is much easier to catch three strings at the same time, but the tone may
easily be crushed.
The best soundpoint naturally depends on each particular chord, and whether it is on the lower three
strings (i.e. further from the bridge), or on the upper three strings (nearer the bridge) .
• Practise chords in the same way as Playing a phrase on each soundpoint, page 48: experiment with speed
= soundpoints
of bow, pressure and distance from the bridge until finding the desired tone quality.
@®®®
� dll::f :t :t y :t y :t y :t : 1
ii ii ii ii ii ii
II : � � � � � �
ii
0 ii ii ii ii ii
7_ 7_ 7_ 7_ 7_ 7_
¥ ¥
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®
Repeat many times
Pivoti ng
Pivoting is the movement of the bow around the string. At the same time as playing on one string, the
bow moves towards another (e.g. while playing on the A string the bow can move closer to the D or E
strings) .
When chords are split (e.g. playing the lower two strings of a three-string chord followed by the upper
two strings), the bow pivots on the middle string to transfer from the lower to the upper pair of strings.
• Practise by first playing the pivot string as a full-length note between the bottom and top of the chord.
• Gradually shorten the note on the pivot string, binding the bottom and top of the chord together
smoothly and seamlessly.
However you choose to play the chord, after you have practised the pivot strings in this way it will feel
more secure.
Example J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1004, Ciaccona, b. 1
I�
(1)
v vv
.})
ii ii
i i
I J. J I J... !J I
(1)
:J
ii
�j @tg� 1 ¥tzt§tJ I� I� I
(2)
78 Key strokes
Chords
Place all the fingers together as chords, but play only one line of the passage at a time - the lower
notes, the middle notes, then the top notes.
• Continuing to put down all the fingers together as chords, play two strings together - first the lower
two strings and then the
upper two.
"tJ 11 F �
3 3
��1, , F 1p F
i1
I f3 F2 #�2 F3 I
(1) i1 i1 i1 (2)
23 22 23 33 etc.
2 2 3 3
etc.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
etc.
(1 ) Bow only the bottom string. The x-notes show the fingers playing silently on the other strings.
(2) Bow only the middle string.
(3) Bow only the top string.
(4) Bow only the lower two strings.
(5) Bow only the upper two strings.
Ex ample 2 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 1, b. 131
etc.

+
-====== crescendo molto

• Practise broken three-string chords in the same way:
etc.
Key strokes 79
Chords
This practice method is also useful when the chords are not consecutive:
Bow balance and contact

In unaccompanied Bach the strings are often thought of as representing the voices in a choir, so that the
open E-A-D-G strings are soprano, alto, tenor and bass respectively. To bring out an inner voice, after
playing three strings together the bow continues to sustain the middle string (for example) alone.
Use the same approach to practise any chord sequence. This improves the balance and contact of the
bow on the different strings, and also intonation.
e Play all three strings together and then sustain one string only, then pairs, and finally all three strings.
Example 1 Dont: 24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 35, No. 1, b. 1
�� wr w�r. w�r. "!1�J. FJ.· �J.. J1 fr rr fr ,�

Catch all three strings together
(1 ) 1i ,/ Ii Ii
Each tie sounds l i ke a half-note (mi n i m)
I
etc.
( 1 ) Play all three strings at once, using a few centimetres of bow, and then sustain only one string.
Place the bow on the middle string of the chord near the heel. Press the middle of the three strings down
until you can see the bow hair contacting the outer strings of the chord.
Play as near to the bridge as possible. If the bow is too near the bridge it is difficult to catch all three
strings at once; too near the fingerboard the tone may easily be crushed.
Do not allow any break in the sound during the tied notes, e.g. when sustaining the lower string, do
not let the hair of the bow momentarily leave the lower string after playing the three strings together.
Each tie should then sound like a half-note (minim) .
80 Key strokes
Chords
(2) Play all three strings as before, using only a few centimetres of bow, and then sustain two strings.
(3) Finally, sustain all three strings at once.
In the four-string chords in the last bar, miss out the top note and then miss out the bottom note.
�·
Bruch: Scottish Fantasy, op. 46, mov. 4, b. 1 1
Ii
. . 1 1 0
f
II
rr
1
i1 J
etc. 1 1
I
etc.
Isolating specific fingers

• Isolate specific fingers that may be awkward to place, and play only those fingers, the others remaining
silently on the string.
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Sonata in G minor, BWVIOOI, Puga, b. 29
_J�� Plfiarystonlfinygerthe
I
1 4
• At the pair of chords marked '+' the first finger must quickly move from E on the D string to G on
the E string. Play only the first finger, placing the others silently (shown as x-notes) .
(1 )
At the chords marked '+' the first finger and fourth finger move in opposite directions.
(1) Place all the fingers but play only the fourth finger.
(2) Place all the fingers but play only the first finger.
Chords
Joining chords to other
• Practise playing from the end of one chord to the beginning of the next.
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 1 in B minor, BWV1002, Sarabande, b. 1
0
� �1 u Ir
Ii
r If
v v
Ii v Ii
i Connect
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 1 6, mov. 1 cadenza (Sam Franko)
�j !l � #!1
Ii
0
Ii
/'1
2!o. 2
v v
±' I r
Ii
l !o.
Ii
@11
Ii
Connect
'j ! � !l
r. j� 'ii 11
+
j)
Ii
I1
Ii Ii Ii
11�
v Ii v
6 1a 1�
Ii v
I I
Ii (2)
J
' v
r i r r r r r
-
/'
Avoid
( 1 ) Avoid accidentally catching the middle strings while crossing from the higher strings to the lower strings.
(2) Practise either lifting the bow slightly during the crossing, or stopping it on the string.
Spl itting the chord : bow d ivision

The lower strings of a split chord should usually be played with much less bow than the upper strings,
e.g. when starting a chord at the heel, the top of the chord should normally begin at, or a little below,
the point-of-balance. 'Follow the curve of the bridge' is another way of saying the same thing.
Example 1
'j "r=r @ [ dfft��

J. S. Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWVlOOl, Adagio, b. 1
+
• Practise saving bow on the base of the chord by exaggeration: use only five centimetres, arriving at
the top of the chord well below the point-of-balance.
• Despite using so little bow on the bottom ofthe chord, play a long pause. Sustain the bow deeply and evenly
in the string and with a pure tone. Play into the elasticity of the wood of the bow, hair, and string.
�
5
poiSlingt-of-bal
htly belaoncew ofcentibowmonletresy poi nFart-of-bal
belowance
'°'.>I '°'.>I '°'.>I
(2) Ii� (3) :i,
f f f �=====
{ 1 ) As written
(2) As played
(3) Practice method
If the chord is played instead in a more 'baroque', arpeggiated style, the same bow division and sense of
'following the curve of the bridge' applies.
R? K Pv �trokes
Chords
J. S. Bach: Sonata no. I in G minor, BWVlOOl, Puga, b. 58
The same proportions apply to bow division when starting the chord up-bow. Having started near the
poin reach the top of the chord midway between the point and the middle.
t,
Down-bow or up-bow, practise the string crossing in slow motion with 'clicks':1 1 See 'Click' practice,
page 1 06
4 centi\Ametres
> '
1
Ji:
:>
Stop the bow on the string
Ji:: >
between each stroke

• Follow the curve of the bridge with the bow, measuring the exact distance between the contact point
of the hair with one string and the contact point with the next.
• Having arrived at the top of the chord, play the upper two strings with a lot of bow.
Placing the fingers i n time before the bow

It is always easy for the bow to be ready to play a chord whereas the left-hand fingers may need more
time to find their places on the string. The fingers must be placed quickly enough to be ready before the
bow moves.
In a rapid series of chords, one way to improve the timing is to think of placing the next chord as the
final action of playing the previous chord. In other words:
Play the first chord - instantly place the fingers ready for the next chord. (Play-place.)
instead of
Place the fingers - play. Place the next fingers - play, and so on. (Place-play.)
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Sonata no. I in G minor, BWVlOOl, Puga, b. 21
Leave the bow on the string
J} :
\A v
� ji 1 if: I�
ri
Silently place the fingers

of the next chord
• Play the sixteenth-note (semiquaver) chord with a short stroke that ends with the bow on the string,
not in the air.
• At exactly the same moment that the bow stops moving and remains stationary on the string, place
the fingers on the double-dotted quarter-note (double-dotted crotchet) chord without playing it
(written as x-notes) .
• Place the unplayed fingers strictly in time in the rhythm shown.
83
Chords
Exa:m.ple 2 Saint-Saens: Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso, op. 28, Rondo, b. 304
(1 )
ii ii ii ii
(2) 32 ii 23 ii 24 ii 23 ii
'e F E F l lf F ,F F Place Play Place Play
\' � � j
2 ll
<3> 32 ii 23 ii 32 ii
( 1 ) Imagine that you will play each chord twice.

(2) Instead of actually sounding the chord twice, place the fingers for the first chord and play only the
second. The silently placed fingers are written as x-notes.
(3) Then instead of equal eighth-notes (quavers), place the silent x-notes as sixteenth-notes (semiquavers),
and then as 32nd-notes (demisemiquavers) . Place them exactly in time.
Non-split chords: sustaining

• Practise sustaining three strings together fo r almost the whole length o f bow, down-bow and up.
Afterwards the normal length, or the normal splitting of the chord, will seem very easy.
� 'b e qJ I � @ qs I
'
�E �
ii ii ii v
t t � �
I
J 3
tr �
q:n
r
� 1
p
sf �
' �"1, t f � 1 fh' �n

(1 ) ii ii (2) ii ii ii ii ii
� I
q� l F g @ @
ii
�
ZJ z72 {'/ zt/
u
( 1 ) These chords are often played as 'three-two' chords - three strings played together for about ten
centimetres, and then only the upper two strings for the rest of the chord. To the listener this sounds
1 See also Adjusting the
bow hold, page 88; like three strings throughout, but most of the chord is actually only two strings.
Spreading the fingers for
leverage, page 259; (2) Before playing the chords as three-two chords, practise sounding all three strings together.
Bow hold, page 302.
Build up little by little to the long, sustained chord at the end of the sequence. Start with the shortest
2 See Fig. 5, page 47
possible stroke and gradually add more and more length until using almost the whole length of the bow.
3 The amount of weight
required in the fingers is Playing each chord, press the middle of the three strings down until you can see the bow hair contacting
always the same, i.e. as
much as necessary to stop
the outer strings of the chord. Hold the wood of the bow down towards the hair, without releasing, during
each note cleanly, but as the whole length of each stroke.
little as possible. It does
not make any difference To gain more power spread the fingers slightly further apart on the bow. 1 Move the first finger (and
how many fingers you possibly the second finger) slightly further away from the thumb (i.e. in the direction of the point) .
have on the string at the
same time. Over-pressing Play as close to the bridge as possible, at least on soundpoint 3.2 The nearer the bridge the better (so
with the left fingers in that you can play deeply into the strings without crushing the tone), but the harder it is to catch all three
double stops and chords,
as a reaction to the heav strings at once.
you would use for a normal f on one string alone. Remember to keep the left fingers light. 3
ier weight required in the
bow, is one of the most
Because the weight of the bow is divided between three strings you need almost triple the weight that
frequent causes of tension.
Kev strokes
Chords
Vieuxtemps: Concerto no. 5 in A minor, op. 37, mov. 1, b. 71
• Practise sustaining all three strings together so that afterwards a three-two chord seems effortless:
tf 1 4J:
striSustai n three
�ll » I
�' ngs together
¢'
4
J. S . Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWVlOOl, Puga, b. 3

Ii v
� � I
v v {':\ {':\
• Before playing as three-two or three-two-one chords, sustain all three strings equally with as long
and slow a stroke as possible.
Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, nwv. 1, cadenza

v v
,� � J?� !FfiJ�fJ={b@;Q=f � � cresc. 3--3 � ____..,,
The chords marked '+' are played with a medium-speed bow stroke, all three strings equally sustained.
� ff
• Practise sustaining the three strings together with a slower and longer bow stroke than in the passage:
'tt1 II »j :1
fi v v
{':\ {':\
1
Three together Three-two Three together Three-two Three-two-one
( 1 ) Play all three strings together, sustaining the bottom string equally with the top string.
Move from three strings to only two, sustaining the top two strings as an ordinary double stop.
(2) Play all three strings together. Move from three strings to two. Move from three strings, to two, to
only the top string.
Key strokes 85
Detache
detache: the bow speed and pressure stay the same from
Simple
one end of the stroke to the other. The strokes are connected to
each other seamlessly, without a break or alteration in the sound.
Accented detache: the bow speed is fast-slow, and the pressure is heavy-light. There is space between
the strokes, ranging from the tiniest gap to a longer silence.
Simple detache: smooth bow changes

To make a smooth bow change: (1) very slightly slow the bow an instant before the bow changes direction,
1 The factors that most and (2) at the same time very slightly lighten the pressure. 1
commonly disturb the
bow change are • Practise the bow changes by pausing briefly just before you move the bow the other way. See how
(1 ) suddenly increasing slowly you can move the bow, while still sustaining the tone solidly, in the very last centimetre before
the bow speed just before
changing direction, and
the bow changes direction.
� " E f0 �:t E0 � r r4 6 F ��:t r � r E I E f g�

(2) at the same time lig ht
ening the bow excessively
(at the point) or over Example 1 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 2, b. 1
:t r F r E r r F r r F r r I ��
pressing (at the heel) just
before changing direction. 4
Theliketionee sounds
note Sloiwn thethelabow
st centiandml etre
ighten liSlgohtenw,
,/ ------ ,/
/' /' '
even pressure of bow Even

Even speed, One centi m etre
• Begin slowly, playing in the upper half. Imagine that although each note sounds like a half-note
(minim), it is actually a double-dotted quarter-note (crotchet) tied to a sixteenth-note (semiquaver) .
• At the last moment before finishing the stroke, at the very end of the sixteenth-note, slow and lighten
2 The way a playground the bow infinitesimally. 2
swing slows to a halt
before changing direction The effect to the listener should be of the smoothest, most seamless bow change imaginable, with
provides a useful image absolutely no break in the tone between the strokes.
for the bow change.
The difference is that
having changed direction
Example 2 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 i n G minor, op. 26, mov. 2, b. 1 1
+
the swing starts off slowly
and gathers speed
2 1 1 /:'I 2
J I J J. j I J
gradually, whereas the G
bow moves at full speed
at the very beginning of
moving in the new
direction.
f
�
v theSlowlastthecentibowmetrei n
] I Ji
2 1
$ I J..
G
1
j J. . ) J..
\i
Slolwastthecentibowmetrein the
/:'I �
\i
86 Kev strokes
Detache
1111 Us e slurs as a model for a perfect legato in separate-bow strokes.

+
�
l t r ttr 1r t
i1
Sustai n evenl\.\y and solidly Make thethe same

separateas thebowsslursound
r ttr i r t r ttr i r t :1
i1 i1
�
Model �
Copy \.\
f f
Example 2 Haydn: Concerto no. 2 in G, Hob.Vlb, mov. 1, b. 31
Accented detache: proportions

Each accented detache is the result of certain proportions of speed and pressure. You can create an endless
number of different characters of stroke by combining different degrees of 'fast', 'slow', 'heavy' and 'light'.
• Build the stroke gradually by beginning with a smooth, simple detache. Then add the fast-slow and
heavy-light stresses, and then add the space between the strokes.
Example Beethoven: Romanze in G, op. 40, b. 68
This passage may be played in the upper half of the bow with a light, slightly detached stroke. The speed
pattern of each stroke is fast-slow, and the pressure pattern heavy-light, with a slight gap between each stroke.
(1) Begin with sustained, even strokes (even speed, even pressure) . Join each stroke to the next smoothly,
without any break between the strokes.
(2) Then add a little accent to the beginning of each stroke (fast-slow, heavy-light), but still with no break
between the strokes.
(3) Then add the space between the strokes.
• Also practise the stroke on one note, and then apply the same stroke to the passage:
ll : c c c c : lll : f t t t t t t t : lll : f t t f f t f f : i
Sustained evenly Slightly accented Accented and separate
c c c c
/' /'
Gradually becoming slig htly Gradually becoming
accented as you repeat more separate
Kev strokes 7
Marte le
Designing the stroke

(from the French word for 'hammered') provides a good
Martele
illustration of proportions. The stroke is made up of fast-slow bow speed, heavy-light pressure, begins
with a bite, and often has a space between each stroke.
In searching for an exact variety or shade of martele the questions to ask are: where in the bow does the
stroke begin; where does it end; how much bite; how fast is the fast part of the stroke, and how slow is
the slow part; how heavy, and then how light; and how much space between the strokes?
• Combine different quantities of these factors to create an infinite number of different characters of
martele.
Example Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, No. 1 4, b. 1
�' B J J
0
(Upper half, marte/e)
0
J J J J Ip
p
Description: energetic but soft-edged martele, about 5 centimetres of bow for each stroke, in the middle
of the upper half; not too heavy a bite. Pressure: very quick release as soon as the bow begins to move
after the initial bite. Speed: only very little 'slow' at the end of the stroke. Space between the strokes:
small gap.
• Build the stroke on one note, experimenting with soundpoint, place in the bow, length, speed, pressure,
and space between the strokes:
Conti
passagenuewistraithoutghtstoppi
into theng
Build the stroke on one note \.
Adjusting the bow hold

Because martele is such a powerful stroke, to play without undue effort you have to put together all the
1 See also Spreading the factors in the bow hand that give power. Experiment with different bow holds: 1
fingers for leverage, page
259; Bow hold, page 302. 1 Move the first finger slightly further away from the thumb (i.e. in the direction of the point), to use
the principles of leverage to best effect.
The bow hold may feel better balanced ifyou move the second finger one millimetre in the same direction.
2 Bring the knuckles down slightly flatter.
3 Turn the hand slightly more onto the first finger ('pronate').
2 See Fig. 28, Page 258 4 Raise the elbow slightly more to lever the weight of the arm into the hand and bow. 2
5 Slightly straighten the fingers more on the down-bow, curve more on the up-bow. (This makes a
difference even if the amount the fingers move is almost invisible.)
Example Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1, b. 91
t
i1 (Upper half, marte/e)
� >,.,--..__
f
i1
� , r nu �n
. 0
\. .
/' i . 0
t
(Lower half, spiccato)
V
Continuewistraithoutghtstoppi
into theng
l ff 1 r ; r r r r 11 r r r r r c 11 rr· tptg
� >,..---..._
� , i1 passage
"
_
"''" ' 0 0
'"'. 'Id th k ooe t
v
' 00 '
. . . . . . . .. . . \. .
t
4
88
Martele
catchi ng the str ing

• The bite at the beginning of a martele is an important feature of the stroke. During the silence between
the strokes grip the string heavily, ready for the next stroke. 1 Gripping the string, at any part of the 1 'Catching' the string
before playing the marte/e
bow, is done by pushing the wood at the middle of the bow down towards the hair.
is an example of technical
timing as opposed to
Example Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 6, b. 1 musical timing. Musical
�ej J 1¥
timing is when you want
4 the note to sound;
2 J l f
>
0
J F
4
�
technical timing is always
J c
j
y
v y y y y y
� before the sound.
Other important examples

of technical timing include
*v
f pivoting (moving to a new
string while playing the
Grip the string 4
old string (page 1 02)),
v v
� *3 )1 _ J � * � D � D � � I
'\I and finger preparation
:M £1 �
r... Ii r... r... Ii r... 4 '.){ 0 (page 240).
--k-
8
� 8
8
8
�E �E
�E H
fa
x fa fa simile
fa
Before playing each martele, stop the bow on the string. Press the bow down heavily to grip the string
firmly with the hair (shown as an x-note) .
Use full hair for strength of contact, and to avoid the wood of the bow touching the string. Feel the
force of springiness in the wood of the bow, the hair, and the string. They all want to return to a state
of relaxation, but hold them still in a state of increased tension.
2 Without releasing the pressure, very slowly pull and push the string from side to side. Do this entirely
silently - do not lose hold of the string, letting it snap back.
3 Having moved the string from side to side a few times, stop the bow without releasing the pressure.
4 Then play the martele with a fast-slow bow speed. Release some of the pressure the instant the bow
begins to move: the stroke should begin with a single 'click', not a scratch.
5 Stop the bow on the string at the end of the stroke and repeat the process for the next note.
Vibrato accents
In slow to medium mariele and at other times when the bow makes an accent, it is usual to mirror this
in the left hand with a vibrato that is fast-slow and wide-narrow.1 1 See also Vibrato accents,
page 1 38
Bow Fast-slow, heavy-light
Vibrato Fast-slow, wide-narrow
Apart from the clearly different musical result, this produces a feeling of the hands working together,
rather than the unnatural feeling of combining an even-speed vibrato with fast-slow bow speed.
e Practising by exaggeration, make the vibrato accent greater than the bow accent by playing each note
with a very fast-slow and wide-narrow vibrato.
Example Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, mov. 1, b. 188
��B o
sul G
-:i
3
Ii
�
1 4
> > >

> > > >
� � jvib.
f mare. e rubato
Ii
1
etc.
vib . vib. vi b. vib.
e On each note marked 'vib.', make a fast-slow and wide-narrow vibrato. Keep the bow speed and
pressure almost even, creating most of the accent with the vibrato, not the bow.
Key strokes 89
Martele
Releasing between strokes

Martele requires a firm bow hold at the beginning of the stroke, but during the martele the hand can
release. Tension and awkwardness may result if the hand remains 'fixed' and 'gripping' the bow during
and between the strokes. (See margin note 2, page 255.)
Example Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 2 1 , mov. 1, b. 66
r r
,-- 3 -----,
:> :>
ff pesante
L_ 3 ___J
>
• Practise the moments of release into the stroke by pausing between strokes. Completely release the
bow, hand and fingers during the pause.
ReleRest the bowetelliyghtltheyhand

on theandstrifinng.gers.
11�
i1
�j f �
4 ase compl
IJ
::::-
�
i/
� r � � I I ��
/":\ ::::- /":\ 1
simile :> :>

>
Note about rhythm and accent practice

Staccato
Discussed in full on pages 36-46, practising in rhythms and accents
is very helpful for gaining absolute control in staccato.
Example Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. 1, b. 23
Legato slurs
For good co-ordination in staccato the left-hand fingers must be very even. At the same time each note
should receive an equal amount of bow.
• Before playing a run with staccato, build greater smoothness and evenness into both hands by practising
the run with a slurred stroke.
Example Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 2 1 , b. 23
�
-.ml---f-0----+ -1-f]-1-·-1-f-1-t-+-ttf-+-t-.+1t-1"-f----tttqi--f·-=i-r t"-tl>--Jil �ir:tr:-;;i 1FiiAfa;w
:-
4
-H-�� 1 -+-
ttll�,... .---n
J
90 Key strokes
Staccato
e Play the slur with the bow unusually solid and deep in the string.
e Use the same amount of bow that you will use in the actual staccato run. (Play nearer the bridge if
-----------------Pl:_:ay_t_he entir::lur only i n the upper half

the sound is scratchy.)
ti! µr f
4
;Mrm;
o
� tt11# 1 ¥f 1 rttef r [ r le
f
Usi ng spiccato as a model

e Play the run with a sparkling and pure spiccato to use as a model for the staccato. Even: if you cannot
make the two strokes exactly the same, just the attempt to do so will improve the staccato dramatically.
• Use short but rounded spiccato strokes, with much 'ring' or resonance.
Example Sarasate: Zapateado, op. 23 no. 2, b. 114
• Also practise on one note:

Make
soundthethestaccato v-�
fffff
Spiccato same
$ t 11 7
� v v � v�
i1
i1 i1
Saving bow
Avoid using too much bow in the beginning of the run and getting to the middle of the bow too soon.
Staccato rarely works comfortably in the lower half of the bow, because the movement of the bow at the
point becomes too large to be manageable. The reason for this is a vivid illustration of proportions and
of leverage. Play a repeated string-crossing pattern at the extreme heel, and then at the extreme point:
' 0 0 0 0
Play atv the extreme heel Play atv the extreme tip
¥ F f r f F f F r F f F f F [ r fI F F F F r f r f r f F F r f r FI
i1
i1
Tiny movement
Very of theatbowtheatpoithent heel
large movement Tiny movement
Very of theatbowtheatheelthe point
large movement
Playing the pattern at the extreme heel, notice how the movement of the bow at the heel is very small,
while at the point the movement is very large. Playing it at the extreme point, notice how the movement
at the tip of the bow is very small, while the movement at the heel is very large.
• Practise the whole run using only a quarter of the amount of bow you will actually use in the end.
• Then gradually increase the amount of bow.
Key strokes 91
Staccato
Curved bow strokes
•
Each note in a staccato run is played with a tiny, curved bow stroke. The bow does not go along the
1 For other examples of string in a straight line. 1 Watch the point of the bow during a staccato to see tiny little 'dipping' movements.
curved strokes see Fore
arm rotation, page 95; Exaggerate the curves by playing a double stop for a brief moment at the start of each staccato note.
Cwved Bow Strokes
2...
(Sautille), page 98;
Exatnple Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, mov. 1, b. 125
riq p
Beginning and ending
'� p �
notes, page 268
�t b r e f r r I [ [ t F j : J2 J ihiJsJ11e
� . . . 4
.
B :
•
. 4 . . .
Start at a slow tempo and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible:
String crossings
2 See Crossing early,

•
Late string crossings in staccato disturb the evenness of the stroke.
Practise by playing the string crossing too early: play the note before the string crossing, and the note
after, as a double stop. 2
page 1 02
Exatnple Kreutzer: 4 2 Etudes o u caprices, No. 4 , b. 7
3 3 --o -----
>� · �
'� 1 r2 t�
r t crr �§I�
I f HC(Ef�J t fflA >
•
00
Use the same amount of bow that you will use in the actual staccato run:
::>
. 1 2 2 > l g JjJ)J OJ �
3 0. . 3
3 3 3 3 3. . > . .
••
Metronome p ractice
Play with the metronome, starting at a slow tempo (perhaps two notes to a beat at 60) .
•
Use a tiny length of bow for each stroke so that the whole run can be played using a normal amount
of bow.
Gradually speed up (63, 66, 72, etc.), to as fast a tempo as possible.
92 Key strokes
Spiccato
slurs
The left-hand fingers must be even so that they do not disturb the
evenness of the bow stroke.
e Practise spiccato passages slurred to expose and correct any unevenness in the left hand.
Example De Falla (arr. Kreisler) : Danse espagnole, b. 163
8va - - - --- ----------,

A
tf�f "Fr F F F 1 �fttr u E E 1 "r ttg u Ff I r �rt r"r"f Ip

. 4
Height and length

In spiccato the bow moves in acurved line that ranges from saucer-shaped to U-shaped. The hair touches
the string at the very bottom of the curve. The main proportions to consider are height of bounce to
length of bow. 1 1 To play a series of
completely even spiccato
The higher the bounce and the less movement along the string, the shorter and crisper the spiccato. The strokes, the up-bow must
follow in reverse the same
lower the bounce and the more movement along the string, the longer and more rounded the spiccato.2 path as the down-bow. See
• Begin with short detache strokes on the string. Gradually let the bow begin to bounce, finally letting also Example 6, page 65.
the hair leave the string. 2 See also Lifted strokes,

page 297
• Also do the reverse - begin with a short spiccato and gradually play it longer until it remains on the
string.
Example 1 Beethoven: Sonata in G, op. 30 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 1
. t �
l: I�
fJ
· � J
On the string Beginning to come out Long, 'brushed' spiccato Short spiccato
Example 2 Bart6k (arr. Szekely) : Roumanian Folk Dances, no. 6, b. 41
h
F I�
1
sempre ff
�# 1 1 , � E t r 1 1, F r F r 1 1 � E e r ,1 1, r r t r 1
-;-
,
Short spiccato Repeat Long, 'brushed' spiccato Almost on the string On the string
many
times
Key strokes 93
Spiccato
Amount hair
The best proportions of height-length-soundpoint, and the best place to play in the bow, and how
heavily or lightly you can play, all change according to how much hair is used.
• Playing on one note, experiment with different tilts of the bow.
• Adjust the proportions (height-length-soundpoint-dynamic-tempo-place in the bow-amount of
hair) so that the sound is always pure however much hair contacts the string.
• Find the right combination to produce the desired character of spiccato for any particular passage.
Exam,ple Vivaldi: Autumn (The Four S easons), op. 8 no. 3, nwv. 1, b. 1
r: 1r r r r r rt uc f F
(Spiccato, point-of-balance)
$� " r r r r r
i1 i1 i1 i1
' � 1 t t t t t t t t 1 t t r r t t t t 1t t t t t r t t 1
. . . outer edge of hair . . . . . . more hair . . . . . .full hair . . .
� ood of bow tilted towards fingerboard Wood directly above the string
$ � t t t t t t t t 1t t r t t r t t 1
. . . less hair . . . . . . outer edge of hair . . .
Wood tilted towards fingerboard
Sound point
Because the string is soft near the . fingerboard and hard near the bridge, the best proportions of height
length are different at each distance from the bridge.
Spiccato nearer the fingerboard: lower, shorter, lighter, faster
Spiccato nearer the bridge: higher, longer, heavier, slower
e Play a group of notes on soundpoint 5 . Experiment with the height, length, pressure, speed, amount
1 See also Playing a phrase of hair, and area of the bow until the tone is pure and ringing.1
on each soundpoint,
page 48 To adjust the length o f bow, make the curve of the total bow stroke flatter or more U-shaped.
• Repeat on soundpoint 4. The spiccato will now be very slightly higher, longer, heavier and slower.
• Repeat on soundpoints 3 and 2. On soundpoint 2 the spiccato will be very much higher, longer, heavier and
slower than it was on soundpoint 5. Spiccato does not work on soundpoint 1 , except in very high positions.
Exam,ple Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 3, b. 1
Soundpoint 5 Soundpoint 4 Soundpoint 3 Soundpoillt 2
• Another useful approach is to move from soundpoint to soundpoint:
' ttt1 I 11: P P P P IP P P P IP 0 P P

v v v v v v v v v v v v
o/ Y o/ ¥ o/ o/ o/ o/ Y 2 2 2
' #11 p p � � I� � p p I� � �7�7 :1

v v v v v v v v v v v v
o/ o/ o/ o/ o/ o/ o/ o/ o/ 7
• Continue trying different proportions until finding the purest, most resonant tone in each spiccato
stroke, entirely free of any scratch or other tonal distortion.
• Then use this same design of stroke in the passage.
94 Key strokes
Spiccato
fo rea rm rotat ion

Fo rearm rotation in spiccato is so slight as to be invisible, yet without it the stroke can easily become
heavy and laboured. This is because a tiny amount of forearm rotation takes the place of much larger
movements in the forearm and upper arm. It is an essential part of all lifted bowings. 1 1 See also Forearm
rotation, page 265
• Pra ctising by exaggeration, play slowly while making a larger-than-life forearm rotation on each stroke.
Rotate clockwise a little on each up-bow, anticlockwise on each down-bow (the principal movement still
being from the upper arm). The bow makes tiny curves: catch the string at the bottom of the curve.
ii�
Examples .
. I oc kwise
A nt1c
Beethoven: Sonata in F, op. 24 ('Spring'), mov. 1, b. 63
;f7 ! ·
\i Clockwise
��B y
Very slow \i
a c a c sf
c = clockwise a = anticlockwise
.h . .h .
3, b. 15
� �H R t t r
Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov.
fl-
\i �
�?
Rotate clockwise Rotate anticlockwise
r -vw
1 -�r E Ir t I
,/
4
t F r r j
,;, ;J
j
...
c a c a c a c a c a c a c a c a
Very slow
Co-ordination
For spiccato to be clean and ringing it is essential that the finger fully stops the string before the bow
touches the string. It is easy to blame the bow for a scratchy spiccato when the scratch is actually the fault
of the finger.
• Exaggerating the timing, place the fingers silently in a syncopated rhythm between the bow strokes
(shown as x-notes) .
J :J 3. I � l J J J J I d 0 ;
v
f
1 i 2 . Ji]
2 .
1 3JJ�JIF
• Start at a slow tempo and speed up gradually.
J p IJ
2 v 2 3 2
J J J
3
J J
D · r · D J1 c r r(
I
r(
p
· I I
"{
Place on the string /'
�� J 2 3 4 2
j J � J J Ij
2 3
� �( J t J i J D j I � I
3 vk 2 3 4 2 3
Jl
t( f( t t( I r J D
1
D r
x
"{ 8
Example 2 Brahms: Scherzo 'Sonatensatz', Wo02, b. 14
r
v1
c I f'
1
t t;
1 .
b� . �
�!;; ;J
• Begin at a slow tempo, and gradually speed up until near performance tempo:
Pt1a1f qH t1tl'& 1 'f

v v ii v v ii v
r( -. I
1 r 2
x
H
Kev strokes 95
Spiccato
of bow
•
Spiccato nearer the middle: lower, shorter, lighter, faster
Spiccato nearer the frog: higher, longer, heavier, slower
Try different parts of the bow to find the best place for each passage. At each place experiment with
the proportions of height and length of bow to find the best quality and character of spiccato.
Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 1 6, mov. 1, b. 64
i1
o �r f
�
Middle of the bow 5 centimetres below the middle 1 0 centimetres below the middle
1 5 centimetres below the middle 10 centimetres below the middle 5 centimetres below the middle
1J 1J J 13 S D J I J J
Example 2 Grieg: Sonata in C minor, op. 45, mov. 3, b. 2
J 1. 1. J J l.
•
p .
Having found exactly the right place in the bow, play straight from the repeated notes into the passage
itself:
M iddle Lower Lower Point-of-balance
� �1i1, � � I � J J � :I � J J � I � J J �
> > > >
J. J. I
Repeat many times
. . /' . . . .
Higher Higher Play straight into the passage
Colle-spiccato
In ordinary spiccato the speed of bow is the same before, during and after touching the string. In colle
spiccato the bow pauses for an instant before playing each note, half a centimetre or so above the string.
•
The bow then moves very quickly in a 'saucer-shape' or 'U-shaped' line, contacting the string with great
speed at the bottom of the curve and throwing the spiccato note out like a pizzicato.
Practise by enlarging all the proportions: play at a very slow tempo (wait longer between each stroke),
and then move the bow very fast.
Example 1 Mozart: Sonata in Bb, K378, mov. 1, b. 22
+
i1 i1 .
0 � . P- .
(1) (2)
'�
Grip the string firmly 'Hover' close to the string
)1 I )1 1 )1 l1
\. i1 \. i1 i1
�
' v ' ' ' v
� �I,'� 1' ' °'/

>
7 J
>
J J
/' 0 > /' 0 >
Move the bow very fast and suddenly Fast and sudden
96 Kev strokes
Spiccato
(1) It is often helpful if first you practise the stroke starting with the bow on the string.
The comma represents the bow gripping the string firmly without moving.
(Z) Repeat the stroke from the air. The comma represents hovering the bow just above the string. Then
move the bow very fast to catch the string with energy.
Messiaen: Theme et variations, Second variation, b. 3
Avoid tension in the bow arm and hand by releasing during the space between the strokes.
• Exaggerate the moment of release by pausing between the strokes, and then play on into the passage:
�.
Move the bow very fast and suddenly Play straight into
the passage Ii 4 4
�l�l�lil
\i 2
�I 11 i l
2
& & :ii� & i

:::- :::- \i .
7_ l 7_ l 7_ l l
/I Repeat many times mf etc.
Release
The chief difference between spiccato and sautille is that in spiccato

you are in control of each stroke, whereas in sautille it is more that
you let the bow spring. Another difference is that whereas in slow
spiccato the bow hair leaves the string, in faster spiccato and sautille the wood of the bow bounces but the
hair stays on the string.
Legato slurs
As in staccato and spiccato, for good co-ordination in sautille the left-hand fingers must be rhythmically even.
• Practise the passage without sautille, playing long legato slurs.
Example Saint-Saens: Concerto no. 3 in B minor, op. 6 1 , mov. 3, b. 78

v
, � I 1� f fj J � d J 3 3 J J 0 J I J J J1 t F r ¢ fJ J1 i �tJ1f
i 4
Taking fingers off the bow
• Play a phrase or passage of sautille (or practise on Fig. 9

one note) with only the thumb and first finger on
the bow (Fig. 9) . Feel how the bow is able to move
freely, pivoting around the thumb, without being
restricted by the other fingers. 1 1 See also Bow hold,
page 302
• Also do the same with only the thumb, second and
third fingers on the bow.
Repeat with a normal bow hold, feeling the same
pivoting movement as when holding the bow with only
Practising sautille with only the thumb and first finger
th e thumb and first finger.
Kev strokes 97
Sautille
••
Based on
Begin a passage o f sautille at half speed or less, playing spiccato.
Gradually speed up, while letting the stroke develop into sautille.
Example Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 3, b. 168
> > > > > > > > (2) > > 0
> > ;,-
�;i p � ;i p i d P F r q µ tJ t r I
(1)
' ti##I t B 0 ti
.
-r -r " -r
•
>0
0
> (>) (>) > > >
f
(3)
t r E r n [ rJ t H Ff F H11
(4) 3
'tib Jpa J
..____,, t r t J
�
I J1 -.._./ r
(5)
0
>
0E > [4 F
' ti##I ¥ :g 6 r rr Jo :J Jo J I
3
6 r
�
( 1 ) Play slow spiccato, feeling how each stroke is an individual action. The hair clears the string completely.
1 See Active and passive (2) Playing a little faster begin to group the notes in pairs, almost feeling the strokes as active-passive. 1
strokes, page 260
(3) At a moderate tempo let the groups begin to develop into fours. Keep the hair very close to the string.
(4) Faster, feel the groups as one active, three passive. Let the wood bounce with the hair staying on the
string.
(5) Very fast, guide the bow in groups of eight.
Cu rved bow strokes

In sautille the bow plays around the string in a slightly curved motion. Watch the point of the bow while
2 See Curved bow strokes, playing the stroke. Like staccato, it has little 'dipping' movements that move it in a circular line.2
page 92
Example Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, mov. 3, b. 137
# f ff f f 1 t f ff' � f k g 1 i
2 . .
f
. 3
ti 2 x 3
' J5 � . . . .
J fj J 1 t C t F t t r f 1 ff
;altando
fp
·
3 While spiccato usually

Little bow; Gradually less and less lower The same circular Continue straight
works best with less than on the string; note, the bow beginning movement but now into the passage
full hair (the bow leaning every note eq ua I to come out of the string on one string only
towards the fingerboard),
sautille often works best
with full hair (the wood of
the bow directly a bove
( 1 ) Playingat the middle (wherever the bow bounces most easily), repeat this pattern many times. Play
the hair). firmly on the string with very little bow and full hair.3 Play each note with equal strength.
make a smaller and smaller circle so that the bow makes less and less contact w�th the G
Sautille
( Z ) Gradually
string. The lower note gradually becomes quieter until the bow no longer touches the G strmg at all.
At the same time, gradually let the bow begin to come out of the string.
(3) Finally,make a very small 'circle' on the D string, with the hair staying on the string and the wood
of the bow bouncing.
(4) Having found the stroke in (3) play straight into the passage without stopping.
Sautille has to be played in the particular place on the bow where the stick has the greatest natural bounce.
The best place varies from bow to bow, but is usually somewhere around the middle of the bow or just
above the middle. Just below the middle of the bow is a good place to play a slightly heavier sautille.
� ��,.� B [ r [ 1r E F f r £ r f E I h 1b 5 F j J J j j J J j I �l
Vivaldi: Winter (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 4, mov. 3, b. 120
e Playing the stroke on one note, move higher and lower in the bow to find the place where the bow
has the most immediate and natural bounce. Then use that place in the bow to play the passage:
Play straight into the
passage without stopping
tt rtttt
Middle . . . higher . . . higher . . . between middle and point . . . lower. . . lower
r I� � �
i/
e
...
I
simile
Repeat several times
Experi menting with p roportions

Ricochet is played in the upper half. Like spiccato, the main
proportions to consider in ricochet are length of bow to height of bounce. 1 Ricochet nearer the middle: 1 I n spiccato 'length of
lower bounce, less bow, faster. Ricochet nearer the point: higher bounce, more bow, slower. bow' means the distance
the hair moves along the
string during each note
Example 1 Paganini: La Campanella, op. 7, b. 10 (from very short to as long
as a centimetre or more).
f t f
In ricochet 'length of bow'
means the distance trav
elled in the air between
the bouncing contacts with
the string, the length of
each note staying more or
less the same.
• First practise the stroke on one note. Play a group of ricochet in each area of the upper half. Start in
the middle of the bow, work all the way up to the point and back down again to the middle. See also Lifted strokes,
page 297
• At the middle ofthe bow use a tiny amount of bow, with a very low, heavy and fast ricochet. As you play the
group higher and higher in the bow use more bow and a higher, lighter and slower ricochet. At the point
the ricochet will be very high and slow, and will use as much as a quarter of the bow. 2 2 It is also possible to play
a very fast, low ricochet at
Middle Higher Higher Higher Near point Lower Lower Lower Middle the extreme point. This will
�Ma II : ttrr;:; tttt// rrrr// tttt// ttttH ttttz51 tttt// ttttz51 ttttz51 :ii
� � � � � � � � � not produce such a ringing
tone, but is commonly
'!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ '!-----_ used in orchestral playi ng.
Low, heavy, Higher, lighter, Low, heavy,

fast slower fast
• Then do the same using the actual notes of the passage:
Low, heavy, Higher, lighter, Low, heavy,

fast slower fast
Key strokes 99
Ricochet
Example 2 Tchaikovsky: Three Pieces, op. 42, Scherzo, b. 56
p ·
:__./2 f
• f
�
�
Play in the middle of the bow, keeping the hair very close to the string:
��1'1i e 11 #C frrrr?r frbr ft 1 #t fCRrf t 1 #t frrf t 1 #t frrf t11

Tiny amount of bow More bow Less bow
2
More bow
2
Less bow
� � � 2 � 2 �
•
Experi menting with stri ng crossing
Experiment on open strings to find the best place in the bow, length of bow, and height of bounce
for the ricochet to work perfectly across the strings.
Example Beriot: Scene de! Ballet, op. 1 00, b. 80
3 t 3 F ID
• As well as practising the specific open-string pattern of the passage, experiment with the other
combinations and patterns as well:
Repeat many times
Legato slurs
•
In ricochet the speed of the bow and pressure must be even, and the left-hand fingers rhythmically even.
Build greater evenness into both hands by first practising the passage without ricochet, playing normal
legato slurs.
Example Paganini: 24 Caprices, op. 1 , No. 9, b. 61
� -
1 00 Kev strokes
Stri ng crossing
String crossings can be smooth or accented. For them to be smooth,
ng the bow should already be near the new string while playing the 1 See also Pivoting, page 78;
String crossings, page 92;
note or phrase on the previous string; or the bow should start to 'Click' practice, page 1 06;
rnove towards the new string while playing the last note or notes on the previous string. Moving to a new Forearm rotation, page 265
r
st ing whil e playing the old string is called 'pivoting'. 1
playi ng dose to the new stri ng

In many passages the ideal is to play so close to the next string that it looks almost as if there is no string
crossing at all. Bowing close to the next string is one of the most important aspects of bowing.
• The easiest way to practise this is simply to look at the hair of the bow and keep it so close to the
next string that you almost touch it.
Example 1 Vivaldi: Concerto in G minor, op. 12 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 13
f diminuendo ::==-
Look at the hair: Almost touching Almost touching Almost touching
p l !_£ ID C p I @ ff I ttr
almost touchin g E string E string E string E string
:p 1° r P IH P I Pr p
Almost touching Almost touching Almost touching
A string A string A string
Another way to think of this is that while playing on level 5 (A string) and about to cross to level 7 (E string),
the bow should stay closer to level 6 rather than moving all the way between level 5 and level 7. 2 2 Seven levels of the bow:
Level 1 G stri ng
Example 2 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 2, b. 9 Level 2 GD strings
ml r·
A Level 3 D string
+
Ii 3 � 3
Level
Level
4
5
DA strings
A string
' � � �
Level
Level
6
7
AE strings
E string
� �
E
A Ii
f
Almost touching D string Almost touching A string
r· f
1 2
F'
r � r
�
• Exaggerate the feeling of bowing on a flatter plane by playing double stops with the open strings:
3 �
r-11
A li
f�
[ I Y- i IF
�g [ E F ff1
2
Example 3 Moffat: Intrada, b. 2
V I r £ f ft EfGiTE
v �
1
ft r@ (JJ.P
• Exaggerate by playing double stops even if the result is discordant:
Afterwards, watch the bow hair and strings and notice how easy and natural it now seems to bow almost
'flat', close to both strings. The flatter bow produces a more singing and legato musical line, without the
disturbance of wide string crossings.
Key strokes 1 01
Stri ng crossing
C rossing early
The earlier the string crossing begins, the slower the crossing and the more gently the hair contacts the
new string; the later it begins, the faster the crossing and the greater the impact of the hair contacting
•
the new string.
Practising by exaggeration, build smooth string crossings by crossing so early that you play the new
string as a double stop with the old string.
Exam,ple 1 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1004, Sarabanda, b. 5
I
}]&J /
Exam,ple 2
l tl}
Beethoven: Sonata in A, op. 30 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 3
I J.
v
1 2 2
cresc. sf decresc.
41
1t
v n
I t± lt±JilJ �
v
Exam,ple 3 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K219, mov. 3, b. 16
n 41 n 41
1 r r J F 1 t r J : 11
Repeat many times
0.
Exam,ple 4 Beethoven: Sonata in A, op. 47 ('Kreutzer'), mov. 1, b. 314
i:_
� 11, y £.IO er
o
B 1 y =fiij er fl 1 yJJD "t: c r v 1
n V o q 1 +T�
(Upper half)
#
l.f
. ? �
1
2
•
f
cresc.
Start at a slow tempo, keeping the bow deeply sustained in the string. Gradually speed up until near
0
V 31 01 o ' ' "
performance tempo:
�
23
03
o
f sostenuto 2
0
Afterwards, playing the more hammered stroke that the passage requires, the string crossings will feel
much smoother as you play a little more towards levels 2, 4 and 6, rather than purely on 1 , 3, 5 and 7.
1 02 Kev strokes
Stri ng crossing
Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 3, b. 61
r f rT J,p s 4 i
Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 1, b. 113
Vieuxtemps: Concerto no. 5 i n A minor, op. 37, mov. 1, b. 113
. #�
I J uJ a o M»O ax r 1
2 1
j!�
G
� B (1.) 1 �--
�
• Begin at a slow tempo and gradually speed up:
��tt �Pt E
E
11 3 3
zL� tt@f' ,;,
G 1 2 1
ft � 2 4 0 0 2 1
Example 8 Elgar: Sonata in E minor, op. 82, mov. 1, b. 68
4M ;IgJ 10JJ 119J Q]J I p

tranquillo
espress.
In this passage the bow is always pivoting towards another string. The moment it fully arrives on a new
string it begins to move towards the next string.
• Begin to move the bow towards another string during the dotted eighth-note (dotted quaver) so that
all the string crossings are smooth. Do not wait until the sixteenth-note (semiquaver) to begin the
string-crossing movement.
Key strokes 1 03
Stri ng crossi ng
Example 9 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 1 08
• Watch the bow hair to see that this entire passage is played almost on the A string level rather than
theE:
,�11 ef f f t f r t t t qr t F r t r r r tut t r t r r 1 fft •

3 -
- 2
Example 10 Mozart: Sonata in Bb, K454, mov. 2, b. 50
v 3
cresc. f
sempre cresc.
3 3
� �1' 1i M�LJ)11 Jt t1 t1 f& �

2 2
1 04 Key strokes
String crossing
stayi ng dose to both strings i n repeated crossin gs

During continuous string crossings between adjacent strings the bow often needs to stay as close as
pos sible to both strings.
• First play double stops to gain the feeling of keeping the bow close to both strings:
4
I]
• Then taking this method further, gradually begin to favour the note in the double stop that is the
actual note of the passage.
• Play very slowly at first.
• Begin to move very slightly towards the lower and then the higher string so that the double stops
become uneven - one string played louder on the down-bow and the other string played louder on
the up-bow:
Very slow
'ttb 1 d j J �
p f p f p f p f p f p f
; � � ; 4
� ; ; � 11
I
f p f p f pf p f p f p
• Gradually play the other note of the double stop more and more softly:
Very slow
I
PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP f
a
f PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP
• Play the extra note more and more softly until playing only single strings, but with the bow so close
to the other string that it almost touches it.
After going through this process for only a few moments, the normal bowing strokes will feel very fluid
and easy.
Example 2
�
Ysaye: Sonata, op. 27 no. 2, mov. 1, b. 11
�! Jl
- J tf
o 4J #a ufJ I J j J J LJ Jj � I•�
3 2 3
J
J
-
p
- -
o
!:...0../
• Begin with double stops and then begin to favour one string more than the other as in Example 1 :
sostenuto
J
v0
�
p f p f p f
0 v Ii
Stri ng crossing
Example 3 Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 108, mov. 1, b. 84
0
2 3
molto p e sotto voce sempre
'� �
0
·�
'Click' p ractice
After crossing from one string to another the exact part of the hair that contacts the new string is different
from the place on the hair that finished playing the previous string.
As the bow moves to a higher string (playing up the strings G-D-A-E), each new contact point of the
hair with the new string is lower down the bow, i.e. in the direction of the frog. Moving to a lower string
(playing down the strings E-A-D-G), each new contact point is higher up the bow.
I Jf77t I
1 centimetre 1 centimetre
'J
Lower Higher
F F F �
v v
)
lower in the bow higher
i1 ')I i1 ')I ')I
• Gain clarity and precision by measuring the changing contact-points consciously, as follows:
1 Begin each stroke with a 'click'. A click is a sharp, clean attack at the very beginning of the stroke.
1 See Catching the string, Sink the bow heavily into the string, and 'bend' the string sideways a little before pulling the bow. 1
page 89
2 Stop the bow quite suddenly to end the stroke, leaving the bow on the string.
3 With the bow stationary, not moving along the string, pivot over to the new string. Note the new
contact point of the string with the hair.
4 Begin this new stroke with a 'click', and so on.
' � I [_....f -i....._ f -.1.... f-J.,"f-J; l nr. r E �t �� l qj)

(1 ) Higher (2) Lower (3) Higher
0
qr
Play to the rest, Pivot silently
stopping the bow to the G string
r ----,t I �� I
on the string during the rest
l �g
,/
#>
t
(1 ) i1 ')I (2)
>v (3) i1
'� �> � � � � �
v i1 v
4
0 qg
(1 ) The place on the hair where the up-bow D begins is three centimetres or so higher up the bow than
the place on the hair where the G# finishes.
(2) The open E begins three centimetres lower down the bow than the place on the hair where the C#
finishes.
(3) The same as ( 1 ).
1 06 Kev strokes
Stri ng crossing
1 � [ Mr f "r� r n
�B t fTt E f E f f f r r
+
c
fP
f p
-;,_
Stop the bow on the string 3 centimetres higher 3 centimetres lower
f
� � � v
�: /'
Pivot
J>2 /'
Pivot
2
Example 3 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 1 0, b. 3
4
0 2
0
• Practise entire passages with clicks. Play very slowly, measuring the changing contact points as follows:
S = Same
The stroke begins at exactly the same place on the hair as the end of the previous stroke.
L = Lower
The stroke begins lower on the hair (towards the frog) than the end of the previous stroke.
H = Higher
The stroke begins higher on the hair than the end of the previous stroke.
L L
L > >s H s >
fi o/
> >s >H
�tt I JJ> y v y p I >JJy0 J�Y> J1> o/ }> o/ 1 ¥ o/ v o/ p o/ p o/ I J)y>0 ),>2 1 >0
sI. H s H > > sI. H s
p J'l 7
Ii
7 7
4 4
>s H LI. H >L

4u V
s s
o/ v3
>H
v o/ >H >s >s >s
A > sI.
J D
>
o/ p y I Jl o/ JJ o/
>0 > p y p o/
>
I Jl
> y D o/ D o/ Ip o/
r
(1 ) (2)
r I zcC7]t
----4---
r
f risoluto
• Join the two notes of a string crossing by beginning with a space between them, and then reduce the
space gradually.
Stop the bow Pivot over silently Connect the two

on the string to the G string notes without any
�� g I� g I � g I � fg I� g
(1) break in between
t o/
� ,/
3
v- v v v Ii v
1
Ii Ii Ii Ii
4 4 4 4 4
Il g r Il g r Il g qr Il g I
Pivot to the E string Connect with no break
(2)
� g _J t o/
Ii Ii Ii
r
Ii
r
Ii
,/ �
1
Ii Ii Ii Ii Ii
I\, Stop the bow

on the string
K"' " <otrnkf"<o 107

String crossing
One actiona not two

Play the stroke that is immediately before a fast string crossing, and the string crossing itself, as one
action, not two. In the following example there are three 'actions', not five:
Action 1 : Play !""I G and in the same movement cross to the E
string level
Action 2 : Play VE and in the same movement cross to the G string level
Action 3: Play !""I G
1 2 3
�
Not:
Fi v
� i Jr" Fi
I
Action 1 : Play !""I G
E
g
Action 2: Cross to the string level
Action 3: Play VE 0
Action 4: Cross to the G string level
Action 5 : Play !""I G not 1 2 3 4 5
The following examples show various ways to merge the stroke and the string crossing into one action:
• Add extra notes to make the bow begin to move towards the new string earlier.
• Use dotted rhythms to exaggerate the speed of the string crossing.
Exmnple 1 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 1 7, b. 1

(Upper half, martele)
J§J J . J J J JJ
Fi Fi
Play at the same tempo as the original passage:
Exatnple 2 J. S. Bach: Sonata in G minor, BWV l OO l , Presto, b. 12

1 0
e Play the 32nd-notes (demisemiquavers) with a fast, ricochet-like spiccato, strictly in time.
• Play in the same part of the bow, with the same amount of bow, as in the passage itself.
• Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible.
Exatnple 3 Vivaldi: Autumn (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 72
$�t f agr 1 f Otrr 1 F egr 1 f Qgr 1 F

• Play in the same part of the bow as in the passage itself.
e Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible.
1 OR
Stri ng crossing
Move exactly Wait with the
rµ
in time to the bow just above
the string
f\
new string level
�I )21 I )1
� 4 ,/ v 4 v
i i
v
J
n 3 n
�
Jl �
.. n ..
..
J X·
2
• The x-notes = put the finger down on the string, but wait with the bow above the string without playing it.
o Play in the same part of the bow, with the same amount of bow, as in the passage itself.
l fr f r fr f r

+
�tt ,� Ve
;.
elow
v v � � �i �
* 11 8 JvaH 1 , , er I = 1 , I 1 !! I = , , u 1
v " � Hover the bow
above the string
, v � v v
4 n
simile
1\.
Move strictly in time to
the new string level
Imagine that each eighth-note (quaver) is a sixteenth-note (semiquaver) followed by a sixteenth-note rest.
• During the rest before the string crossings marked '+' move the bow to the next string level and
'hover' near to the string. This is marked as an x-note.
• Arrive exactly in time on the x-note, feeling the note before the string crossing and the crossing as
one single action.
• Begin slowly at about )) = 60 and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible.
Key strokes 1 09
Bow d ivision
While nothing i n playing should be 'fixed', including musical ideas, 1
Bow d ivision at the same time every bow stroke needs to be designed.2Throughout
the whole process of building and polishing any passage, at the back
1 The great Spanish cellist of your mind ask yourself a continuous stream of simple questions:
Pablo Casals would
typically learn six or more 1 Exactly where in the bow does the stroke begin?
different ways of playing
each phrase, not choosing 2 Where does it end?
which 'version' to play (or
which variation of a 3 How close to the bridge (does it stay the same distance away during the whole stroke, or should it
version) until he came to it
in the concert. Approached
move closer to, or further from, the bridge)?
in this way, learning and
performing music from the 4 How fast is the stroke (is it even, or fast-slow, slow-fast, slow-fast-slow, fast-slow-fast, etc.)?
printed score remains
natural, spontaneous and 5 How much pressure (is it even, or heavy-light, light-heavy, light-heavy-light, heavy-light-heavy, etc.)?
improvisatory.
6 How much hair?
Even, cantabile bowing
2 The better and more

The bow is to the string player the same as the breath to a singer or wind player. Evenness is everything. Be
exactly the strokes are de constantly alert to the beginnings ofnotes to avoid unintentionally playing a 'slow-fast-slow' bow speed pattern
signed, the more you build (creating a bulge or 'banana note'), or causing unmusical accents with sudden surges of bow speed.
up a repertoire or library of
strokes which can be called Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K219, mov. 2, b. 22
up and used whenever
needed. The standard
when first learning a piece
then becomes higher, new
pieces already sounding
good and feeling comfort
able right from the start. f ==- p
Sig ht-reading also improves.
'Banana notes' are created by three factors, usually all three occurring at the same time: (1) bow speed:
slow-fast-slow, (2) bow pressure: light-heavy-light, (3) vibrato: none at the beginning of the note.
The passage must not come out sounding as follows:
Faster, heavier,
\i ii ffi
Slow, light, with vibrato Slow, lighter,
�
4 "11"1 1 e r .t 1 C£:f &P �J
no vibrato ,/ ,/ no vibrato
3� � 2
� j
• Playing at a slow tempo, control the speed of bow by dividing the bow evenly, particularly at the
beginning of the stroke where there is the greatest danger of creating a banana note:
� 2
Vibrate before Slower, Slow, even bow
\i ii3� � � ,/
moving the bow lighter Lighter
o \i �
near the bridge
�
4"b t b -6 1H 1 LJJ bd0 r r
,/
U; :J �
� L EC9
.l'
Equal bow speed, Heavier, Lightest, Lightening,
soundpoint 2 most vibrato least vibrato slowing
----- -----
Example 2 Raff: Cavatina, op. 85, no. 3, b. 1
4 tt11 IJ J I tJ) J J IJ J2 I J
sul G
J
_
....___/
p
The bow speed must not accidentally surge at the beginning of each stroke:
�tt
11 1 4 IJlJ. a} . l oi'._,J�J V IQ} W l @l·=J � I
Slow, starting near point Fast
�
\i G ,/
...__,
3 ,__ 1\. simile
/
"' ..__,
.l' .,, Slow
Fast, starting Fast, starting Slow, starting
at heel at point at middle
• Practising by exaggeration, hold the bow back at the beginning of each stroke and play 'slow-fast'
instead of 'fast-slow' .
1 10 Key strokes
Bow d ivision
• Comp ensate for the slow speed by playing closer to the bridge, the bow hair deep in the string:
�
�111 4 1 4 4 v : �'-'3 /J �w w l @J·
'\i '\i '\ij
2 I
Faster Faster Faster
J l]
G
�
=
/'
/' --_.- /' Slow, nearer Slow Slow /' Slow
Slow
Very slow, Slow the bridge
nearer the bridge
e Change gradually from the exaggerated slow beginning, to the faster speed later in the bow, so that
there is no change in tone: throughout make one, rich, sonorous tone, deep in the string and with a
feeling of pulling in to the bridge.
Afterwards, playing with an even, singing stroke, the bow will flow very naturally and easily.
Using less bow when a note is i mportant

Although more-important notes sometimes need extra bow speed at the beginning of the note, very often
there is a feeling of greater stature, as well as deeper expression, when less bow is used. Then the stroke
begins with an even bow speed, deep in the string, and usually nearer the bridge.
Afterwards, the bow can move faster and lighter (not with an accent but imperceptibly), using the bow
length that was saved at the beginning of the stroke.
• Practising by exaggeration, begin these strokes with such a slow bow speed, and so deep in the string,
that the tone feels just on the edge of breaking. Keep the sound pure and evenly sustained nevertheless.
Example 1 Bruch: Concerto No. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 1, b. 6
� �1,�LdJ f1 r=-w ttb i�D c:J CW

ad lib. + + +
• Play the notes marked by the brackets with a broad stroke. Use as much bow as possible - a third of
the bow or more - in the upper half of the bow, about midway between the bridge and the fingerboard.
• Begin the notes marked '+' with a slow, concentrated stroke close to the bridge.
• Then, using the bow that has been saved, develop the note by subtly increasing the bow speed.
'\i f:'. • f:'. 1 =B '\i f:'. (2)

'\i
-i:_ 1 i1
( 1 ) Pause as long as possible, (2) Gradually increase (1 )
�
¥�� v.
deep in the string, the bow speed
cJ
,/
PfPill ttfJ,�
close to the bridge
D
� j" " g fJ A
The top G could be played with a strong attack. Another approach would be to begin the G with a slow
bow deep in the string near the bridge.
• Exaggerate the slow bow at the beginning of the stroke by pausing and sustaining.
• Then, having used little bow during the first half of the G, use the bow that has been saved to keep
the note alive and growing with bow speed.
f:'.� � Gradually
�
'\i
Pause as long as possible, slow and even increase the bow speed
f f 1i
bow, deep in the string near the bridge
� � .iJ f
Key strokes 1 11
Bow d ivision
v1
Example 3 Brahms: Sonata no. 2 in A, op. 1 00, mov. 1, b. 249
qf� I r
+
� I��· I E"
i'1
�
• ,.
../-
f f
v1 � I:\�
Long pause, Gradually increase
'�- �
slow and even bow, /the bow speed
near the bridge \i
f
� 1E2.! I C' /¥ f: V
f --
It
Example 4 Mozart: Adagio in E, K26 1, b. 17

++
cruft rm
+ 4 ++
r
4
�
l)'r r
The notes marked '+' are played with a fast-slow bow speed; but then the notes marked '++' are played
with a more even bow speed, nearer the bridge.
• Practise with an exaggeratedly long, slow, even-speed stroke, represented by the half-notes (minims)
below:
Long pause,
very little bow, \i
�
near the bridge I:\
� tib r ripf r r
i'1 4
Fast-slow
v
Example 5 Mozart: Sonata in BD, K454, mov. 1, b. 50
1 .g r r r t f
+
� .
The two up-beat C's in each bar are played on the string with a fast-slow bow speed and a slightly
heavy-light pressure, and the slurs that follow them are played with a slight stress on the first C . But the
C marked '+', and the other notes under that slur, are played with an even bow speed and pressure.
v
• Practise as in Example 4:
�
II �f f
Slow and even stroke
f f r f
'Lean' on the C Fast-slow
Heavy-light
;t0 4
ff
mf molto cresc.
• To have enough power in the crescendo to the ff, play the eighth-notes (quavers) with strong accents.
Pause on the top B (marked '+'), playing deeply into the string, near the bridge, with a very slow bow:
112 Key strokes
Bow d ivision
i10 4
Pause as long as possible,
slow and even bow, deep i n
t h e string near the bridge
f F f �r-r-
\i
J :J P
r.-..
j> > n>

------
ff
mf molto cresc. 1 See Different qualities of
the bow at heel and point,
page 69; The give of the
Feel how the hair of the bow is rigid at the point, at the very beginning of the pause, in contrast to the wood of the bow and the
give of the wood in the middle of the bow. 1 hair, page 297
Two-thi rds - one-third - two-thirds

'Two-thirds-one-third-two-thirds', used for groups of three strokes, is a logical method of moving
smoothly and evenly to a different part of the bow. It avoids the danger of an unwanted accent caused
by suddenly moving the bow faster on one particular note.
e Practising by exaggeration, divide the bow exactly into two-thirds-one-third-two-thirds, even if in
performance the bow division may not be as precise as that.

8va
sempre ff e grandioso
The G at the beginning of the second bar, and the Bb at the beginning of the fourth bar, are whole bows
(WB), starting at the heel and finishing at the point.
The first of the three eighth-notes (quavers) marked '+' begins at the point. The question is how to play
the three strokes so that you get back to the heel again for the whole bow at the beginning of the third
�
bar.
8va - - - - - - - - -
<1l r;
I
WB 2/3 1/3 2/3 WB 1/3 1/3 WB WB WB 1/3 1/3
(1 ) Two-thirds-one-third-two-thirds. With this bow division it is easy to play the strokes evenly, or to
crescendo through them evenly.
(2) The note E returns the bow to the point. Using a whole bow on the third stroke could then produce
an unwanted accent.
(3) After a whole bow on the Bb it is difficult to produce enough breadth of tone, in the following two
strokes, to equal it.
Example 2 Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 21, mov. 1, b. 50
L_ 3 __J L_ 3 __J L_ 3 __J L_ 3 __J

f espress. -==== f
5
�==== -====
L_ 3 __J L_ 3 __J L_ 3 __J

5 L_ 3 __j
2/3 1/3 2/3 WB WB
/'
Start at the heel
Key strokes 1 13
Bow division
� � 2.
espress.
' � 2 r r #r 1 r 1F r r #r
ii
r
poco a poco cresc. /' 1 /3
Start at the heel 2/3 2/3 Start at the heel
( 4 L__ 3 __J L__ 3 __J L__ 3 __J
Example 5 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 1 in B minor, BWV1002, Corrente, b. 1 1

+
• Practising by exaggeration, enlarge the bow division by using far more bow than necessary to play the
slurs, and work back down the bow during the separate bows:
Begin each slur at Begin between the
the point-of-balance middle and the point
l (@j J j J l {f[ f F '.r I p

ii
2/3 1/3 2/3
r F r
Working u p or down the bow

Like 'two-thirds-one-third-two-thirds', moving to a different place in the bow by using more bow in
one direction than the other is a common feature of bowing.
�3
l f f f
1
1
,#11#1
0
� J
2 4
t
J
p
ff inolto fuocoso
One way to play this phrase is to use as much bow as possible, starting in the middle of the bow and
working up in the direction of the heel. To do this, play each up-bow slightly longer than each down-bow.
• Practising by exaggeration, begin at the point and work all the way up the bow so that the top F# is
played at the extreme heel.
• Connect the strokes to each other without a break in the sound. Make them entirely even, undisturbed
.
by the longer bows on the up-bows, and with the bow remaining deep in the string:
� J nc r F r r- r- - - �t3 tff �
I
1 � -
FF
ii
2 4
Point Middle Heel

Bow d ivision
Example 2 Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 108, mov. 4, b. 297
sf
The second bar needs a lot of bow. Rather than saving bow so that the eighth-notes (quavers) marked
'+' are played in the upper half, play freely on the up-bow and then work your way back to the upper
half again for the A in the fifth bar.
• Exaggerate by using too much bow on the F in the second bar, so that the eighth-notes begin near the heel.
• Making the down- and up-bows sound the same, as if played with an equal amount of bow, use more
bow on the down-bows than the up-bows so that the bow ends up in the upper half to begin the fifth bar.
2 #2
J if f r r r r 1r e
Middle Point
c E
Heel v ,,...--...
�
Example 3
0 4 J
Elgar: Sonata in E minor, op. 82, mov. 1, b. 2
If r JJ J r
The eighth-notes in the second bar are played broadly with much bow. They are most comfortable to play in
the middle to upper half of the bow, but you need to work up the bow in the direction of the heel for the A#.
• Exaggerate by saving bow on the half-note (minim) A, so that the eighth-notes begin in the upper half.
• Using broad, sustained strokes, use more bow on the up-bows than on the down-bows so that the
bow ends up near the heel to begin the A#. Make the down- and up-bows sound equal despite the
0r tif 4
unequal bow lengths.
J l z77J2
Save bow Upper half
If J j J I J.
Heel
r r
�
�
Gradually work up to the heel # 1 To save bow: play nearer

the bridge. This is an
example of
getting a result
long, slow, sustained strokes: practising at a slower tempo by doing some
thing other
• Exaggerate any difficulty in sustaining by practising the passage at half-tempo. than the most i mmediate
or obvious thing. Here the
• Play near the bridge to save bow, always aiming for a good tone. 1 obvious way to save bow
is to move it more slowly;
however, if nothing else
r qf 1 f f c LJJJjJg o I J
Example 1 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 3, b. 1 changes, the tone may
easily become strangled.
J = l OO
-� tt l �we c E E c r
If instead you move closer
to the bridge as an imme
diate reaction to wanting
to save bow, you automat
ically move the bow more
r r qf I r: f r
dolce legato slowly anyway.
� " t lcfftlif c r r I c i;ij?n 3 l g

d = lOO String instruments offer
c Ir r
many other examples of
achieving results by seem
ingly ind irect means, e.g.
faster fingers: closer to
the string; faster vibrato:
narrower movement, or
more on the tip of the
Example 2 Beethoven: Concerto in D, op. 6 1 , mov. 2, b. 45 finger than the pad; faster
detache or tremolo: less
� " "bi
t:\ bow; faster spiccato: lower
bounce; faster staccato:
less bow; faster shift
lighter finger; more forte:
first finger (right hand)
� o �1 further from the thu mb.
Key strokes
Bow d ivision
•
Saving bow: exaggeration
To practise saving bow on a particular stroke, exaggerate by using a very small amount of bow while
still playing with tone and expression. Afterwards, using the right amount of bow feels very easy.
Example 1 Kreutzer: 24 Etudes ou caprices, No. 29, b. I

Use only half of the bow,
then only a quarter \.
IDi'..-[_r_;_f-Fr-W-r}]J iJ :
� "#" C
p
• Practise playing a whole bar using only the lower half of the bow, playing strictly between the heel
and the middle.
• Then use only a quarter of the bow, playing strictly between the heel and point-of-balance.
Afterwards, the whole bow will feel as if it is twice the length that it was before.
Example 2 Brahms: Scherzo (Sonatensatz), Wo02, b. 8
i
v +
IJ J J J
� 2
> > > >
to play the ff spiccato in the next bar; yet having to save bow can make the phrase feel cramped.
If you use too much bow on the phrase in the second bar (marked '+') you end up too high in the bow
•
• Practise by using only 10 centimetres of bow to play the down-bow - or even less bow if possible.
Play deep in the string, near the bridge, with as much sonority and expression as possible:
10 centimetres of bow,
near the heel
� 2 v
1
Afterwards, bowing only as far as the point-of-balance, or a little beyond, feels like a generous amount
of bow in which to play such a short phrase.
J..
2 (3) f
Each note in bar 222, the bottom and top Bb, needs about half a bow.
4
(1 ) (2) (3) Slow bow, near
Use only 20 !':'. ,/ the bridge
1 ;Pd
centimetres of bow
..
v
Between the middle J. ·

�=====
J�===
¥
== 2
and heel
' ' �==== !
Begin at the point Point
116 Key strokes

Bow d ivision
( 1 ) Practise the top Bb on its own, sustaining it on a long pause in the lower half. Alternate between
playing with vibrato, and playing without. Build the most passionate, rich, resonant tone possible on
this note.
(2 ) See how little bow you can use while still making the crescendo. Play very close to the bridge.
(3) Still exaggerating the bow division, join the bottom and the top together. Crescendo on the bottom
Bb using as little bow as possible, and use all the remaining bow for the top Bb, playing a long pause.
Afterwards, when playing the passage normally, there is a feeling of great freedom of expression in the
bow.
Using enough bow: exaggeration

e For passages that need a lot of bow to bring out the breadth or stature of the music, practise by using
an exaggerated amount of bow. Afterwards, the correct amount of bow feels perfectly natural.
For the purposes of the exercise 'whole bow' means from one centimetre above the nut, to one centimetre
below the point, even if this is more bow than you will use eventually.
Example 1 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, nwv. 1, b. 37
3 3 3 3 3
largamente
' �I, f�L_3 _JJigJ. J J I

�jL_ _j�{.! � J qlL_ _JJI J J J J J J -fi{.f1 J I �
i1
"
espressivo 3 3 �
The eighth-notes (quavers) in this passage can be played with half a bow or more each.
• Playing with the metronome, play whole bows on one note.
• Start at J = 40, and gradually increase the speed as indicated.
• Keep the speed and pressure of the bow even, and stay at the same distance from the bridge.
Whole bows
' �,I i II : UJ UJ :ill: UJ UJ :fll: UJ UJ :Iii: UJ UJ :ill: UJ UJ :II

J =40 J =45 J =50 J =55 J =60
3
f 3 3
Then play the passage using the correct amount of bow. Even a very broad stroke will now feel effortless.
Example 2 Haydn: Concerto no. 1 in C, mov. 1, b. 70
bt I I cresc.
I I
f
p
The up-bows in this example can be played with much bow, so that by the end of the crescendo each
bar begins near the point and each quarter-note (crotchet) begins near the heel.
• Free the bow arm by practising whole bows in the rhythm of the passage. The up-bows must be played
more lightly than the down-bows to avoid an accent.
• Start at J = 60, and gradually increase the speed as indicated. Continue up to about J = 1 20.
Whole bow Whole bow
P F' :ill: D F' p F' : 11: 0 F' D F' :II

\i J =60 ,/ J =70 J =SO J =90
v i1 v i1 v i1 v i1 v i1
Bow d ivision
• Although they must not stand out as an accent, the two quarter-notes (crotchets) marked '+' can be
played broadly, almost with whole bows. Practise each of them on its own, and then find the same
stroke in the context of the passage:
v1
Whole bows
4 ti## ! 11t t t I t t t 111 1F F r I r r r II

v
f
Example 4 Dvorak: Romance, op. 1 1, b. 58
+
2
Whole bows near the bridge
J =50 q >
4 j"1,� i II: t f senza vibrato vibrato simile
I
Repeat many times
Using enough bow: g radually speed ing u p

Playing separate bows, the faster the stroke the less bow is used - just as the faster the vibrato the narrower
it becomes, the faster the trill the closer the trilling finger must stay to the string, and so on.
• To develop a broad, fast stroke, begin at a slow tempo while using much bow (or with exaggerated
bow length); then gradually increase the tempo while keeping the bow length the same.
Example 1
0 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 8, b. 1
f
Fd •
1r r r f [ f E[ h n u 1i
• Begin slowly at Ji = 50, using half bows. Keeping the bow length the same with every stroke, gradually
increase the metronome through 55, 60, 65, 70, until faster than the tempo of the passage.
• Keep the bow solidly and evenly in the string throughout.
Example 2 Ysaye: Sonata, op. 27 no. 2, mov. 1, b. 3
j
court.
(':\.
ff (brutalement)
• Begin slowly at Jl = 50, using a whole bow on each note. Gradually increase the metronome through
55, 60, 65, 70, until arriving at the tempo of the passage.
• While always trying to use as much bow as possible, as the speed increases allow yourself to use less
and less bow until arriving at the correct tempo with a broad, powerful stroke.
• Keep the bow solidly and evenly in the string throughout.
· 1 18
art
One of the most noticeable qualities of a good left-hand technique

the left
is the smoothness and evenness of the finger action. The fingers must
from the bow not be affected by the often energetic and acrobatic movements of
the bow. They need always to be ready for the notes that lie just
ahead, the whole hand remaining relaxed, light and effortless, the fingers staying close to the strings.
• Work on the left hand on its own in order to see exactly what is happening in the hand and fingers.
Using slurs
One way to focus on the left hand, without the distraction of the bow strokes, is to use long slurs. This
removes all factors of the bow or co-ordination, leaving you free to work on left-hand evenness and ease. 1 1 See Legato Slurs,
• Practise the slurs until the passage is entirely smooth and even, the fingers staying close to the strings
pages 90, 93, 97, 1 00
and using minimum energy and effort.

• Then keep the same close, relaxed and easy feeling in the left hand when bowing the passage properly.
Example 1 Smetana: Aus der Heimat, mov. 2, b. 212
4 3
�wFHHE 1 HUH 1 f
s�if------��-=::::
3
pp
Ill Vibrate on every note.
Ill Aim for machine-like evenness of rhythm in the fingers.

T t>ft h�ncl 1 19
Isolating the left hand from the bow
J j J J J j I j j j j J 3 J j J j J j � � J�
spice.
'f
4 1 3
y
�=====
1
mf
', ! F F r � J J J nJ J J i j J j I ¥ J J ' 15 5 J k:
J J
• Play with the same musical commitment as if the passage were actually written with slurs:
legato 31 20 21 21 21 23
rf rf rf
3
.;;;-..; . .
con fuoco
P 1 i;J ii r 0 1 fi r v i t V 1 i
• Then remember that feeling of effortlessness when playing the correct bowing ff.
• Play pp to encourage the left-hand fingers to be light and effortless.
1 20 Left hand
Isolating the l eft hand from the bow
Vivaldi: Winter (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 4, mov. 3, b. 80
• Begin slowly, and gradually speed up. As you get faster play more than one bar to a bow, until finally
playing the whole line in one bow.
TPft h ::i m l 1 21
Isolating the left hand from the bow
Using double stops

In passages of repeated string crossings it is often helpful to play them as double stops. As well as removing
all factors of bowing, the double stops also shine a new light on the placement of the fingers in relation
to each other.
31 43 32 21
23 21
I f� 1 31
Example 2 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 1 1 , b. 7
04 3 2
D
$' {i]i1J ]1J N J 11� }1� J sa11J J 1 1 J � J 3d11i J I WJ4J J J �#J I

v
dim.
1
(tlJ 1 tliJj
1
1 I UJj
Playing without the bow
When playing several notes slurred in one bow, rhythm is entirely controlled by the left-hand fingers.
e Finger a phrase or passage without the bow to check that the fingers are decisive and rhythmically
precise. Concentrate on hesitation-free, controlled, rhythmic placement of the fingers.
• Imagine that the fingers themselves are producing the tone and expression, rather than being moved
mechanically without musical feeling. Vary the weight of each finger in the string according to the
expression. Mentally hear the notes as clearly as if you were actually playing.
1 see co-ordination, Since the left-hand fingers always lead the bow, 1 gaining this rhythmic confidence by fingering without
page 1 4 the bow also improves co-ordination.
1 22 Left hand
Tri lls
The mechanics o f playing a trill, like all other matters o f technique,
Tri ll s work on a much higher technical level when the trill is felt musically
and expressively, rather than being merely the result of 'moving your 1 David Blum: Casals and
the Art of Interpretation
fingers up and down fast'. Pablo Casals described trills as bringing (London, 1 977), 1 2 5.
'exaltation' to a note. 1
Playing without t h e tri l l

e Learn the passage without the distraction of trills to find the best rhythm, character and phrasing.
e Then make sure that nothing is disturbed when you put the trills back in.
Example Haydn: Concerto no. 1 i n C , mov. 1, b. 131
�=====
�===== f
Speed: height of finger
In some ways trills are similar to vibrato. Where vibrato has proportions of speed to width,2 trills have 2 See Vibrato, page 298
proportions of speed to height of finger. To vibrate faster it is natural to make the vibrato narrower (unless
musically undesirable), to lessen the distance the finger moves. To play more notes in a trill, keep the
fingers closer to the strings to lessen the distance they move up and down.
• Play the trill with such low fingers that they barely clear the string, causing 'fuzz' in the trill. Gradually
use a little higher lift-off until the trill is both very fast and very clean.
i1 v i1
!':'.
�
tr
2
() ')l ()
------
�� ---- �---��----
Trilling finger barely Raising the finger slightly Raising just high
raising off the string, so higher, but still so close to enough to clear
that the trill is pure 'fuzz' the string that it causes fuzz the string
Speed: d i rection of movement

Trills and vibrato are also similar in that in vibrato there is only one active movement - forward to the
A
in-tune note (see margin note, page 1 28) . vibrato with an active forward and active backward move
ment is difficult to do fast.
In trills there is also only one active movement. The finger moves up-up-up-up, not down-down
down-down or down-up-down-up. Trills with both an active downward and upward movement are
difficult to play fast.
• Play trills with these dotted rhythms, lifting the finger quickly as if the string were very hot:
Play Practise
Left hand 1 23
Tri lls
�
Exmnple 2 Brahms: Hungarian Dance no. 1, b. 25
� +
----- � ' '

2 °
I
1 1 1
'--- ' '
�" : II
� II: _ __ _ _ _ _ : Ill:
e o o
•• Play the grace notes as short as possible.

Gradually speed up the second bar to as fast a tempo as possible.
Clarity: adding notes one at a time in tempo

Rather than leaving the number of notes in a trill to chance, you can gain greater clarity and brilliance
•
by counting the number of notes, and by building up the trill one note at a time. It is often useful to
practise more notes than you will eventually use.
In the following examples play the groups as fast as possible, starting slowly and building up gradually.
f mf 1 2 2 2
rit.
� etc.
j� tie r r:CF r r rr rpr 1

� etc.
1 24 Left hand
Tril ls
Example 3 Prokofiev: Cinq Melodies, op. 35, No. 2, b. 49
3
�
tr
1
> 2
-----pp;;;, 1
IJ 5 J 1
Clarity: adding notes one at a time while pausing

One of the aims of this practice method is to make the string vibrate as widely as possible to give the
left-hand fingers as big a task as possible. 1 Do this by drawing the bow swiftly with extra bow speed to 1 See also Speed of left
make the string vibrate the widest, adding the notes of the trill one at a time. Afterwards the normal trill hand finger movement,
pa ge 298
will feel easy to play and each note will speak clearly.
• Use many bows during the pauses, sustaining the sound fully and evenly on soundpoint 2 (see Fig. 5,
page 4 7) . When you then add the fingers, do not alter the stroke in any way as the fingers lift and fall.
• To isolate the fingers from the bow change, do not change bow and move the fingers at the same
time.
Example 1 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 1 37 no. 2, mov. 3, b. 1
IJ3
I �� JJ.;JJ� I �� JJJJJJJ� I
f
� Repeat �
,11 many times simile
Drop the finger
between bow changes
3
ii v ii v ii v
1* I�� I
�
$# simile
II 8f ff Ff Ff E ff f8
�
I
Left hand 1 25
Trills
Using other fingers as models

• Ideally, any pair of fingers is as good for trilling as any other pair. However, if you find that some
fingers trill better than others, use the most comfortable fingers to serve as a model, and then make
1 This i s a good example of the correct fingering sound exactly the same.1
'getting the result you hold
in your mind'. If you picture
the finger trilling slowly and
Example 1 Beethoven: Sonata in A, op. 30 no. 1, mov. 3, b. 67
4tt11# g ftu C E F
clumsily, the trill will prob II
f?f J
ably come out like that. � tr
The point of using the
model is to get a better
sf
mental picture very quickly. p
2 3
Holding an image in your
4 tt11tt g 11 =� � :Ill: (1j EE! I J

Compare Compare
mind of the fingers moving
very fast and very easily will tr tr tr tr
i m prove the trill i nstantan
eously, and often d ramati I
1
cally. See Mental rehearsal,
page 290
sf sf
�
I El J3 J. 0 J. 0 ljJ fflJ I
tr tr tr
2 2 1 o �0 1�
fCorrect fingering fModel
Timing the rhythm of the turn

Build solid, rhythmic pulse and structure into a trill to avoid the common tendency for the turn to be
too slow, or to be played after too long a trill. Otherwise the trill as a whole may lose energy, and the
first beat of the next bar might be played late.
• Build rhythmic accuracy by adding the trill and the turn separately.
( 1 ) Leave out the trill and the turn. Play exactly in time.
Play with the same musical commitment as if the cadence really was written without a trill.
(2) Still leaving out the trill, play the turn very 'late' and fast, connecting it to the following note (D) .2
2 See also Dotted patterns, (3) Play both the trill and the turn.
page 287
Example 2 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 3 1 , b. 1
4 b b" r ttJ1= r I G%&,J. JJ

+
I
(Upper half, martete)
v
)
v
0 q 2 1�11 J\,n J'@ qJltJ l@ � n

Ir Ir Ir
1,
-
� �
. � . � .
No trills, n o turns Only the turns
1 26 Left hand
Trills
v A
�
i �
No trill, no turn
v
Only the turn
, � ., p 11 D f Mp! DI I
Example 4 Viotti: Concerto no. 22 in A minor, mov. 1, b. 21 1
ii 4 2
tr
ii3
No trills, no turns Only the turns
Inaudible change of bow

• To make a change of bow during a trill unnoticeable, change bow on one of the upper notes of the
trill.
Example 1
v�
Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 1 6, mov. 1, b. 209
tt
' " r t r r r t r r rt r t rt r t 1 t
.
. f: # ' f: f:
f
.
.
• Practise by playing the trill under tempo, with a very slight accent on the change of bow:
ii
'tt t 1 J
v
r t r t r t f t r t r t r t C 11
� �
ii
1 v
&" t 11J f 0ff ff Efif ff ff f Efiff ff ff Etf ff f fff 11
3
ii v ii�
0
v
ii
0
cresc. 3
f pesante
' I 11/ E r r r c u r r r r r r r r :ii
Left hand 1 27
Tri l ls
•
Susta i n i ng tri l l s whi l e playing a nother l i ne
Form repetitive patterns, starting slowly and speeding up gradually. Afterwards, the passage as written
will feel much easier.
Example 1 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1 cadenza (Joachim)
J.
v
�
0 �
1 0 �
0 �
0
simile
�
�N ..,
..
..
- ��....,,
....
.. ........
....
....
....
..
,..,
,,.. ..
,..,
,, ..
..
_.., ..................
,.._. .... .....
. ,..,.
._. ,....,
,,.._..,..,
,, ,..,
...
..,.
...,. ,..
.. .,....
.. .....
'°..
..,, ...,
......
,,....
'11>,..., ..
.., ,._
.,,..,..,
.,., ....
,.
'b ..
N .....N
._'t> ...,
._,,,.
,. ,._,
...,
., ,.
,..... .....
..
,, ,,.._
...... .. ..
,..,
,._...,..,
....
....
,,
...
..., ..
_.,
..,
..
..
� .....
., .,.......
.....
. .......
"bo ..
i _ _......---..
� v � v v
I . ----.. . ----.. -� _ _......-...__ .
f dzm. �
3 3 1 o 1 _,_3 \..._
3 -'-_, \_,-'-
crescendo
3 1 3
:1
The track
Vi b rato
The finger rolls backwards and forwards on the 'track'. 1 To see the
track, place the second finger on the A string in its normal position
1 One complete
vibrato cycle: to play C.
1 The note in tune Slowly roll the finger backwards and forwards as though doing a slowed-down vibrato movement. Roll
2 The finger rolled
back a fraction
in both directions as far as you can reasonably go. As you do so press the finger unnaturally hard into
3 The note in tune the string so that you create a groove (Fig. 1 Oa) . The exact position and angle of this line will naturally
The finger should never vary with each individual, and from note to note; but notice how the groove extends to the fingernail at
vibrate a bove the in-tune one end, and into the middle of the pad at the other. Using a ballpoint pen, draw a line over the groove
note. The ear catches the
upper p'1tch of the vibrato
before it fades away.
as the pitch of the note, so
if you vibrate sharp of the
note it sounds as though
you are playing the note
itself sharp.
Fig. 1 0
(a} Roll on the string (b) The finger does not roll (c) Portion of the track used
to make a groove forward beyond this point for 'average' vibrato
The vibrato would be far too wide if it used the whole length of the track, so you have to select a tiny
portion of it on which to roll. Find where this is by beginning with the part of the track nearest the nail.
1 28 Left hand
Vibrato
If you roll right to the end of the track near to the fingernail, it causes the entire finger to lean over
towards the bridge. Since the finger should always lean the other way, in the direction of the scroll, you
have to avoid rolling into the last section of the track nearest to the nail. Mark a new line on the track
showing this cut-off point the furthest point the finger rolls during the forward movement of the vibrato
(Fig. l Ob) .
Find this point by sitting the finger on the string in a comfortable, upright, balanced, natural shape and
note how much of the track at the fingertip is not contacting the string.
Now draw a second line a millimetre or two from the first one (Fig. l Oc) to find your basic area of the
track on which to roll. Sometimes the vibrato will be wider than this, sometimes so narrow that the two
Jines are almost touching. Sometimes the selected portion of the track is nearer the tip, sometimes nearer
the pad - see below.
o During any work on vibrato or intonation, constantly refer back to awareness of the track, in particular
asking two questions: (1) how far are you rolling on the track, and (2) where on the track are you rolling?
Area of fi ngertip: pad or tip

The width of vibrato is partly a result of the placement of the fingertip on the string:
e More tip of the finger on the string = narrower vibrato (Fig. 1 1 a) .
o More pad of the finger on the string = wider vibrato (Fig. 1 1 b) .
Fig. 1 1
(a) Note how the finger contacts the string (b) Note how the finger contacts the string
more on the tip of the finger more on the pad
• Repear a note or short phrase several times, each time experimenting with a different placement of
the fingers. As shown in Fig. 1 1, move gradually between more on the tip and less on the tip, until
finding the desired vibrato colour and expression.

i13
� ff ft 1f F
4
-e- - -
1
0
�
!-----e-
Tip (Fig. 1 1 a) More pad More pad Pad (Fig. 1 1 b) Less pad Less pad
��H� II: : 11 I I
4
--- -----e-
--- �-e------e-
--- -----e-
--- 1
0
il
simile
t@dP 1 �-
Example 2 Dvorak: Concerto in A minor, op. 53, mov. 1, b. 22
I F
a1 �. I
3
4
__...._
3 3
Less on pads Tips Less on tips
11: r�
Pads Less on pads More on pads
i1
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Left hand 1 29
Vibrato
Correcting over�wide vibrato
If you are used to a wide vibrato, when you make it narrower the vibrato may seem inaudible and
expressionless in comparison, and you quickly go back to the wider vibrato that you had before.
• Use non-vibrato as a continual reference point to prevent the vibrato becoming over-wide (and slow) .
e After playing non-vibrato, a wide vibrato seems very wide in comparison, and much more variety of
colour comes into the playing. Apply the process to individual notes in pieces, and to complete phrases.
ff gliss.
====-- mf espress.
v
� �I.I, g � r�w r�w r�w rJ r�w r�w r�w r�w

ff No 'ibrnto Add th• ""'°-' 'ibrnto
( 1 ) Sustain the G without vibrato near the bridge, looking for the exact proportions of speed and pressure
to produce a ringing and even tone, the string vibrating widely.
(2) Add the narrowest vibrato and listen to the tone change from a 'straight', bare sound into one that
'shimmers' or 'throbs'. Notice how the throbbing is part of the tone itself.
This creates a vibrato that sounds like 'G-G-G-G-G-G-G' rather than alternating between G and
a lower note somewhere between F# and G. Hear the vibrato in or as part of the tone itself, rather
1 The Hungarian violinist than something extra put on top of the tone. 1
and teacher Sandor Wgh
would often caution
against using vibrato 'like
Example 2 Franck: S onata in A, mov. 1, b. 5
�
putting on thick layers of v
makeup' - piling it on top
of the sound instead of it
g rowing naturally out of
the body of the tone itself.
molto dolce
Wgh's description of
vibrato: 'Two dear friends,
who have not seen each
• As well as individual notes, practise whole phrases without vibrato.
other for years, meet by
chance at a railway station.
• Then add vibrato, and hear it and the tone together as one, pulsating tonal quality rather two combined
The feeling when they qualities, i.e. the sound as one thing and the vibrato as another.
meet . . . that is vibrato ! '
� 1t g
v v
No vibrato Vibrato
I
Vi brato pulsing
The vibrato 'pulse' or 'throb' is caused by two factors:
When the finger rolls back, flattening the note, it releases the string slightly (written as x-notes below);
when it rolls forward to the in-tune note it leans slightly more heavily into the string.
2 The back and forward movement is not even, but moves in a dotted rhythm.
= bad�'------
F = forward
B
B F B B F B
The finger in tune
• Make vibrato richer, more expressive and more even, by practising with a slowed-down vibrato that
has a specific number of 'pulses' on each note. Practising a phrase or passage like this is also a good
way to improve continuous vibrato, and the pitch of the vibrato.
1 30 Left hand
Vibrato
J J J
2
e Keep the bow strokes smooth, making the 'pulsing' or 'throbbing' with the vibrato only.
Each sixteenth-note (semiquaver) represents one vibrato pulse (the finger moving forward to the in
tune note) .
�n 1� 1 Elli :i J J J J m 1 fg J J g;; J J :i J J J 1 i
sm ooth bow, 'pulsing' with vibrato only
� � �
----��--
------ etc.
• Repeat with 32nd-note (demisemiquaver) pulses:
JJJjjJJj - I�
etc.
Schumann: Sonata in A minor, op. 1 05, mov. 1, b. 1
p -==== if ===- �
Each sixteenth-note represents one vibrato pulse:
�2 � l l l l J J
v
J J J
1 4122!_: s a _w_w_:j] 1 i
4 3
__
Example 3 Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, b. 68
� ., r r
1
,,..-.____
.
espressivo ma sotte voce
Each 32nd-note (demisemiquaver) represents one vibrato pulse:
Left hand 1 31
Vibrato
Example 4 Beethoven: Sonata in A, op. 47 ('Kreutzer'), nwv. 1, b. 1
I�
1 v �
f. \t'
f ::::==-- p
Each sixteenth-note (semiquaver) represents one vibrato pulse (both fingers moving forward to the in-tune
notes) :
'"tttt l lIDWITW I h H j j jjfHi .

� 2 1 1 2
"-_.-' ------- '--"
* "11# dBdfODtllif I PllliJ

-------
• Repeat with a 32nd-note pulse:
Example 5 Kreisler: Caprice Viennois, op. 2, b. 21

1 1
�
3 1 1
r r
3
t'
" 3
dolce con vibrato
• It is not necessarily important to regulate the pulsing in exact numbers. Simply pause on a note and
listen to the pulses:
�
Continue pulsing
as long as you like
etc. etc.
lj
+
� J J
v 1 /':'.
'¥ ro
f
• Select an individual note and develop the vibrato on one long, sustained stroke, down-bow and up.
• Start with a very slow pulse and gradually accelerate.
The following example represents one long, continuous Eb played on one single bow stroke:
F = forward
* �i.1"' J 3J7 02 J J w J J n n a ill

= back
jw n
B
?' 3 B F B F B F B simile
J J
I n tune
' �111, j j j j j j j j J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J
1 32 Left hand
Vibrato
s p eedin g u p with the metronom e

e Pra ctise in the following dotted rhythm to develop a free and effortless vibrato.
• Begin slowly with the metronome at J = 60. Then repeat at 66, 72, 80, etc., up to about 1 08.
• Practise one note or double stop at a time, using long, sustained strokes. Always play four beats on
the down-bow and four beats on the up-bow.
Example Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 1 08, nwv. 2, b. 50
� �II B J
v
= move forward to the in-tune note
::: move back, a fraction below the in-tune note

F
Ii2
B
J = 60
bf: � e: � e: � e: � be: � e:
(1)
e: � e: �
v
�
4
�#Ht 11 : /'
I ...
B
...
B F
...
B
..
B
..
B F
...
B F
..
B
ml
B
: 11
In tune
be: �e: � e: �e: � e: �e: �e: �e: � be: �e: �e: � e: � e: �e: �e: �e: �
(2) ri v
�#a II: � � � � � � � .., I � � � � � � � '"!: I

B F B F F B F B F
(1) One pulse (forward to the in-tune note) per beat.

(2) Two pulses per beat.
Vibrato not as a substitute for tone

As a normal part of everyday practice, play a phrase or passage completely without vibrato to check that
vibrato is not taking the place of musical expressiveness in the bow.
• Play at the normal tempo with projection and communication, as if in performance - but senza vibrato
·"
and with all the expression coming from the bow.
• Exaggerate the expressiveness in the tone to make up for the lack of vibrato expression.
Example Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. 1, b. 49
ii'
senza vibrato Make all the expression with the bow
:4 �1·1i 2 r D 1 fr CT· 1 r
�· 3
r 1
con sord. ri V
2
2 > 2 ri
L
�==== ==== �==== /' ===- pp
molto espress. Feel the hair of the bow in the string near the bridge
Tone not as a su bstitute for vibrato

Play a phrase or passage without any colour or expression in the bow to check that the tone is not taking
the place of musical expressiveness in the vibrato.
• Play without any expression in the bow, only in the vibrato.
• Exaggerate the expressiveness in the vibrato to make up for the lack of expression in the bow.
Example Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 2, b. 197

Expressive vibrato I ntensify the vibrato
\i ri
1 3 1
\i 3
�
/'
poco cresc.
/' �====
Ign ore dynamics, bowing inexpressively Ignore
Left hand 1 33
Vibrato
Varyi ng speed width
The two main aspects of vibrato are speed and width. Both vary constantly with the character and
expression of each note. It is rare that even two notes in a row have the same proportions of speed to
1 See also Vibrato, Width. 1
page 298
The most natural proportions are wide-and-slow, fast-and-narrow; but like an artist mixing basic
2 Avoid over-working when colours to obtain an infinite range of different shades, the musician's range of different vibratos extends
playing a fast, narrow all the way to wide-and-fast and slow-and-narrow.
vibrato. The faster the
vibrato the smaller the part o Practising by exaggeration, enlarge the proportions of the vibrato. Make it slightly narrower and wider,
of the left arm required to faster and slower, than the vibrato you will eventually use.2
produce it. Playing a slow
vibrato may involve the It goes without saying that there are endless different ways m which vibrato can be used, and the
whole forearm; the fastest suggestions below serve merely to illustrate the approach.3
vibrato may require only a
0 0
tiny hand or fingertip
movement. Example 1 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, nwv. 2, b. 6
J
v v
J J IJ J J Ir
3
IJ IJ
1 3
J j lJ
3 As in every other area of
tech nique, when playing
with inspiration vibrato is
on a more subconscious
level than this, without the
player controlling it so
directly. However,
consciously working out
different shades of vibrato • Enlarge the proportions. 'Least' = slowest, narrowest vibrato:
0 0
during practice means that
Least I ncreasing Most New colour:
">A n1 v ">A v ">A
you can lose yourself all More Less
Diminishing wider, faster More Less
the more in natural expres
siveness when in the heat 3 ">A ">A it' ">A it' ">A
3
of performance.
2 2
�
-......._..-.. � �
====- /' ====-
Least ====-
2
i'1
0
cresc. f ff ef ef decresc.
p
• Play slowly, enlarging the changes in the vibrato as follows:
n2 Most Least
cresc. /'
Increasing
f ff ef ef decresc.
/' p
/' Decreasing
Fast-slow,
wide-narrow
Example 3 Saint-Saens: Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso, op. 28, Rondo, b. 152
3 v3
• Exaggerate the changes in colour:
� \. \. � �
r-1
v ">A
New colour
1 rrrr r J p d
Faster
I
Faster Wider
Fi I J�
jJjJ I j) J
v ">4 3
lI J J
�
::
I
/' �
1\. Diminishing /'

Diminishing
Le
1 �4 T .eft hand
Vibrato
Using another finger as a model

Each finger on the same hand may have its own tendency towards one particular vibrato or another,
some fingers tending towards a narrower vibrato, others towards a wider vibrato.
e As part of experimenting to find exactly the right quality of expression for a particular note, use other
fingers on the same note as a point of comparison. The new finger can serve either as a model, or as
an immediate way to get a new musical feeling for the note.
e Use the second finger as a model for the fourth finger Ab and A:
��1' I IH� : l lhJ

Same vibrato
: 11
Same vibrato
t � J4
� � � �
g
2
Espressivo
(1 ) Same vibrato
(2) Same vibrato (3) Same vibrato
A3 / � E1
: 11
Ii
1
Espressivo
(1) The first finger F, being very 'square' and placed next to the nut, may feel slightly restricted compared
with the more extended finger that would play an F#. 1 Use the first finger F# as a model for the vibrato 1 See Figs. 1 4a and 1 4b,
of the F. Square and extended finger
shapes, pag e 1 94
(2) Use also the vibrato of the third finger on the A string as a model for the vibrato of the first finger.
(3) The second finger Bb must not be too 'wobbly', i.e. wide and slow. Use a fourth finger for comparison.
Example 3 Tchaikovsky: Three Pieces, op. 42, Melody, b. 1
\i � \i 4
(1 ) Ii (2)
f IP
1
mf espress.
• Make the same vibrato on each pair of fingerings:
F' F' :Ill : j� 0j : 11

(1 ) 3 4
3 4
o/
I J "t
Espressivo
:ill : fJ t
(2)
CJ : 11
3
f'
3 4 4
"t g
Left hand 13 5
Vibrato
Contin uous vibrato: down fingers
When passages seem too fast to allow vibrato on each note, one solution lies in the fact that any fingers
that are held down on the string are, in effect, longer-value notes which you can easily vibrate. Then,
1 See also Holding down because these held-down fingers are vibrating, the other fingers vibrate as well.1
fingers, page 1 93 .
Such a vibrato must be minimal to avoid the notes becoming unstable, but there is a big difference
between fast passages played with a 'background vibrato', and played with no vibrato at all.
• Practise holding fingers down and vibrating them even if in the end you may not hold them down so
long. Afterwards, continuous vibrato will feel more automatic.
Example 1 Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, no. 8, b. J
(1 ) (2) (3) ( 4) (5)
� *11 1 JJffB I t11 F H I r;rTI1 I fi f PU I Jl �

4
•
(1 ) Although the actual notes are eighth-notes (quavers), the first finger is playing a dotted quarter-note
(dotted crotchet) because it stays held down on the string for three notes.
(2) The first finger stays on the string for at least a quarter-note while the fourth finger plays the E
('overlapping'), and may stay down into the following third finger D.
(3) Sometime during the D the second finger takes its place on the string, the balance of the hand transfers
on to it, and at the same time the vibrato transfers - without stopping - from the first finger to the
second finger.
(4) Sometime during the fourth finger E the first finger is prepared and stays for at least a quarter-note.
(5) Sometime during the B or the A the first finger takes its place on the string to give the hand stability.
Here, it is as though the first finger is playing a dotted half-note (dotted minim) .
v i b r a t o v i b r a t o vibrato v b a 0
Example 3 Viotti: Concerto no. 22 in A minor, mov. 1, b. 96
espr. 3- 2 - 1- 3 2- l-
vib. vib. vib .
-
vib. vib. v
--
� -
�b- --
- -
a
----�
o
� �I I� #j 1 @::3.h@ @1 J J Jff$W I � I »42&9

p ma espress. v i b r a t o
Example 5 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 1 3, b. 3
�t=?J? r r r:r r
fa =====� 1 2
v i b r a t o
1 ---
v i b r a t o
1 36 Left hand
Vibrato
co n tinuous vibrato: dropping and l ifti ng fingers slowly

1 Not allowing finger
Lifting or dropping a finger must not cause the vibrato to stop. 1 action to affect the vibrato
o Drop or lift each finger so slowly that for a moment, between the finger touching or leaving the string, is a key example of keeping
the tone becomes cracked and distorted. the different elements of
playing independent from
Dropping fingers each other. Other examples
include keeping the bow
Drop the finger very slowly. As the finger slowly approaches the string, keep the vibrato going without legato while the left fingers
allowing it to stop even for a fraction of a second. When the finger gets close enough to the string, lift and drop (page 61 );
keeping the left fingers
each forward movement of the vibrato begins to touch the string. This produces a fuzzy, distorted light when the bow is
sound. The sound gradually improves as the finger stops the note more fully, the vibrato continuing heavy (page 235); as well
as the whole subject of
all the time, until finally the tone is pure. 'localizing actions'
Make this stage - between the finger just beginning to touch the string and it fully stopping the string (page 270).
- as long as possible by lowering the finger very, very slowly.

Lifting fingers
Lift the finger very slowly. As the finger begins to release the string each backward movement of the
vibrato causes the sound to break, until the vibrating finger is finally completely clear of the string.
Make this stage - between the finger stopping the string and being completely clear of the string -
as long as possible by lifting the finger very slowly.
• When descending from an upper finger to a lower finger, make sure that the lower finger is already on the
string before lifting the upper finger. 2 Vibrate both fingers together as the upper finger slowly lifts. 2 See Placing fingers gently,
page 240
2
Exaniple 1 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 69
Ii
d!l±A
A
1
p con molto espressione
2
Non-continuous vibrato, the vibrato halting as the fingers drop or lift, could be represented as follows:
Q
vibrato non-vibrato vibrato non-vibrato
\. \. \. \.
non-vibrato non-vibrato
• Lift and drop the fingers unnaturally slowly while vibrating without stopping. The jagged line represents
the 'fuzz' caused by the finger leaving or approaching the string:
2
'Fuzz' caused by
lifting the second
••ii;;;t; 2 2
very slowly
1 1
/' /' /'
Place the first Place the second (Held down from
ready on the string ready on the string previous G#)
n�
Exaniple 2 Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Praeludium, b. 23
J If f [ I r�g
+
J J J r f I F I
2
r
0 4 0 0
r
.. ...
f
-
1 --
First practise slurred, and then with separate bows:
2
Dropping Lifting
� tt ��
Fuzz caused by
Dropping
v
t::::: -J
dropping the second the third the third
very slowly Ii Ii the third
v
\. 3 \.
� e �· 0
II e
1 etc.
Left hand 137

Vibrato
Vib rato accents
The following examples contain notes played with an accent or other sort of musical stress. The bow
moves fast-slow and heavy-light (more, or less, depending on the example), and the vibrato on each note
1 See also Vibrato accents, is fast-slow and wide-narrow. 1
page 89
• Practising by exaggeration, play no accent with the bow at all. Keep a perfectly even bow speed,
creating the accent with the vibrato not the bow.
• To create the 'accent' make a separate fast-slow and wide-narrow vibrato on each note.
Examples Mozart: Sonata in F, K377, mov. 1, b. 9

Fast-slow Fast-slow
Fast-slow
Br t filBF"
Wide-narrow Wide-narrow v
D It If
Wide-narrow
r
� 1
t r r
v 4
r
ri
Fast-slow ,l'
Wide-narrow
�
Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 1 4, b. 1
�
ri
<>
,/T fo ,/T fo ,/1 fo
Fast-slow Fast-slow Fast-slow
Wide-narrow Wide-narrow Wide-narrow
Schubert: Sonatina in D, op. 1 37 no. 1, mov. 3, b. 1 6
> IF
,l'
Fast-slow Fast-slow
Wide-narrow Wide-narrow
J. S. Bach: Partita no. 3 in E BWV1 006, Giga, b. 1
)
v
jJ J j J 1r r r F
4
If F r r?Ft F I)
y----_ 2
0 ,l'
,l'
Fast-slow Fast-slow Fast-slow
Wide-narrow Wide-narrow Wide-narrow
Double stops: isolating fi ngers

• Improve the vibrato of double stops by modelling it on single-stop vibrato.
Example Wieniawski: Legende, op. 1 7, b. 69
I J'@ 2
Ir
mf molto cantabile 2
4
:Ill: : il l : : II
(1 ) 1 (2) 3 1 (3) 1
�
0 8
3 3 3
:iii: .. :!lj: B4
(1 ) 2 (2) 4 2 (3) 2
4
0
4
:II
( 1 ) First play just one finger of the double stop, without the other finger on the string. Play a free, loose vibrato.
Then play the same note again on its own, but now with the other finger of the double stop silently
placed on the other string (written as an x-note) . Find the same free and loose vibrato as before.
(2) Do the same with the other finger: first play it on its own, then on its own with the other finger silently
held down on the other string.
(3) Finally, play both together with the same free, loose vibrato on both fingers.
1 38 Left hand
Harmonics
The main factors to consider in harmonics are (1) keeping exactly
!CS the right distance between the fingers, and (2) bowing near enough
to the bridge. Another factor is the different weight into the string
o f the lower and the upper finger.1
Se e also Shifting to a harmonic, page 1 88.
Playing fingers separately

Example Bart6k (arr. Szekely) : Roumanian Folk Dances, No. 3, b. 4
1 Although the lower fin
ger in a rtificial harmonics
must stop the string more
than the upper finger, the
pressure can still be very
little - barely enough to
'bend' the string down
Keep the fourth finger stra ight, towards the fingerboard.
hovering just above its note v
� � 1 11�1 I
4
�� 2 � I n� § � �IH� � l nll� � � �
,/ '"'
1 1� II
(1) (2) 1
I�1
'"'
v '"' '"'
f I I
· �
1'-i
1 1
1 :_../,1 1 � "._____,/
1 /f
Lower finger silent
( 1) First play only the lower finger, with the finger Fig. 1 2
stopping the string just enough to sound the note.
While doing so, keep the upper finger just above

its note - a hair's breadth away from the string -
so that the hand position is the same as when you
play the passage properly (Fig. 1 2) .
(2) Then play only the upper finger, but not a s a

harmonic: stop the string enough to sound the
note properly. Keep the first finger lightly on the
string as before.
Only the upper finger will sound. The x-notes Note how the fourth finger contacts the string on the
pad, not the tip
represent the silent lower fingers.
You may find it better if you do this with the fourth finger quite straight (Fig. 1 2), contacting the
string with the pad (as it would be if you were playing an actual harmonic) . 2
2 This does not apply to
the third finger, which i n
In finding the exact placement of the fourth finger, it is also helpful to alternate between the lower finger this example should be
alone and the harmonic: curved and playing on its
tip as usual.
JJJ [J
Double stops: practising i n d ividual fi ngers
Example
1 ij
Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 3, b. 95
1{1.
+ + +
� ttH £ a � i
3
�
v 3 + +
4 2 2
!
1 1
3 3 3 1
1 dolee 1 1
Double stop passages contain frequent examples of harmonics played with the fingering 1-3 (marked '+') .
• Make the fingers more familiar with these unusual harmonics by practising scales using 1-3. For
example:
Left hand 1 39
Left-hand pizzicato
Two qualitie s of successful left-hand pizzicato are:
Clarity: every note is absolutely clear and equal in strength to the others
2 Machine-like evenness of rhythm
When alternating short bow strokes with left-hand pizzicato, bounce the bow on the string with an almost
vertical motion close to the point. The aim is usually to imitate with the bow the sound of the pizzicato.
Angle of plucking
O n the E string, left-hand pizzicato i s easier i f you place the elbow more t o the left than usual, bringing
1 See Angle and height of the base joints down very low. 1
knuckles, page 2 3 7
On the G string, bring the elbow more to the right than usual, so that the plucking fingers lift off at an
angle that makes them miss the D string, Do the same for the middle strings,
• Build the elbow movements into the playing.
Example Sarasate: Malaguena, op. 2 1 no. 1, b. 71
$ Utt R i ;u:p 1 1 �HQ# 1 i 1r Qfbi/ i 1 l�q]+ ,Ja+ + �l��

pizz. pizz. r;
Elbow left
+ 1; Elbow right Elbow right
0
Elbow very right ff
-
Stopping the string
When playing with the bow, the right amount o f finger pressure into the string is usually as little as possible
just enough to stop the string with a pure tone and no more.
Pizzicato is one of the few areas of playing where the harder the left hand fingers press the string the
2 A plucked open string better.2
rings for longer than a
stopped note because the • Practising by exaggeration, play extremely slowly, using the extra time to stop the string as hard as
nut stops the open string so possible.
+� b#6+ + + + + ) + + + +
precisely, compared with the
fleshy pad of the fingertip.
Example Paganini: 24 Caprices, op. 1, No. 24, variation 9
You can get the same
I J+ q J+ J+ J+ J J+ J+ I ffnr" tttf 1 E� ;
Ii
Ec
ringing effect out of a
4
$£
'dead' note like B. With Ii v Ii pizz.
v Ii v
,�
v
r
�-
r
the instrument sitting on a
d
ill! -'(IJ
J
flat surface, use something
I
r
(+ #x + + +
with a solid, precise edge
+ + +1 J J+ + + + + I
(make sure it will not
damage the string) to stop
Very slow
© ® ® CD ®
the string i nstead of your
finger. The B will then ring ® CD ® ® CD ® ®
$£ ? q# J J j j J f F
ii
E r
for as long as an open
v Ii
r
v
r
string when plucked. * )(
x )(
x
+ +m + I
)(
3 3 2 2 0 2 2 1 1
0 3 2 2 1 3 0 3 x
2 2 *
1 1
® ® ® v ©
f f t b !Mt
v
�!
Ii
�0
)(
)(
2 3 1 3 1 4 2 2
The lower fingerings indicate the finger that stops the string; the circled numbers indicate the finger that
plucks the string.
• Practise very slowly, at about one note every five seconds.
• After playing the first note (B) with a short spiccato stroke near the point, leave the fourth finger down
on the string and place the third finger A underneath it. Press both fingers as hard as possible for a
few moments, then (without first releasing the fingers) pluck the string with the fourth finger.
• Leave the third finger down on the string and place the second finger G# underneath it. Press both
fingers as hard as possible, then pluck with the third finger, and so on.
1 40 Left hand
Scales a n d a rpeggios
When a scale is played very well the three main aspects of playing
a - pitch, sound and rhythm - are all even. Playing scales on a regular
basis greatly improves overall playing because the evenness of all
the playing increases. 1 1 For other practice
methods useful for scale
Pitch playing see also Placing
fingers gently, Examples
Any particular note in the scale or arpeggio must not be sharper in the first octave, flatter in the second 6-7, page 243; 'Trilling'
octave, sharper in the third octave, and so on. shifts, Examples 1, 2, 3,
page 1 83; Holding fingers
The intervals between the notes must be even, e.g. the whole-tone between the first and second notes of down, Example 1 , page
the major scale must not be wider or narrower than the whole-tone between the second and third notes. 2 1 93; Uniform intonation,
page 207; ABC practice,
Example 4, page 276
Sound
2 See Tuning scales: three
The sound must be even, so that no note is played louder or softer than another - in particular, before stages, page 2 1 0
or after a change of string, a change of bow or a change of position.
Rhythm
Each note of the scale must be played evenly, with no disturbance to the rhythm caused by changing
string, bow, finger or position.
Note about rhythm and accent pradke

36-46, these are two
Discussed in full on pages of the most essential practice methods for scales. Every
different rhythm or accent pattern is useful. Begin with the basic dotted patterns:
• Note how the following four-note accent pattern does not work out back 'home' onto the tonic, so a
different note is highlighted when you go back up again:
• Combine accent and rhythm patterns :
I�
4 4
J. JJJJ. 1" I ...�

>
etc.
Left hand 1 41
Scales and a rpeggios
Vib rato
Practise scales with and without vibrato.
• Practise without vibrato, so that the sound is 'bare' and you can hear everything very clearly. Listen
closely to the intonation and to the evenness of the bow stroke.
• Practise scales also with a 'background' vibrato, i . e . just enough to warm the tone of each note but
without it being particularly noticeable or expressive. This is the vibrato you might use in a scale
examination or college audition when you are standing up and performing scales.
• Practise also with an expressive vibrato, as though performing great music. Play scales with the vibrato
(and the tone) that you would typically use for Bach, Beethoven, or Brahms.
Playing sca les as m usic

When we play musically and with inspiration, a better feel comes into the muscles of the arms, hands
and fingers, than when we play purely mechanically.
Rather than thinking of the notes in isolation, hear a harmony with each note of the scale and play
expressively, bringing out each note's musical importance.
Example 1
�' r D
2 v
0
Violin
Imagine other chords, e.g. the natural harmonies and inner tensions of the scale clashing against the
D-F-B chord; but having once thought of the notes with a harmony in mind - rather than consciously
trying to move the fingers and bow - there is an immediate new feeling of control and ease when playing
the passage up to tempo again.
1 42 Left hand
sowi ng patterns
Regularly practise scales with a variety of different bowing patterns. As well as improving the evenness and
ease of playing scales, practising bowing patterns improves all-round bowing technique and co-ordination.
Out of the infinite number of possible bowing patterns, a little work on just a few basic patterns is enough
to produce dramatic improvement in bow control and tone:
J ll J�J-J J -J J J J II
J J'---J-"' II J--
(1) (2) (3)
L--J-J J� '----"' ------
J J J J J'-'J J J II J J'-'J J J J'-'J J II J_J_J_J J J J'---J-"' II

(4) (S) (6)
"---/ '-' '-'
J J J-- J J J J II J. � J. � J j J. � II
J J._..., J II J----
J....
(7) (8) (9) i1 i1 v v i1 i1 v v
____,
etc.
Example 1
z-_.!
4 H1u1cc:r t u 1 ru n : I
f; experiment with crescendos and diminuendos.
• Play at the heel, middle and point.
• Vary the dynamics: play p,

Marte/e, near t h e point
4e(Wij§ J J J J j § J J J J I j§ J J J J p J � E-t I �
i1 tr tr tr
Another method of using different bowings in scales is to practise a particular bow stroke from a piece.
• The scale does not have to be in the same key as the passage:
4 �"1h, (W� J J ; J J ; J J t r I�
Martele, near the point
J
P
...
etc.
'M
energzco
t �� 2 J�_J. 55. jJ 5J. j I J'-/J 55. jJ 5 J j J'-/J. jJ 9J jJ. j I J I

i12 2 n n v n n 2 n n 2
poco f� '---'· � � � \..._;

>
• Play the scale in the same part of the bow, with the same stroke and in the same tempo, as the passage:
i1 v
j J. F = t 1
etc.
Left hand 1 43
Scales a n d arpeggios
Metronome practice
Begin with one note on each metronome beat, then 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 notes to a beat.
So that there is the right number of notes for all these groups to fit into evenly, add notes at the beginning
and end of the scale to make a total of 48.
• Set the metronome according to how fast you want to play the final groups of 8 notes to a beat. A
medium tempo is J = 60.
• Begin with one note to a beat. Play each note with a firm, accented stroke,
• Without stopping (but now playing legato without accents) , continue with 2 notes to a beat; then 3,
4, 6 and 8 notes to a beat.
• Always play one bow stroke on each beat, regardless of how many notes you play in each stroke.
• Do not stop between sections. Play straight from one into another.
1 Which fingerings to use? Exmnple 11

Learn a system of fingering
so that in a scale examina
tion, for exa mple, you have
fingerings that you know
really well and feel
comfortable playing.
As part of your general

work on scales, however,
practise as many different
fingerings as possible - e.g.
starting on the first finger,
on the second finger, on
the third and on the
fourth, and shifting up and
down on different strings
from your normal fingeri ng.
OD 4
E1
�
mu · (ta 1@ e r t
4
1 44 Left hand
Sca les a n d arpeggios
JJJJJI
J�
11
• Play also separate bows, detache or spiccato. (Spiccato changes into sautille at the faster speeds.)
C/11 Use the ABC method to practise the final groups of 8 notes to a beat (see Example 4, page 276) .
Ill Also begin at the end, playing 8 notes on each metronome beat, then 6, 4, 3, 2 and one note to a beat.
Example 2
C I F r C f It f f f If ff e Ief f f I
4 4
4tt11"n111 J J J J J J J J
2
1
4
1J
4 fF
In this scale pattern the top note is repeated. Since it goes a semitone below the tonic, the pattern works
for all keys except G, for which the following is used instead:
�tt ft f F I F C r F I F � J J I J � J J I J g J J I fHJ-98 I )
2
--...,,/ --...,,! 4 etc.
Left hand · 1 45
Example 3
2 �1 2
f f r r
0
�� I • , �' 1 2 1 � �
etc.
There is no need to add extra notes for three-octave chromatic scales. They total 72 notes, so 1 , 2, 3, 4,
6 and 8 notes to a beat all work out back onto the tonic on the first beat of a bar.
••
•
Set the metronome according to how fast you want to play the final groups of four notes to a beat.
Play through as a continuous sequence without stopping.
Play also separate bows, detache and spiccato.
1 46 I ,eft hand
' t r f r L t r; (@) JI£! cqif t � I
• Instead of adding notes to the arpeggio to make a suitable number for all these groups to fit into
evenly, simply repeat the arpeggio until finally it arrives on the tonic on a down-bow.
• Set the metronome according to how fast you want to play the final groups of eight notes to a beat.
• Play through as a continuous sequence without stopping.

• Play also separate bows, detach€ and spiccato.
Three-octave dominant and diminished sevenths do not need to be repeated in order to work out. They
total 24 notes, so 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 notes to a beat all work out back onto the tonic.
1 47
Improvising
Play the notes o f the scale o r arpeggio i n any consecutive order that you like, making it u p a s you go
along. Run up and down at a slow, medium or fast tempo. Aim for evenness of pitch, sound and rhythm,
and a relaxed and easy feel in the hand. Afterwards, the normal scale or arpeggio will feel much more
controlled and secure.
Vary the dynamics, sometimes getting louder going up and softer coming down, sometimes the other
way round.
There are two ways to finger the improvisations:
Keep strictly to the fingerings that you would use for the normal scale or arpeggio.
2 Make the fingerings up as you go along. Do whatever comes naturally, without thinking about your
fingers. Listen closely to the sound, and concentrate on the expressiveness and evenness of the scale.
Example 1
The improvisation does not have to add up to a certain number of notes or bars, or be ' correct' in any
way at all. Simply enjoy running up and down the fingerboard as you explore the different octaves.
Example 2
1 48 Left hand
Sca les a n d a rpeggios
ch ro matics: isolating the shift

Jn the chromatic fingering 3-2-1 the contraction of the hand (a major second between the first and third
fingers instead of a minor or major third) may disturb the shifts.
Example 1 Paganini: 24 Caprices, op. 1, No. 17, b. 18
q� E f qr br3 bE
• Clarify the feeling o f the distance between the first and third fingers b y missing out the second finger:
3 1
b3 1
��!,"
1
n
Another way to practise this is to play double stops:
q
•
qJ bI;1� 1 bn
3 3 3� 3� 3�
3
;i q Fi
3�
!;�
3
� �''!, � 1
��
1 � II � l
1
l
1 1
I
• Taking this a step further, practise sixths in scales and broken thirds, up and down the string, with
the fingering 3- 1 . You can even do this with minor sixths, where the fingers are a semitone apart.
Afterwards the contracted 3-2- 1 fingering in the scale seems very wide in comparison.
40
� >
q q
J� i11J2 JJi14 J° tiftt� a lq� t¥ r N N E#Ef} I qr t t I t f
+
�
3 1 2b3 f":
1 molto
1 �
• Miss out the second finger as in Example 1:
f n
3 1
r r
tt 2
r: £ r e 11 t?
3
r I
1
1 1
;J
3
Keep the first finger on the string throughout

+
• Isolate the first finger in the second bar:
Left hand f49

Scales a n d arpeggios
Short-cuts: thirds, sixths and fingered octaves

The time spent on preparatory exercises is usually repaid many times over by saving much more time
than they take to do. After practising the following exercises, the scale will be more accurate, and feel
1 See also Double stops, much easier, than it would have been had you spent the same amount of time practising the scale itself.1
1 � � 2
pages 2 1 8-228; Thirds and
j_ili1�$ I rm r�e f�f I fffi Ufj 11(!_!j J

fingered octaves, page 2 5 1
Example 1 2
31 �4 31 4 2
' �1i1. t
2
I
1 1 2
• Play only the notes that are fingered 1-3 to feel the exact distances of each shift, e.g. in the first shift
the first finger moves a major third and the third finger moves a minor third:
14
31
• Play only 2-4:
2 See Playing o n e string a t • First, play one string at a time while fingering both strings. 2 Then, place both fingers together but
a time while fingering both
strings, page 225 bow only the lower string of the first third, then the upper string of the next third, and so on. The
silently placed notes are written as x-notes:
� 24
� � ! � 1t�
2
' �1'1i! tRJJ 1Eff] I U ff ti u- 1 d U Eij} 1 1@ J I!

1
3 1
� 4 2
1 1 1
1
3 1
42 2 42 2
• Do the same the other way round:
• Practise each shift like 'Trilling' shifts (page 1 83). Gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible:
2 1 � �
A A
D D
' �1·1, I II JJl!l!jJ Ill: � : Ill: tfi r e rfl : II

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 42 31 24 31 24 31 24 31 2 31 ....:.4::..;..- 3
__ .:..._ 42 1
etc.
• Practise each shift using substitutions (see page 1 5 9) :
�
U� 1 1�-J-____l _u
3 42 1
31 3 24
SJ· 1
31 31 42
t1
31
}
1 50 T �Fr h o n rl
j 23
i�
Example 2
23 23
��1g}D 00 1 tFFffEcF 1 fEE1E r tf 1 �J.D a

21 21 --..
2i
2i r 23
21 �
�
21 3
---. 3 23
I
.--- . z
/ - "" , .� "'
e Play only 2-1 to feel the exact distances of each shift, e.g. in the first shift the first finger moves a
minor third and the second finger moves a major third.
l � 21
1 Gl E1 1 t!Jm
l
2 2
l
2 2 2 2 2 2 21
1 El 13
3 3 3 3 32
bti.
o Place both fingers together but bow only the lower string of the first sixth, then the upper string of
the second sixth, and so on. The silently placed notes are written as x-notes:
34 23
• Do the same the other way round:
21 21 r
21 1y�- f;
21
� � �
g� g� -
21 23 23
---. � "' �
3
2 3 3
_2 23
• Practise each shift:
A A
3 2 � r � r 3 2
D D
23 21 32 21 32 21 23 21 �
32 21 32 21 32 21 32 21
etc.
• Practise each shift using substitutions and intermediate notes:
1 �Jljj �
2 3
I
Left hand 1 51
• Play only 3-1:
• Play only 4-2:
• Place both fingers together but bow only the lower string o f the first octave, then the upper string of
the second octave, and so on. The silently placed notes are written as x-notes:
• Practise each shift:
• Practise each shift using substitutions and intermediate notes:
I
1 52 Left hand
Galamian likened the left hand to blind people feeling their way
around an object with super-sensitive touch. 1 This is very obvious 1 See also The feel of the
in shifting, where the hand orientates itself by the feel of the strings, hand and fingers, page 1 93
neck and shoulder of the violin, and all the other physical conditions
of playing the arrival note.
Memorizing the feel of the position

Learn the feeling of a particular note or position by first taking your hand away from the neck of the
violin completely. Then see if you can return straight to the note in tune, without needing to adjust the
finger whatsoever.
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Partita no, 2 in D minor, BWV1004, Allemanda, b. 6
f J II
Remove hand (Fig. 1 3} Recall the feeling of (1 )
�b f t t
(2)
r r II J2 r J4
(1)
$
\.\ \.\ 1
272 1
/)
1IJI 17 177 =
=
0
( 1 ) Learn the feeling of playing first finger D, Fig. 1 3

3rd position. During each '//' take the
hand away from the neck of the violin and
turn it to face outwards (Fig. 1 3 ) . Then
return to the violin, finding exactly the
same feeling of the hand as before, and
play the note in tune.
Each time you play the note feel where the

thumb is positioned on the neck; which
part of the tip of the first finger contacts
the string, and the shape of the finger; the
balance of the hand on the finger and at
the wrist; any contact of the hand with the Go straight to the note from this position
body of the violin or the neck; the position
of the elbow, and so on.
Take your hand away and return many times in a row, finding the notes in tune every time. 'Hear'
each note mentally in advance. Do not tap the string with the finger to test it before playing it with
the bow. Do not look at the fingers and string - feel where to place the notes.
(2) Now without taking the hand away, check the feeling of the D in relation to the fingers before and
after the shift, i . e . second-finger F on the D string and fourth-finger F on the G string. Recall the
feeling of the first-finger D.
Shifting
The feel of the hand and fingers
�I
+
I]
ii
4 2
Q J J§th
b
4
� �l\b j \i
I ! {] 6 11 1 tJ
(1 ) Remove hand (Fig. 1 3) (3) ii
J // j
4
J J
1 1 4 1 1
// // // // !
( 1 ) Taking the hand away from the neck of the violin as in Example 1 , learn the feeling of playing fourth
finger F, 3rd position, and first-finger C (the first is the finger the position is based on) .
(2) Check the feeling of the F in relation to the C by placing both fingers on the string together (shown as
x-notes), and then playing them to make sure they are in tune. Take your hand away in between as before.
1 See Intermediate notes, (3) Practise the shift using first-finger C as an intermediate note. 1 Feel the fourth-finger F based on the
page 1 60
first-finger C .
Example 3 Sarasate: Playera, op. 23 no. 1, b. 20
To shift from the third-finger harmonic down to the third-finger C# (marked '+'):
Place both fingers
(1) together on the D string
I Hu I f?F ( ''*J I J I
\i 3
3 1
( 1 ) Learn the feeling of playing first-finger A, third-finger C#, and the feeling of the first and third fingers
together.
(2) Shifting from the harmonic D to the C#, recall the feel of the hand in 4th position (shown as x-notes)
and move the hand straight to that position/feeling.
Example 4 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, inov. 3, b. 35

+
Recall the feeling of the first,
11 ii'
Place both fingers 3
u�;etr
second and fourth fingers
\i 1
together on the E string !':'.
rfu
/:\
!':'. 4
1
I Ill I
.0.
( 1 ) .ii (2) :8: (3) -0-
= (4)
"1 J
3
To shift up to the second-finger F# (marked '+') :
(1 ) Learn the feeling of playing F#, second finger, 7th position.
(2) Learn the feeling of playing the fourth-finger A by placing the second and fourth fingers together on
the E string.
(3) Learn the feeling of the octave, first-finger A on the A string with fourth-finger A on the E string.
(4) Shifting from 1 st position to the F#, recall the feeling of the hand in 7th position and move the hand
straight to that position/feeling.
1 54 Shifting
�
Example 5 Debussy: Sonata, mov. 1, b. 46
g i; e r e e
+
� .
Using this fingering, the top G is an extension. The shift is to second-finger D in 5th position.
� \i
(1) (2) (3) Ii
� �h 1 i1 � � E
4 Place silently
2 2 > 2
g l rg fg g l rg �
�
(.il.)
Ii > > >
1D
Ii Ii 1
2 2
9
'_
, · ,f
'P . f 'P . 'P .

2
f
( 1 ) Practise going to the D on its own. Memorize the feel of the hand position.
(2) Practise going to the D in the context of playing an extension fourth-finger G. The hand position may
feel slightly different.
(3) Remembering the feeling of the hand position, place the second-finger D on the string without playing
it, and continue into the passage.
Example 6 Tchaikovsky: Meditation, op. 42 no. 1, b. 154
3
3 1 �
3 3 1
411 An easy and natural way to get a feeling for the position is to make up simple note p atterns there:
� � � �
4
, � 1 J u nu e, 1 u n e i H 1 u r u i u1 n n u u 1
2 2 1 2 ------
Example 7 Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy, op. 25, inov. 1, b. 6

+
G
Ii
f J IJ
Ii
3
Ii
fa 'P
(1 ) 2
G < > E 11 G 11
0
Ii Ii
)J o/ : II
1 -- 0 1 -- 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
k
7 "I
�H 'o/
<:r D <:r
(1 ) Learn the feel of the position. It is especially helpful to use note patterns which include the open
string, so that you have to find the note 'from the air'.
1 See Square and
(2) The first-finger F is very square; the first-finger E is extended. Practise going from one to the other. 1 extended, page 1 94
Shifting 1 55
•
Using gl issando to measure the shift
Practise slow, heavy, deliberate slides to make the normal, light shift feel more accurate.
Exmnple 1 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 1 1 , b. 1
Ii
fa ====�
4 1
f
� f
f1f [ 1 t i
3
j_J
/':'\ 1
Ii /':'\
f
4 1 z· 1 gliss.
/' g zss.
Slow, heavy glissando
f 1 f�l #lf (-IF

, � ,�r· rnr· #� I f
v 3 � 3
�=====
I
gliss. gliss.
I gliss.
I
••
Compari ng shifti ng to a d ifferent finger
Increase your knowledge o f the shift b y seeing what other fingers feel like o n the same note.
Use the different feelings in the hand and fingers, in each position, to provide points of comparison
with the correct fingering. You then know the shift better and it feels more secure.
Example 2 Wieniawski: Polonaise de Concert, op. 4, b. 92

+
HI Zl ..., f'"' J
�t1J n
/':'\
3 3
•
largamente �
Shift by dropping the finger directly onto its note, without sliding the finger along the string:
4 3 2 1 2 3
,�11 2 11· j�l 1 1J8l t 1f.l 1 1p, l 1 1 i�' t 1J'81 1 •11

1 56 Shifting
comparing shifti ng to adjacent notes

o Clarify and enlarge the mental picture and feel of a note by also learning the feel and exact position
of adjacent notes.
Example 1 Brahms: Sonata in D minor, op. 108, mov. 1, b. 57
3
+
l IJ
G
@]#
i1 v
2
J
4
7 1
�! l : J
sul G
J J J nJ J I J J nJ J : 1
i1
gQj
2 2 2 2 2
� � � � '----'
3
E +
rU i f
�
G
E j r
i1 3
sf
Make this shift by dropping the finger directly onto its note, without sliding the finger along the string:
3
• Attack each half-note (minim) with a strong accent, without testing the note first or beginning it hesitatingly:
>
�g pJ J J J J IJ J JJJ I
i1
7 7
2 2
• As well as practising shifting to notes above and below the real ending note of the shift, you can also
3
q 3 3 3 3 3 3 #3
shift from notes above and below the real starting note:
3 3 3 3
� t 11, J JttA I J J f,111, JttA J A I J� J t111 � l\ f I � � � f,1

f
1
f #
1
# 1
Example 4 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 3, b. 1 1 7
• Sometimes it is useful to continue for a few notes:
Shifting 1 57
The feel of the hand a n d fingers
Semitone shifts with one finger

When the two notes o f a single-finger semitone shift are i n tune they may seem surprisingly far ap art,
1 See also Example 1 , particularly in low positions. The tendency is to play the shifts too narrow, almost like a quarter-ton e . 1
page 2 1 2 . 'When moving
a half step [semitone] • For a simple way t o check o r discover the correct distance, first play the notes without shifting. Note
with the same finger the how far apart the fingers are, then move the same distance using only one finger,
distance must be felt
larger than anticipated
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWVI OO I , Siciliana, b. 1
_l)
because each half step is
4 � wr t f PE
equal to the width of the �
F�
2
Jj" �r 8
+ �
Ip
tip of the finger and so
must be compensated for.'
ii 3 "1 "1
D
Raphael Bronstein: The
i
Science of Violin Playing
d
r
(New Jersey, 1 977), 5 .
2 "1 "1 "1 "1 G z

2 -------
J J
2 1
: 11
Example 3
b4 4
Dont: 24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 35, No. 3, b. 9
+
Jj j}fi1id f f 1 H [; d J J 3 iJ J J tf Ff 1ft
+
1 1 4 �4
= Il = t f : 11
b :----!
E E
J J�J1
4 �1ib e -
+
J D r J I £( r iqr
v
If
3
F
2 v
I
,.,..-___ ---...._ v
sf
�'b f II:
p cresc. decresc. p
F r F r : 11
Example 5
4
1
nJ lf
& fJ bfr
ii
1 0 3
,.
3 2
'
F1 : 11
' �
1 2
tr 1
Su bstitutions
Substitutions are shifts from one finger to another on the same note.
They are frequently used as shifts in their own right, and are also
part of the mechanism of Exchange shifts (see page 1 66) .
Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. I, b. 49
4 3
r 0
4
;j 1
I fl r
• To practise the substitution from first- to third-finger A (marked '+'), play from one finger to the
other many times, as fast as possible.
o To encourage the fingers to be light on the string, bow very lightly over the fingerboard.
1 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3
FPP Repeat many times
If you are not able to play this very fast, discover where the areas of resistance are. Is either finger pressing
too hard, or the thumb pressing too hard against the neck? Is there tension in the base joints of the
fingers, or in the wrist or upper arm? Is your neck free? Are you holding your breath?
Example 2 Brahms: Scherzo (Sonatensatz), Wo02, b. 1 8
ff
f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f= I
b
' �"1, I
I I 2 1 2
I 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
FPP
Example 3 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 1 1 , b. 84

+
sul D 1
2 1
: J L;
3 p cresc.
:� �1;#1# I 1 : a J J :J :J J J J :J J J :J :J J J :J 1 J J J J I :J J J :J I {fQ) I !±id I

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
:
...__,.,. ...__,.,.
FPP simile

+ 1
I r: I
Ii v Ii
3
4 3
2
4
1
3
;ml
2
4
I Q
e
1rf
41 1= 'Hrrn rrnr rrr rr 1 1 "r r r r r r r r r r � r r r r r =1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4 3 4 31 24 31 24 31 24 31 24 31 24
FPP
Shifting 1 59
I ntermediate notes
Intermediate notes are part of the mechanism of shifting, and help

in measuring distances and exact intonation,
How clearly you can hear intermediate notes depends on the type of piece and the context. They can
range from inaudible, through to 'ghosting', through to being an expressive element of the shift. 'Ghosting '
means to play the intermediate note with as little bow as possible (no more than one centimetre), as little
1 See also Ghosting, bow pressure as possible (barely touch the string with the bow), and harmonic-like finger pressure, 1
page 1 82
The ideal is that in the end there is no 'shift' at all, L e . in the following example, play 'note-note-note
note', rather than 'note-note- shijt-note-note':
1
r 3l: I
However, practising intermediate notes brings great security to each shift by clarifying the positions before
and after the shift; the fingers that will actually do the shifting; the exact interval that the shifting fingers
must travel.
C lassical shifts
Classical shifts are also known as 'beginning shifts' because you move on the finger that begins the shift.
Ascending Shift up on the lower finger until you are in the right position to place the upper finger
directly on its note. The note that you shift to with the lower finger is the intermediate note.
Descending Shift down with the upper finger until you are in the right position to place the lower
finger directly on its note, The note the upper finger shifts to is the intermediate note.
sul A sul A
b4 b4 b4
� � �
(1 ) v v (2)
II �r ll �t----1.� �r I
i1 i1
� ��
v v
ll�r----
i1 i1
1 1 1 1
-=:::'. I/IP
/'
I ntermediate note
(1 ) The note you are shifting to, fourth-finger Bb, is in 5th position. Shift with the first finger to 5th
position. This note, F, is the intermediate note. Having arrived there simply drop the fourth finger
on B b .
Although the sound o f the shift is a n octave, the actual distance o f the shift is a perfect fifth, Bb t o F
played first finger to first finger.
(2) Shift with the fourth finger to 1 st position. E� is the intermediate note, and having arrived there simply
place the first finger on Bb and then lift the fourth finger. The actual distance of the octave shift is
again a perfect fifth (fourth finger to fourth finger) ,
4
l j J ) J j J J J j J J j IJ
+
IJ J J '-._.,/ • '-._.,/ • c._./ •
(2) (3)
4 4
(1 ) (4)
j Il g.. jJ Il g J I
i1 i1 i1
J J
1 1 1 1 1 1
(1 ) Play the two notes of the shift (A, F#), and the intermediate note (C#), with equal length and tone.
(2) Play the intermediate note shorter.

(3) Ghost the intermediate note.
(4) Still thinking of the intermediate note, play A followed by F# as if there were no shift - simply two
notes one after another,
Shiftirn!
I ntermed iate notes
3
+
E • r 1 rz;t f v 1f
�
�
p cresc.
v 3 vy--J 3 v 3 vv-1 3
1r I r·
(1) (2) (3) (4)
� f v f ¥f 1f f
1 1
I
*
e Practise as in Example 1.
Example 3 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. 1 in A minor, BWV1 04 1 , mov. 2, b. 5
�I � 2 :1
(2) (3)
I ff��
(4)
I ff�� 6 x
I
2 v v v 3
sul D +
E j J J I J. IJ
cresc.
v3 3 v v3
The shift marked '+' can be approached as part-shift part-extension:
1 Ftjd
(1) (3) (4)
1 (5?;J
1 1
I
• After reaching the intermediate note (C) with the third finger, extend back with the first finger to G.
v
Example 5 Beethoven: Romanze in G, op. 40, b. 20
�----- 14Jiijf
+
0 1 l d
v
p
(1 ) (4)
v4 4 2
r I
I ntermediate notes
Exmnple 6 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, nwv. 3, b. 25
f r r tf c e J---e
+
Fi
'ti Ill �i
2
3
sf
(2) (3) (4)
1 fY-1@ � I
Fi
2
=
Spiccato
(1 ) Play the two notes of the shift (D, B), and the intermediate note (G), with equal length and tone.
(3) Begin to build the shift into the phrase while ghosting the intermediate note.
(4) Play spiccato, as in the passage itself. Shift with the first finger to the intermediate note while the bow
is in the air after playing D.
�J
+
a
2
�
1 2 2
3 4 4
cresc.
(1) (4)
2
Ii 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 V�r II
P1!P
The intermediate note is F#, making the shift a perfect fifth from B -F# .
( 1 ) Play the two double stops, and the intermediate note, evenly under one slur.
(2) Learn the distance of the shift. Bow lightly over the fingerboard to encourage the fingers to be light
on the string.
(4) Move from one double stop to another as if there were no shift - simply two notes one after another.
I�
Ir r
D D r -
The intermediate note does not have to be in the same position as the final note of the shift. Here, the
fourth-finger A� is an extension. The intermediate note D sets the position for the following notes and
should be kept down on the string.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I
PPP
(1 ) Practise the 1-1 shift on its own, bowing lightly over the fingerboard.
(2) Gradually shorten the intermediate note (D) until playing it as a ghost (written as an x-note) .
(3) Play from Ab to Ab as if there were no shift.
I "4J :J J J J :J J @ J
t�'b
sul G
� J JJJJ
o� �
f
• The two shifts marked '+' can be played as part-shift part-extension. Practise playing the intermediate
notes as grace notes:
Romantic shifts
I''f
Romantic shifts are also known as 'end shifts' because you move
1i: --
on the finger that ends the shift.
II V 4
I
Having played the Bb with the first finger, place the fourth
finger lightly on the string as if to play a harmonic. Shift with
this finger on the string, sliding the finger into its note from
below.
Although the sound of the shift is an octave, the actual distance of the shift is a perfect fifth, Eb to Bb
played fourth finger to fourth finger.
How clearly you can hear the slide into the note depends on the type of piece and the context. It can
range from inaudible or 'ghosting', through to an expressive portamento.
See also Slow arrival speed, page 1 72, for further examples of Romantic shifts.
Example 1 Granados (arr. Kreisler) : Danse espagnole, b. 48
1g
�
� r
+
� Utt#H 2 p "j_ t t � 1 C--r
§ft I t ry� I
(1 ) (2) (3) (4)
$"11"n 2 I
U1 It It bi
( 1 ) Play the two notes of the shift (B, B), and the intermediate note (G#), with equal length and tone.
(4) Still thinking of the intermediate note, play as if there were no shift - just two notes one after another.
Shiftin12: 1 63
I ntermediate notes
I r J I J l n£TI
�
Ii
�&�
., f�-#�D�2--r-
J ��-,.}-�+-+-�---
��-�
+ v v
Ir
v 4 1 2
3 N
tt
(1 ) (2)
11: �2= � �
4 4 4
�� :�
4
&t i
Ii
F
4-4 4
E3
4
3-3 3 3 3 3
�
3 3 3
( 1 ) The intermediate note is A whether the shift is with a fourth or a third finger.
(2) Practise the minor third from A to C.
Example 3 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 1 3, b. 1
< >
� ====� fz
dolee
r r r
(1 )
Qt r
4-4
r r
Ii 4 4 4
�
4 4 4
, : 11
(1 ) The intermediate note is fourth-finger Gb .
(2) Practise the major third from Gb to Bb.
Ir I J� :J� I J
sul G +
J :J
Ii
1 3 2 3
(1 ) G (2)
ll = Q J J J- 9 --g :II
3-3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
______
( 1 ) The intermediate note is third-finger G#.

(2) Practise the perfect fourth from G# to C#.
Like the lower fingering in Example 2, this shift could also be played part-shift part-extension with A as
the intermediate note. In (1 ) reach up to A with the third finger. Then in (2) shift between A and C#.
Example 5 Fibich: Poeme, b. 12
w0 F; --=====
1 ff : : \ 2 J · =======-- mf
� �
! 11 ry
(2) �
r r r 111 ry r r r = 111 = B r c r : 11
(1 )
,�
�
( 1 ) Both fingers shift a perfect fourth.

1 See Playing one string at
a time while fingering
(2) With both fingers on the string, first play only the lower note, then only the upper, then both notes
both strings, page 225 together. 1
1 n4 Shiftirnz
co mbination shifts
Combination shifts are a variation of Romantic shifts. They end

and sound like a Romantic shift, but begin (usually inaudibly) like
a Classical shift. They are normally used only for ascending shifts,
rarely for descending.
Begin the shift with the lower finger on the string and end the shift with the upper finger. Sometime
during the shift change over from the lower finger to the upper finger.
Combination shifts make the two notes of the shift seem closer together. In the example (octave Bb to Bb),
shifting a major third with the first finger and a minor third with the fourth finger feels like two very small
distances. In comparison the perfect fifth in either a Classical or Romantic octave shift seems much further.
Example 1 Brahms : Sonata no. 2 in A, op. 1 00, mov. 1, b. 41
f w 1f
�
(4)
4
x - E I
v 1
If
�
�
(1 ) Play the two notes of the shift (A, F#), and the intermediate notes (B, E), with equal length and tone.
(2) Play the intermediate notes shorter.
(3) Ghost the intermediate notes.
(4) Still thinking of the intermediate notes, play A followed by F# as if there were no shift.
2 ---_ 2 2
Example 2 Schubert: Sonata in A, op. posth. 1 62, mov. 1, b. 5
I f5 r21d I fO I r: � p#f I r·
3 1
----
2 2 2 ,,,--
FJ I
(1) (2) (3) (4)
'i11" 1 fq t1 I KW I fJ� I ( )�
3
ED Practise as in Example 1 .
Example 3 Faure: Sonata in A, op. 1 3, mov. 4, b. 47

+
Ill Use an extra intermediate note to emphasize the slow arrival speed, as in a Romantic shift: 1 1See Slow arrival speed,
page 1 72
(1 ) (2) (3) (4)
�tt11# ftflfl l q� l qUlft 1 f�-�-�, 1

2 2 4 4 4 2 244 4 2 244 4 2 2 4 4 4
Shifting 1 65
I ntermediate notes
Exchange shifts
An exchange shift is one where the fingers 'cross over' each other during the shift:
(1 ) (2)
'r r r I
y--! �
1r
( 1 ) Ascending Begin the shift with the higher finger on the string and end the shift with the lower
finger. Sometime during the shift, change from the higher finger to the lower finger.
(2) Descending Begin the shift with the lower finger on the string. When it reaches the destination
1 See Substitutions, note, replace it with the upper finger, using a substitution. 1
page 1 59
At the same time, the lower finger continues down until it reaches whatever its note would be in the
new position (either remaining above, or resting on, the string) .
f
2
• Practise the shift to the second finger (marked '+') by shifting the first finger down to its new position:
� �
' t t·
(1 ) (2) (3)
2�
.r r r 1f f .r r r 1f f c .f I
1
� �
( 1 ) Play the intermediate note (A) distinctly, as an extra note.

(3) Play without the intermediate note as simply one note to another.
• Then repeat the three stages using a substitution, so that now the intermediate note is B:
� �
(1 ) (2) (3)
'� f
.t r r 1 e t r r lf f t ; I
• Practise the substitution on its own:
Fast
h t r h h h h t1
2
' 11,c r r r r r r r
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
PPP Repeat many times
Afterwards, playing without the intermediate note as simply one note to another, the shift will feel smooth
and easy, and will not disturb the rhythm of the scale.
166 1 Shifting
I ntermediate notes
Example 2 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 137 no. 2, mov. 2, b. 25
• Practise the shift to the third finger ('+') by shifting the second finger down to its new position:
1 1r� 1 G
(1 ) (2) (3)
�j lf{f
2 2 3
2 2 3
. rrJ
(1) Play the intermediate note (C) as an extra note.

(3) Play the shift in the context of the passage, playing the intermediate note like a grace note.
• Then repeat the three stages using a substitution:
1Gr
(2)
' j "f;r
(1) (3)
I
2 2 3
• Practise the substitution on its own:
Fast3
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
' � ll : C C r r r r r r r r r r
2
PPP
Exmnple 3 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 1, b. 79
� 3
+
� i f� f f r 'r [ F
E
1
�' "1 d J
i
4
�lz r
J ,J l g
�
v � v
:� b1J F
(1 ) Ii
v v
f F ��r v
b
1 i f: 'f f f�t b
1 Ii 1 1 Ii
r ¥ I
4
"1
�
v1 � v
(2) Ii
t b1J F f ]r
v v
F er r v I
b
i f
f' f f ¥I
- r b
1 Ii 1 1 Ii
4 4
"1
(1 ) Practise shifting below the note to the new position, first slowly and then at performance tempo.
(2) Practise the shift as a substitution.
Shifting 1 67
I ntermediate notes
Example 4 Beethoven: Sonata in A, op. 30 no. 1, mov. 3, vm: 2, b. J
+ + +
D
� 1
p dolce
(1) D
(1 ) Practise shifting with the first finger to establish the feeling of each new position.
(2) Practise the shifts as substitutions.
Example 5 Arpeggio sequence used by S evcik and Flesch
sul G
While observing the rhythm (which is not precise, but a representation of how the notes might sound)
make sure that the movement of the hand is entirely smooth and even, flowing freely from one position
to another without stops:
bJ (@ J1Jfil {2jJ IJ:@'.&, @ J_ig&, {@ I

sul G
� �1'1.f j
� 1 3 �
simile
1 3 3 2 3 4 2 4
Example 6 Vivaldi: Summer (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 2, mov. 3, b. 40

+
� Begin at a slow tempo and gradually increase to as fast a speed as possible:
¢ (: !f
v
1 68 Shifting
I ntermediate notes
1r
f
+
4# " r
Ii
Example 8 Brahms: Sonata no. 2 in A, op. 100, mov. 1, b. 211
(1 )
�
e·
1· (2)
1·
� I� 1 £'
�
f' �� I � I
Ii Ii
4»tt# l r
2 Ii 2 Ii
� �
---- ----
(1 ) Shift up with the second finger to the intermediate note (E) and then substitute the first finger.
(2) Ghost the intermediate note (written as an x-note) .
Ascending shifts: practise three ways

• Wherever possible, practise shifts in all three ways using Classical, Romantic and Combination inter
mediate notes. This improves the feel of the shift regardless of the type you will actually use in the end.
4tt 11,
r
-==== :::::::=-
1 r r "r r 1LJi
aJ 1 r r 1r r 1HJ
r r
-==== :::::::=- cresc.
r qr 1 sf
f
fffL,
The shift marked '+' would often be a Classical shift, the first finger shifting to 5th position F# - especially
since F# is the next note after the shift anyway. Nevertheless, practising the shift in all three ways greatly
1 1 1
increases security and accuracy:
:1
Classical 4 4
Ill II: E J
�
c: [ fJ Ill'
4 # @1 // Iii 11ff1 f � W = 1
Romantic 4
Combination 4 4 4
1
Ill II: tF
� � 1
4 # @Tb 6}11�' 6}11 :II
Shifting 1 69
I ntermediate notes
Example 2 Beethoven: Sonata in D, op. 12 no. 1, mov. 2, b. 8
+ i'1
i'1 � v v v
1
p
� ti11#
Classical Romantic Combination
tJ2j@ I t2£5@ I ti 5d
1- 1 2 2- 2 2- 2
I
1 1 -- 1
� ti11# e 1}= r=11�

i'1
2
Position-fi nding using i ntermediate notes

Intermediate notes are a secure way to find the correct note or hand position at the beginning of a phrase
or after a rest, The fingers are placed silently, often rapidly, in order to move to a different area of the
fingerboard.
1 See Substitutions, Substitutions1 are often handy for moving quickly from one position to another, but there are always
page 1 59
many different ways to reach a particular note, and different players will have their own preferred route.
ff
Suppose that Bruch had written this passage as follows:
vi-
i'1 1
1f
or
ff
I
Both make it very easy to find the D -Bb double stop; but it is just as easy to find if you finger the extra
notes silently:
L
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
v1 v1 v1
fr
v1
��I, f f f r ffr r
i'1 v
Fi i,-:
4 i'1
�
i'1 1
�==e:: � I
� 4 1 4 1
1 1 x 1 x x
I *
I *
I *
1 7 ('\ c;;;;:' J, 1 .ft. 1 "t"'l n

I ntermediate notes
( 1 ) Play the intermediate notes as though they were part of the passage.
(2) Place the finger on the first intermediate note without playing it (written as an x-note), and then play
on.
(3) Place the first two intermediate notes without playing them, and play on.
(4) Place all the intermediate notes silently, playing the 'destination note' only.
(5) Placing the first and fourth fingers together as a 'block' (as though playing a double stop on one
string), put down the silent fingers like fast grace notes, and then begin the passage.
4
+
qr
i1
:� � B - t �t 1 f I�r:--- r fSS:J
2
2
IJ
pp
qII l f t II ql #4 #4 f,i #
4
(2) (3) (4)
v2 i1 2 2 /""I
t - t
2
"" t i
x
-
=
qr Htr fr�tt w ; +
,"ftfbbt C[ ( tf i f , Urh 1
/""I
3 . �
4 (2) 3 4 4 4 (3) 2 4 fa31 /""I4. . .

pp leggero
� II � 1 1i j
(1) (4)
4 9
� i � � f - I � � II � � II
3
,-- U II i
3 1
�
2 2 1 2 1 *
x x * x * x
Example 4 Vivaldi: Autumn (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 1 7
4 i
+
�
/""I
, A
t � i r rt r it 1 r r r t r it 1 m Utt � <f) 1 rrrt Mo 1i
v
�
(1)
A (2) 4 (3) 4 /""I
f f
sul 3 /""I 3
�
r F r F r F ill
�
: 11
1
(J : Ill: r
1
E
1 1 1 3 3 1 3
3 3 3
: : j
Repeat many times ?'
Place silently
( 1 ) Practise the shift to the intermediate note (F) .

Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible. Keep the first finger on the string.
(2) Practise going to the F in the context of playing the double stop.
(3) Play straight from one double stop to another, using the first-finger F as a guide but without playing it.
Tim i n g the shift
Ti m i
Speed of shift
The speed of the shift is usually in proportion to the speed of the passage:
Slow passages - slower shifts
Fast passages - faster shifts
A slow shift is never good in a fast passage. Sometimes a fast shift in a slow passage helps in sustaining
the line or in making a clean, inaudible shift.
• To highlight the right speed for a shift, practise the shift or phrase at all speeds, from very slow to
very fast.
• As the tempo increases, speed up the shift proportionately. Afterwards the correct shift speed will feel
natural, obvious and reliable.
411 1 r
Exmnple 1 Elgar: Chanson de Matin, b. 9
r I C I (tt 1 E
+
�
Ii
2
J f?l'F
�
411
Slow shift Faster shift Faster shift Faster shift
r 1r r 1c
Ii Ii Ii Ii
r
� � � �
r 11 ' r I
41111 f
Example 2 Kreisler: Caprice Viennois, op. 2, b. 100
1 This applies equally to a
� 1i
Ii
�
4 1
4
�
'Heifetz' shift (where the
e � If
1 1
t If f it
finger seems to accelerate Ii
� l
into the note), since even
then the shift will usually
slow down imperceptibly
into the note at the last
moment.
Slow arrival speed applies In separate-bow passages the speed of the shift may be clearer if first you practise with slurs:
the least to a Classical
shift (see page 1 60), Slow shifts Faster shifts Faster shifts
where the lower finger
shifts and the upper fin
ger drops directly down
onto its note; however,
even here there may be
an element of 'fast-slow'
in the lower finger.
Slow a rrival speed

The speed of the shift is often fast-slow rather than one speed from beginning to end. The finger travels
fast up or down the string until close to the destination note, and then slows into the note. 1 The single
2 Slow arrival does not most important thing is to listen to the finger ghosting into the note.2
mean that every shift is a
glissando. The shift can be
com pletely inaudible and
still slow into the a rrival
Iii nJ
note. See Improving
listening, page 56 3
(1 ) (2)
lJ
Stop the bow on the string
;c:=:J I
'\\ slow
V
3 3 n"t fast 3 slow 3

1 centimetre of bow
2 centimetres of bow
1 72 Shifting
Ti ming the shift
(1 ) Practise the end of the shift

• After playing the first finger A, stop the bow on the string. With the bow sitting stationary on the
string, move the hand quickly to some point just below third finger B (shown as an x-note A) .
In other words, do not slide along the string to move to the higher position, but simply finish in
the low position and replace the hand in the higher position, leaving the bow on the string.1 1 One reason why slow
arrival speed is so helpful
• Place the third finger lightly on the string (x-note A) . Slowly slide from the x-note into the B using in i mproving accuracy is
no more than one centimetre of bow and with almost no bow pressure (i.e. ghost the bow) . The that by considering only
the very end of the shift
finger begins very lightly, and gradually settles more heavily into the string as it nears the B. you can make long shifts
seem like short shifts.
I nstead of thinking of
(2) Join the beginning and end of the shift together 'fast-slow' and of the
• Having played the first-finger A, begin the up-bow and the shift at. exactly the same time. Ghost whole length of the shift,
think of the shift as 'slow'
the bow at the start of the up-bow, moving the finger quickly up to some point just below the and very short, and begin
arrival note. Arrive with the finger resting on the string as if for a harmonic. ning only one centi metre
or half a centimetre below
• Continuing to ghost the bow, slowly slide from the x-note into the B, the finger gradually going the arrival note (ascending),
more heavily into the string until the finger arrives on the B. or above the arrival note
(descending).
Example 2 Franck: Sonata in A, mov, 2, b. 134

D
v 2 2
poco a poco cresc.
\i
(1 ) Stop the bow on the string (2)
II
v slow v �
•
1 L_____J
1 centimetre of bow
Practise as in Example 1 .
$ #H •I' J
+ G
IJ
3
J
#4 J
A 3 >
> 3
> > 1 > >
$ #11
(1 ) G (2) (3) (4)
l1&fF ll J. I J. . . I
ii v ii ii
v ii
v
3 3 3 3
J
2 3 2 2 2 3
o/
gliss. gliss. gliss. gliss.
f /' /'
1 centimetre of bow 1 centimetre of bow
(1 ) At the end of the B, stop the bow on the string. Reposition the hand in 8th position. Then play from
the C into the D with a glissando.
(2) The same as (1 ) but play the B longer, taking less time to move into the higher position.
(3) The same, waiting longer on the B. Do not consider the C an intermediate note any more - simply
aim somewhere below the D and slide into it from there.
(4) The same, but now joining the lower and the upper notes together without any break.
\i 2
Fast shift
1 fug@V I r I
sul D v 2
ii
cresc. /'
espressivo P ract1se
. Slow shift
Shifting 1 73
Ti ming the shift
Exmnple 5 Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 2, b. 14
�
sul G Fast Slow Fast Slow
1 �: l @}J � �
ii ">I ">I ">I ">I
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
f Practise
Example 6 Saint-Saens: Havanaise, op. 83, b. 49
3 3
Bva - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l 8va - - - - - - -------------------- -----1
ii ii
/":\
� "11"n 1 f� f c e: FGi?f I E��

/":\
Slow
v Ir r r D ll
3
• Descending one-finger shifts work in the same way: shift fast until nearly there, then continue slowly
into the destination note.
r -r�� 1 4�
D ii v v +
�
1 0---
3 3 3 3 3
molto espressivo
Fast Fast
---- 3
Slow Slow
I
(1 ) (2) ">I (3) ">I
f If i2J
">I
I Cf i2f
">I
J
;o,,
(1 ) Play the two notes of the shift, and an intermediate note close to the arrival note, equally.
(2) Shift quickly to the Db, then slowly into the C.
(3) Ghost the intermediate note (written as an x-note), then shift slowly into the C.
ii
1
� ..____.,,
poco f espress.
3
3� 3 3
1 centimetre of bow
v Slow
4
ii 4 ii 4 ">I
I
1 1 4
/'
Fast Slow 1 centimetre of bow
Example 9 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 1, b. 1 1 1
v �
+ 1 centimetre o f bow
3/#7: ::::=:: f
2
•
1 �
4
� lf E /' /'
E I
0 Fast Slow
1 74 Shifting
Timing the shift
Taking time from the note before the shift

The short moment that it takes to shift needs to be 'stolen' from the note before the shift. If the note
before the shift is played completely full-value, there is no time to shift without arriving late.
The time taken from the note before the shift needs to be so little that the listener would never know
that the note was a fraction shorter than it should have been.
• Practise by exaggeration: shorten the note before the shift and shift too early.
Example 1 + +
J� 0 0 J
(1 ) Think of playing the note before the shift only half-length.
(2) Shift a little later, but still getting to the arrival note early.

+ +
4 F r F Ll c e r c r E c [ pr f r F E F Ll c fl fr r E c t Ji�r r I �
1 1
& ll r
p
f f r f f rr r
2,,......_
• Practise getting to the first finger as fast as possible:
j
(1) v (2) Ii
-i
2 v1
� , .. . r
;. � �
>
Example 4 Brahms: Sonata no. 2 in A, op. 1 00, nwv. 2, b. 27

2
41 T JJp 1 t@ r B i r Effi 1dJlrj 1 J 1 JJM!j 1 J 11

y 1 Ii + Practise
� Think of the note before

the shift as half-len gth
Shifting 175
Ti ming the shift
Example 5 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 1, b. 1 74

+
• Gradually speed up to performance tempo:
WE� 1 ftihi�1 1
Example 6 Dont: 24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 35, No. 1 7, b. 1
�
E
1 Fol
E
, tt# n J J J 1 �
f� # 0 2 1
• Gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible:
f cresc.
• Gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible:
Example 8 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1, b. 1 1 6

+ +
�@f@ 1�6if@tif1 fW tifib I j

i1
4 4
' tt# I
'Mii I �un ffler gfil' I w

4
· 1 76 Shifting
Timing the shift
Missi ng out the note before the shift

• Miss out the note before the shift to feel the exact moment, within the tempo and rhythmic pulse,
when the shifting finger must arrive on its note.
Example 1
+ +
�
4
f!M� !i!FLJ I J
• Keep the bow solidly and evenly in the string, completely unaffected by the actions of the left hand.
Example 2 Arpeggio sequence used by S evCik and Flesch
�ti tt 3 -
sul G
- -
-
II
I
Example 3
2 1 ��
� ,ttntt ;?tiJir rlr i1 1 f f 1 f ;;-:;&n 1 J

4
v, � "----' 3
o Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to a fast tempo.
As written Practise
Shifting .1 77
Timing the shift
Exmnple 5 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 3 in E, BWV1006, Preludio, b. 7
1 L f f rc r f E f F t f 1 1 �
+
( r r rr
J r J
f 0
ii
�ttb ! J J j � f
• Play the phrase with musical conviction as if it were actually written with the note left out:
rn j r E r r I r E r f p "q t f f t r f I w •
�� D Jr �
+ +
Jr �
1r v� tt� � #� r -� � � E 1 r� r
v 1 2
.,
��B D v
If
Jr =r ttr
-------
r r
1 Jr
-=r�
r r E 1 r===trlf F
2
"t
espress.
I
p p
+
Bva - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
t f r f f 1 er LJ ft E f I er ( f 11�
. 3 1
3 4. 3
1
ii
3
#[ q
tt 1 II
( 1 ) Miss out the first-finger A to find exactly the right timing for the next note, fourth-finger E. Play
strictly in time, starting slowly and building up to the correct tempo, or faster if possible.
(2) In this example it would also be helpful to keep the A and miss out the fourth-finger E.
1 78 Shifting
Timing the shift
co-ord i nation: overlapping with the previous bow

In separate-bow shifts the finger might arrive late (i.e. the bow has already begun to move before the
finger has fully stopped the string), because it is much simpler for the bow to change direction than it
See also Co-ordination,
is for the finger to find the right place on the string. 1 1
page 1 4
• To make sure that the finger is in time, practise arriving too early so that the note you shift to is played
momentarily by the previous bow stroke.
Example 1
4
� •" I J� -
3- J Ir r F It tf
1
3
I F f t It F r I r J 3- I J
-
1 -------
''1'ii ll [ b E r @ r r b r F m r 1 £6 F r@ E Er ne ffi F 1 i
+ 1
�
1C1r
J
'tt11�1 j J
a
1
J 4
J Ur [ r f f fl I �
3
' En r F F r f lff t r �E � E
I L ±� th 0 3 n rTr r t lfEt r II
1 (B
If playing the passage slurred:
1 ,...1..._ v 1
3 3 3
" v
3 3 3 3
n � �
,"
Shifting ; 1.79
Timing the shift
Exmnple 5 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1, b. 53
This practice method works equally well in spiccato passages.

• Practise the overlapping with the bow on the string. Afterwards the shift, and the co-ordination of the
shift with the spiccato, will immediately be greatly improved.
•
ii
Begin slowly, and gradually speed up:
� n11 f r
Example 6 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, n10v. 1, b. 57
Example 7 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov.
2 �
3, b. 292
[ [ r I [ /fnr t E E f I f F E r E E E [ I
2
:u � J 1] : I J r
Example 8 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 1, b. 1 13
030 ii
0
ii
f
2 4 1 2 2 13 2 42 v 1
� v
IJ � � I�
• Play the 32nd-notes (demisemiquavers) ricochet.
• Arrive exactly in time at the sixteenth-note (semiquaver) that follows the ricochet.
1 80 Shifting
Ti ming the shift
playi ng i n one position

The ideal is to play purely musically, with technique always at the service of the music rather than the
other way round. The musical line must never be distorted by having to fit itself around technical concerns.
One way to discover the true musical phrase, accent, timing, etc. is to play it on another instrument, or
to sing it (or to imagine doing so) . Often the phrase appears in a completely new light when freed of the
sp ecific violin techniques required to play it.
An easy way to achieve the same effect on the violin is to consider how you might approach the phrase
if you played it in a lower position, or without shifting, as though it were meant to be played there. Would
you play it faster, or with different accent or rubato?
e Play a phrase or passage in a lower, easier position than the one written, without any problems of shifting,
intonation or purity oftone. Work on the phrase to find the ideal direction, shape and basic musical expression.
• Using this as a model, play with the correct fingering and find the same musical idea, and the same timing.
Example 1 Sarasate: Malaguena, op. 21 no. 1, b. 23

Ii3 2
+ poco rit.
2
'-...._./
f
17
Model Play with Normal Play with
f1 I J I
3 ii' feeling fingering
1 ii' feeling
sostenuto sostenuto
Tchaikovsky: Three Pieces, op. 42, Meditation, b. 31
D
(poco crescendo) piit f

� =- rJ =-
p
v 2
3
1 WW#fli 1 1l
f p f p f petc.
IJ
v D
IJ
1
(1 ) Picture playing the phrase on a keyboard. How would you shape it and pace it ideally?
(2) Play it on the violin in 1 st position, finding the same ideal shape and pacing.
(3) Find the same approach while playing the whole phrase on the D string.

Normal fingering sul G
�tttttt1 1 'frj-03 (;) I r

Model D A
I
Timing the shift
Exaniple 5 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 30
4
Model Normal fingering
v D
0
Exaniple 6 Wieniawski: Polonaise de Concert, op. 4, b. 9
• Alternate between shifting and not shifting, making both fingerings sound identical to each other:
w1' w1' Ill t#sit w£1'

Ii Ii � �
'"tt I II Jj1 t ];1 I Ill i.3 1 I i. 1 I : Ill: � I � I I II

i 3 i l z zl
Repeat many times
Releasing the hand and fingers

Lig hte n i n g the s hift
Encourage the hand to release during a shift by taking it away from
the violin altogether.
Play the first note of the shift, then turn the hand outwards (Fig. 1 3, page 1 53); or drop your left
hand to your side.
2 Allow all the muscles in the arm, hand and fingers to release.
3 Then return the hand to the violin (in the original position) and, keeping the same feeling of lightness
and ease in the hand and fingers, shift to the destination note.
G hosting
• Practise shifts with harmonic-like finger pressure, the finger lightly touching the string but with no
pressure whatsoever.
1 See also Improving Listening to the 'ghost' shift it is impossible to 'over-shoot' and shift too far.1
listening, page 56
"J Ghost
• Practise arpeggios by pausing on the note before the shift and then ghosting slowly into the new note.
Exaniple 2 Mozart: Sonata in Bb, K454, mov. 3, b. 5
� 4e
+
' �� I� �rp w j I ITT F r f f I r r t r �r

�
Ii
v
2 •
• Shift the first finger lightly into the new position, ready for the fourth finger to drop on to its note:
� 4
I r- r - * += f
Very slow G host
f
v
-
Lightening the s hift
Example 3 Smetana: Aus der Heimat, mov. 2, b. 43
y-l �
+
· ---_.,-
Lf I f t If f I
�
bf ,,-----=
f Ir
�
�r
ff -=.:::::: sf sf sf --<::::: ::=- dim.
• Shift the second finger lightly into the D:

Very slow
4 �j, ttJ 1f
v 2 2
2 t r 4?
/':'.
Ghost sf
Ii
1 qi j q±{
2 - --- >
e Practise speeding up the shift while still listening to the ghost:

Still listen to the ghost,
Ghost Ghost even at this speed
�
� � �
I qf f
4l II ,4
f[ f 1 qkf[f
'Tri l ling• shifts
• Make each shift into a sort of 'trill', playing it as fast as possible.
e Encourage the fingers to be very light on the string by bowing lightly over the fingerboard.
• Also practise independence of the hands by bowing heavily near the bridge while keeping the 'trilling'
fingers very light.
Example 1
4&i. 1 tp1icrU- 1 refiiii 1 � 1 fir@r 11

Repeat many times
The scroll of the violin should remain still. If it shakes, release the base joint of the left thumb (feel it
1 See Releasing fingers
soften), and the base joint of the first finger;1 make sure the fingers remain light and buoyant, not pressing with the base joint of the
into the string. Another key area to release is the wrist. first finger, page 230
%iftim:r 1 83
Lig htening the shift
4
+ i1
��§J�.�l1�.�L�J�d�J�lgEf�· �f�f�
�'�ttH#�B�r= �t�1r��r�r�·��
(1) <2 > v 11 v 11
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
( 1 ) Practise slurred with many shifts in each bow.

(2) It can also be helpful to practise with separate bows, as in the passage.
Example 3 Debussy: Sonata, mov. 3, b. 106
• After practising the shift itself, as in Examples 1 and 2, the next step could be to add the note before,
and the note after, the two notes of the shift:
r
2
r E FfF1 2
r r illJr f 1
3r
Example 4
, e J� LE 1 (rfilt f[
+
Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 3, b. 48
f
5
Example 5 Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 2 1 , mov. 1, b. 1 53
b l b 3 b4 b!.� b
+ 8va - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _1
il>oor �rn erI r , e i if =
• 1 84 Shifting
Lig hteni n g the shift
;� � � �
Example 6 Keyser: Etudes, op. 20, no. 32, b. 1
+ + +
� � " " 71 f@ @ 15 I
J j >£1 @ 15 J j J j=a ljj
4 4
4 4 4 4 4
f � > ��p
I
� � '1,� II' ( zjr r r r 6 b 6 r ffi H 4QJ I J J 3 3 I j- J j J I
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
�
1 4 1 4
. � � _/
ppp 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 s1m1·ze ---

+
<�
f f t 1 p rr q pr q r-
3
�
p 6
4 4
' I II: � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � f:11

4 4 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PPP
.
pizz. arco +
'i f #� 1 f r:za:r eJ r I ¢#$ t t f t f f I y

Ii
v0 . .
1r
1
D
2 1
1 1 1 1
f
• Play with the metronome. Begin slowly, and gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible, playing
evenly and with a relaxed hand.
• Play slurred and separate bows.
V ii V li
In double-stop shifts where the fingers do not move the same distance, it is often helpful to think only
of the finger that moves the bigger distance. In this example think only of the first finger, and let the
third finger look after itself.
(2)
lf f1r1r1e1rn 1
' #11 1 11 fr fe e c er ereerrre 111 tc trrcrer crerc c e 1
(1 ) (2)
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 32 1 23 31 23 31 23 31 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
PPP
Shifting 1 85
Isolating the shift
This section shows a few typical examples of breaking a p assage
down to find the underlying structure created by the shifts.
Example 1 Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 2 1 , mov. 1, b, 245
�
f f f f 111f f
1
f t1
1 b1 l
= t
rf r f r Er f f; #g"ftp
� �#12 E� �
q " 5rttpr t f ; r- c� �
(1f
Ii
v 4 +
I I
� ttb 1 11: F #p
(1 )
1
#f
1 1
#f
1 1
espressivo
(1 ) Glide smoothly and evenly from note to note, releasing the string slightly during each shift.
(2) Imagine that the phrase is actually written like this. Play evenly, with full expression, as in performance.
r r :II
3 2
Example 4 Viotti: Concerto no. 23 in G, mov. 1, b. 135
1 'The finger is first

stretched to a new note
outside of the position in
which the hand is resting The downward shifts in patterns like this can be played either as normal shifts or as 'half-shifts' . 1
at the moment, and after
the stretched finger is
placed on the string, the
hand follows thereafter
into the new position.'
Ivan Galamian: Principles of
(New Jersey, 1 962), 25.
• 1 86 Shifting
Isolating the shift

8va - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------1
4
� rr u•fFffir '® AA 0 frflr r:rq
3 3
r
ll
� Df: �
f brillante
. �
1
D f it · �bl. . �
�
· '.
Ip I� Ie 1
2 1
�I f f f
l L2
b1
f E t
2
-= t € �r 1
--
Example 7 Beriot: Concerto no. 9 in A minor, op. 1 04, mov. 1, b. 57
Shifting 187
Harmonics
Shifting to a harmonic
The finger must be on the harmonic before the bow moves to play it.
2 The bow should normally move very fast, to throw the harmonic out with power and brilliance.
3 During the harmonic, lift the finger from the string so that the harmonic rings.
v�3
J
2 0
j jJ v 1t 0 3 sf
p scherzando
1 centimetre of bow
Almost no bow pressure
Finger on surface of string
Play the first four notes in tempo and pause on the last note, third-finger D#.
2 Lighten the finger and slide slowly into the harmonic A. Ghost the slide: use the tiniest length of bow
1 Ghost notes: see page 1 60 and the least bow pressure. 1
It is important to change the curve of the finger during the shift, so that you play the harmonic more
with the pad of the finger than the tip. See Fig. 1 2, on page 139.
3 Listen to the ghost, and when you hear that the finger has arrived on the harmonic, move the bow
fast.
4 Lift the finger off the harmonic slightly before, or as, the bow leaves the string. (See Sustaining natural
harmonics without the finger, page 1 89.)
Gradually speed up, reducing the pause until you can perform the same actions, in the same proportions
2 Gradually speeding u p or to each other, without a pause.2
slowing down, while
3
keeping the proportions
3
the same, is like reducing
IJJJJ
or enlarging a photograph. Example 2 Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 2 1 , mov. 1, b. 9
The size of one part of the v +2
G 0
IJ J Ji
picture remains the same ,--- -------i
,--- 3 -------i
J J
4
relative to another part,
3
whatever the change in o/
overall size.
f �
f
Move the bow very fast
1 0 centimetres of bow and lift the finger
f7?1
I
(1) \i i/ (2) (3) (4)
0 02 0 0
v __...... 2 v2 --__..... 2 2 02
,--� ' II J
i1 i1 i1
2
/1 sf sf sf
Begin at the point
(1 ) Shift up to the harmonic and hold it for a quarter-note (crotchet) . Having used no more than 1 0
centimetres of bow, suddenly move the bow very fast. Lift the finger off the string as the bow leaves
the string, or a little before.
(2) Hold the harmonic for only an eighth-note (quaver), before 'launching' the harmonic with a fast bow
speed.
(3) Hold the harmonic for such a short time that the bow has only just begun to move before launching
the harmonic.
(4) Tie the different stages together.
1 88 Shifting
Harmoni1..:.
sustai ning natura l harmonics without the finger

In many cases, you need to take the finger off the string while playing a natural harmonic, and continue
the harmonic with the bow alone while the hand moves to another position.
To sustain the harmonic without the finger on the string:
Accelerate the speed of bow slightly throughout the harmonic. The harmonic will immediately 'break'
if the bow speed decreases.
2 Move slightly closer to the bridge throughout the harmonic. The harmonic will break if the bow moves
even a fraction away from the bridge.
Example 1 Massenet: Meditation from Thais, b. 28

+
1f E�
4
F
0 4
J
p
• First practise the harmonic on its own:
Gradually increase the bow speed and
Take the finger off the string pressure during the harmonic, and
i1
4 and continue with the bow move slig htly nearer to the bridge
0 ,/
p ��====
• Then practise the harmonic in the context of the phrase. Pause on the harmonic for as long as possible,
having lifted the fourth finger, before playing the G.
• Connect the harmonic to the G smoothly, with no break in the sound whatsoever.
Long Continue the A without
the finger on the string
f':I
,/ 4
1f I
4
erL F fi
i1 0
Example 2 Saint-Saens: Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso, op. 28, Introduction, b. 8
;
+
3
v v 0 D
&i b
2� v 4� 1
• Connect the harmonic to the C smoothly, with no break in the sound:

Take the third finger
off the string
� 4
Example 3 Wieniawski: Concerto in D minor, op. 22, mov. 1, b. 88
I : J ,J : II
Take the third finger off the string
IJ J IJ J
,/
J
3 3
0 0 4 0 0 4
Shifting
Chromatic glissando
Also practise the chromatic glissando with rhythms and accents to
romatic g lissa n d o increase the clarity of each note (Rhythm practice, page 36; Accent
practice, page 43) .
Speed o f g l i ssando
The first stage is to find the speed of the glissando. Too fast, and the semitones will be too wide; too
slow, they will be too narrow; the transition from slower at the top of the string, where the notes are
closer together, to faster lower down the string, must be very smooth and even.

D
• Play an ordinary, smooth glissando without individual semitones.

• Play in time, sliding so that you pass, without stopping, the first note of each group of four exactly
on each beat. In this example count: 3 - 4 - 1 - 2 - 3 (the first '3' being the A# which is the third
note of the run) .
3 4 1 2 3
3 3
Normal glissando
Example 2
:
Saint-Saens: Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso, op. 28, Rondo, b. 197
�a tte qf tt6 q6 t ttr f ttr qr 11r qr I f ttf qf tt6 q6 t 'f 6 ttc qE 11t qt � I
Sva - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
This passage is played spiccato, but first play slurred to focus on the exact speed of the descent.
• Play a smooth glissando without individual semitones.
• Slide so that you pass, without stopping, the first note of each group of three exactly on each beat:
#r· e· r· f #�
�8! I · j
b[
I�
0
Example 3 Saint-Saens: Havanaise, op. 83, b. 265
f qr rt r rt r 1 q!
ii
mf � ��===
o/
3 3
• Play a smooth glissando without individual semitones:
1 1 ------
3 3 ------
( 1 ) Practise aiming for the beginning of each beat. Slide strictly in time so that you pass, without stopping,
the first note of each group of four exactly on each beat.
(2) Practise aiming for the half-beats. Slide as before without stopping.
1 90 Shifting
Chromatic g l issando
Bu ilding the ru n i n g roups

Having found the speed of the slide as shown on page 1 90, the next step is to slide in stages - still without
the individual semitones - working from the bottom up and the top down. Then add the semitones as
the final stage.
Example 1 Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy, op. 25, Introduction, b. 158
--
Played:
�............ ..... ..............
•
3 ili%S.ta l g 2
• Working from the bottom up:

v3 2 Ii1 v3 2 Ii
1
� �
4f@§ff14 1� 1 11fa J2S1t5 1� 1 __
• Working in stages from the top down, stopping exactly in tune on the first note of each beat:
v v v
e Then play the individual semitones, again working in stages from the bottom up and the top down.
The accents indicate the vibrato-like movement of the left finger (each forward motion of the 'vibrato'
--- 2
playing a note) . The bow should remain even and steady, staying quite near the bridge to save bow:
v3 Ii
1 v3 2 Ii1
1 nJ 11J qj d J n3 q)
v3 v3
:' j #J qJ 13 d
>
------
> > >
J
>
¥ '{
> > > > > > >
¥ 7 I
v3 ------
, j "J 11313d JnM11M M J J r 1

Shifting 1 91
Chromatic g lissando
Example 2 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, cadenza
• Clarify the notes to aim for by accenting the first note of each group:
Using a n ordinary fingering as a model

Each note in a chromatic glissando can sound as clear as in a fingered chromatic run.
• To highlight any blurring in the glissando, use an ordinary chromatic fingering as a model.
0 4 3 2 1
t. v ----- Dstring.
Example 2 Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. I, b. 19
�
efefr F*Cnrbr r
gliss. .
F[j ·
.
� _ . _ ::_
3 3
dim. 1 2 2 1
• Alternate between the two fingerings until they sound almost identical:
A
3 3
h7 ( J f� H =l
3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 0 4 3
· 1 92 Shifting
•
art
Thinking of each note or finger in relationship to other notes or

The fee l of the
fingers is one of the most important aspects of intonation, e.g. tuning
h a n d a n d fi n g ers notes in relation to each other, thinking in intervals not individual
notes, and the feel of the fingers in relation to each other.
Holding down fingers
Sometimes the fingers need to stay down on the string after being played, rather than lifting immediately.
At other times, the left hand action is more like a pianist's, i.e. as soon as the new finger touches the
string, the old finger lifts.
In either case it can strengthen a passage if you practise holding fingers down for an exaggeratedly long
time (even to the point of slight awkwardness), and to do so even if you would not usually hold them
down in normal playing. Afterwards the normal finger action and intonation will feel much more secure.
Holding down fingers also helps in maintaining a good hand shape.
4 jhlij 2 J J J I J j J I J J FIF r r I r E r I r f A I t f f I
Example 1
3 --
4
4 - - 4- 1 -----
4 2
----
4 jl'1,j E f f I t f!f I r r r I r r r" I r r j I J J J I J J J I J

4 First finger ready on string
4
3 2 3
============--
4
=
1 ------
1 -----
4M;1 a w J a J J j J J J w J w 1 JJ
J tf et t7 t1 er fF ft 1
4 4 4
n n 4 V o o o
., =± =±
�J ---J 2 2 -- - .,_ --
3�
2 --
':...,,/ 3
'--"' -
� ':...,,/
1'--"'
-
1
2- 1 ----
1 ---
4
3
2 ---
Intonation 1 93
Example 4 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1 0 04, Giga, b. 17
F f m Hr
2
F
2 -
f ml 3 0
r
�
E
2 ------
F
Example 5 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. I in A minor, BWV1 04 1 , mov. 3, b. 44
j 1 t_j
4
@) J
-
3 ----
Square and extended fi nger shapes

1 The shape o f each finger is One of the most important requirements for playing in tune is that the left hand and fingers remain free
always different depending
and flexible, the fingers changing shape from note to note. 'Square' and 'extended' refer to the shape of
on the build of the hand
and the specific pattern of the finger when it is placed on the string (Fig. 1 4) .1
notes. When the finger is
square the angle at the nail Depending on the passage and the individual hand, the normal placements in l st position (A string), are:
joint is closer to a right-angle
than when the finger is
First-finger Bb - square First-finger B - extended First-finger B# - very extended
'extended'. It does not Second-finger Cb - very square Second-finger C - square Second-finger C# - extended
have to be a perfect right Third-finger Db - very square Third-finger D - square Third-finger D# - extended
angle but is simply more
'square' than the extended Fourth-finger Eb - square Fourth-finger E - extended Fourth-finger E# - very extended
shape. In higher positions
the difference between If the fingers do not change shape enough, or quickly enough, the hand may make a partial 'shift' which
square and extended is much can then throw all the following notes out of tune, e.g. the hand should not move up a half position when
less than in 1 st position.
playing from third-finger C (on the G string) (Fig. 1 4a) to third-finger C # (Fig. 1 4b) .
Fig. 14
(a) Third-finger C, G string, square shape (b) Third-finger C#. extended shape
= extended
o When building or polishing a passage, plan the shape of certain fingers consciously.
D = square <:;-
1 94 Intonation
ID
�Ull B J j tjJ J bj J
Example 2 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 29, b. 1 9
q3 3 J J J J J J 4 t0
"' "'
1
J--_:___
f�uH B J qj3 r1J J bj J3 I8 J J @ j J J J

� D D �
J j
!':'. !':'.
1
t--=---
Example 3 Tchaikovsky: Serenade melancholique, op. 26, b. 12
! fil Jj I J
v + G
w2 1
IJ
p
The third-finger F (marked '+') would be in 4th position if the first finger was on Db. In that case the
third finger would be 'extended' (it would be 'square' on an E) . Since here the third-finger F is played
with an extension, with the first finger on C and the hand remaining in 3rd position, the third-finger F
is 'very extended'. The Db it shifts to is 'square'.
• Practise changing the shape of the finger during the shift:
� b1\bb I II: J J J J I J J J J J J : 11
� D � D � D simile
3 3 3 3 3 3
Filling i n spaces between notes

When the playing fingers are not consecutive (i.e. 1-3, 1-4, 2-4), the unused fingers in between can
help in measuring the exact distance. This is another reason for keeping the fingers close to the string
when in the air. 1 1 See Fig. 1 a, page 4
On the A string play second-finger C to fourth-finger E: as well as measuring the fourth finger from the
second, picture the feeling of third-finger D, and measure the fourth finger from the imagined thirdfinger.
• Play the unused finger to confirm the feeling of its exact placement.
I)
� � �
�
- 0 .h2 3 Y---)i 3 r-}i 3

f 2 3
G
4
2 2
fr
J �J J ��[ &f r f b ( f E r f
4 1 .t:.
� r I
1 1'")1
:
ll
1 2 3
• Play the passage once or twice with grace notes to focus on the relationship between the fingers.
o Then play without the grace notes. Picture the feeling of placing them on the string and place the
actual fingers in relation to the imagined fingers.
Intonation 1 95
b
Example 2 Beethoven: Sonata in Eb, op. 1 2 no. 3, mov. 1 , b. IB
I
v
� j, 'hl 1 D 1D1 v 1p1p1 ¥

l� �
v v 2
Ii v v v v 1 v
b"
ff
'
cresc.
v
2 �
1111 Place the x-notes silently on the string without playing them, and place the actual notes in relation to them.
Practising without rhythm or real tone, learning notes only

• Focus on intonation by ignoring the two other main elements of playing - sound and rhythm. Play
each note with equal tone and length, concentrating only on the exact tuning of each note.
e Playing all down-bows can be helpful in separating the notes from each other so that there are no
tonal, rhythmic or musical elements.
1 See Testing, relating, • Practise phrases, passages or entire pieces in this way, checking and adjusting each note as necessary. 1
comparing, pa ge 207
g J J rp a l ([J
2 2
m�
1� D p
Ii
Jl
Ii 4 Ii Ii
k
"I ¥
0F
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Partita no. I in B minor, BWV1002, Bourree, b. 1
c ±�
2
i i 4
$ Mt1 pli �'¥ @r; �1 t� �a

"f p 1#� 1 p 0"f D "ftlily "f f1 /1
Ii Ii Ii
Ii 1 Ii 1 3
0
Ii Ii
�
Ii 2 Ii Ii
�
Ii 4 2 2 Ii 2 1
•
¥ o/ "I
Ton e - semitone patterns

Feel the four fingers in tone-semitone patterns, i.e. tone-tone-semitone, tone-semitone-tone, and so
2 See also Tone-semitone on.2 Afterwards the passage will feel more secure, the hand and fingers falling immediately into each new
patterns, page 221
tone-semitone 'setting' without hesitation.
IC
1
0
l �f
The tone-semitone patterns of this scale are:
�
r---1 r---1 0
.. I()
0
I() «»
I() ('\\
0
Tone Tone Semitone Tone Tone Semitone
Tone Tone Tone
Tone Tone Tone
1 96 Intonation
49 Focus on the tone-semitone patterns by placing the fingers in 'blocks':
#
4
IF
3
f1
4
�
Lower two fingers silent 2
'J
4 4 3
� 3
1
3
t r31
---
2
1 ---
1
e Play the first finger on its own, and then place the other fingers on the string together, at the same
time. (The only fingers that will actually sound are therefore the first and fourth fingers, the second
and third being placed silently.)
e Put the fingers down in tune, in their correct tone-semitone patterns.
e Keep the first finger held down on the string as marked.
• Also strengthen the feel of each tone-semitone group by playing quickly and lightly as follows:
simile
I
-i_ # �
3
f=
�G
� �© WW©'0 Ef! ttr v

2
1 1 @ 0 1 � 1
cresc.
m
V
0
4 4
�
4 4
�
(2) (3) (4) (5)

(1)
The most obvious passages to practise as tone-semitone patterns are simple scales. When a group of
notes is not in consecutive order like a scale, make the tone-semitone pattern clear by rearranging the
fingers in the order 1-2-3-4.
Rearranged into ascending finger order, the groups within brackets fall into the following tone-semitone
patterns (T=tone; S=semitone) :
.---.
#
I �f J 113 I
(2) � � (4) � � (5) �
' J J J J IJ J J .---. ,-------, ,-------, ,-------, ,----, .---.
:l
.---.
If J :l 0�
(1 ) (3)
J 1 4 J :l
/'--.._
11J
,-------,
1 1 T - 5 - T
T - T - 5 5 - T - 5
T - 5 - T 5 - T - T
• Place the fingers together in blocks (written as stemless notes, below) : having played the first finger,
place the second, third and fourth fingers on the string at the same time. Put down the three fingers
in tune, in their correct tone-semitone patterns.
• Then play the four notes, descending, to check that they are in tune:
j
Place silently Play
'j J I;
4 4
J�
� �
J�
3 3
nJ Jj J illi AJ
3
'o :J�
2 4 2 1 1 2 1 2
• ..
etc.
&tt t ll' fJJJJJ JJJJJJ Ill f;-oiJJJJiliJJ lil $J ffl}JJ JJJ I

• Also strengthen the feel of each tone-semitone group by playing lightly and quickly as follows:
: : 11
�Repeat many times

------- ------- etc.
Intonation 1 97
Exmnple 3 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1, b. 52
'Ntt n H F j
ii
s - T - T T - T - S S - T - T T - S - T
Each group is listed in the order of the fingers (i.e. 1-2-3 - 4), not in the order of the notes in the actual
passage.
• In each position learn the feeling of the tone-semitone pattern in the fingers and hand:
Lower two
fingers silent
\;
1 ------- 3 3
Repeat many times
E� ,111 , (l rUTD 1
1
2
4
3 1 4
32
.
Exaniple 4 Rode: Concerto no. 7 in A minor, op. 9, mov. 1, b. 63
Jr tr Jr tr
3
r c-v e ff ft"-f!.'= C f r t tt�

Jr tr
3
Jr tr
3
t:er r tf r r �v r e f 1 1
r': r': r" r" f:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
,-----, .------. .--.

The groups of notes in brackets fall into the following tone-semitone patterns:
* ttr r t
�
I ttE
� ,-----, .--.
(2) (3) (4)
f
(1)
E I ft f It E f f f
� �
E f
1 �
II
S - T - S T - S - T S - T - T S - T - S
• Place the fingers together in blocks:
2
�
Lower two
fingers silent /:'.
$ittr 1 t ur
\;
� �
Another way to strengthen this passage would be to place the middle two fingers together as one block,
and then the two outer fingers as another (because here the hand is based on the second finger rather
than on the first) .
• Leave the two middle fingers down as you place the outer fingers around them:
Four fingers
Lower finger on string
'I f :?s-j
2---- 3- 2----
3 ---- 2----
3 ----
2----
3 ----
1 98 Intonation
5 - T - T T - 5 - T 5 - T - T T - 5 - T
Each group is listed in the order of the fingers (i.e. 1-2-3 -4), not in the order of the notes in the actual
passage.
4
Ii 23
: 11
(4
1 -----
Repeat many times
111 Having played the C, place the notes in brackets silently on the string, in tune. Place 4-3-2 together
first, and then place the first finger (so that then all four fingers are on the string) .
e Then play the notes fast, like grace notes, stopping on the first finger.
e Keep the first finger down on the string each time until just before it is needed.
Thinking in tone-semitone patterns does not depend on all four fingers being used at once:
y-3
4
1
Lower finger silent
43 4 42
y--;
t r� n f1
\;
$jH 1r f
(1 )
I
�
2 4
'' f
(2)
$ � r I
( 1 ) Place the fingers in blocks (sounding only the top note of each) .
(2) Play the middle note of each group of three like a very short grace note.
The scale in the second bar feels as though it is made up of all whole-tones because the semitones occur
only on the shifts.
• Practise in blocks:
21 �
Lower three fingers silent
�
Lower two fingers silent
Lower finger silent
Ii2 Ii2 \; 3 \; �
4
�'tft r
sul G \;
1 1 Ii Ii 21 0
Intonation 1 99
Playi ng the same notes i n different positions

If we play something out of tune too many times we may get used to it sounding that way. Through
repetition it begins to sound normal and we no longer notice it. Because of the different feel in the hand
and fingers, playing in a different position quickly shows up any difference between the pitches you may
have got used to and the pitches you now find yourself naturally playing in the new position.
• Check the tuning of particular groups of notes by playing in different positions with different fingerings.
Exmnple 1 Granados (arr. Kreisler) : Danse espagnole, b. 32
��111 1 r
Ii2 Ii
o 1r
3
c :t I r
�
� �b
sul A
-e-3
II
-e-3
II
-e-4 -e-4
j
II0 02 1
e II0
1
e 02 II1 !IJ!3 e
2
II1
2
e 03
Exmnple 2 Dvorak: Romance, op. 1 1 , b. 31
2 3
� 1,
b ,, b
2
()
0
2 4
()
2
....
II
3
&D
0
3
I1
3
....
4
II
4
0
2
()
4
IB

sul G
�� II �-& II 7 �J
3 0 1
Jj J1J 1 1 7�J JalJ 1 1
#:
0 0 1 0 1
0 be 0 0 be 0
:::__:...._,; \..._::' :::__:...._,; \..._::'

+ A
If F r I
v �·
E
p
� tttt I f � �
v E
1 ITTf ttr 1 nTr t
E A v A
F II F F II
3 1 1 1

Normal fingering: Compare with:
F
01
31
F II
Ii Ii
� � 04
b
r
p dim.
200 Intonation
Starting a phrase on different keynotes

Strengthen a specific phrase by practising it starting on different keynotes. Afterwards the phrase on its
normal starting note will feel more familiar and rnore secure.
4P Begin below the written pitch of the phrase and work up, semitone by semitone, until above the
written pitch; or begin above the written pitch and work down.
111 Learn the feeling of the different distances between the intervals (closer together the higher the
position), practising the phrase in each position until securely in tune.
Example 1 Beethoven: Sonata in G, op. 30 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 31
J
4 4
1 rrrrrc 1"r� 1
�
b
4
Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K.2 1 9, rnov. 1, b. 66
r
i1
1
b
1 3 4
'" �t· ul 1 "F · �"fl 1 h Hbffil

1 1 3 4
I
simile
I I l bt a e I 1 6" "dt I I
Example 3 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, nzov. 3, b. 67
Tntonation 201
i1 3
3
+
� �1'1, B r F f ff 1fft
A
�
r
Y-:;;
1
I� �
4 1
3
Example 5 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1 cadenza (Joachim)
A 1
� ti�" t f 1 e f ; 1 r r f I delicatamente
• The semitone in the phrase marked '+' feels very close because of the high position. Practise passages
i1 i13 i1
like this still higher up the fingerboard so that the correct notes feel quite widely spaced in comparison:
Bva - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
t: t:ft: t:qf� q t: bCi1=f

� 1 l"rtztf
1
� "11 rh==L .rt I ,ftfzEr[ �tb( � � I

� �
n
1
�
Playing the same fingerings on d ifferent strings

• Focus on the feel of a phrase or passage by playing the same note patterns and fingerings on another string.
This is helpful in high or low positions, and can cast a new light on how to approach playing the passage.
sul D
i1� b 3 · i1 3
1 1 "n t�rJ r f:8Jr �r I
sul G
1 bf?¥
202 Intonation

8va - - - - Ii
______
3 etc. U 3
etc.
Extensions: d ividing the distance

Measure extensions by dividing the distance into smaller intervals, rather than measuring only from the
note directly before the extension. Each player can choose their own ways of reaching extensions to suit
their particular hand, or to go with the harmony in a particular phrase. Some typical examples:
Minor third: major second plus semitone (Examples 2, 3)
Perfect fourth: major third plus semitone (Examples 1, 3, 5)
Augmented fourth/diminished fifth: perfect fourth plus semitone, or three major seconds (Example 4)
Perfect fifth: major second plus semitone plus major third, or major third plus semitone plus major
second; or three major seconds plus semitone (Example 7)
Minor sixth: major third plus semitone, then major second plus semitone (Example 8)
�
Example 1 + Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 1 6, mov. 2, b. 9
[�J v
Ii
f F
tr
2 1
Place the third finger Hover close

without playing it to the string
IF r Ir r
"IL "IL
3 3
f
(2) 3 (3)
# #!
( 1 ) Play Gtt as an intermediate note, and then measure the third-finger A from the G#. Keep the first
finger on the string as marked.
(2) Place the third finger on G# without playing it (written as a stemless note), and then measure the A
from the Gtt.
(3) Remember the feeling of the Gtt without placing the finger (written as an x-note), and measure the
A from it as before.
Example 2 Beethoven: Sonata in D, op. 1 2 no. 1, rnov. 1, b. 1

+
v3 3
It t
Ii�
��
Ii
bf]? fJ
4
n
Ii Ii
ff
v
f
o/
a a r 7 7 7
0
7 7
@
j : 11
3 ------- 3 -------
(1 ) Measure the exact distance and feeling of the A from the G#. Keep the third finger on the string.
(2) Still relating it to the G#, place the A from the air rather than sliding along the string.
(3) Do not play the Gtt. Hover above the string, remembering the feel of the finger when it plays G#, and
measure the A from it as before.
Example 3 Sibelius: Concerto in D minor, op. 47, b. 227

+
3 A 3
Hover close Measure the F
�
to the string from the E
� �4
f
(2)
: [ll J =
:I
1 ��-
(1) Measure the F from the E. Keep the first finger on the string.
(2) Hover above the string, remembering the feel of the finger when it plays E, and measure the F from
it as before.
(3) Feel the equal tone-tone-tone spacing between the fingers. This is a very secure and accurate way
to judge any augmented fourth or diminished fifth.
t I J.2 4[J n t;J J 4Jf9 J1 I

sul G t:'I +
J� J1
v
k
2
y
� "-3
mf
Hover close
Reach back
�
J J I
(1) to the string
�
(2) Reach back
�
J1 J3 J 2
x )(
1 j
( 1 ) Measure the D from the Eb . Keep the hand balanced on the third finger and reach back with the first
finger to the Eb, rather than shifting the whole hand back.
(2) Use the second finger to help measure to the E� as you hover the second and first fingers above the
string. Then go down a semitone to the D with the first finger, remembering to reach back rather
than shift.
' 204 Intonation

Example 6 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, no. 2, b. 1 6
J j I
4 + +
� 1lr u [ rf f
��fIFjEF 4 �
,,1 iiI
rFf � I�
I
F f
0
... ""
• Playing slowly, keep the first finger down on the string throughout:
r fJF :111: f r f?r :11

1 2 1
r
�----
Example 7 Franck: Sonata ill A, mov. 3, b. 59

+
I� j 22J J
i1
4
....
• There are three ways to measure a perfect fifth: ( 1 ) measuring from the second finger, (2) from the
third finger, or (3) from the fourth finger. Which to use depends on the context and the individual
hand.
• In each case first play the intermediate notes, and then hover over them to help measure the interval.
\i 2
Hover close to the string
J � II J
(1) 2
'"## �
2
�
2
�
4 4
II
/':'\
)E 8
ti� j
(2) 3
IJ
3
'"11# �1 )E
3
r
3
�
4 4
jig 11
/':'\
mJ
(3) 4
J HJ IJ
3
� U## J1 tt)E
2
#x
2
r
3
r
4 4 4
)E 11
/':'\
e Practise all three ways to get the feel of the interval, regardless of how you will measure it in the end.
... F ..
r I
p cresc.
r r
(2) (3)
r
(1) 3
f � € r I
3
4 4
#>E
q4 4
� �l'I, f1 II f1
3
I f1
3 3 /':'\
q! 3 q!
#
/':'\ /':'\
#>E x
Divide the interval of a minor sixth into a major third plus a semitone (third finger to third finger), and
a major second plus a semitone (fourth to fourth) .
(1 ) Play the intermediate notes equally, memorizing the feel of the fingers.
(2) Play only the middle of the three intermediate notes, hovering the fingers above the string for the
others (written as x-notes) . Remember the feeling of playing the notes so that you hover above them
'in tune'.
(3) Play only the two notes of the interval. Hover above the intermediate notes to measure the extension.
Intonation 205
Exten sions: notes before or after

• The note before or after an extension may easily be pulled out of tune by the extension. Where possible
strengthen the feeling of its exact placement by measuring it against the note one semitone lower.
Example 1 Tchaikovsky: Serenade melancolique, op. 26, b. 42

+
4
rETE 2?F J
3
I Ff
The Eb marked '+' may be played too sharp after the fourth-finger extension Ab:
'b"1,bb r · i r
(2)
4 4 \i
F r II f' i r r
�
F
(1)
r r
2 2 2
(1 ) Measure the Eb from an extended-back D. Hold down the first finger and play the D as a full extra
note.
(2) Do not play the extra note. Hover the second finger just above the D (written as an x-note) and
measure the Eb from the memory of the D.

4
,a nc &j t t f f 1t f f f f
v . .
2 . v v
J.>
i
+
The F marked '+' may be played too sharp because of the following fourth-finger extension A.
(�)� �
�
\i 4
rn � f
r; �3
(1)
I
�==== ====- �==== ====-
After the perfect-fifth extension A-E in bar 78 (marked '+'), the perfect fourth A-D (marked '++') may
be played too sharp.
• Measure from an extended-back fourth-finger C#:
f
(1) (2) \i
' tt f I
4 4
f j� r f � J� r
4 4
f 1f
q
3 2 4 q
3 2
#!
#
1
(1 ) Measure the D from an extended-back C#. Hold down the first finger and play the C# as a full extra
note.
(2) Do not play the extra note. Hover the fourth finger just above the C# (written as an x-note) and
.
measure the D from the memory of the C#.
206 Intonation
U n iform i ntonation
There is no one 'system' of tuning which will suit every passage,
Un iform i ntonation key, or combination of instruments. The following guide-lines must
be subject to constant flexibility and compromise. The ear must
always be given priority over any theory of what is 'right' or 'wrong' in tuning.
Intonation is 'uniform' when it has a harmonic and expressive structure, each note tuned in relation to
another:
G's, D's, A's and E's are all tuned to the open strings.
Sharps are tuned in relation to the natural above (C# is the 'leading note' to D) .
Flats are tuned in relation to the natural below (Db is the 'leading note' down to C) .
C is a perfect fourth above open G. B is the 'leading note' to C. F is the 'leading note' down to E.
The exact tuning of sharps and flats is always relative to the key. Bb as the tonic in Bb major will usually
be higher than Bb as a minor third in a dark G minor passage. G# as the tonic of G# minor will usually
be lower than G# as the leading note in A major. Playing with the piano, it is often not possible to play
'high' sharps or 'low' flats. Nevertheless, A remains the reference point from which to measure Bb or G#,
however high or low they are.
• Continuously check that notes are in tune by relating them to the following:
G Tune to the open G C# Tune from D
Ab Tune from G D Tune to the open D
G# Tune from A Eb Tune from D
A Tune to the open A D# Tune from E
Bb Tune from A Fb Tune from Eb, or same as E
A# Tune from B E Tune to the open E
Cb Tune from Bb, or same as B F Tune from E
B Tune from C Gb Tune from F
c Perfect fourth/fifth from G E# Tune from F#
Db Tune from C F# Tune from G
Testi ng. relating, compari n g

• I n the following examples the small notes indicate examples of 'tester' notes used to gauge the pitch
and exact positioning of the actual notes of the melody. Play around with them and variations of them,
to strengthen your concept of the harmonic and physical relationships of the notes. 1 1 The Israeli violinist ltzhak
Perlman, when asked to
Exaniple 1 Vivaldi: Summer (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 2, mov. 1, b. 21 sum up the difference
1 2
��1 9 f �n f
between two of his
�n r
�
r;
C f
r
teachers, Ivan Galamian
I o/ c1: r I o/
21 22 23 24 25 and Dorothy Delay, said:
'If Galamian heard a note
'¥ '¥ out of tune he would say
so. Delay might say
i nstead, "Well dear, what
is your concept of Fff"
• Bar 2 1 : tune the Bb as shown in ( 1 ) below. Keynote Magazine (New
Then tune the D to the open D string. York, June 1 979), 1 2 .
Place the C exactly midway between the Bb and the D.
• Bar 22: tune the Ab as shown in (2) below.

Then place exactly the same Bb and C as in the previous bar. (The major second between Ab and Bb
must not be wider or narrower in pitch than the major second between Bb and C.)
• Bar 23: tune the G to the open G.

Tune the A to the open A.
Place the Bb 'close' to the A. (This Bb should be exactly the same as in the previous bars.)
• Bar 24: tune the G and A to the open strings as in the previous bar.
Place the F# 'close' to the G.
(2)
0 1
(1 )
2 0 3 4
r r) 11
b1
Intonation 207
Example 2 Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 2 1 , b. 1 1 0
'b F
2 2 �
�
3
(J
2 2
r (r
�
3 0
ijJ
0
ri
4 J g J
1 (same) 3
r r)
0 0 3 0 3 3 -= == 3
I
7 7 ii!!
l l
4 4
'b F (t
4 4
0
(J j
�
� =�) f E
2 2
r J r r j
3
J!
3 (same) 1 1 1 3 (same) (same)
j
0 0
J
7 7 7
l l l
41 4
.b J F ( J = = 4
J =t J ijr
2 4
br ( j =g= j J
2 2
r J
2
ri
1 1 0
r)
0
s j J r
1 0 1 0 3 1 0 1 3
I ...._.... .......
'-.../
.b F 4 2
J J ) J (J j
2 2 2 2 2
J (J r J)
0
r
f f
(same) 3 (same) 1 (same) 3 (same) 0 1 0
....... ...._._.....,
J
4 4
'b � (J =r =)) 4 4 4
J =a= j � J j ( j =8= J J) J
2
J I
0 3 3
3 (same) 3 (same) 3 1 (same) (same)
(J
3 0 3 0 3 3

+
N i
Ii
f: �
'&h ,tf f @J �y l j
Ii
iy =Lf f
b
1> 3 1 5
b4
( 2 4 4)
(� )
(� )
3
.&h f � � § � � � E E E
q1 q2
3 3
� �
3
E
� 1 1 1 3 1
E
1
0
7
l
'b\, r (] =f) �
4
r ; ]
4
3 3
2 2
F (J
(E E E)
b
r
bl)
3 0 0
E)
1 1
0 0
( �
ijr
'bl, d 4 4 4 41
d J (J
2
J �j ! J ijj J) r J �
0
(J j
3
j)
3 1 0 1 3 0 3 3 3 1
(�J
(g
J) ;;;:::::;> ...::::;;;> .......
'-...../
'b11 d 4 4 4 2
J)
2 2
(J J J j ) J (J '-...r../ '-...J../ )
2 2
0
J J �J ! � (-i I
0 3 0
bJ
3 1
(g
"' �J
. 208 Intonation
Example 4 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. 2 in E, BWV1042, mov. 3, b. 1
�o
4
Place m idway between
4
the G# and the E Make the open E vibrate
��lttti j J H� �3 J �
"'>l "'>l
�2 nJ0 t I
1
��3 J2 �1 J2 � J2 ) ( �1 �3 l r ( �1'-' 1 l
/' 1 4 3 4
Find the E that makes the
open E vibrate the widest
2 2
Prepare the next
3 3 0 0 0 "'>l 3 2 3
r r r
2
r qr
4 4 4
( r r r i r (r (r r r
three notes here
��lttti F f ri r rrI
1 1 1 1 1
r
)
g /'
Place midway between
the D# and the B
Example 5 Kreisler: Sicilienne and Rigaudon, Rigaudon, b. 1
The tuning of the first note, F#, depends on how you tune the next note, B, which is the tonic of the
scale. 1 One solution which par
tially solves this problem is
If the B is in tune with the open D, it is too flat when played with the open E; if the B is in tune with
� :r -=-- ,o, -=- J: E

to tune in 'narrow fifths':
the open E, it is too sharp when played with the open D : 1 tune the D very slightly
sharp to the A; tune the
Tune the B The B is very Tune the B The B is very G very slightly sharp to the
to the open D flat to the open to the open E sharp to the open D
I
D; but leave the E as a true
perfect fifth with the A.
This is particularly helpful
in playing unaccompanied
Bach, because of all the
chords and harmonies
Use a B that is midway between the two extremes, i.e. 'out of tune' with both the D and the E string. built up from the bass,
The perfect fourth from the B to the E will be slightly wider than a true perfect fourth.2 Then take the but it is something to
consider whatever you are
F# from that 'middle' B. playing. String qua rtets
typically tune in narrow
Flat B 'Middle' B fifths to avoid the C string
on the viola and cello
being too flat. See also
How to get the third tone
in tune, page 2 1 8.
/'
Sharp B Tune the F# a perfect fourth below B
2 Double-stopped perfect
i ntervals should be exactly
D and E in tune with B in tune with the lower octave in tune. The exact tuning
4
the open strings of all the other intervals -
"'>l major, minor, augmented
,,--..___
and diminished - is to a
certain extent a matter of
taste. One musician pre
/' fers a slightly wider major
/' F# in tune with third, another prefers it
C# higher or lower the lower octave slightly narrower. Both are
depending on taste
'in tune'; but perfect inter
vals are either in tune or
The C# can be higher or lower depending on personal preference. It can be tuned a perfect fifth above out of tune.
the initial F#, making it slightly less bright (because the F# is a fraction lower than it could be, having been However, this applies only
tuned to the B); or the C# can be tuned a fraction closer to the D, making it slightly sharp to the Ftt. to double stops. Single
stop perfect fourths and
The D's and E's should all be in tune with the open strings. fifths can often be played
so that they would be out
The F# on the E string should be in tune with the original F# one octave lower, i.e. not too high. In any of tune if played together
case, the F# in the chord in the piano accompaniment means you cannot play a 'bright' F# without it as a double stop, yet they
do not sound out of tune
sounding out of tune to the piano. The G should be in tune with the open G, which means that the when heard one at a time
semitone between the not-high F# and the G will be quite wide, i.e. not squeezed together. and i n a musical context.
Intonation 209
Tun i ng sca les: three stages

This method of tuning scales is the quickest way to get scales really in tune. It works by making the
structure of the scale very clear. Then it becomes obvious exactly where every note is, within that structure,
and every note becomes easy to find.
Before playing the complete scale, build the scale up in three separate stages:
1 First tune the notes of the perfect intervals - the 4th, 5th and 8th degrees of the scale - in relation
to the tonic. They are the 'skeleton' of the scale.
2 Next add the 3rd and the 7th. Measure the 3rd from the 4th, and feel the 7th leaning up into the octave.
3 The final two notes to add are the 2nd and the 6th. Place these exactly in the middle between the
1 st and the 3rd, and between the 5th and the 7th.
� #11# 1
Exatnple
4 J
1
; 1 � w J 1 w � r 1 r F c 1 r r r 1 r f f 1 f t � 1
1
• 1
Stage
Play the 1 st, 4th, 5th and 8th degrees of the scale. In this key they are all tuned to the open strings.
4
1 .fi 2
.fi
-0- .fi 1
4 -0- 4
ii 41
0 0
«D
0 0 0 0
4 4
Another way to do this is to finger all the notes of the scale but to play only the 1 st, 4th, 5th and 8th.
Silently finger the left-out notes, written here as x-notes, and bow the rest:
JJ j J4 rr
*
� tt## J 1f
1 x
)( x
x
)(
x )(
x *
4 etc.
Stage 2
e Add the 3rd and the 7th. It is a matter of taste exactly how high the C# and G# are; but whether
f
higher or lower, tune or feel them in relation to the 4th and the octave.
Ij f f t
1
J j J r f r r 1f
4
1f r r r r I J4 J J j4 J 1 4
2
•
Alternative note order for Stage 2 (ascending)
The fingering shown here reflects the fingering used in the scale. Use a normal fingering if you prefer.
Perfect fourth Tune the G#
I :J J J r
from the A
i/ 1 4
IF f
1 2
/' Tune the C#

Perfect fourth from the D
• 210 Intonation
Stage 3
• Add the 2nd and the 6th (i.e. play the complete scale) . If you have chosen a high C# very close to the
D, the B must be slightly higher. If the C# is not so high the B must be slightly lower.
Alternative note order for Stage 3 (ascending)
Place the second finger Place the second Place the first Place the third
m idway between the m idway between the m idway between the m idway between the
fourth and second
IJ J J J J
third and first third and first second and open
1� r r r � 1r r r r r
\; 1 2 \; \;
1 4 2 ------
.l' 1 etc.
Hold down the first

(1)
�
r 1f
Ii (2) (3) (4)
r r r 1 r� 1 r er r u 1 r·
�
1
dolce cantabile
( 1 ) The notes in the first group - A, B, C# - are the tonic, 2nd and 3rd in the scale of A major. Tune
them as follows, using a fourth-finger D to help measure the C#:
'#11# ?_e_r_r_r__, r_r_r_f

Very slow
• Tune the A to the open A string.

• Tune the D to the open D string. Also hear it as a perfect fourth above the A.
• Tune the C# quite high, measuring it close to the D.
• Tune the B midway between the first finger and the third finger.
(2) The notes in the second group - E, F#, G# - are the 5th, 6th and 7th in the scale of A major. Tune
them as follows, using a fourth-finger A to help measure the G#:
Very slow
'tt»tt C F r r r r f
4
F
4 1
• Tune the E to the open E string.

• Tune the fourth finger A to the open A string, and as double stops with the open D and E strings.
Also compare it with first finger A on the E string.
• Tune the G# quite high, measuring it close to the A.
• Tune the F# midway between the second finger and the fourth finger.
(3) The notes in the third group - C#, D - are the 3rd and 4th in the scale of A major. Tune them as
follows, using the D to help measure the C # :
, �I# F f
Very slow
r r
• Tune the E to the open E string.
• Tune the D to the open D string.
• Tune the C# quite high, measuring it close to the previous note (first finger D) .
(4) Tune the notes in the fourth group - E, F#, G#, A - the same way as the notes in the second group.
Intonation 21 1
First phrase:
• Tune the G to the open G string.
• The Eb may be a little higher or a little lower according to taste. Either way, tune it in relation to a D.
• Place the F exactly midway between the G and the Eb . If the Eb is a little higher, the F must also be
higher. If the Eb is a little lower, the F must be lower.
• Place the C a perfect fifth below the G.
Second phrase:
• The C should be exactly an octave above the C in the previous bar. Tune it as a perfect fourth above G.
• The Ab may be higher or lower according to taste. Either way, tune it in relation to a G.
• Place the Bb exactly midway between the Ab and the C. If the Ab is a little higher, the Bb must also
be higher. If the Ab is a little lower, the Bb must be lower.
• Place the F a perfect fifth below the C.
Example 4 Mozart: Sonata in G, K30 1 , mov. 1, b. 128
)].i j W 3 E t t t I JJ. If
(1) (2) (3)
How 'high' to play the 3rd and 7th of the scale, to make the character 'bright', often depends on the
open-string notes that are nearby.
In this example ( 1 ) and (2) are 'fixed' notes, i.e. the G must be in tune with the open G, and the A in
tune with the open A. (3) cannot be played high or else the distance between the A and the B is wider
than that between the G and the A. The tonal distance of the two major seconds should be equal.
The second half of this bar is the same as the first half. The D and the E are both 'fixed' notes. The F#
cannot be too high or else it is too far from the E compared with the distance from the D to the E.
Same notes. different octaves

Uniform intonation means that in a three-octave arpeggio each major third is the same tonal distance
apart, not slightly wider or narrower in different octaves. Or if you play A-B-C on the G string, and
then the same letter-names on the E string, each note in one octave will be exactly in tune with the same
note in the other octave.
(2) (3) (4)
�
(1) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (1 O) (1 2) (14)
' � ��
1
�
v 0 ----....
�
..--.
' �
. � . '
F Each F should be identical. Place (1 ) close to an imaginary first-finger E, aiming low to bring out the
minor character of the music. In the same way place (4) close to the preceding E, remembering that
the semitone in 3rd position is closer together than in I st position.
Care must be taken not to play (5) higher than (4). (5) may easily have been pulled up slightly by the
fourth-finger G that comes before it. Aim the third finger low, close to the second-finger E which follows.
( 1 0) should not be squeezed unnaturally close to the nut, otherwise it will be too flat in relation to ( 1 4).
D (2) and (6) should be identical, in tune with the open D string.
E (3) and (8) should be identical, in tune with the open E string.
21 2 Intonation
C# (7) and (9) should be identical. You have to be careful not to play a too-narrow semitone1 from (6) to (7), 1 See Semitone shifts with
giving a higher Ctt than when playing from (8) to (9) . Measure (9) from an imaginary fourth-finger D. one finger, page 1 58
G (1 1 ) and (1 3) should be identical, in tune with the open G string. Care must be taken that (1 1 ) is not
too flat following after the low first-finger F, and (1 3) not too sharp following after the third-finger A.
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Concerto no. 1 in A minor, BWV1 04 1 , mov. 2, b. 14
�
ii
�,/ E r A
v2
.t �r·
tr
J
"'
(1 ) 3 (2) (3) (4) (S) (6)
(1) G should be the same as the preceding note.

(2) B could be too sharp because it is the note before an upward extension. 2 2 See Extensions: notes
before or after, page 206
(3) G could be too sharp, having been 'pulled up' by the previous extended fourth finger.
(4) The shifted-to B must be the same as the previous ones.
(5) D should be the same as the previous extended fourth finger. It could be sharp because the previous
third finger (2) was a major third above the first finger, but (5) is a minor third above the first finger.
(6) The shifted-to D must be the same as the previous ones.
f
8va
fu
� - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
4
4
1 �
. .
/':'. ,--- 3 ---,
�4 4 �4 4
� �Ill "f t. � � I �� 1 "f t. � � I
(1) v (2) v
4
#J
'1.
f PPP f PPP f PPP f PPP f
( 1 ) Compare all the C#'s with each other, playing them J. Play the E's ppp
(2) Then compare the E's, playing them J. Play the Ctt's ppp
.
Example 4 Beethoven: Concerto in D, op. 6 1 , mov. 1, b. 1 1 1
L:
2
• Finger every note with the left hand but bow only the normal-headed notes. Lift the bow off the string
during the x-notes:
Intonation 213
Sharps a n d flats
Sometimes intonation needs to be tempered, like keyboard intona
tion, which means that C# and Db are exactly the same. At other
times intonation can be 'expressive', so that sharps are sharper
('leading up' to the natural above) and flats are flatter ('leading
down' to the natural below) . C# is then higher than Db.
Wide and narrow semitones
In expressive intonation a semitone is wider when the letter names are the same, e.g. C-C#, A-Ab
('chromatic' semitone) . The semitone is narrower when the letter names are different, e.g. C-Db, A- G#
1 Another way to thin k of ('diatonic' semitone) . 1
this, is that if the heads of
the two notes are on the • Playing at a slow tempo, exaggerate the semitones.
= narrow semitone; ' .--. '
same line or space, it is a
wide semitone; if one ' /\ ' = wide semitone.
head is on a line and the
other is on a space, it is a Example 1 Beethoven: Romanze in G, op. 40, b. 74
narrow semitone.
Example 2 Schubert: Sonata in A, op. posth., mov. 2, b. 83
1 ��
/'-..._ .------, �
3 ...--._
�
_1�=========
"-.../
q 2 fI �f #r2
J ,J4 iJ I C F #f f
e�
t v
I ff ��-__,------
1 1,J J ,J I �iJ j J 1J J J 1J
pizz. � ��
J 1
3
� b eR �n 1 , &idg �
sul G Ii
Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 40
• Treat the fifth note B# as a C.

Example 7 Viotti: Concerto no. 23 in G, mov. 1, b. 215
Ii
�u
�
1e .., If p ===-
I I
The interval of the diminished third is often narrower than that of a major second. In this typical example tune
the A# close to a B, giving the A# a quality of leaning upwards; tune the C so that it leans towards the B.
'1'' = place higher than usual, closer to the natural a semitone above; 't' = place lower.
Intonation
Sharps and flats
Example 8 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 18, mov. 1, b. 71
• Treat the interval of the diminished seventh the same as that of the diminished third.
Fast i ntonation
In fast passages, sharps should often be played higher, and flats lower, than in slow passages. Played at
a slow tempo 'fast intonation' sounds out of tune, with clearly exaggerated sharps and flats. At a fast
tempo, fast intonation sounds in tune and adds energy and colour.
At a fast tempo 'slow intonation' (i.e. more tempered, like a piano, with low sharps and high flats) may
sound dull and lack brilliance.
= place higher than usual; '-1-' = place lower.

e Playing at a slow tempo, exaggerate the sharps and flats. At speed this will come out sounding in tune.
'l'
Example 1 Schumann: Sonata in A minor, op. 1 05, mov. 3, b. 8
Example 3 Vieuxtemps: Concerto no. 4 in D minor, op. 3 1 , mov. 3, b. 1
Example 4 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, nwv. 3, b. 55
• In this example, tune the B's higher so that they are directly in the middle, between the A and the C#.
t
Isolating i nd ividual notes
Isolati ng
Marking a rrows
i n d ivi d u a l
• Having identified a note that is consistently too sharp or flat, or which is likely to be so, mark it with
a I or J.. .
• Suppose you discover that a note, which you had thought was perfectly in tune, is in fact too sharp.
Because you have got used to it, the right pitch sounds too flat and the incorrect pitch sounds in tune.
Mark it with a down arrow to remind you to aim lower.
Example 1 Wohlfahrt: Etude, op. 45 no. 34, b. 4
r
(1 ) (2) (3)
J,.
&u11 e Ea r 1 t rj J � 3 i f J J C rJ 1 c r; [£} 1P�

t 2
r
1
(1 ) The fourth-finger C# could easily be too flat after the fourth-finger G at the beginning of the bar.
(2) The first-finger C# could easily be too flat after the first-finger G two notes earlier.
(3) The opposite of ( 1 ) : the fourth-finger G could easily be too sharp after the C# two notes earlier.
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWVl OO l , Adagio, b. 3
(1 ) The first-finger F# could easily be too flat after the first-finger Bb at the beginning of the bar.
(2) The first-finger Eb could easily be too sharp after the preceding F#.
(3) The second-finger F# has to reach up very high after the first-finger Bb.
(4) The second-finger C could easily be too high after the preceding F#.
Accents
When a specific finger in a passage tends to be out of tune, play it with an accent and pause on it. The
accent and pause create an aiming-point which keeps the unreliable note at the front of your mind while
you play the other notes, and create extra time in which to think and listen.
t�r
&" "?WiU?r cn;EfWt 1 r1fffitr?r rfErC(ii

f p f p
1 See Tone-semitone In this passage the tone-semitone spacing1 of the second, third and fourth fingers is the same on both
patterns, page 1 96
the E string and the A string:
I r ttr r I
2�-��
Tone - semitone Tone - semitone
While the second, third and fourth fingers keep the same spacing, the first finger alternates between
� and #, i.e. lower and higher.
Low 1 High 1
�
High 1 r... r.-.
rnf r E r f#f F
r... 1 1
:ii
( 1 ) First confirm the tone-semitone spacing of the second, third and fourth fingers.
(2) Then pause on each first finger and play it with an accent. Play the other notes up to tempo.
716 Tntonation
Example 2
• With the hand in half position, the G marked '+' may be too sharp. Playing everything else up to
tempo, accent the G and pause on it momentarily before continuing once more in tempo.
Playi ng i ntervals not notes

Feel the musical relationships between notes as much as feeling the expression of the notes themselves.1 1 Playing i nteivals rather
Rather than playing one note and then another, e.g. D followed by F, play a minor third. Rather than than notes is also one of
the keys to playing from
playing C followed by E followed by G, play a major triad. memory. See Feeling
relationships between
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1004, A/lemanda, b. 14 notes (Memory), page 294
At the '+' play a minor seventh - not an E followed by a D.

• Practise by playing the notes longer, sustaining the bow with a stroke that
v4
�F
is deep in the string, even, and not too far from the bridge.
--I
• Make the join between the down-bow E and the up-bow D absolutely
seamless and even, with no diminuendo at the end of the down-bow or
faster bow speed at the beginning of the up-bow. f --f
sost.
t j, A
* ei c + c c f r· lpng '? c r F =�. �I �

v
�
�
-
sempre pzu p
At the notes marked by arrows, play a diminished third not a D� followed by an F.
1�
Example 3 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 1 37 no. 2, mov. 2, b. 21
sul A
v
'�! t p
I F 1 F�
F I
• Do not play F, Bb, D, Ab, and so on. Instead play a perfect fourth (F-Bb), then a minor sixth
(Bb-D), then a diminished fifth (D-Ab) and so on.
o Repeat each pair of notes several times, concentrating on the interval rather than the two notes:
r F
AV
't 1r 1f I
ii
�
ii 4 4
j r
v v3 �
1 rf7l Ir J 1 }§ 1f f I
Intonation 217
Isolating i n d ividu al notes
Tun i ng to a pianou then adjusting sharps and flats

• Settle extremely insecure intonation by tuning each note, one by one, to a piano.
• Leave the finger on the string while you alternate bowing the note on the violin with playing the note
on the piano (play the note on the piano with a bow-hand finger while continuing to hold the bow) .
• If you wish then to sharpen sharps or flatten flats away from the tempered pitch of the piano, the
piano gives you a reference point to measure from.
If an in-tune piano is not available, an electronic Chromatic Tuner is an interesting and helpful alternative.
For other double stop practice methods see also Balancing double
Dou ble sto ps stops, page 72; Metronome practice, page 1 46; Shortcuts: thirds, sixths
and fingered octaves, page 1 50; Thirds and fingered octaves, page 25 1.
Using the 'thi rd tone u as a point of reference

When two notes are played together they produce a 'third tone', a low, distant droning in the background
which is like a bass note to the two notes of the double stop. It is clearest in high-position thirds and sixths.
The third tone is often best ignored, even though when the third tone is exactly in tune with the double
stop the notes blend and harmonize with each other, and the interval has a smooth, chord-like quality.
It should often be ignored because the listener's ear catches one or both of the lines as individual notes,
not as part of a double stop. If you tune first-finger F# on the E string with third-finger D on the A string,
the F# must be played flat if the third tone is to be in tune, and this may sound too flat to the listener
who is hearing the F# as part of a melody or harmony.
The notes of the double stop then sound more in tune to the ear when the third tone is out of tune, as
shown in the examples. This is another way of saying that the double stop should deliberately be played
out of tune. In any case, the third tone is rarely audible to the listener, only to the player.
However, the third tone is a useful point of reference from which to measure the interval:
First tune the double stop so that the third tone is in tune.
2 Using that tuning as a reference point, very slightly sharpen or flatten the upper or lower note.
How to get the third tone in tune
� �� 1 1� I
Movable Fixed
The notes of the double stop are either 'fixed' or 'movable'. G's, D's, A's and
E's should be in tune with the open strings, and are therefore fixed notes. All
other notes are movable, but may also be fixed depending on their place in
Fixed Movable
the melody or harmony.
To get the third tone in tune in a major third or sixth:
• If the fixed note is the lower of the two notes, the upper note has to be flattened.
1 Another way of saying • If the fixed note is the higher of the two notes, the lower note has to be sharpened.1
the same thing is that if
the upper note is tuned to In the first bar the D is fixed because it should be in tune with the open string, so the F# must be brought
the lower note, it must be down towards it for the third tone to be in tune.
lowered; if the lower note
is tuned to the upper note, In the second bar the D is now the upper note. The F should be brought up towards it for the third tone
it must be raised. This classic
tuning problem of the violin
to be in tune.
is easily demonstrated by
playing B, first finger on the
Example 1 Mozart: Sonata in E minor, K304, mov. 1, b. 1 70
A string, with the open D
i13
I�
and then with the open E.
See also Example 5,
2 23 21 23
page 209.
u,______.:u-
(1) (2)
( 1 ) For the third tone to be in tune, the G# has to be played too flat and no longer feels like a 'leading
note' into the following A. The B cannot be moved higher than it was in the previous bar.
First tune the G# flat to get the third tone in tune; then move it slightly higher, out of tune with the B.
(2) The A must be in tune with the open A. For the third tone to be in tune, the C has to be too sharp.
First tune the C� sharp to get the third tone in tune; then move it slightly lower, out of tune with the A.
218 Intonation
Double stops
(1 ) The E must be in tune with the open E. For the third tone to be in tune, the G# has to be played too
flat. To maintain the brightness and character of the passage, having got the third tone in tune move
the G# slightly higher, out of tune with the E.
(2) The D must be in tune with the open D. For the third tone to be in tune, the B has to be too flat.
Move it slightly higher, out of tune with the D.
(3) The E-G# is the same as ( 1 ), but here the G# is played on its own one note earlier. This note must
be played 'high', being the major third in the scale of E major; and since this pitch and the G# in the
following double stop must be the same, you are again forced to play the double stop 'out of tune'.
Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 39, b. 1
(1 ) (3)
3 3
dolee
( 1 ) The A must be in tune with the open A. For the third tone to be in tune, the C# has to be played too
flat. Having got the third tone in tune move the C# slightly higher, out of tune with the A.
(2) This works exactly the same as ( 1 ) . The G must be in tune with the open G; the B sounds dull if it
is in tune with the G and should be played slightly higher.
(3) The D# 'leans' expressively into the following E. To be in tune with the previous F# (in the lower line)
the D# would need to be played too flat. (Playing the F# higher than usual, so that the D# can be in
tune as well as leading up into the E, does not work since the F# then sounds too sharp.)
� l�f
,� Ill �
Ii
ff
The A should be in tune with the open A; for the third tone to be in tune, the C has to be too sharp.
The passage sounds in tune if a flatter C is used, as an ordinary low minor third in A minor, so then the
third tone cannot be in tune.
- - t :e.
Ii
3 Ii
3
& �'1h 2 f r f ¥i 1 f=f f.,f r f r f r

2 2 - -------
t r f=i
------ > ,,-..._ �
�
===-- ===--
espress.
One way to approach double stops is to consider how you would tune them if the passage was played by
two violins, each playing one line:
Violin 2 E
Here, the lower violin would have to play the Ab's, Gb's, and Eb's very sharp to be 'in tune' with the upper
line. Instead, the sixths can be played 'wide', the flats remaining low and expressive.
Intonation 21 9
Double stops
j J J
..----....
The G must be in tune with the open G string, and the E must be in tune with the open E, making it
impossible for the third tone to be in tune.
1 � . .�
Example 7 Paganini: 2 4 Caprices, op. 1 , No. 18, b. 17
ri - � -
r f 1r = t r r u r u p n n 1 1
l
2 2
31 3
1
� Il e f ff r r
2 0
0
2
2
4 1 1 2
2
4
1�
(1) (1)
(1) The E must be in tune with the open E. For the third tone to be in tune, the C has to be played too
sharp. It should be played slightly lower, out of tune with the E.
(2) The G must be in tune with the open G. For the third tone to be in tune, the B has to be played too
flat. It should be played slightly sharper, out of tune with the G.
(3) The A must be in tune with the open A. For the third tone to be in tune, the F has to be played too
sharp. It should be played slightly lower, out of tune with the A.
(4) For the third tone to be in tune, the C has to be played too sharp. It should be played slightly lower,
out of tune with the E.
(5) The same as (4).
Using the third tone to tune single stops

It is usually best not to check single stops by using double-stopped major thirds or sixths, e.g. do not
tune first-finger F# on the E string to open A; do not tune second-finger F on the D string to open A.
If you tune a single stop by first playing it as part of a double stop with the third tone in tune, and then
you play the note by itself, it sounds very out of tune. Single stops must be tuned so that if played as
part of a major third or sixth the third tone would be out of tune. Then the single stop sounds correct
when played on its own.
However, the third tone is often useful as a reference point from which to measure the placing of a note:
First tune the double stop so that the third tone is in tune.
2 Using that tuning as a reference point, very slightly sharpen or flatten the single-stop note.
The F# marked '+' needs to be played 'high', as a 'leading note' to an imaginary G. If you tune it as a
double stop with the open A string (with the third tone in tune) it will sound very flat, and dull the
bright, positive character of the major triad.
I� �
�n �n �
j, i
(1 ) (2) (3)
3
I � I
4
1
�
-
�I �I
( 1 ) The third tone in tune. The F# must be played flat.

(2) The Ftt 'bright', slightly closer to a G, the third tone out of tune. This note sounds correct in the passage.
(3) Tune the F# to the G rather than to the open A string.
220 Intonation
Double stops
The G ('+') should be in tune with the open G. If you tune the Bb ('++') as a double stop with the G
(with the third tone in tune) it will sound very sharp, taking away from the character of the low minor third.
bt=3
bn:
I bn:
I� I
(1 ) (2) (3) 4
-0 -0 A
2
� f
t J,
(1 ) The third tone in tune. The Bb must be played too sharp.

(2) The Bb 'dark', slightly closer to an A, the third tone out of tune. This note sounds correct in the passage.
(3) Tune the Bb to the A rather than to the G.
Thirds: naming i ntervals and spacing of fingers

• While playing one third in a group of thirds, consider three factors before placing the fingers for the
next third:
1 Is the next third major or minor?
2 What are the intervals between the thirds?
1
3 What is the tone-semitone spacing of all four fingers?
Major or minor
On the violin fingerboard, a major third is a small distance because the fingers would be a minor third
apart if they were placed on one string.
A minor third is a large distance because the fingers would be a major third apart if they were on one string.
3 3
I �# I
Major third Minor third apart when Minor third Major third apart when
1 placed on the same string 1 placed on the same string
� # # �#
2 Intervals between the thirds
The six most common combinations of thirds:
I/,
Lower third minor
I
----�
Semitone Tone Tone Semitone
�
1 2
4
""-7
Semitone Semitone Tone Semitone Tone Tone
3 Tone-semitone patterns
Find the tone-semitone pattern by imagining placing the fingers together on one string:
I r F 'r � l n�,, I r HF 'r � I n• Hll• II r HF «r #� 11

� n�@�
Semitone Tone Tone
� �
Augmented second Tone Tone
Semitone Semitone 1 2 Tone
'------1
I 11 � H� I H f F 11
Semitone Semitone Tone
�'3�
Tone
�
Tone Semitone
� :� f r b
1 2 Tone 1 2
I
Semitone Tone
r F 1 1 r r f r r F
'----'
I I I
Intonation 221
Double stops
Thirds and fingered octaves: placing i n blocks

e To clarify the feel of the fingers in relation to each other, practise each pair of thirds (1-3, 2-4) by
placing all four fingers on the strings at the same time in a 'block'.
1 Begin with the fingers above but close to the strings (represented below by x-notes) . Arrange the
fingers, in the air, into their correct tone-semitone pattern (the third and fourth fingers over the A
string, the first and second over the E string) .
2 Place all four fingers on the strings at exactly the same time.
3 Without first adjusting the placement of the fingers - leave them exactly where they are - check the
tuning by playing them. If they were out of tune, repeat until you can drop them exactly in tune, and
with a comfortable hand position.
The four fingers near to the Place all four fingers
strings above their notes at the same time Play
">I ">I =-------.
r r r r II
">I
tJl
12 2
31 24 34 4 1
3
31 42 2
4 31 31 42 31 24 4 31
2
31 42 31 42 2
4 31
31 24 2
4 31 31 24 31 24 4 31
2
31 42 31 24 2
4 31
• A further approach is to place the fingers in each tone-semitone pattern without testing with the bow:
Place all four fingers
n@ II
#!
together, silently
#!
12 12 12 12 12
34 34 34 34 34 31 42
Example 2 Paganini: 24 Caprices, op. 1 , No. 1 7, b. 24
D (2) A
(1 )
$ �bldl EJ dj u u LJ I �
Ii G 3 3 3 4 3 3 j 4 D
3 3
• Practise as in Example 1 :
fDl 1
(1 )
� �"1, :: :
Hover Place Play (2)
"J4 3 J d rn3 4
\i \i
� 1 2 ::3 4
12 1
3
1 2
34 34 12
31 24 31 42 1
3
2
4 42 31
' 222 Intonation
Double stops
FIB � � � � I "" fill

(4) (5) � (6) �
��'1, 1:: II
-eO-
II
� -eO-
-eO-
�E 1t0
u� 8 1:t0
31 24 31 42 2
4 3 1 31 42 31 42 4 3 2 1 31 24 31 24 4 31
2
Thirds: using the perfect fou rth

Adding a perfect fourth in between two thirds is an excellent way to find a balanced intonation and feel
in the hand.
Exmnple 1
31 r�
& �1' t J 1 i l 1 j � r r I r f r f I t f t I t f i ffl I i r r � I J J J 411
1
1 31 42 2
2 2 2 2

+
r 1 1r y·
�
r
2 2
1
31 3
f f
2
J
(2)
(1)
'ttlh y
ff
d
(1 ) (2)
2
31
2 2
r
2
31 3 4 3
11 f f
2 2
31
f
3 1
r
3
r
4
r
3
f f I'I
Intonation 223
Double stops
Example 4 Tartini: Sonata in G minor ('Dido abandonata'), mov. 1, b. 5
t:�
(1) (2)
fr r 3rr 1 CJ � 3 3 10�
fl/@
3
0
� tr v 3 tr
� �Ii �
(1) (2)
I� I
2 2 2
� � � � �
1 1 1 2 2 2 1
f � �
3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3
(1 ) (2)
!•t
2
2
lW �11ij ifi) �11fi

�
n�re r rr � � U 1 �
1 1 1 1 4 2
Fi 2 3 1 . 1
1 3 3 4 1 3 3 . . . � . 3
0 1
bt
�
f
; jj I
2 2
(1 )
1 00
2 2 3
2 2 2
f r f E
2 2 1 1
r
3 4 3
f
3 4 3 3
2 1 2 2 1
2 3 4 2
(2) 2 2 3 3 3 2
I f fJ f !f f r f e I
1 4 4
�#tf � f t r #f t r f r
4 3 2 2 1 3 1
3 4 3 2 2 1
3 4 3 3
3
Tuning perfect fifths

• Tune perfect fifths by leaning the finger more onto one string, and then more onto the other.
• Leaning the finger more onto a string sharpens the note; leaning the finger away from a string (towards
the other string) flattens the note.
• Find the exact balance of the finger where the fifth is in tune.
Example Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 37, b. 1
p 1D
+
0 0 j
/Ill
-====
Fingertip leaning more Fingertip leaning more Somewhere in between,

onto A string raises onto D string lowers the right balance g ives a
I
the C and lowers the F the C and raises the F a true perfect fifth
I:::
t j,
• Memorize the feeling of the finger balanced on the two strings when the fifth is in tune, and then go
straight to exactly the same feeling when playing the double stop in context.
. 224 Intonation
Double stops
P laying one string at a time while fingering both strings

e Finger both notes of each double stop as written, but bow only one string at a time. Practise each
line separately until both are comfortably in tune.
��11 e tk (§31 l ti!k � I$

(2) �
�
Silent
<1 )
Silent �
( 1 ) Bow only the lower of the two strings. The x-notes show the notes on the upper string that you finger
without playing.
(2) Bow only the upper string while silently fingering the notes on the lower string.
Example 3 Mendelssobn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 2, b. 66
• Combine other practice methods with playing one line at a time. Examples:
( 1 ) Ii (2) Ii
tt� t E � � 1 !' I
1 1 Vibrato 0
� t· ; r · i1r· J f" J r l [• l 1 fr
0
r r r
------ etc. � etc.
1,,....---_ (4)
Repeat many times

(1 ) Rhythm practice (see Rhythm practice, page 36).
(2) It is easier to hear what is happening in the vibrato without the lower notes (see Continuous vibrato,
page 1 36) .
(3) Playing only the 'skeleton' of the passage (see Isolating the shifts, page 1 86) .
(4) Repetition practice (see Repetition practice, page 280) .
Intonation 225
Double stops
Example 4 Beriot: Concerto no. 9 in A minor, op. 1 04, mov. 1, b. 67
e Keeping both fingers down, sound first the lower note, then the upper note, adjusting each as necessary;
then play the two notes together perfectly in tune:
� -t=---
rt-:--- r ----r-1 f----
( t-=-- --t/q:-------t- w----
---j- 1 f7q:� ---t- -.---: s--:
---j--tf- j ----1 --L--::t- -- 1 bv-.---:t----t-- ��r--
----n-a. �
Play only the upper note
�
4
Play only the lower note simile
ttiJr:
2
ii l11i : �:
1 1
3
sempre :f.f #p-'---"r ----!

--;, rf rf rf
rf
e In many passages it is helpful to select certain notes from the upper and lower line. In this example
play only the A#'s:
>MJ.
v

4
I ''
3
�
. p
>
r � r
> > >
f energico largamente 1
• Play only the G#'s, and then play only the B's and the E:
1 1
:t I
1f
v
�
3
3
E 3E or nE
2
E E
2 2
• Play only the second finger:
If
2
3 ff f1
2 2 2
226 Intonation
Double stops
- - 3 3 -
3 3 • •
If there is anything unusual or awkward in the passage - in this example the wide space between Ab and
B� could disturb the intonation - first use an ordinary fingering to find exactly the right tuning:
( 1 ) Play each line separately, using a normal, convenient fingering. Use this as a model for (2) .
(2) Finger all the notes with the proper fingering, but bow only one string at a time.
Lower line only, easy fingering
ii
��
ii ,----- 3 -, 3
I
,,
3
0 2 ..
ii
'
1
I '
3 3 3 3 • •
�f
U pper line only, easy fingering
�I " r
ii 3
2 ii
ii
1
3 3 3 3 • •
leaving fi ngers down to have time to l isten

Part of playing in tune is the art of instantaneously correcting out-of-tune notes. Ideally a note is corrected
so quickly that nobody notices that it was out of tune in the first place.
For practice purposes, however, it is often helpful to leave fingers down exactly where they landed, and
to listen to them carefully without adjusting them. This helps to form a clearer picture of where differently
to aim next time. It is especially helpful in playing double stops, and produces faster results than simply
repeating again and again without knowing exactly what is wrong.
• In the following examples first play the double stop; then stop, leaving the fingers exactly where you
placed them (written as x-notes); then play first one note on its own, and then the other.
Example 1 Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 21, b. 22
�
Leave the fingers down
'ttll� f �' " J

without adjustment
3 /f
Check the tuning
one note at a time
Intonation
Double stops
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV1006, Ciaccona, b. 1 87
+
i1
�'.
i1 Leave the fingers down
1 1 without adjustment /':'.
3 2
J
\i 2
Check the tuning

one note at a time
Tenths: moving from one to a nother

Two essential factors in playing tenths are (1) reaching back from the upper finger (see Examples 6-9,
page 249), and (2) intonation when moving from a major tenth to a minor tenth, or minor to major.
1
3
L i L i L i r i r i
• The first thing is to be perfectly clear about which finger moves a tone and which finger moves a
semitone, or when they move the same distance. T indicates a tone, s indicates a semitone:
T s
s T .fi
'tt
.fi -0-
.fi -0-
I
Il -0-
II e
0
T T s T
It is often helpful to think only of the finger that moves the bigger distance (see page 1 85).
• Having tuned each tenth individually, practise moving from one to the next. Then practise groups of
1 See ABC practice, three, four, and then all five: 1
page 275
f F E R F F F :II f F f F I R R F E
� �
'ti II R simile
I
, ti e r e r 11 F R r E 11 e E r F 11 R R r E
� � -------=- �
I
� �
4tt R E f f i f 1 f F f r E f 11 f E i f i I f f 11
228 Intonation
Releasi n g the Keeping a space between
l eft h a n d the thumb and fi rst finger
Fig. 1 5a shows a good, open position of the thumb. 1 Fig. 1 5b shows the first finger and the thumb 1 See also Contact point
of thumb with neck,
squeezing together, a common cause of major tension and one of the most important things to avoid.
page 3 0 1
• Play phrases or whole passages with the thumb exaggeratedly forward (Fig. I Sc) . Afterwards the thumb
will feel very relaxed, easy and uninvolved.
• If at first it seems impossible to keep the thumb forward, play phrases or, where possible, whole passages
with an eraser or other soft object sitting between the base of the first finger and the thumb (Fig. 1 Sd) .
Fig. 1 5
(a) Note the space between the (b) Thumb squeezing (c) Exaggerated forward
thumb and the first finger position for practice
(d) Keeping the space open (e) The thumb rotated (f) The thumb rotated
with an eraser clockwise anticlockwise
Rotating the thumb

The thumb is able to roll on the neck of the violin, clockwise or anticlockwise, so that more of one side or 2 One of the most impor
the other contacts the neck instead of the pad. The positions of the thumb shown in Figs. 15e and 1 5f tant aspects of the thumb
is that, like the other fin
are only to illustrate the movement; the thumb will rarely, if ever, be in either of these extreme positions. gers, it has three joi nts.
The base joint is just
A tiny amount of this thumb rotation happens continually throughout the normal course of playing, most above the wrist. Having a
of the time so slight as to be invisible. However, there is a big difference between an invisible amount of mental picture of the
movement one way or the other (the thumb sitting in a balanced state between the two extremes), and thumb consisting of only
two joints severely restricts
the thumb being held rigidly in that middle position. the thumb and can lead
to tension. Most move
• Every now and then during any period of playing, regain the elasticity and balance of the thumb by ments of the thumb
gently rotating it clockwise and anticlockwise, feeling it moving in the base joint.2 While doing so, should begin at the base
keep the thumb very light against the neck of the violin. joint.
Freedom and ease 229

Releasing the left hand
Lightening the thumb

The thumb must not press against the neck of the violin. The more the thumb presses, the more the fingers
16
press, and vice versa. The ideal is always minimum finger pressure, minimum thumb counter-pressure.
Fig. • Rest the scroll of the violin against the wall. Practise a
phrase or passage without the thumb on the neck of the
violin (Fig. 1 6) . Keep the thumb well forward, as shown
in Fig. 1 5c.
• Feel how the thumb, without any counter-pressure into
the neck of the violin, can remain entirely relaxed.
e Feel how the fingers, without counter-pressure from the
thumb, do not press into the strings. Instead of thumb
counter-pressure use a little arm weight, 'hanging' the
arm from the fingers.
• Playing again with the thumb on the neck, keep the same
feeling of non-gripping that you had when playing Playing without the thumb on the neck of
without the thumb. the violin
Releasing fingers with the base joint of the first finger

One secret of playing with a relaxed, strong and easy fourth finger, is to forget about the fourth finger
and concentrate on releasing the base joint of the first finger.
The same applies to playing any single finger, double stop, shift or chord: release the base joint of the
first finger before beginning any action.
Example 1 Mozart: Adagio in E, K261 , b. 10

Release the base joint
of the first finger
�r
�
v 4
• Release the base joint of the first finger before shifting to the G#.
It is easier to find the feeling of releasing the base joint of the first finger if the fourth finger does not
press the string down. The fourth finger feels much stronger, and stops the string with far less effort,
when there is a feeling of the weight of the hand going through the finger and into the string. Lean the
finger into the string from the base joint.
Example 2 Vivaldi: Autumn (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 3, 1110v. 1, b. 36
+
G
• At each '+' (just after each second finger, just before placing each fourth finger), release the base joint
of the first finger.
Example 3 Bruch: Scottish Fantasy, op. 46, 111ov. 3, b. 44
Release
Ii 2
� 2 1
� E � E � i
� 1 � 0 �
�
�
�
espress.
• Release the base joint of the first finger before each double stop.
230 Freedom and ease

Releasing held-down fingers

Fingers that are held down on the string should not continue to be active into the string.
• Exaggerate releasing the held-down fingers by lightening them as if to play a harmonic.
11ti] ti] ti] I 11t Rf] ti] �ti] [l] I f

�fil9
.
��
v 3 .
e
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1
Release the second finger
Release the first finger
to 'harmonic' level
to 'harmonic' level
Very slow
""
2 -------
• Play very slowly.

• While playing the second-finger C, lighten the first-finger B so that it rests lightly on the surface of
the string (as though playing a harmonic) .
• While playing the fourth-finger Eb, lighten the second-finger C in the same way (so that now both
the first and second fingers are at 'harmonic' level) .
Afterwards, releasing the held-down fingers a normal amount will feel automatic, and bring about a
feeling of release throughout the entire hand.
*ti " [ i;J � d � j0 �� 1 J � I �]1

4 4 4 4
E r
>
r >
* ti " [ 11J2 J d1 � �
/":\ /":\ /":\ /":\
� � � Ill� � 1 �11
/":\ /":\
j0 ��
/":\
4 4 4 4 4 4
r r
4 4
r --
--
3 -- 2 -- --
3 --
• During the pauses, release the held-down fingers as in Example 1 .
Releasing between finger actions

• Build moments of release into groups of notes, phrases and passages. The more moments of release
the better.
• A key area to release is always the base joint of the first finger (see page 230) .
.. ....
f n ;� I H ff I M1 o v f f f 1 tfE� r 1 rfffff q�
Ii 1 24 34 """"' 31
*�e Ff F
12 01 0 "" 24
Ii Release
" 2 "'
*
31 etc.
• During the pause, completely relax the hand and fingers, releasing the string as though playing a
harmonic (shown as an x-note) . Then play on.
• Playing without the pause, make sure that there is a brief moment, between the same two notes, when
you feel the same give and relaxation in the hand and fingers.

� b1' W j 3 j J j uji:==J�j�J�j=iJ j �J d J j J J J j j j j I �
+ 3 4
4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 4
p
At the Bb marked ' + ', the hand returns to its normal position after a long-held extension down to the
first finger and up to the fourth finger.
• Practise releasing the fourth finger:
� b'' J===a===j===J�J�J j 11J �J J ] j J j j

Shift to Reach back Hover the fourth finger
the D to the Bb above the string and release
j
\; \; \;
J
3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4
J
4 3 4
• During the pause bring the fourth finger back from its extension and 'hover' above the B b that it is
about to play - the hand and the finger in a completely relaxed state.
• Then play the phrase without the pause but with the same moment of release as the fourth finger
returns from its extension.
�b B F
r r
+
qr lq:f
v >
r r r
i1
r r r r
> > �
1
3
�b " f
1
3
qr r r r:z:§ �:z•r lqi

i1 >
r r r r
> f':'o. f':'o. > �
1
1 3 3
The x-notes = release the string, the fingers resting on the string as if playing harmonics.
• During the pause completely release the hand, particularly the thumb and the base joints of the fingers.
• Then play on, with the same feeling of lightness and release in the hand and fingers.
1 J J J i!J JJ
i1 4
. "--'
f cresc. _ _ _ - - - - - -
ff
The fingers should release when not in use.

• Pause slightly while playing each open string and release the thumb, the base joints of the fingers, the
muscles in the palm of the hand, the wrist, the upper arm, as well as any excess pressure into the chin
rest.
• After each pause keep the same feeling of general release while playing the stopped notes.
' b idh r1 fj f1 eq ft Kt n
Completely release Keep the same feeling 2 3

Stop- release
There should be an immediate give as soon as a finger stops a note on the string. 1 The hand tightens if
the finger action is 'stop-press' rather than 'stop-release'. 1 A useful analogy i s the
binary code used in com
• Practising by exaggeration, play a phrase very slowly, each note separated by a pause. During the puters, where all informa
tion is reduced to numbers
pause release the string and the bow pressure, the finger resting on the surface of the string as if to made up of ones and
play a harmonic. zeros - either 'on' or 'off'.
The actions of the left
hand could be expressed
in the same way, ' 1 ' repre
Example 1 Bart6k (arr. Szekely) : Roumanian Folk Dances, No. 4, b. 3 senting a muscle in use
(i.e. contracted) and 'O'
representing the same
A muscle released (even
2 though the finger may still
be stopping the string).
In some passages the
sequence would be ' 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 O', i.e. every action
im mediately followed by a
Release the string, the finger release before another
staying lightly on the string action. In other passages
sul A as though playing a harmonic it would more be a matter
�! (c 1 'rffffn Cr
Ii
Ct'
,/ of releasing often enough,
WI
as in ' 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0' . But
if the number reads ' 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ' for too long, tension
3 may be unavoidable.
A
2 ,......_
Example 2 Schubert: Sonatina in G minor, op. 1 37 no. 3, rnov. 4, b. 57
i:_
Release the string
I
Ii ,/
�}' B n v U C' n @ U l'l 1 gi n # etc.
Example 3 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 1 6, rnov. 1, b. 38
tr . .
r: C J I J 3 J. "--"
The trill in bar 40 is often played as a turn.

• During the pause completely relax the hand and fingers, releasing the string slightly, and then play
on:
l E§E
Release
r r II
the strin g \;
/":'. v
5 5
ffifCJ II
/":'. /":'.
v v
5 5 5

·
'tt � f
v3
I#J. �
Ii
J
2 Ii
sf
f
The x-notes = release the string slightly, and at the same time completely release the hand and fingers:
v3
, tt .l
Release
Ii \;
• Start slowly, and gradually speed up.
• Playing long slurs, during the second sixteenth-note of each pair lighten the fingers on the strings as
though to play harmonics, and completely relax the hand and fingers.
'-._/ '-._/
2
4
Building u p from pp
• Play through a phrase or passage pp to encourage the left hand to be soft and relaxed, the fingers
Repeat p, mrp, mf, f and ff As the bow weight increases, keep the same feeling of lightness and ease
light on the string and effortless.
e
that you had when playing pp.
Example Brahms: S onata no. 1 in G, op. 78, mov. 2, b. 66
f�
� �"1, £ � I U l J� I U l � IU I
\; y Ii 3 i y 3 i y 3 i
Soft, relaxed left hand
1
Ii 1 Ii 1
' �"1, � 1 U l �� IU ll!�l i

v Ii v v Ii v v Ii v
1\. Same relaxed hand

as when playing pp

Independence: light left hand, heavy right hand

When the bow plays heavily into the string, the left hand finger pressure should remain light, i.e. as much
finger pressure as necessary for a pure tone but as little as possible.
• Practising by exaggeration, play a phrase or passage very heavily with the bow, but at the same time
so lightly with the fingers (as though playing harmonics) that the sound produced is pure scratch.
• Relax the left hand and fingers completely. You need only the slightest muscular activity to place the
fingers lightly on the surface of the string. Check the thumb, base joints of the fingers, wrist and
Repeat several times, playing f with the bow throughout, each time stopping the string slightly more.
upper arm, to make sure that every area is working with minimum effort.
•
Continue until the tone is still large but now entirely pure, the fingers stopping the string with the
least possible finger pressure throughout.
�I
Example 1 Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, no. 6, b. 1
o ,
�
-===
1, (1)
0 3
(2)
Ii
�
: 11
! f f
repeat
�=== many
1 1 hJ t�
times
I .I I
<3 > (4)
1tJ
Ii
3
�
.
�
: 11
�== ! === ! �=== !
( 1 ) Quarter press the string with the fingers. Playing f with the bow should produce a loud whistling,
scratching and scraping sound. Keep the left fingers light on the string, the hand soft and relaxed.
(2) Half press. The tone will still be extremely impure. Keep the feeling in the fingers the same.
(3) Three-quarters press. The tone will be almost pure. Keep the feeling in the fingers the same.
(4) Just enough weight in the fingers for a pure tone, but barely enough to make the strings touch the
fingerboard. Notice how soft and easy the left hand feels while the bow plays deeply into the string.
,#11 1 ps J a 1,J ,J
Ii
5
II
II
f
Freedom and ease · 23 5
v 1 r {l f f4 I �5I
3
r
v
v
con forza
This method is very useful for lightening the hand and fingers in a passage of shifts:
(1) (2)
f
II
f
ll
3
3
v 1 f f/:ii� 1
(4)
f v1F
3.
F"�
v
II I
v
r. ±: .il.
( 1 ) - (4) refer to the numbered list in Example 1 (page 235) .
Using spiccato
• Encourage the left hand to release by playing through phrases, passages or whole pieces using only
spiccato. The lack of sustaining in the bow encourages the left-hand fingers to release after each note.
Example 1 Bart6k (arr. Szekely) : Roumanian Folk Dances, No. 1, b. 4
1 i1n w
G
1n u ; 1 n w
3
7 ; ;iJ1
v
l1m 1 n 1 ;
2 1 2
7 j-7 1 � )1 7 j-t 1 � )-r

v
2 1
• Find the same lightness and ease when playing the passage as written, with the bow deeply in the string.
�
Example 2 Dvorak: Concerto in A minor, op. 53, mov. 1, b. 5
(molto vibrato)
Y-:
0 2 0
2 1 2
f 1 ®q
3
'-..._/
cresc.
v 3
. 2 . 3.
p 3 0
6
• Play every note with a short spiccato, so that the half-notes (minims) sound like very short notes
followed by rests.
Playing non-vibrato makes it easier to find out if you really are using the left hand with minimum effort.
• Play phrases, passages or whole movements entirely without vibrato, concentrating on stopping the
string with the least finger pressure (just enough to make a proper sound), and with the thumb equally
light against the neck. Feel how the forearm and upper arm remain completely relaxed and uninvolved.
• Repeat with vibrato, with the same economy of movement, ease, and lightness of playing as before.

Finger action
This section looks at the basic movement of the fingers, and how
the position of the hand and wrist can affect this. For other aspects
of effortlessness in the left fingers see also Low fingers, page 4; Fast
fingers, page 7; Blocks, page 1 1 ; Defaults, page 299.
Ang l e and height of knuckles

Adjust the point of contact of the first finger and the neck of the violin 1 to change the angle of the hand 1 In lower positions the
relative to the fingerboard (Fig. l 7a) . In low positions, on the E string the contact point is nearer the side of the first finger
should continually brush
middle joint of the finger; on the G string the contact point is nearer the base joint of the finger. Naturally lightly against the neck of
the exact positions shown in Fig. 17a vary from hand to hand as well as from phrase to phrase. the violin. Awkwardness
or tension may be caused
Finger action feels easier if the angle of the knuckles to the fingerboard is not too steep (i.e. the contact by trying to keep a perman
point with the neck is nearer the middle joint than the base joint) . The angle shown in Fig. 1 7b can give ent space between the
neck and the side of the
each finger a feeling of slight strain. If the knuckles are too low (Fig. l 7c) the fingers have too far to first finger. Galamian called
reach. Fig. 1 7 d shows a natural angle of the knuckles. this 'the principle of the
double contact'. See Con
tact point of first finger
with neck, page 301 .
Fig. 1 7
(a) Contact point of neck with first finger (b) The knuckles are too high and steep
(c) The knuckles are too low. (d) Natural angle of the knuckles
The fingers have to stretch to their notes
• Play a phrase or short passage several times, each time experimenting with higher or lower knuckles
to find the most comfortable hand position.
• Repeat the phrase several times while moving gradually between too-high, normal and too-low knuckles
as shown in Fig. 1 7 .
Fig. 1 7b Fig. 1 7d Fig. 1 7c Fig. 1 7d

Fi nger action
Exa'mple 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 3, b. 23
fp fp
• At each place marked with an arrow, check the contact point between the first finger and the side of
the neck (even if the first finger is not playing) .
• Experiment with higher and lower settings of the hand, noting the difference in ease of movement
between one height and another.
Straight wrist
In low positions, the ideal is for the left forearm and the back of the hand to be in a straight line. As the
fingers rise and fall the wrist neither collapses in nor pushes out, the hand bending neither to the left
nor to the right. (If the arm is very short the wrist may sometimes form a slightly outward-bending shape
in 1 st position.) The fourth finger in particular may be prone to disturbing the wrist, if there is an
association between dropping the fourth finger and pushing the wrist outwards (Fig. 1 8a) .
• Practising by doing the opposite, learn how to drop the fourth finger on to specific notes with the
wrist giving, or bending in slightly (Fig. I Sb) . Afterwards, keeping a straight line will seem much
easier.
Fig. 1 8
(a) Pushing the wrist out causes tension (b) Wrist slightly 'giving' for practice purposes
Exa'mple 1 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 9, b. 1
4 � 1 @ 3 J J 3 J BJ@ I @ J j J J J JAf@ l j
+
dolee
Practise the whole passage with the wrist pulled in slightly as shown in Fig. I Sb.
2
1
--
-------
• Practise the extensions (marked '+') with the wrist pulled in slightly (Fig. 1 8b) .
,�
Mozart: Sonata in Eb, K454, nwv. 1, b. 1 9
' �I'
Ii
µ f
3 Ii
f
:J r
• To counteract pushing the wrist out, when playing the fourth fingers (marked '+') pull the wrist in
slightly (Fig. I Sb) .
Finger action
Moving fi ngers from the base joints
The most effortless, relaxed and efficient finger action comes from
1 'When considering
moving the fingers from the base joints.1 Avoid partly moving the technique, it is not so
finger with a movement of the whole hand (the finger and hand much a question of
moving together from the wrist) . "good" and "bad", but of
"more efficient" and "less
Any ouf-�nd-in movement of the wrist, as a finger drops or lifts, is a efficient" ways of doing
things.' - Dorothy Delay
sure sign that the finger is not moving from the base joint. The third
and fourth fingers in particular may need occasional attention to
ensure that they are moving freely. Fig. 1 9
Placing the hand flat against the shoulder of the violin is a simple way
to remember the feeling of moving the fingers from the base joint.
• Place the palm of the hand flat against the shoulder of the violin
so that the base joints are just above the upper rim of the violin
(Fig. 1 9) .
Ii Using the violin to stabilize the hand, tap the finger (without
playing it) up and down on the E string. It does not matter exactly
where on the string you tap - it is the movement of the finger Using the shoulder of the violin to
that matters, not the pitch of the note. Simply make sure that the stabilize the hand while tapping
finger is curved, relaxed and comfortable.
Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 19, mov. 2, b. 41
I�
Ii To practise the fourth finger marked '+', even though it is in 1st position, place the hand against the
shoulder of the violin as shown in Fig. 1 9 .
• Tap the fourth finger up and down o n the E string, feeling the finger moving from the base joint, the
hand held steady against the shoulder of the violin.
You may wish to hold down the third finger on the string, as it is in the passage.
• Recapture the same feeling in the finger movement when you then play the passage.
Example 2 Beethoven: Sonata in G, op. 96, 1, b. 2
ff;FiTI1 1W
nwv.
iGir :
Ii
p dolce 2
Tapping on the E string is equally helpful when the actual notes are not on the E string.
• Practise the fourth fingers, and the third finger marked '+', with the hand against the shoulder of the
violin as shown in Fig. 1 9 .
Ii Tap the third finger, and then the fourth, up and down o n the E string. Feel the fingers moving from
the base joint, the hand held steady against the shoulder of the violin.
e Recapture the same feeling in the finger movement when you then play the passage.
Ii Tap the third finger, and then the fourth, up and down on the E string as shown in Fig. 1 9. Feel the
fingers moving from the base joint, the hand held steady against the shoulder of the violin.
• Recapture the same feeling in the finger movement when you then play the passage.

Finger action
Placing fingers gently

One of the great secrets of left-hand technique is that there are two ways to stop the string. To play
ascending slurred notes, the finger must fall with speed and energy. To play anything else, the finger is
placed on the string ahead of the bow,
• Playing ascending slurred notes, the string is already vibrating when you put a finger down. You have
to drop the finger fast and decisively so that there is no 'fuzz' at the beginning of the note.
• Playing anything else, the string is motionless at the place where the finger is going to make the stop.
The finger has only to create the new string length before the bow arrives. It does not have to force
1 Everything feels like hard the string to stop vibrating, so the action of placing the finger takes little energy. 1
the D. Playing /, the string visibly swings from side to side. The finger is dropping on to a moving surface.
work if the fingers always
drop as if you are playing While bowing the open A string, look at the place on the string where the third finger is going to play
f ascending slurs. Placing
the finger takes very little
energy in comparison.
If the finger does not literally 'stop' the string quickly there is a brief moment of 'fuzz' in the sound
When all fingers except for before the new string length is properly established.
finger can drop slightly more slowly than when playing f.

ascending slurs are placed,
rather than dropped with Playing p, the finger must also drop fast; but because the sideways vibration of the string is less, the
an impact, the entire hand
feels soft, relaxed and
completely effortless even Drop fast Slower drop
in the fastest, most
0 \i 3 0 \i 3
I
brilliant playing, almost to
the extent of feeling as if
the fingers are ba rely
doing anything at all. f /' p /'
Look at the string Narrower
vibrating widely vibration
Feel the difference in finger action between ascending slurred and separate. During the slurs, listen to
the 'ping' as the finger stops each new note (see Fast fingers, page 7):
Fingers placed,
r I J,zJ533? II
Listen to the 'ping'
J
'leading' the bow
0 3
./
11:J r
f Fingers dropping
:
with impact
In faster separate-bow passages, the finger may have to be placed very quickly to get there in time; but
placing it very quickly, on a string that is more or less motionless, feels quite different from dropping
onto a vibrating string.
Neither of the other possibilities - descending notes either slurred or separate - gains any benefit from
being placed with any sort of impact on the string. Everything to do with playing these fingers is a matter
of placing, and timing with the bow:
(1 )
IJ � �
Place gently Ii Ii
� £)
\i 2 v
IJ
0 0 v
�
3 3 3
I
�
)( )(
f .......
Place, then lift the fourth Place before the bow moves
(2) (3)
� r= If
\i Ii \i
X?F F
2
IF
� 4 2 v Ii 3 v
8 )(
r I
( 1 ) Playing any new finger on a new string, the finger must be placed or 'prepared' before the bow (shown
as an x-note) . The string is not vibrating, so the finger can be placed gently, simply getting there ready
for when the bow arrives. Nothing is gained by creating the new string-length with an impact.
(2) Playing from a higher finger to a lower finger on the same string, the lower finger is prepared before
lifting the upper finger. The area of the string on which the finger is placed is not vibrating, so the finger
can be placed gently, simply getting there ready for when the higher finger lifts and uncovers it.
(3) Ascending notes with separate bows are the closest to playing slurred ascending notes. In many cases
the two may seem the same; but in separate bows, the finger action is more about timing than impact.
The finger must be in place before the bow starts to move. Too early, and the finger will interfere with
the previous note; too late, and there will be 'fuzz' because the bow has begun to play a half-stopped
string. There is a perfect moment between the bow strokes to place the finger. At that moment the
vibration of the string is at its least.

Finger action
Example 1 J. S. Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWVlOOl, Presto, b. 4
It is essential, for musical reasons as well as technical, that fingers do not 'bang' down on the fingerboard.
The fingers marked 'place' become like finger accents if they drop with an impact, instead of being gently
placed just ahead of the bow. These inevitably break up the phrase or line with wrong groupings of notes
or unmusical stresses.
• A simple way to practise any fast, separate-bow passage is to stop before placing the finger: stop the
bow on the string; gently place the next finger; play; stop the bow; place; play, and so on:
Stop the bow

on the string
) ! J� I� x� �
,/ v i1 v
� � �
v i1 i1 v 2
� l
0 � 1 3 x 2 1
)(
)( )(
)(
3 0 3
0
/' 2
Place
1 v 3 i1
3
2 2 0 3
0
� � � 19
i1 i1 v 4 i1
�� ) �
v v i1 2 x
l
�
1 3 x
J J
)(
)(
)(
3 3
0
Example 2 Vivaldi: Concerto in A minor, op. 3 no. 6, mov. 2, b. 1
� n r E f F r f E r [J I�
p
of the string is less in p, so the finger can drop more slowly than when playing f.
In this dolce Largo, the fingers must fall slowly to avoid any hint of articulation. The sideways vibration
The string vibrates the widest at the middle point between the bridge and the nut or finger. It vibrates
the least at the part of the string nearest to the bridge or the stop (in this case first-finger D) .
Feel the difference between placing the second finger on an Eb, and placing the fourth finger on a G#:
'�
#F
Drop faster
Ir
Drop slower
I
4
�
Drop Drop
+
�
Drop
�
1r x r f IF
++
J
\i ,/
r
Place
2 Place
p 1
Feel the difference between the third finger dropping to play the F (marked '+'), and placing the second
finger ahead of the bow to play the E ('++') . It is difficult to find the legato quality of the E if the second
finger makes any sort of vertical impact on the string.
Finger action
>
v 0
1j :J #f f f"f f 1 'i11N f� I � ;
E
J L 1 3 :k o # Jl
2
sf
\i :.
Place before
the bow
f1 "fE-r� i iji1;s_
Drop Place before
™ f� 1�c
Drop the bow
i/
3 ---
0 #
l' l' 2
Drop
Place 1\.
Drop ' Place
Drop l'
Place
Placing fingers gently, you can still play with rhythmic aiming-points in the left fingers, or give different
1 See Finger accents for amounts of emphasis to certain fingers depending on their place in the phrase.1 Playing the top A at the
rhythmic stability, page 285
beginning of the second bar, it is natural to drop the fourth finger with an 'expressive' or rhythmic impact;
and to do the same with the third-finger A on the up-bow.
However, the less active, and the quieter and more economical the general action of the fingers, the less
has to be done to have an expressive feel in the fingers, or to make musical differences of finger weight
or accent.
• Reduce any danger of a too-heavy articulation by first practising a simple co-ordination exercise:
v3 \i 4 Ii v3 4 Ii v3 4 Ii v3 4 Ii
Place exactly
on third beat
��I� l'
�
Stop the bow
� �· I � � if I� � 1r I � 1� . . I �
etc.
• At the end of each up-bow stop the bow on the string. Place the fourth finger on the string without
moving the bow (shown as an x-note) . Then bow the note.
• Make the x-note gradually shorter and shorter. As you do so, the speed of placing the finger will have
to increase until the finger is dropping onto the string very quickly. However quickly it falls, continue
to place the finger gently throughout with no audible sound of the finger hitting the fingerboard.
Afterwards, the smallest amount of rhythmic articulation in the fourth finger will seem sufficient.
D v4 Ii
Example 4
1
Tchaikovsky: Three pieces, op. 42, Meditation, b. 40
+ A + +
3
When playing accented notes, ensure that the extra energy for the accent is given to the bow, and to any
2 See Vibrato accents, extra vibrato,2 rather than to the action of stopping the string.
page 1 38
• Stop the bow before each finger marked '+'; place the finger gently; then play on, making the accent
Ii v
with the bow while the finger remains light and effortless:
\i f:'.\i 4 1 4
1 ,... .
>
Wait Place A 2
l Jj D
I�
I
�
l'
Place the second
duri ng the rest
. 242 Freedom and ease

Finger action
Example 5 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, inov. 1, b. 84
�f
+ + + +
�=== f sf
� "---' 1 � 1F
In this passage, only the fingers playing the notes marked '+' are dropped with energy. Place every other
finger before the bow plays it. There should not be a 'thud' on the fingerboard as any of these fingers
contacts the string.
Example 6
+
F r II
4
In an ascending scale, the only finger to place is the first finger. Getting this finger down on the string
before the bow arrives is one of the key elements of smooth scale playing:1 1 See also Example 2,
page 1 02
• Practise preparing and placing fingers e}):aggeratedly early, like a syncopation:
r r r- F r II
• The moment when both fingers - in this case the fourth and the first - are down on the strings is
called 'overlapping'. Regularly practise scales and scale-like passages holding the fourth finger down
longer than usual, until the second finger is on the string.
Example 7
Ir r II
3
Descending, all the fingers need to be prepared, but a particular one to watch out for is the fourth finger:2 2 See also Example 3,
page 1 02
IC r I
3
Place
gently
1 �-7 1 . . �r. 1 .. �r. I

1 � 4
,�## fEJ
• The x-note represents placing the fourth finger silently on the string in advance of the bow. Place the
finger later and later, but always with the same lightness and lack of impact as in the first bar.
• While playing the fl allow the bow to begin to move towards the A string. By the end, feel the move
ments of the fourth finger and the bow as one combined action, not two actions that need to be
co-ordinated with each other.
Finger action
Example 8
2 4 2
Always having the fingers ready on the string before the bow gets there, is one of the secrets of playing
an arpeggio with true legato and evenness. Descending, think ahead into the next note in a continuous
flow of movement, rather than 'stopping' on each note, so that the lower finger is always ready on the
string.
Example 9 Brahms: Sonata in G, op. 78, mov. 2, b. 1 05
+ + + + + + + + + + +
dolce
========-- p.
b:J t 1 [ J J , r d ,J t J t1 1d
� � �
4 1i �. � , J
Example 1 0 Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 2, b. 9
� , , , , � �
restez
4e f f G LiTF [ f f t I e f F r ; b: G E f F+� 1 i
, ,
f
+ + + + + + +
fo
fo
• Feel the fingers 'leading' the bow:
ii i1 v
3
2 ---4--- 2
Example 1 1 Franck: Sonata in A, mov. 2, b. 29

ii3
�f 1 (
-------�
pp
i1 ------
IJ
l 244 ·
Freedom and ease
Finger action
Timing the finger and bow fast playing

The muscular strength, energy or effort of playing need not increase as the tempo of the notes increases.
To play two notes faster, or to play them slower, often requires exactly the same finger action. Playing
faster is simply a matter of timing the finger with the beginning of the bow stroke, not of working harder.
Third finger drops a n
instant after t h e bow
I p??· · I FF"' I
begins to move
i/
l ff?]· 1 , ····
' �1
Third finger lifts an
Third finger waits
i nstant after the bow
before lifting
I ff... I �. . . I
(2) begins to move
l f)"
(1 ) In the first bar, the third finger drops on to the string long after the bow begins to play the first finger
B. In the second bar, the third finger waits only half as long before dropping, and so on. By the fifth
bar, the third finger drops an instant after the bow begins to move. In each case the speed and energy
of the third finger is exactly the same. The difference in the speed of each pair of notes lies only in
when the finger drops.
(2) Raising a finger works in the same way. In the first bar the third finger lifts off the string long after
the bow begins to play the third finger D. By the fifth bar the third finger lifts off an instant after the
bow begins to move, the speed of the finger action remaining the same.
1 1
Example 1 Wieniawski: Polonaise-brillante, op. 2 1 , b. 66
A
3
�
r f'
ii
3
4 + +
r r
4
p -===
• Exaggerate the timing of the notes marked '+' by dropping or raising the fingers almost at the same
moment as the beginning of the bow stroke.
(1 ) (2)
1 1
Both fingers together on the A string,
v lower note silent v
4 3 3 4 3
\.
D ij D >ij
&�b2 F fr r" f r r "r

3,,..- 3,,.
I� 1 F
-... > .--... >
ii 4 ii
> 3
j(
'I r :r
3 3
( 1 ) Place the fingers at the same time, as though playing a double stop on one string.
(2) Drop the finger so soon after the beginning of the bow stroke that the grace note is only just audible.
• Playing very short grace notes, begin slowly. Gradually speed up to as fast a tempo as possible:
!' 1
Widening the hand at the base joi nts
Shifting the balance of the hand a little onto the upper fingers, with
Wideni
the lower fingers reaching back a little to their notes, is one of the
the nts great 'secrets' of playing with a comfortable and efficient left hand.
The smaller the hand the more, or the more often, it needs to be based on the upper fingers, but large
hands benefit from this as well.
The idea of widening the hand at the base joints is most obvious when playing wide intervals like tenths.
In the beginning, tenths feel easier if you place the fourth finger on its own and then reach back with
the first finger, rather than beginning on the first finger and stretching up to the fourth. When you reach
back, the hand automatically widens at the base joints (the space between the knuckles increases),
particularly between the first and second fingers (Fig. 20a) . If the hand does not widen (Fig. 20b), starting
1 When it is part of your on the first finger and reaching up to the fourth is too far to stretch. 1
playing to widen at the
base joi nts it does not
matter whether you begin
on the fourth finger and
reach back, or begin on
the first finger and reach
forwards.
The key to making
extensions feel easy is to
lead with the base joint.
Leading the movement
from the fingertip can
make the extension feel
constricted. The order is
always base joint first,
finger second; not finger
first, base joint second.
Fig. 20 (a) Note the space between the first and second fingers (b) Note how the first and second fingers have not
opened
Basing t h e h a n d position on t h e u pper finger

• Large hands or small, from time to time practise basing the hand on the upper fingers and reaching
back to the lower notes. There will be a feeling of great openness and effortlessness when you return
to normal playing.
Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K21 6, mov. 2, b. 8
JjJ
3
2 2 4
Fig. 2 l a shows the hand after the fourth finger A (marked '+' in the Example above) has been placed
on the string. While keeping the second finger placed more on the left side of the fingertip, the fourth
has been placed more on the right side of the fingertip. Note the 'V' shape made by the second and
fourth fingers, and by the first and second fingers. There is a feeling of the hand position balanced on
the fourth finger.
In Fig. 2 l b the hand is balanced on the second finger, and shows the strained position of the fingers
caused by the fourth finger having to stretch forwards. Note how the second and fourth fingers are now
parallel, and the second and first fingers are squeezing together.
Fig. 2 1
(a) Note the wide space between (b) The fourth finger is straining to (c) After reaching back, one finger
the fingers reach the A at a time, from the fourth finger
.. 246 Freedom and ease

Widen i n g the h a n d at the base joi nts
• Find the hand position by first balancing the hand on the fourth finger, and then reaching back with
the other fingers one by one:
Place the fourth finger without playing it (written as an x-note, below) . Contact the string more
on the right side of the fingertip. Leaving the fourth finger on the string, place the third underneath
it without affecting the fourth, or affecting it as little as possible. Keeping the fingers down on the
string, place the second finger, and then the first. See Fig. 2 l c.
2 Then, playing the passage as written, find the same feeling of openness in the hand.
Position the hand Reach back without Keep the same hand
to favour affecting the third position to play
the fourth finger or fourth fingers the phrase
J�
ii 3 ">I ">I ">I
4 3 2
(IJ x
)<)
// )( x
2
/'
Reach back with Reach back
the third finger
without affecting
the fourth finger
Example 2 Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, No. 1, b. 3
During the pause on the

third finger, reach back with
Reach back without Reach back the first finger
the first finger without
affecting the without affecting the
affecting the third finger
� 1 ,/
J
third finger Reach back held-down third finger
g ID
,/ 1
J C E E t
)( J
3 ">I 2 1 ,/
� J J �-
!":'.
0 "' 0
ti ( )( x
IJ )< ) H
0
/' 3 -------
/' Position the hand Keep the same
Position the hand to favour the hand position to
to favour the third finger continue the phrase
third finger
Example 3 Beethoven: Sonata in A ('Kreutzer'), op. 47, 1110v. 1, b. 61
ii
t I� t t
ii ii ii
sf
r F
Many chords feel more comfortable when the hand is positioned to favour the upper fingers, with the
lower fingers reaching back. If the hand is based on the lower fingers, the upper fingers may have to
strain to reach their notes.
• Establish the hand position for each chord by silently placing the fingers in the order 4-3-2-1 .
• Position the hand to favour the upper finger, and then reach back with the other fingers. While reaching
back, change the balance of the hand as little as possible.
• Keep a space between the base of the thumb and the first finger.1 1 See Fig. 1 5a, page 229
Position the hand to

ii
I �t
favour the fourth finger
4
t t t
r Ft
ii
�
)(
x
°">1 4 )(
�11i J
4 1 r:i 1 ii
><
2 2 3 3
x
)(
x x
x )(
/'
Place the second finger
without altering the
shape of the fourth finger

Widen i ng the h a n d at the base joints
Example 4 Tchaikovsky: Three Pieces, op. 42, Melody, b. 6
Place the third without Same feeli ng

(1 ) lifting the fourth 4 (2) 4 (3) as ( 1 )
4
llbf) �
3 3 3
li b�
�4 3 2 2 2 2 ,/
� �1111
4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 4
?'
I) a• &So biB biU 3> biB
Fourth leaning ?' Find the same wide space
towards the bridge First on scrol I between the fingers as in ( 1 )
side o f fingertip
( 1 ) Without the bow, place the fingers on the string in the order 4-3-2-1 . Use different areas of the
fingertip to open the hand at the base joints: lean the fourth finger towards the bridge and the first
finger towards the scroll (creating the fan-like shape of the fingers shown in Fig. 2 1 a, page 246) . It
1 See Space between does not matter if you cannot actually lean towards the bridge - just go as far as you can. 1
fingers, page 300
(2) Find the same angle of the fingers, and the same wide space between them, ascending 1-2-3-4.
(3) Find the same feeling of opening the hand when playing first to fourth finger in the context of the
phrase.
Example 5 Beethoven: Sonata in A minor, op. 23, mov. 1, b. 84
+
Ii �
The third-finger F (marked '+') is often reached with an extension to avoid any sound of shifting (to
save any 'expressive' shifting for the shift to the fourth-finger A four bars later) .
to favour the third Open at the base
4
finger (Fig. 22a) joints as in (1)
(1 ) �
�
,,
(1 ) Play the F by itself, positioning the hand to favour the third finger, and making sure the finger is
curved, relaxed and comfortable (Fig. 22a) .
Reach the first finger back to the C without affecting the shape of the third finger, or affecting it as little
as possible. Feel the space opening at the base joints between the first and second fingers (Fig. 22b) .
(2) During the tied first-finger C remember the feeling of opening the hand. Then widen at the base
joints as you reach the third finger up to the F, arriving again in a shape similar to Fig. 22b.
Fig. 22c shows the strained position of the fingers if the hand is based on the first-finger C, and the
third finger has to stretch up to the F. Note the tension in the wrist.
Fig. 22
(a) Position the hand to favour the (b) Note the wide space between (c) The third finger has had to
third finger the fingers stretch up to the F

Widening the hand at the base joi nts
+
' �1'b " �ijf c rrrt r

4
(2) � f
Position the hand to favour the fourth finger Recapture the same
open feeling as in (1)
��i
\i t:-. r.-.
F F F r I
1
(1)
1
?'
Reach back with the first finger
'@
Exam,ple 7 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1, b. 2 1 7
+ +
Y<
4 4
0
1Jf:
• First play the upper note to establish the hand position, and then reach back with the first finger.
• Hold down fingers as marked.
lfi4: 1 ---
Exam,ple 8 Ysaye: Sonata, op. 27 no. 2, mov. 1, b. 1 1
mf cresc.
• Feel the hand position favouring the fourth finger. Alter the shape of the fourth finger as little as
� th� hand on th �
possible as you reach back with the first finger to the tenths:
J J bJ J bJ J J
Balan urth finge
- -. � - �
4
I
'I r1-1-'r r 1Qcr 1 [£F I tcJ 1UJ I Ltf 1 trF 1Etcr l11C#r r I
d. - - �.
1 1 "-!..../
1 1 sim.
?'
Reach back with the first finger
• Afterwards, find the same feeling of basing the hand on the upper finger, and reaching back, when
you play the tenths in the passage.
Exam,ple 9 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 1, b. 265
(1 ) (2)
W i i 11 J
� 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

Wide n i n g the hand at the base joi nts
Extend ing the reach the fou rth fi nger

Widening the hand at the base joints applies to any sort of fourth-finger extension, even simply playing
down from first-finger F on the E string to fourth-finger E on the A string (or the equivalent on the
other strings) .
• Extend the reach of the fourth finger by finding the note one semitone higher than written. When
you have learnt how to release and widen the hand to play this higher note, the correct note feels
much easier.
• Play in reverse: begin on the fourth finger and reach back, then find the same opening and widening
in the hand while starting on the lower finger and reaching forwards.
Example 1 Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 32, b. J
The same widening

Reach back with at the base joints
$ b �;.-.�:�
the first (Fig. 23a) to play the E (Fig. 23b)
l f�fF
(1) � ;.-. (3)
Ir 11
ii'
4
/'
Position the hand to Widen at the base
favour the fourth joints to reach up
with the fourth (Fig. 23a)
( 1 ) Begin by practising an F instead of an E. Start in reverse: place the fourth-finger F, and then reach
back with the first finger (Fig. 23a) .
Open the space between the first and second fingers. Keep a space between the base of the thumb
1 See Fig. 1 Sa, page 229 and the first finger.1
(2) Then play the same thing but the right way round: play the first finger F and then reach up to the
fourth finger F, the hand and fingers arriving again in a shape similar to Fig. 23a.
Reach up partly by bringing the base joint of the fourth finger closer to the neck of the violin.
(3) Then return to playing the correct note, E (Fig. 23b) . Reach the E, which now feels like a very small
distance away, with the same opening and widening at the base joints as when reaching up to the F.
Fig. 23b shows the first finger continuing to stop F on the E string while the fourth finger easily reaches
the E on the A string. Notice the curve of the fourth finger and the space between the first and second
fingers.
Fig. 23c shows the first and second fingers squeezing together. This reduces the reach of the fourth finger,
which is now forced to straighten. Notice in Fig. 23a and Fig. 23b how the first and second fingers widen
at the base joints to form a 'V', whereas in Fig. 23c they are parallel.
Fig. 23
(a) Reaching back from F to F (b) Opening between the first and (c) Squeezing the first and second
second fingers helps the fourth fingers together forces the
finger reach the E fourth finger to straighten

Wideni n g the hand at the base joi nts
Example 2 Dant: 24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 35, No. 3, b. 4
� tt f r rj j JJJJ
#J J J b
'F 19
+
[ §f
�
B !IP
\. f:'.2
Reach back with
the second finger
( 1) (2) +
4 2 4
/'
4� 4 2 --

favour the fourth finger
( 1 ) Begin by practising an E instead of a D#. Start in reverse: place the fourth-finger E, and then reach
back with the second-finger F#.
(2) Practise the E in the context of the passage. If your hand is small you may not be able to reach it,
but just from trying to play an E the D# will feel much nearer and easier to reach afterwards.
Thi rds and fingered octaves

In playing thirds and fingered octaves it is essential that the hand position is based on the third and
fourth fingers, the lower fingers reaching back (Figs. 24a, 24c) . If the hand position is based on the lower
finger the upper fingers cannot reach their notes without straightening, and the hand becomes tense
(Figs. 24b, 24d) .
Fig. 24
(a) Basing the hand on the curved fourth finger, (b) Basing the hand on the second finger,
the second finger reaches back easily the fourth finger strains to reach up far enough
1 Apart from being helpful

for specific thirds or fin
gered octaves, used as a
(c) Reaching back from the upper finger (d) Stretching up from the lower finger daily warm-up exercise
this is also one of the
q uickest ways to build a
Use the following method to build the correct hand position:1 good hand shape in
general, i . e. whatever the
• Set the hand position for each third or fingered octave individually. left hand is doing, the
fingers remain cu rved,
• Place the upper finger first, positioning the hand so that the finger is curved, relaxed and comfortable. staying close to the strings
without pulling excessively
• Then place the lower finger by extending back. sideways or u pwards, and
• While placing the lower finger, as far as possible do not alter the shape of the upper finger, or change with the hand balanced to
give every finger maximum
the way the hand is balanced on the upper finger. ease and reach.

Wide n i n g the hand at the base joints
Exa:m.ple 1
�l j i I� I
2 1
1 2 1 3 2 1 2
r
3 4
4 4 3 4
• Play slowly, without keeping to any particular pulse:
Reach back with the first Reach back with the second
J Ii u Ir J
finger while staying balanced finger while staying balanced
J
on the third finger V on the fourth finger
� f,
1 2
'.! 1 1 '.! 2 2 4
Ii 3 4 3 2
i4 , Curved
)( x
x
)(
3 4 etc.
3 Curved finger
Example 2 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, 3, b. I
� ,,----, �
mov.
v Ii
1 r r r 1r
Reach back with the second
Reach back with the first
finger while staying balanced
�
finger while staying balanced
on the fourth finger
/!
on the third finger
11 r-- II
1
-�r
1 '.! 2
�r
'.! 1 3
�
3 *
x
)(
3 3 4
.l' .l'
Position the hand to Position the hand to
favour the third finger favour the fourth finger
I� I
Example 3
� "tt" t 3 i i j
3 4 3
3 4 1 3 4
4
� �
2
Hand positioned to favour Hand positioned to favour

the third finger so that it is the fourth finger so that it is
curved, relaxed, comfortable curved, relaxed, comfortable
� "11" J IJ
Ii v
'.! /":\ '.! /":\ /":\
i 1J
4 /":\ 3 4
3
a �
4 2
n
3 1 4 2 3 1
lj
2 2
1 For a relaxed hand while
playing fingered octaves,
keep in mind that widen * x
* x
ing the hand i nvolves one etc.
set of actions, while tight .l' .l'
ening the hand involves a Reach back with the first Reach back with the second
completely different set of finger while staying balanced finger while staying balanced
actions. Widening the on the third finger on the fourth finger
hand does not cause it to
tense - contracting the
muscles in the hand does.
The two are not related or • If you have small hands it may not be possible to keep the fourth finger rounded, but keep it as
connected in any way. Doing
one does not mean that rounded as possible.1
you have to do the other.
• Keep a space between the base of the thumb and the first finger. For practice purposes position the
2 See Fig. 1 5c, page 229 thumb well forward.2
2 52 Freedom and ease

Releasing the rig ht hand
Bow�hold flexibility
Flexibility and give are an essential element of bowing technique.
Galamian likened the right hand to a system of springs which, although sometimes looser and sometimes
tighter, must never be locked and tight.
Sometimes the fingers, thumb and knuckles in the bow hand seem not to move at all. At other times the
movements are visible and obvious. How much movement there should be depends on each stroke and
the individual hand. 1 1 In one player, no visible
flexibility in a particular
• To make sure that there is a give in every joint in the bow hand, with no resistance or tension anywhere, bowing action could
mean stiffness, while in
exaggerate the natural movements of the fingers and knuckles by making them conscious and larger another player the same
than-life. 2 apparent lack of move
ment might be entirely
• Just before each up-bow, straighten the fingers and raise the knuckles (Fig. 25a) . natural and in fact con
tain plenty of invisible give.
• Just before each down-bow, curve the fingers and lower the knuckles (Fig. 25b) .
The Greek philosopher
• If necessary, play much more slowly than normal, using the time to feel the give in every joint. Aristotle taught that every
virtue lies on the Golden
Mean between two vices.
Accordingly, both a stiff
bowing hand and one
that is too floppy are
'vices'; a natural give in
the hand is the virtue that
lies in between .
Fig. 25
2 'I introduced t h e finger

stroke into violin peda
gogics in my U rstudien
(Basic Studies) in 1 9 1 0.
Intended as a purely help
ful gymnastic exercise, I
(a) Straighten the fingers at the end of the down-bow (b) Curve the fingers at the end of the up-bow had not imagined what
damage it would come
to . . . at the hands of other
Exam,ple 1 Beethoven: Concerto in D, op. 6 1 , mov. 1, b. 134 theoreticians by making it
4 "# 1l fqttr [ff�H ff tf f H f 1 ttr WE [ c�u c E r r J J J J l g]

Ii4 the crucial point of bow
technic [sic]. I had already
warned . . . that this bowing
was not to be used inde
pendently for practical
playing. If assigning the
p
=
change of bow to the
fingers as their exclusive
S Straighten the fingers C = Curve the fingers privilege, one will achieve
�4 � qc
exactly the opposite of an
4 "# 1 fttr r 1 f f r 1 f f r f 1 f f
Ii
j#r
Curve the fingers before the down - bow begins inaudible change. The
r:
' c c c
s s s c s s c finger stroke must only be
t t
s S 4
r
>I
used . . . in conjunction with
the wrist movement and
even then only in minimal
doses, because - if the
? �
change of bow is seen, it
Straighten the fingers before the up-bow begins
will also be heard ! '
Carl Flesch: Problems of
Afterwards, playing without any visible movement in the fingers, find the same feeling of flexibility and Tone Production in Violin
smoothness in each stroke. Playing (Baden-Baden,
1 93 1 ), 1 4.
Exam,ple 2 Lalo: Symphonie espagnole, op. 2 1 , mov. 3, b. 81
� 0
> >
! -=== '-../
--=====
�=====
Continue to curve the fingers Straighten or curve

(and lower the knuckles) after the fingers before the
v� "'ll �
the bow has left the string next stroke begins
1 ttp
"II
�1£J
s c s 2
7 7
> >
? '
Beg in the F# with slig htly straighter Begin the B with slightly more
fingers than normal, then begin curved fingers than normal
to cu rve during the stroke

Releasing the right hand
Playi ng without the first finger in f passages
This is less likely to occur in the lower half, but when playing f in the upper half it is sometimes helpful
1 T h e feeling o f pulling Over-using the first finger to press the bow into the string can cause tight, pressed tone production, 1
sound out of the string
should always be one of
'sinking the weight of the
to practise passages without the first finger on the bow,
bow into the string', rather • Position the fingers on the bow so that the second finger is able to exert a little leverage (very slightly
than one of ' pressing';
of sharing the job of tone to the left of the thumb rather than opposite it) . See Fig. 26a,
production between all the
fingers, the hand, and the
• Notice how you can produce a good tone without needing the first finger at all.
arm, rather than giving it • Then play the same passage with the first finger sitting lightly on the bow, You will find that much of
just to the first finger; and of
more often using extra bow the feeling of playing without the first finger remains,
speed, rather than weight,
to equalize the lower (heav
ier) and the upper (lighter)
parts of the bow.
Fig. 26
(a) Tone production without (b) Feel the weight balanced by (c) 'Pull in' with the third finger,
the first finger the fourth finger the 'tone finger' of the bow
Playing without the fi rst finger: l ifted strokes

During any lifted strokes - spiccato, sautille, ricochet and so on - the bow makes an almost invisible see
saw movement, pivoting around the thumb.
The first finger must remain entirely loose and 'giving' at its base joint. If it is tight at the base joint it
will restrict this natural see-sawing of the bow.
To make sure that the bow hand allows these tiny, natural movements to happen, practise a phrase
of lifted strokes without the first finger on the bow (Fig, 26a) . Feel how the bow has a natural 'swing'
within the hand.
2 Then play the phrase with a normal bow hold, feeling the same almost invisible movements of the
bow within the hand.
Exaniples Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 1 9, mov. 1, b. 84
� . � .
Wieniawski: Concerto no. 2 in D minor, op. 22, mov. 3, b. 39
v . � . .
p spiccato
. 2 54 Freedom and ease

Relea s i n g the right hand
Balancing with the fourth finger

The fourth finger balances the weight of the bow whenever the bow is lifted from the string. Playing on
the string, particularly in the lower half but also in the upper half, the fourth finger acts as a counterbalance
to the first and second fingers, helping to avoid squashing the tone with too much downward pressure
into the string.
Example 1 J, S. Bach: Partita no. 3 in E, BWV1 006, Gavotte en Rondeau, b. 6
J J J
v
J � ,II f
� ttb I� ; f
+ + + + Ii +
I i I I 1 Ii
I I
i
I ... I
• Take the second and third fingers off the bow to highlight the feeling of balancing with the fourth
finger (Fig. 26b) . Make sure you have the tip, not the pad, of the fourth finger on the bow so that 1 If the tip of the fourth
At each '+', where the bow is momentarily in the air, feel all the weight balanced Jy the fourth finger.
the finger naturally curves. 1 finger sits on the bow, the
finger is more cu rved; if
• the pad sits on the bow,
_ the finger is straighter.
• Afterwards, playing with a normal bow hold, feel the same amount of weight going into the fourth The same applies to the
finger. right thumb. The ideal is
for the thu mb to bend
outwards, so that it has
flexibility and give (Fig.
v3
>Ii >v >ii >Ii >ii
42a, page 303). This is
difficult to achieve if the
Jr '�
0 4 pad of the thu mb contacts
E g � c
� tt11 ! mfJ f
Ii
1*>
the bow instead of the
1
� � >
tip, since then the thumb
automatically straightens.
The same applies also to
f mf
the left hand: place the
===-- fourth finger more on the
tip if it has a tendency to
straighten as it stops the
• Play the first bar without the second or third fingers on the bow (Fig. 26b) . string.
Pu l l i ng i n with the third finger

In many strokes, particularly when a deep or firm tone is required, pull the third finger in against the
side of the bow. This helps maintain a feeling of balance in the hand, and avoids over-pressing with the
first finger. Sandor Vegh referred to the third finger as the 'tone finger of the bow'.
Notice the thumb, and the first and third fingers on either side of the thumb, opposing each other so
that you very slightly squeeze the bow between them.2 2 At times the bow is held
firmly, at times quite loosely.
In the lower half feel the pad of the third finger firmly contacting the frog of the bow. Near the point, 'Gripping' the bow is not
the pad of the third finger may need to come off the bow, but the part of the third finger just below the in itself bad so long as it
is not a fixed state, and is
crease of the nail joint maintains the same strong contact with the bow. 3 always followed by release
when no longer required.
• Practise phrases or passages without the second or fourth fingers on the bow (Fig. 26c) . Feel the third
finger pulling in firmly against the bow. 3 See Bow hold, page 302
Examples Kreutzer: 42 Etudes ou caprices, No. 36, b. 1
Pull i n Pull i n
'\I ii '\I Pull i n
J
1 4 '\I
>
/'
�
/' > .�>. � >
10
Rele ase /' Rele ase
Release
Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 23
�
Pull i n
�tt" " : }&J ;JiJ rm E rrrt

Pull in Pull in Pull in
'\I 4
cresc. f dim.

Releasing the right arm
Supporting the wrist in the u pper half

Fig. 27 'Supporting the wrist' means to
resist the natural slight down
ward curve of the wrist in the
upper half. The movement of
the hand is the same as the
movement that produces the
'high wrist' shown in Fig. 3 1 c,
page 267. There are two reasons
for supporting the wrist in the
upper half:
1 To produce expressive, deep
bow contact directly from the
hand (the hand moving from
the wrist), rather than from
1 The more delicate the the upper arm. 1
action in the bow arm,
the closer to the hand 2 To channel power from the
or fingers the action arm or hand directly into the
originates; the bigger, the
more powerful the action, string. If the right wrist {a) Natural slight downward curve {b) Supporting the wrist to channel
the closer to the upper collapses in the upper half, power into the string
arm the action originates.
The softest, most subtle
power may be lost because
changes of tone may the energy does not get as far as the bow - it 'leaks out' at the wrist. Then it is natural to 'try harder'
require only a slight because of the lost power, and the playing becomes full of effort.
change of contact of the
fingers on the bow; At the point, a slight downward curve at the wrist (Fig. 27a) is often more natural than a straight line.
whereas playing heavy
three-string chords may
However, by playing into the string with the hand - which has the effect of raising the wrist - it is possible
To practise producing expression from the hand, or to practise supporting the wrist when playing f in
require a large and power to inject tone directly into the string without the need for weight from the upper arm.
ful movement of the upper
arm. I n between these two •
extremes, many bow strokes the upper half, play from the hand more than usual, i.e. go to the other extreme and raise the wrist slightly.
use some degree of 'playing
into the string from the • Lever the bow into the string with the hand moving from the wrist.
hand' . The same principle
of 'the more subtle, the Fig. 27b shows the wrist when it is 'supported' in the upper half, channelling the power directly into the
closer' applies equally to string. The amount shown is slightly exaggerated for the purposes of the illustration: if you can see the
b
the left arm, e.g. shifting is
wrist raised, it is probably too much.
;:
'led' by the fingertip, rather
than originating higher up
the arm, and the same Examples Wieniawski: Legende, op. 17, b. 8
If
applies to vibrato. s "PP" "' w ,;,,
p
Support the wrist Support the wrist
Beethoven: Sonata in D, op. 12 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 32
Support the wrist Support the wrist

J I; F
Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 1 08, mov. 3, b. 1
Make the expression more with
3 3 3
ii the hand than the arm
lg J� I« :! l d J l pd
2
d
2 1 4
� 1 1 #4
2 '- l 2
4
4 " 3 2 1 1
/' Support the wrist �

Support the wrist Support the wrist /'

Relea s i n g the right a rm
Bowi ng from the elbow

In the lower half of the bow you can gain great stability and control by feeling the elbow1 moving at 1 Using the word 'el bow'
is not strictly correct si nee
the same speed as the frog of the bow. 2 it is the upper arm that
In the upper half, many bow strokes appear to consist only of the forearm movement when in fact they moves the elbow, not the
other way round. How
are being powered from the upper arm. Sometimes the upper arm does remain 'quiet', while all the ever, it is convenient
movement takes place only in the forearm; but just as often the forearm movement actually originates shorthand for this aspect
of bowing.
in the upper arm. The upper-arm movement in turn originates in the back.
Similarly, 'wrist vibrato' is
an inaccurate term which
Exam.pie 1 Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 2 1, b. 150 has largely been replaced
�
by 'hand vibrato'. There
au talon sul G
may be a movement of
J iJ
,------ 3 ----, v the hand at the wrist, but
J J4
n n n ii ii ii ii 4 ii v ii the wrist itself cannot
F move.
2 Feeling the elbow and

f
1
ff
1 1, 1 the frog moving at the
dim. 1
rtt. same speed does not
apply if there is a lot of
At the extreme heel (i.e. in the lowest three or four centimetres of the bow), there is no opening-and-closing vertical upper arm move
movement of the forearm at the elbow. All the movement of the bow comes from the upper arm only ment in the lower half of
the bow, i.e. gradually
(which is called the elbow movement here) . Feel the elbow leading that upper-arm movement. raising the elbow on the
up-bow when approach
• Exaggerate the movement of the upper arm by playing these down-bows without any forearm ing the heel, lowering the
movement at all. elbow just before or at
the bow change.
Before playing each stroke, note the angle formed at the elbow between the upper arm and the forearm.
This vertical movement of
Do not alter this angle as you play the stroke. It does not matter if, for now, the bow goes slightly the elbow causes the
crooked to the bridge. elbow and the frog of the
bow to move at different
• Control the movement of the bow not from the hand and fingers but from the elbow, feeling it and speeds from each other.
the frog of the bow moving together as one unit. Raising the wrist above
the level of the elbow as
• Repeat, adding all other forearm, hand and finger movements as required, but still feeling the elbow you approach the heel has
moving at the same speed as the frog. the same effect as raising
the elbow, i.e. it also inter
rupts the connection be
Exam.pie 2 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 3, b. 94 tween the elbow and the
frog.
J
v v
J us�
v v
J0 J
v v
lid
v 4
l qH§ 1 �1
con fuoco
Playing at the point-of-balance there is some opening and closing of the forearm, and near the middle
of the bow there is much more. Nevertheless, in many passages you can still have a perception of the
elbow and the frog moving together as one unit, and of directing the bow from the elbow, almost up to
the middle of the bow.
• Playing at the point-of-balance, exaggerate the movement of the upper arm by playing without any
forearm movement.
• 'Kick' each separate-bow note, powering the stroke from the elbow.
• Repeat, adding all the other forearm, hand and finger movements, but still feeling the elbow moving
at the same speed as the frog.
Exam.pie 3 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K2 16, mov. 1, b. 68
These sixteenth-notes (semiquavers) are played off the string, or partly off, slightly below the middle of
the bow.
• Exaggerate the movement of the upper arm by playing without any forearm movement. Play very
slowly, moving the upper arm back on each down-bow, forwards on each up-bow.
Afterwards, playing normally, find the same feeling of bowing from the upper arm even if the amount
the upper arm moves is invisible.
Freedom and ease 2 57

Releasing the right a rm
Example 4 Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, No. 9, b. J
mf
mf cresc.
1 Sometimes the move Playing in the upper half, as the forearm opens on the down-bow the elbow invisibly moves back, and
ment of the right upper on the up-bow the elbow moves forwards. 1 If you can see the upper arm moving it is probably too much;
arm in the upper half is the
exact opposite: towards yet the difference between an invisible 'push' from the upper arm, and bowing only from the forearm, is
the end of the down-bow striking. Powering the strokes from the upper arm in the upper half produces a feeling of exceptional
in the upper half the upper
arm pushes forward, at the
freedom and effortless power.
beginning of the u p-bow • As in the lower half, a simple way to get the feel of the upper arm is to use no forearm whatsoever.
#
the upper arm moves back.
� ! II : J J J g :Ill: J J J g :I
See also Angle of the bow
J J J J g
(1 ) Not too fast (2)
J J J
to the b ridge , page 76.
Galamian called these
movements 'out' (down
bow) and 'in' (up-bow):
'. . . as the bow-hand moves
'Lock' the forearm at the Forearm movement
outward to the right, it must
right-angle and move the part-powered by an invisible
also push very gradually
bow with the upper arm only impulse from the upper arm
forward i n approaching the
tip of the stick in order to
preserve the bow's parallel (1 ) Note the angle at the elbow when playing just above the middle of the bow: probably around 90°.
relationship with the bridge Keep that angle the same - i.e. do not move the forearm, only the upper arm - as you play a few
. . . unless the upper arm
pu rposely pushes forward,
strokes down-bow and up. Naturally the bow will go crooked to the bridge on each stroke but this
the lower arm will naturally does not matter.
describe a backward
moving arc as it opens up (2) Then reduce the backwards-and-forwards movement of the upper arm to an invisible amount and
on the down-bow. '
add to it the normal opening and closing of the forearm at the elbow.
Ivan Galamian: Principles of
Violin Playing and Teaching Feel the slight, invisible motion of the upper arm sending an impulse up into the forearm, injecting
(New Jersey, 1 962), 53. extra power and momentum into the stroke.
Levering i nto the stri ng with the elbow

For extra power in the upper half, raise the right elbow slightly above the level of the hand (Fig. 28a) .
Feel the elbow levering weight directly into the hand and from there into the string.
The correct amount of raising the elbow is usually so slight as to be unnoticeable. If you can see it, it is
probably too much; but without it there may be a feeling of unnecessary effort as you try to find the
power by other means (e.g. over-pressing with the first finger on the bow) .
Fig. 28
(a) The elbow 'leaning' into the (b) The elbow is too low to exert (c) Exaggerating raising the elbow
string leverage for practice
• Fig. 28b shows a too-low elbow, lacking the power of leverage. To practise a specific phrase or passage,
exaggerate raising the elbow as shown in Fig. 28c. Feel the arm leaning naturally into the string.
Example Saint-Saens: Concerto no. 3 in B minor, op. 6 1 , mov. 1, b. 5
Raise the elbow slightly

G
3
J> I J3
above the level of the hand Raise the elbow Raise the elbow
A
J IJ J
\i \i \i
>
J> J>
(fJ
/ t;R Fri>i>rlom and ease

Rel easing the right arm
Spread i ng the fingers for leverage

The principles of leverage dictate that the further the first finger is placed from the thumb the less
downward pressure is required. 1 The louder the playing = the further the first finger from the thumb = 1 Similarly, the handle of a
door is usually placed on
the most leverage. the opposite side of the
door to the hinges.
Playing with the first finger too close to the thumb can cause the entire bow arm to lose power and gain If the handle were to be
effort. The tiniest adjustment of the position of the first finger, moving it further away from the thumb, positioned close to the
gives a very large increase in power and ease. hinges, much extra effort
would be required to pull
• Playing powerful, accented or sustained passages, experiment with different positions of the first and the door open.
second fingers, positioning them a little further up the bow than usual (Fig. 28b) . See also Adjusting the
bow hold, page 88;
e Move the fingers slightly further away from the thumb, and slightly closer to the thumb, until finding Bow hold, page 302
the place that gives the greatest power with the least effort.
Example Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1, b. 495
��tt ! F f qr t F r E r F f E r I F f qE r f F E r [ t F t I ft
4
(fJ
Fig. 29
(a) Normal spread of the fingers on the bow (b) The fingers more spread for extra leverage
Flat or tilted hair

Playing J with only half the hair (the wood of the bow tilted too much towards the fingerboard) takes
double the effort for half the result. Even if you work hard to make up for it, the tone may remain thin,
with the added danger of the wood of the bow scraping against the string.
Playing with full hair, or nearly full hair, produces a fatter tone as well as a feeling of effortless power.
When the bow is too tilted in the upper half there is the added problem of the fingertips losing contact
with the bow.
• Play a phrase or passage several times, each time experimenting with a different tilt of the bow.2 Find the 2 'Quarter', 'half' and
'three-qua rters' are loose
tilt which gives the maximum power for the minimum effort. Feel the fingers firmly contacting the bow.
terms since more hair
than that may contact the
Example Schumann: Sonata in A minor, op. 1 05, mov. 3, b. 62
string, depending on how
strongly you play; but
I f'
2 because of the tilt of the
ur
> bow the weight is not
spread evenly across the
whole width of the hair.
f
'Full hair' means that the
wood of the bow is
directly a bove the hair.
e Begin on one note:
g r ur u r ur u r ur u r ur u
3
Quarter hair
I I I I I
Half hair Three-quarters hair Full hair
f
• Then do the same using the notes in the passage:
etc. r·
$i t
Ii Ii i1
3 3 3 3
i1
CJ I f 1 t'
2 Quarter hair 2
Half 2 Three-quarters 2 Full
CJ 1 v I CJ 1 v 1r CJ i v II
> > > > >
> > >
I I
f f f f
Active and passive strokes

In these examples feel how each pair of notes, or group of three notes, feels as though it is played with
one action, not two or three. Feel the first of each group as an actt"ve bow stroke, and the others as passt"ve
strokes, like a rebound. In other words, in a two-note pattern play:
Action-rebound, action-rebound, action-rebound
not
Action-action, action-action, action-action
Examp le 1 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 3, b. 44
n1
Ii
1p
,..-----.
2 2
� tt P'=-'f � 1J �
1 1
F
2
11;
; i � �
v 3
"j_
au talon ftf i
• Use accents and rhythms to exaggerate the difference between active and passive:
n1
Ii2 ...----. 2
� tt P'='r � g i I f]
1 Active 2 1
F lj b b
>
«I'
v 3 \i
p
::::--
"j_ I
au talon
> .
/'
"j_
> .
"j_ "j_
1 "j_
Passive
. . �ttti
Examp le 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 3 in G, K21 6, mov. 1, b. 90
:
(Upper half,
o
L f Cf 1 ° If
n n " '" "' ' " '' � tr v
• Begin at a slow tempo, feeling the up-bows active and the down-bows passive, and gradually speed
up to near performance tempo.
Examp le 3 Chausson: Poeme, op. 25, b. 121
3 3
f
(Upper half)
� �1·1. 2'1e r :0 r J-� r

Active 1
V 3
f f p f p f p f p f
Passive
7n0 Freedom and ease

Example 4 Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, No. 3, b. 1
(Upper half)
In this typical rhythm pattern, the eighth-notes (quavers) are active, the sixteenth-notes (semiquavers)
are passive. The feeling of playing each group of three notes is very similar to the feeling of playing single
down- and up-bows.
Active Passive
J I J J :Ill : J pJ J J pJ J I J J J J J J : 1
i1 (2) � �
i1
v v i1 v v
f f f
( 1 ) Practise the stroke on one note using an accented detache. Feel each stroke as a firm, individual action.
(2) Add the two sixteenth-notes without changing the feeling of playing the principal down- and up-bows.
Play the sixteenth-notes p to exaggerate the feeling of rebound.

(Upper half,
on the string)
v
• Practise the passage pp, with f accents, feeling the unaccented notes as passive strokes that 'play
themselves':
v
•
Example 6 Mozart: Sonata in F, K377, mov. 1, b. 1
J J 111 c.µ q:r 1 m J J J J J J w J J 1 3 3 3 J J J EE' m 1

(Upper half)
� 1e 4
0 3 3
.b i J J J J J J J J J J J I )
Triplet patterns are often the same as the long-short-short rhythm pattern in Example 4. The first note
•
is active, the second and third notes passive.
(1 ) i14
b 11, � J
-'-
F r I� J-'-
� J
-'-
I
(2) i1
4
> >
(1 ) Practise only the first note of each group. Use an accented detache as in Example 4.
(2) Add the passive second and third notes, playing a dotted pattern to exaggerate the feeling of active
and passive.

Arm or hand leadi ng string crossing

The upper arm does not always move at exactly the same time as the hand when crossing from one string
level to another:
Crossing from a lower string to a higher string (G-E) : the hand leads, the elbow follows.
Crossing from a higher string to a lower string (E-G) : the elbow leads, the hand follows.
Even if they do move at exactly the same time, the impulse of the movement, i.e. the feeling of where
the arm movement starts from, is different depending on whether you are moving up or down the strings
(whether it is a down- or an up-bow makes no difference) . The following passage shows the order of the
movements:
J. S . Bach: Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWV l O O l, Adagio, b. 6
Lead the bow to the
E string with the hand
Lead with the hand Lead with the hand
i1,,......---._ '\I
'\I �
4
/'
Lead the bow to the Lead with the elbow
D string with the elbow
The right amount of these movements, even in the widest string crossings, may be so small as to be
almost invisible. Yet without them there may be a feeling of awkwardness and lack of precision when the
arm moves all in one piece, or if the opposite movements are made (leading with the elbow crossing
lower to higher, leading with the hand crossing higher to lower) .
• Practise the leading and following by dividing the arm movement into two, exaggerated steps:
Crossing from a lower string to a higher string
Having played the note on the lower string, stop the bow on the string (Fig. 30a) .
( 1 ) Move the bow to the higher string using only the hand (and forearm), leaving the elbow more or
less on the lower-string level. Having arrived on the higher string, stop the bow on the string
without playing the new note (Fig. 30b) .
(2) Move the elbow to the higher-string level (Fig. 30c) . Then play the new note.
Crossing from a higher string to a lower string
Having played the note on the higher string, stop the bow on the string (Fig. 30d) .
( 1 ) Keeping the bow on the higher string, move the elbow towards the lower-string level (Fig. 30e) .
(2) Move the bow to the lower string (Fig. 30f) . Then play the new note.
Fig. 30
(a) Having played down-bow (b) Elbow on G-string level, (c) Having moved elbow to E string
on the G string bow on E string
(d) Having played up-bow on (e) Bow on E string, (f) Having moved bow to G string
E string elbow on G-string level
v qf2
Example 1 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 1 37 no. 2, nwv. 1, b. 1 5
r lj f l pj
D
I
qJ
2 1
f cresc.
bv
Fig. 30b Fig. 30c Fig. 30e Fig. 30f
� � � �
t t t it t t t
i1
l&J I qJ2
Hand Elbow Elbow Hand i1 Hand Elbow Elbow Hand
Stop Stop
/' /' 1
Stop the bow on Stop the bow on
the string (Fig. 30a) the string (Fig. 30d)
e Play in time at a slow tempo (J = 60) :

First bar
Beat 1 - Play the down-bow A with the whole arm on the G-string level.
Beat 2 - Stop the bow on the string (Fig. 30a) .
Beat 3 - Move the bow to the E string with the hand only, keeping the elbow on the G-string level
(Fig. 30b).
Beat 4 - Move the elbow to the E-string level (Fig. 30c) .
Second bar �
Beat 1 Play the up-bow A with the whole arm on the E-string level.
Beat 2 - Stop the bow on the string (Fig. 30d) .
Beat 3 - Move the elbow to the G-string level, keeping the bow on the E string (Fig. 30e) .
Beat 4 Move the bow to the G string (Fig. 30f) .
• First, playing at a very slow tempo, stop between each movement.

• Then gradually increase the tempo. As you do so, the separate movements begin to blend into each
other until they finally become continuous.
Example 2 Viotti: Concerto no. 22 in A minor, nwv. 1, bar 132
� tt!I# 1�& er F fr f d mfr f; f I r fr f b [ b nb f pf cf ff I �

+ ++
v v v
largamente
� tt11# 2 r t t
Elbow Hand
Ir
i1
t t
Hand Elbow
it t t
Elbow Hand
IJ
i1
t t
Hand Elbow
it l t
Elbow Hand
IJ
i1
• Practise as in Example 1, in the rhythm play-move-move, play-move-move.
v
qr q'.J
Hand - elbow Elbow- hand Hand-elbow
J J j
1j j
� � �
f J
Elbow- hand 4
�
j
3
�� 1 f
/':'. /':'. /':'. /':'.
7111 //Z l/ //
• During the pauses, stop the bow on the string and move the elbow and hand separately.
Returning for the next stroke as part of the last

In a rapid series of down-bows, each stroke needs to finish up where it started. After each stroke the bow
continues in a circular movement, in the air, back to the heel.
Example 1 De Falla (arr. Kreisler) : Danse espagnole, b. 118
sul G
j> I J. 3> J> lj J> J> J> J> I J 3 J I Ji �

Ii
> >
• Having played the E at the beginning of the example, return as part of the same motion, in the air,
to the heel; place the bow on the string (shown as an x-note) ready for the next stroke.
In other words, the stroke is circular, the lower line of the circle playing the down-bow E, the bow
stroke curving up to lift the bow from the string, and the upper line of the circle being the journey
in the air back to a lower place in the bow.
• Practise by making a point of putting the bow back on the string as part of the previous stroke. Begin
slowly, and gradually speed up, playing and placing the bow on the string strictly in time:
Place silently on the
Ii
string at the heel
]>
Ii
k
�)
3 4 >
2
$" �
Example 2
v 0
Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Allegro, b. 84
ijggi u I ijJ;ci LJ I -� ff 1!
+ Ii v
n n n r
f
Play the first chord and in the same motion return in the air to the starting place. Wait.
Play the next chord and return, and so on. (Play-return - wait - play-return - wait.)
Instead of:
Play the first chord. Wait at the end of the down-bow with the bow on the string (or just above it) .
Return in the air to the starting place and play the next chord. (Play - wait - return-and-play - wait.)
Position the bow above
Ii 0 ,,( Ii 0 Ii 0 Ii 0 Ii
I � �:: I � Fi3 ::
the string at the heel
� # i � [: 4
I � �;;2 4
I�
e Do not play the x-notes: they represent positioning the bow above the string at the heel.
e Perform the actions exactly in the rhythm shown: be ready, above the string near the heel, for the
second chord at the beginning of the second sixteenth-note (semiquaver) beat.
• Start slowly, and gradually speed up to performance tempo.
Example 3 Brahms: Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 1 08, mov. 1, b. 1 62
w #f
v
4 3
v 1t pI
+ + +
�
1
-e-
f
1
'1 '1 '1 '1
sf
• At the places marked '+', position the bow (just above the string) lower down in the bow than where
the last stroke ended.
7 h4 Frt>Prlom and ease
Releasing the rig ht a rm
Position the bow above
�
the string nearer the heel
i1 \;
3
'#11# I nF #: .
EVV
v
D
7 7
sf
• Exaggerate the coming-back by returning faster:
v
3
4 v
�
i1
'$## 1 1; 1tr
3
v i1 1
0 bf( p
v 1
v -0-
� 1 1
;t 7 7 7 7
sf
Exmnple 4 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 3, b. 32
7
n J.
2--"sf
ff
I�
i1 i1 i1 i1
1 i1 i1 i1
' # ! J1 7
LJ u #LJ
f p
7
f p
7
f p
7
•
Play the first of each pair with a long stroke, f; return to the heel in the same motion, moving in a curve.
Begin both down-bows at the same place near the heel.
•
• Play the second of each pair with a very short stroke, p .
Forearm rotation is the same movement as turning a key. Although

Forearm rotation the upper arm is the main part of the arm used to cross from one
string to another, a small amount of forearm rotation replaces a
large amount of vertical upper-arm movement. String crossing is then a much smaller operation than
when using the upper arm alone. Forearm rotation is also a part of beginning and ending strokes, of 1 See also Forearm
lifted strokes like spiccato, 1 and even of playing just one note on one string from heel to point. rotation, page 95
Repeating the movement

• To avoid moments of over-working caused by using more upper arm than necessary, build forearm
rotation into a phrase by repeating the movement on its own many times.
• Exaggerate the forearm rotation by using almost no upper-arm movement.
Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 2 in D, K2 1 1 , mov. 1, b. 26

(1 ) (2)
(1 ) Near the heel

g
J J J J
v (2) Near the point
J J J J
, #11 111 r r f [ Ill

i1
= = :j'I
r r r r
Repeat many times
o For practice purposes, to maximise the forearm rotation play the upper G on the outer edge of the
hair (the edge nearest the fingerboard), and the lower G on the inner edge of the hair.
Forea rm rotation
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Partita no. 1 in B minor, BWVl 002, Allemanda, b. J
,tt11 t 11: tnoo :ill tn 11 :ill trJoo 111 i i ,�

( 1 ) Heel (2) Heel (3) Upper half (4) Heel
Repeat many times
ll �
(1 )
ii
1
Il l £
I
'� tiJ
posato �2
2 (2) �-------�
2 1
I
• Practise on open strings, using only the forearm to change from the E string to the E-A double stops:
(1 ) (2)
n11: z1 ;=p; D :II

ii ii
' ;=-- 0 0
Hand movements i n forea rm rotation

Forearm rotation is often used not on its own, but in conjunction with hand movements. The hand moves
up and down from the wrist. When the hand moves down, the wrist is 'high' (Fig. 3 l c) . When the hand
moves up, the wrist is 'low' (Fig. 3 1 b) . Hand movements may be obvious, or so slight as to be almost
invisible.
Crossing to a higher string: higher wrist, and clockwise forearm rotation
Crossing to a lower string: lower wrist, and anticlockwise forearm rotation
• To build these forearm-and-hand movements into a passage, exaggerate them by using almost no
upper-arm movement to cross strings.
'High', 'low' and 'straight' refer to the wrist as described above and shown in Fig. 3 1 .
Arm on
D -string level D -string level D-string level
J IJ J
Fig. 3 1 a Stra ig ht Fig. 3 1 b Fig. 3 1 c
J r
'\\ , '\\ High
>i Low Straight Straight
j
Arm on
4 tt11�1"F
A-string level A-string level
I «r f J
A-string level Straight
r F r
Straight
'\\ High '\\ Low
I
!1111>

Forearm rotation
Fig. 3 1
(a) Straight wrist (b) Low wrist (c) H i g h wrist
Straight Straight
High
� �
J J
Straight
�
J
Straight
J I�
� V4
f j r
�
F
# 0 0
4 f
/' /'
dolee
Low Low
(
Proportions of forearm and u p per arm

How much hand and forearm movement there is in crossing strings, in proportion to how much upper
arm movement, depends on the passage. The more weight and attack, the more the whole arm moves in
one piece, with every movement powered from the upper arm; the less weight and attack, the more
movement there is in the hand and forearm.
To find the best proportions of upper-arm movement to hand/forearm movement, play a phrase or passage
using only the upper arm; then play it without using the upper arm at all; then combine the movements.
Change string using only the upper arm. Without actually locking the arm tight, do not allow much
or any movement in the forearm or hand.
2 Then change string using no upper arm whatsoever. Use only forearm rotation, and any other forearm
or hand movements you need.
3 Then find the right combination of upper and lower arm to produce the most comfortable and least
effortful bow stroke.
J J
Examples Rode: 24 Caprices, No. 2, b. 1
J
J I J j j J I j ht&
-
J Jjj J § F
I] 1
fP
0
fP
1
fP
1
Beethoven: Sonata in F, op. 24 ('Spring'), mov. 1, b. 11
Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy, op. 25, Introduction, b. 77
sempre p

Forea rm rotation
Beg i n n i ng ending
Forearm rotation is an essential part of putting the bow on the string and of taking it off. It produces
rounded, natural gestures that add greater stature and musicianship to the whole performance. Lack of
forearm rotation can be a direct cause of stiffness and lack of ease.
• Practising by exaggeration, make the path of the bow larger-than-life as it approaches or leaves the
string. Afterwards, a much smaller amount will feel completely natural.

Approach the string as if
<t_}A:::2J�J 1 1 J � 1 r
to play the 'B string' ii
\. 1 �
1 1
p
For a clean beginning to each f down-bow, the path of the bow needs to curve into the string like a
plane approaching a runway.
In a forceful attack on the E string the bow can start (in the air) almost on the level of an imaginary
'B string'. As the arm brings the bow down towards the string the forearm rotates anticlockwise a little.
(The more gentle the attack the less forearm rotation.)
The same angle is needed to attack the string up-bow, from the air, at the point. If the contact with the
string comes at too vertical an angle, the bow bounces on impact.
Example 2 Ravel: Tzigane, b. 1
(1 ) (2)
v v
#JJ J Jiq; H J�J

t 2 t
If there is no rotation as it leaves the string, the bow arm can feel tight and off-balance. Exaggerate the
rotation movements:
( 1 ) At the end of the B, the bow leaves the string partly with the same arm movement that had been
playing the note, partly with clockwise forearm rotation.
(2) At the end of the C, the bow again leaves the string partly with a continuation of the arm movement,
partly with clockwise forearm rotation.
Rapid stri ng-crossi ng passages: leaning the el bow against the wal l
Passages of continual, rapid string crossings are often
Fig. 32 best played with little upper-arm movement. You then
use much more forearm movement, even though you
still power and direct the strokes from the upper arm.
• To get the feeling of using only the forearm and
hand, with no upper-arm movement whatsoever,
practise the passage with the elbow resting against
the wall (Fig. 32) .
• Afterwards, keeping the same movement in the
forearm and hand, add a small amount of upper
arm movement to the forearm stroke.
• Despite using only a small upper-arm movement,
continue to power the strokes from the upper arm. Resting elbow against wall
Example J. S . Bach: Concerto no. 2 in E, BWV1042, mov. 1, b. 57
� tt11#1 � k b f
¢ E t b r r f r r t: f r f I r f r f t c f E E f f r t r r I �
r

Forearm rotation
Forearm rotation on one string

There is a small amount o f forearm rotation during the journey from heel to point even when the bow
is playing on one string only. Playing on the A string at the heel, the forearm is more parallel with the
floor (more or less, depending on the tilt of the violin) . At the point, it is more at an angle to the floor,
in some cases as much as 45°.
(There must not be too much forearm rotation when moving towards the point, or the wrist is forced
into an awkward shape.1) 1 A key issue which affects
forearm rotation is whether
• Practise strokes very slowly, feeling the turning of the forearm as the bow travels up or down the string. or not the fou rth finger
should stay i n contact
with the bow at the point.
Fig. 33a
j,
One advantage of not
Fig. 33b F i g . 33a allowing it to come off
j,
r c ]�; t(5i!r
ii the bow is that even in
the upper half, the fourth
finger can continue to
counterbalance the
p weight of the first finger.
Practising by exaggeration, Begin the down-bow with the hand more upright on the bow than usual.
You have to let it come
• off the bow i n the upper
(This is called supination, the opposite of pronation.) Feel the weight of the bow balanced by the half if your arm is too
short to allow you to
fourth finger (Fig. 33a) . Note the angle of the forearm to the floor. reach the end of the bow
• During the down-bow feel the forearm turning anticlockwise, arriving at the position shown in Fig. comfortably with the
fourth finger staying in
33b. Note the new angle of the forearm to the floor. place.
·
• Returning on the up-bow to the heel, feel the forearm turning clockwise until, by the end of the D,
you arrive back at the position shown in Fig. 33a.
Fig. 33
(a} Exaggerated starting position (b} Note the different angle of the
for practice wrist to the floor
t
4
Watch the point of the bow while playing the first two notes: it does not move in a straight line. During
the up-bow the forearm rotates clockwise very slightly, so the bow is a fraction more vertical at the start
of the down-bow than at the start of the up-bow.2 2 This is similar t o the
movement of the point of
The actual difference in the angle of the bow may be so slight as to be barely visible; but without it the bow during staccato.
tension may arise in the hand and arm. See Curved bow strokes,
page 92.
• To build it into the playing, enlarge the movement as follows:
v
2
0 2
• Use forearm rotation to move from the double stop to the E string.
• Join the two B's without any gap in the sound.
Freedom and ease 2 69

Localizing actions
One of the keys to technical mastery lies not only in knowing what
to do, but equally in knowing what not to do, or what to stop doing.
'Localizing' actions means that you do as little as possible to play
each note, the absolute minimum that is required to perform the specific left- or right-hand action, and
nothing else. The action takes place in one locality, without all sorts of unnecessary simultaneous actions
1 Suppose you habitually happening elsewhere. 1
tense the left upper arm
every time you use your Of course, eliminating unnecessary movement does not mean standing or sitting stiffly, blocking the
fourth finger. It is as though sympathetic movements that happen naturally throughout all playing. The bow arm in particular sends
there were two 'wires' in
the brain running parallel a flow of movement down the back and legs and into the feet that is an essential element of playing.
to each other and very close
together. One wire carries
To play the first three notes of the Tartini Sonata shown below, all that needs to happen in the left hand
the command to place the is that the second finger lowers onto the string from the base joint. It then lifts again from the base joint.
fourth finger; the other wire The shape of the finger stays basically the same before, during and after playing the note.
carries the command to
contract the muscles in the Tartini: Sonata in G minor ('Dido abandonata'), mov. 1, b. 1
left upper arm. The two
o ttr: u u err g i m w
+ ++
F j
wires have somehow got
f IE ; 7
v
p
4 4 3
r
fused together so that the 1 v
� � �
command to place the
fourth finger also com
mands the upper arm to 3
pull in to the side. The 3
wires must be pulled apart
to repair the 'short circuit'.
Nothing else needs to happen while the second finger drops onto the string and rises again:
Very often the extra move All four fingers should remain relaxed, particularly at the base joints.
ments a re related to musical
expression. It is crucial that They should not squeeze together sideways.
these movements do not
take the place of expres
The first finger should not press harder into the string.
sion in the actual sound. The thumb should remain relaxed, not pressing harder or squeezing back.
For example, shifting the
balance of your body at an The wrist should move neither in nor out.
expressive moment is fine
so long as you do not only The upper arm should move neither to the left nor to the right.
shift your bala nce, mean
while doing nothing with The head and shoulders should not clamp the violin tighter.
the bow or vibrato to
make the expression. The left hand/arm should not move the scroll of the violin.
Most damaging of all is The face, tongue, lower jaw and throat should remain relaxed, completely unaffected by the
when the extraneous second-finger action.
movements not only
take the place of musical The muscles in the back or front of the body should not contract, causing the spine to bend forwards
expression, but also get in
the way of good playing,
or backwards, to the left or to the right.
with the result that sound
or intonation suffers. For
It is especially important not to 'pull down' (i.e. the chest is brought down and the scroll of the violin
example, 'expressive' tension visibly lowers) . Lengthen the back when playing the fourth-finger G (marked '+' in the Tartini Sonata
in the left upper arm can above) . Rather than pulling down, raise the scroll an invisible amount to get a feeling of the string coming
easily disturb intonation,
shifting or vibrato.
to meet the bow hair.
Pulling down often happens during string crossings. In the Tartini, the fourth-finger C (marked '++') is
a typical example: it is common to see players bend forwards slightly as the fourth finger reaches over
and the bow arm makes the string crossing. Instead, great stature and control instantly comes into the
playing when only the finger moves, as described above; and when the movement of the right arm is
independent of the shoulder and back.
Pulling down is also common in 'big' actions like a long shift or powerful accent:
Beethoven: Sonata in D, op. 1 2 no. 1, mov. 3, b. 10
v
1 " " v
z=
sf
At each if in the above example there may be a tendency to pull down: instead, lengthen the back, and
watch the scroll to see that it does not move down.
• Playing at a slow tempo - or examining your playing of just one note at a time - be acutely aware of
the physical movements you are making. Stop any movement that is not directly related to whatever
note you are playing or action you are performing.
• It may be revealing if you practise phrases, passages or whole movements with the scroll of the violin
2 See Angle of strings to resting against the wall to fix it in one place. (Make sure the strings are level with the floor.2)
the floor, page 57
When all actions are performed in this way, the greatest economy of movement and energy comes into
the playing.
Back and neck
Fig. 34
Back a n d n eck
Playing without the chin on the chin rest

Habitually pressing the chin down hard into the chin rest can lead to
severe, all-over tension, spreading down from the neck and shoulders
into the arms and back. Except for isolated moments, for example
during certain descending shifts, the weight of the head resting into
the chin rest is normally enough to hold the violin in place.
• Play a passage without the chin on the chin rest. Phrases or short
passages that stay in one position, or which have ascending shifts only,
can easily be played while holding the violin as shown in Fig. 34.
• Learn how to play the phrase without any reaction whatsoever in
your head, neck and shoulders.
• Then play the phrase with the viplin in its normal position, resting
the weight of the head lightly into the chin rest. Keep the same
feeling of release as you had before.
Playing without the chin on the
chin rest
Placing the chin on the chin rest
Be continually on the lookout for any tightening in the neck and shoulders caused by clamping the violin
between the chin and the shoulder, or excessive pressing into the chin rest. Every time you raise the violin into
playing position, re-establish the best balance of the head and neck with the following four-step sequence:
Place the violin on the collar-bone/shoulder without yet dropping the head onto the chin rest.
2 'Lengthen' your neck: feel the back of the top of your head seeming to rise (Fig. 35a) . Feel your back
lengthening at the same time. Check that your left shoulder is not raised.
3 Rotate your head sideways until your chin is above the chin rest (Fig. 35b) .
4 Drop the head, without pressing, on to the chin rest (Fig. 35c) .
This produces exceptional benefits of ease and freedom. The way not to place the chin on the chin rest,
which can easily produce immediate and on-going tension, is as follows:
1 Place the violin on the shoulder.
2 Rotate and drop the head at the same time, moving 'diagonally' into the chin rest (Fig. 35d) .
Fig. 3 5
(a) 'Lengthening' the back and neck (b) Having rotated the head
(c) Having dropped the chin on to the chin rest. (d) Note the unnatural angle of the head and the
obvious tension in the neck

Back and neck
Counter�exercising
Counter-exercising means to move in different directions from those you habitually move in - e.g. the
left arm must rotate clockwise so that the fingers can reach the strings: counter-exercising means to rotate
the arm anticlockwise.
The exercises featured here, though only a small sample of this huge field, are important ones which
may become a part of everyday practice.
e Constantly widen between the shoulders, at the same time lengthening the neck (making sure that
the head is balanced on top of the spine, not held in place), and lengthening the back, particularly
between the shoulder blades.
Example 1
Fig. 36a shows the typical posture that violinists must avoid, and Fig. 36b the same posture with the
violin removed. Note how the muscles across the top of the chest and shoulders have contracted to pull
the shoulders closer in together; note how the muscles down the front of the body and around the stomach
have contracted to make the back hunch forward. Note also the tension in the neck.
e At regular intervals counter-exercise by putting the violin onto the shoulder from the position shown
in Fig. 3 6c. This is similar to the backmost position of the arms when yawning and stretching.
Feel a releasing and widening across the shoulders. At the same time feel the spine lengthening as
you bend backwards slightly. Do not try to squeeze the shoulder blades closer together.
e Slowly move from that position into playing position.
As you do so, continue to widen across the shoulders and lengthen the back. Note the wider shoulders
and more balanced, upright posture shown in Fig. 36d.
Fig. 36
(a) Pulling 'in' and 'down', twisting the back, (b) The same posture as (a) with the violin removed
raising the shoulders
(c) Starting from this position, widen the shoulders (d) Note the openness of the playing position
while reaching back, as though stretching
The crucial thing is for nothing ever to be 'fixed' in one position. Every physical action is most comfortable
and efficient when starting from, passing through, and returning to, a state of balance. The posture shown
in Fig. 36a would not in itself be harmful if it occurred only for a brief moment in the natural course of
playing, followed immediately by release and a return to a state of balance. It is when you hold yourself
'fixed' for long periods in that or any other position that overall tension can develop.
Back and neck
Example 2 Fig. 37
• Place both hands in the small of your back, palms facing the
floor and the tips of the middle fingers touching (Fig. 3 7) .
• Gently move both elbows back as far as you can without
straining.
• While moving the elbows, keep the whole length of each little
finger touching the back.
Feel both shoulders releasing and widening. Do not try to
squeeze the shoulder blades together as you pull the elbows
back. Lengthen the back, and feel the space between the
shoulder blades widening. At the same time feel the top of the
chest lengthening and widening.
Hold both arms outstretched at a comfo�table angle (Fig. 38a) .

Example 3 .
o
Before beginning the exercise, lengthen the back, and widen
across the top of the chest and at each shoulder. Lengthen the Widening across the shoulders by
bringing the elbows back
neck, feeling the head balanced on top of the spine rather than
holding it in place.
• Gently rotate the upper arms outwards (left arm anticlockwise, right arm clockwise) as far as you can
go without straining (Fig. 38a); rotate in the opposite direction as far as you can go (Fig. 38b) . It is
essential that you do not move the shoulders with the arms as they rotate.
The ideal is to be able to do this exercise with the arms horizontal, the hands level with the shoulders,
rotating freely in either direction until the palm of the hand faces the ceiling. Work up to this level
gradually. Meanwhile the exercise is still very effective whatever the angle of the arms.
Fig. 38
(a) Having rotated outwards (b) Having rotated inwards
Example 4
e To counter-exercise the muscles in the left upper arm - especially if you tend to pull the arm in too
far to the right (Fig. 39a) - hold the violin backwards, with the scroll pointing over your left shoulder
(Fig. 39b) .
o Finger a phrase silently with the left hand, raising and dropping the fingers normally, and with a free
vibrato. Relax all the muscles in the upper arm.
Then play the phrase with the violin in its normal position. You will feel a great ease throughout the
entire left arm, hand and fingers.
Fig. 39
(a) Pulling the upper arm in too far to the right (b) Counter-exercising the left upper arm

H i p joint
Playing sitting down, the line of the centre of balance extends from the top of the head all the way down
1 Should you sit or stand to the 'sitting bones' (Fig. 40a) . 1 The hip joint must neither press forwards (Fig. 40b) nor collapse back
to practise? wards (Fig. 40c) .
It makes sense to practise
orchestral or chamber Playing when standing, the hip joint must not collapse forwards (Fig. 40d) . Make sure also that the knees
music sitting down, and do not lock backwards (locked knees go together with the hip joint collapsing forwards) . Fig. 40e shows
solo pieces standing.
a good standing posture.
However, standing u p to
practise orchestral or 1111 From time to time stand for a few moments, in playing position, with your spine against an edge such
chamber music can as the corner of a cupboard, a jutting-out corner of a room, or the edge of an open door (Fig. 40f) .
encourage g reater freedom
which then feeds through Position your feet far enough back that you can stand perfectly upright while contacting the edge.
i nto the performance when
you play sitting down.
The spine is naturally curved, so only two small areas near the bottom and top of the spine will touch
Practising a solo piece sit
the edge, with a space between the two contact points large enough to slide a hand into. Touch the
ting down may encourage back of the head against the edge in such a way that your head is in a normal position.
greater economy of effort
which then feeds through • Rotate your hip joint backwards as if trying to contact the edge at a point slightly higher up the spine.
into the performance when
you are standing up. It can
• Similarly, raise your chest as if trying to move the upper point of contact slightly higher up the spine.
also be less tiring so that you
are able to practise for longer.
Do not 'raise the chest' by trying to squeeze the shoulder blades closer together. Raise the chest by
'lengthening' the back. At the same time widen across the back at the shoulder blades.
Many types of practice, e.g.
slow intonation work or
long sessions of accent or
rhythm practice, are just as
effective sta nding or sitting.
Fig. 40
(a) Good posture, upright hip joint (b) Hip joint pressing forwards (c) Hip joint collapsed backwards
(d) Hip joint collapsed forwards (e) Good posture, upright hip joint (f) Touch the edge of the door as
high up the spine as possible at
both contact points
274 ease
art
•
ABC practice is like making a patchwork quilt, where you join small
ABC pra ctice squares together to make larger squares, which in turn are joined
together to make even larger ones.
First decide what is 'A', 'B', 'C' and so on. Practising short phrases and passages, each letter might
represent only one note at a time; or it may represent a group of notes, or a short phrase.
• First practise A on its own, B on its own, C, D and E. A-B-C D-E

AB - BC - CD - DE
• Then practise A followed by B, B followed by C, C followed by D,
ABC - BCD - CDE
D followed by E.
ABCD - BCDE
• Then practise ABC, BCD and so on. ABCDE
After you have done the beat-by-beat or phrase-by-phrase work, each letter can then represent a
larger unit. One letter may stand for 4, then 8, then 1 6 bars; or half a page; or it may stand for the
whole exposition of a sonata-form movement.
Example 1 Kayser: Etudes, op. 20, No. 1 3, b. 1
3
A _ _ _, B _ _ _, C _ _ _, A _ _ _, B _ _ _, C A _ _ _, B _ _ _, c _ _ _, A _ _ _, B _ _ _, c _ _ _,
• In this example first give a letter to each beat group: A, B, C. Practise each group on its own, repeating
until achieving the four basic factors of pitch, sound, rhythm and ease, i.e. every note is in tune,
the tone is completely pure, the rhythm is even and precise, and the playing is easy and free of excess
effort.
• Then play two groups together - AB, BC - and practise them in the same way. Then practise ABC
together.
: Ill: J � � :ill: r
B Ii
r :h
A c
� # Ii: § "j_ "j_ D "j_ "j_ j p "j_ "j_

v
j : 11
F
ill!
Repeat many times
� ij I : ffi ffl p "j_ "j_ :lll:dJJJ l jJ � "j_ y 11 1 Eu m wr 1 � "j_ "j_ : 11

AB BC ABC
Ii
• Once you have practised ABC together, begin to work in larger units of whole bars, sewing them
together in the same way.
Further essentials 275
ABC practice
Example 2 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 137 no. 2, mov. 1 , b. 31
p dolce B _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
A _ _ _ _ _ _ _, C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
e The groups do not have to be of equal length. Here, you may not need to split 'C' into 'C' and 'D':
AV
tespressivot
�
AB V2,..--...__
t t
Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 l 9, nwv. 1 , b. 213
i1
4
A _ _ _ _ _ _ _, C _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
f
B D
_ _ _ _ _ _ _, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
e Carrying on over to the first note of the next group helps build continuity:
t ftF
D i1
I I
1 .
Example 4
c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
B _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 0 F� - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �
276 Further essentials

ABC practic e
� "11� @ F fF?g J I i@EJJ 1 Ji@_@) tffFill � I

E ;; F AB
4 2 v 1
ABC
sfo B _ _ _ _,
A _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, C _ _ _ _ _ _ _,

ABC practice
' �1'" f Tu �j
A-----�-
r
_ _ _ _,
pf(f7 p@ 113 j H 11E prttq tff 1 ¥
7 C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
=
B _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
1 trn � u
B
7
i�
I
BC
I
7
Example 7 Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludiurn and Allegro, Allegro, b. 25
It is very helpful when it is possible to repeat groups continuously in a 'loop':
'tt 11 J j J J ; j J j Ill J j J "J J J J J : ill : J ] J d

BC CD DE 4
1 4 4 1 4 4 1 4
Repeat many times
• Repeat each group many times until it is fluent, working up to as fast a speed as possible.
Example 8 Vivaldi: Spring (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 1 , mov. 1, b. 5 1
'ttb " fA ffff ftrffff 1 f tEf ffecd-eHrfffhrffft 1 Q

i'1
3 3 B3 3 C3 3 D3 3 E3 3 F3 3
f f t E f E f t E E e E , 111 f t E E e E e r r t f t 11
i'1 i'1
' "11�1 3 11 , 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
BC Repeat many times DE
278 · Further essentials
ABC practice
• In this passage it would also be helpful to practise as follows:
n1 n1
f r f. t f; f f r E Ill f t E f f f f r E t f f :ii
� "11#1 a II : t 3f; f
1 1 1 1 1
1
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Example 9 D ant: 24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 35, No. 4, b. 1
B D
n n n
c
A
n
1,
,---.....,__
,---.....,__ ,---.....,__ ,---.....,__
F
n
�r F
,---.....,__ ,---.....,__
� tt e � IJ
,---.....,__
f' J
p D
-
.....----
ii/II
1
1
-==== ====- 1 1
Y,,-..__
CDj j !i j
Y,,-..__ n,,-..__
� " 2 11: f1 F 111 f?

!i j
Y,,-..__ n,,-..__
�
AB n,,-..__ BC 3
D : I ll : D J
1
: 11
1 1
Repeat many times
Example 10 J. S . Bach: Partita no. 2 i n D minor, BWV1004, Ciaccona, b. 1 3
� � 2 �..:! .._
n +
v
J.
/
f
0
......
4
The chord marked '+' can be divided into four stages:

n n
I JB I = I DJ I �' I JB' = I =' ,DJ I
n n n n
A A c
= )B =
<
c c
=
� � �- J .i
B c D A B c D
I
Note that the D string has been played without a break throughout the sequence.
Example 1 1 Paganini: 2 4 Caprices, op. 1 , No. 9 , b. 1 7
The groups could also be arranged like this:
3 3 3 � �
4
� " £ µ 1 § Ut u 1 [ g ' Q 1 6 fil #j 1Q I d

4 4
�
v 2 4 2 4 2
t
4 - � 1 2 0 4 1 2
A 1
D
E G
B
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, _ _ _ _ _,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, F _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
c _ _ _ _ _ _ _,

Repetition practice
Repeating something enough times is an important element of most
Repetition practice practice methods. As a method of practice in its own right, repetition
is one of the very best.
Muscle memory is quickly ingrained when you are focusing on a very small area, often more so than
1 There is really no such when spreading attention over a larger section or movement.1
thing as 'muscle memory'
(the technical term is e Repeat a note o r phrase many times, up to tempo, so that both the left hand and the bow arm have
'motor memory'). Playing time to learn the feel of the notes.
the violin is a matter of
'command-response', as e Listen carefully so that with each repet1t10n you get nearer and nearer to the goals of pitch
described on page 36.
sound-rhythm-ease, i.e. every note in tune, every note expressively and tonally as desired, every
Nevertheless, when we can
play something easily it does note exactly and musically in time, and every note played without tension or effort. 2
feel as if our fingers know
where to go on their own.
Exmnple 1 Viotti: Concerto no. 23 in G, mov. 1, b. 84
The four stages of learning are:
( 1 ) unconscious incompetence; 1
-e-
(2) conscious incompetence;
(3) conscious competence;
(4) u nconscious competence.
Reaching only stage 3 can

lead to things unexpectedly
�# r t r t r t r t r
vib. vib.
1 t� t� t� t�
going wrong in perform
ance simply because when
we are under pressure it
can be difficult to think
fast enough.
::=::::==-- :::::::=:=-- etc. etc.
I n sports training the terrn
espress. espress.
'grooving' is used to
describe the process of
repetition where a new
action is repeated again Example 2 Vivaldi: Concerto in G minor, op. 1 2, no. 1, mov. 1, b. 1 61
and again, like wearing a
g roove into a su rface by
constant rubbing, until it
becomes an unconscious
habit.
� ( f gFrErrrqrrrrrrrrr
b'
2 Because repetition practice
I rrrrrrrrrf rrrf rrrf Fr

is so effective it can also be vib. vib. vib. �b. �b. �b.
the most dangerous. You ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ Ii ,......__ v ,......__ ,......__ ,......__ ,......__
have to be very aware of

what you want and what
to avoid - and listen very etc. etc.
carefully - to avoid
espressivo
strengthening mistakes.
It is said that the old adage

'Practice rnakes perfect'
should really be: 'Only
perfect practice makes
perfect - bad practice
makes worse'.
Ii
4� - -
f
1 fct f t F t [ t 1 f t f t f t [ t 1 f t f t � f f r I
� u r r F r F r F r I F r r r E E E E I �f �U bt t1 Af H- rtt t, r
espressivo
Example 4 Schubert: Sonatina in D, op. 13 7 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 1 7
Ii +
� "11 1� j___J ---=::: _____
: Ill:�� :Ill: J
v Ii
J
2 3 2 4
�
espresszvo Repeat many times

Rep etition practice
Exmnple 5 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1, b. 1 73
J 3 E r E r I ( f fi ( f � � I �
Ii +
fr� .
Example 7 Kreisler: Variations on a Theme of Corelli, Theme, b. 1
IEJ µ I
tr5i]) . tr
� � 11: E :J ...
E ;j E j E
... ...
;j : 111: E :J
... ...
f Ct J (@ : II
r r t F r :11
� .
Example 8 Wieniawski: Legende, op. 1 7 , b. 25

+
1111f I r' 1,j

3
LJ I !:
Ii 2

Rhythm
Rhyt h m Singing and tapping subdivided pulse

while playing
There is a difference between playing the right rhythms, and playing with underlying rhythmic pulse.
• Sing a regular pulse, or tap your foot, or sing and tap at the same time, while playing a phrase or a
1 Walking on the spot passage. 1
while playing the violin (for
example a waltz step when Practising only a few passages in this way greatly improves rhythmic pulse i n general as well a s i n the
there are three beats in a passages themselves.
bar) involves the whole body.
Doing this from time to
ti me, for a few moments, Exmnple 1 Handel: Sonata in D, op. 1 no. 1 3, mov. 1, b. J
can help children find the
rhythmic basis of the 2
music, and can also help
0 1
them to free u p physically.
0
Sing (da- da)

6bbf 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf r r r r r r r r 6bbf
Tap foot
r r r r r r r r i r
Example 2 Prokofiev: Sonata in D, op. 94 bis, mov. 4, b. 1
Ii 1
>
>
Sing
U U U L.J
Tap foot
r r r r r r r r r
Example 3 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K2 1 9, nwv. 3, b. 1
3 v
Sing
6bbf u u u u u 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf 6bbf u
Tap foot
u r r r r r u u u u U i
Subdividing
Subdividing is one of the keys to playing rhythmically. It ensures that full value is given to every note,
and helps to maintain musical direction and flow. All notes, except those that are very fast, are subdivided
in the player's mind.
� � e?
Ii
fbcJ 1E-1 c� ff'Q 1 F

4
f
2 82 Further essentials
Rhythm
• First 'pulse' the subdivisions with the bow:
Ii Afterwards, play without pulsing, but hear and feel the pulses in your mind.
Exaniple 2 Brahms: Sonata in G, op. 78, rnov. 1, b. 1 1
2J J J J 3
Exaniple 3 Franc!<:: Sonata in A, rnov. 1, b. 28

+
1 ffl r r
molto rit.
P 1 r-
v ------- v a tempo
2 ::. ,.----..__ - ""
molto cresc.
1 ff
• Subdividing is essential for feeling the logic of a ritardando, like a revolving wheel gradually slowing
to a stop:
molto rit.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _a tempo
_ _ _ _ _
v
,,.....-...._ ----
_ - - - - - ---- �
Exaniple 4 Mozart: Sonata in Eb, K454, rnov. 1 (Largo), b. 3
C"
v
1 I�
p
f
Exaniple 5 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K218, rnov. 1, b. 86
J #J J I J J #J :J �J�
J J J I �'"-=J p � J J jj I ;
Ii 1 Raphael Bronstein, a pupil
3 2 2 Ii 2 of Leopold Auer, called
these su bdivisions 'psycho
p� #. ·
°i °i logical up-beats' : ' I n a
sustained melody where a
f
feeling of intensity and of
moving forward is needed,
• Feel the second of each pair of tied notes as an up-beat to the next pair:1 the mind supplies an up
beat before each note
1 o VttV v �v JJ a a J J '"JY- =211 �

change and bow change.
2 2 This gives a feeling of
conducting your own
performance.' Raphael
. Bronstein: The Science of
'------ - ..._,, -'--'- .
f
-------==-- Violin Playing (New Jersey,
1 977), 34.
Further essentials : 283

Rhythm
Example 6 Beethoven: Sonata in A, op. 30 no. 1, mov. 3, var. 1, b. 1
4C£t1 J 4 J IJ 1
+ 2
p dolce
2 � ��
Even quite fast notes can be subdivided in the player's mind to ensure that they are given full musical
and rhythmic value.
• Practise subdividing fast notes a little under tempo.
J J J J j j 1J
2
J J
� � 1�
J J J TJ J J l; v E U ( f r I p ' @ EgrHr
+ + 3 4
v 3 - � 4
• Play subdivisions to lock them firmly into your feeling for the phrase:
v 3
� >1
Bow accents to mark rhythmic groups

Although a run should end up sounding even, in the player's mind it needs to be subdivided into groups
with rhythmic aiming-points.
• Establish aiming-points by playing an accent. Afterwards, with the accent removed, the run will retain
structure and control.
Examples Vivaldi: Summer (The Four Seasons), op. 8 no. 2, nwv. 3, b. 1 0
Rode: Concerto no. 7 i n A minor, op. 9, mov. J, b. 152
f
f
Beriot: Concerto no. 9 in A minor, op. 1 04, mov. 1, b. 38

f
Rhythm
�
Granados (arr. Kreisler) : Danse espagnole, b. 55
R1r.:r u
(>)
t j� r
(>)
J== j E o/ af w � IJ
2
L__ 3 __j �
. 6
poco piu, mosso
finger accents as rhythmic a i m ing-poi nts

• To strengthen exactness of rhythm, establish rhythmic aiming-points by using finger accents, lifting
or dropping the fingers extra-fast. Afterwards, playing without the finger accents, the same rhythmic
structure will remain.
Exatnple 1 Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 3, b. 12
f r [ [ LJd£
3
F
3 0 3
J c+
...
+ I
Drop + +
Drop Drop Drop
• For practice purposes, drop each third finger with a little extra speed and impact (marked '+') . The
underlying rhythm created by these finger accents is:
Drop Drop Drop Drop
e Play the passage without the bow, 'tapping' the notes out with the fingers. Feel the rhythmic
aiming-points.
Drop Drop Drop Drop
• Lift and drop the fingers marked '+' with extra speed and suddenness. The '+' notes give the following
rhythmic structure to the phrase:
Lift Drop Lift Drop Drop Drop
Example 3 Beethoven: Sonata in Eb, op. 12 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 8
cresc.
e Drop the fourth finger (marked '+') with extra speed and impact. Afterwards, without the finger
accent, the rhythmic stability will remain.
Rhythm
3 2 0 1
f
Drop the second fingers (marked '+') with extra speed and impact.
• To maintain rhythmic stability, play the two third-finger notes marked '+' by lifting the preceding
fourth finger very fast, at the last possible moment:
Pause slightly on
Ite�
yr rqttr r r r� q
the fourth finger
\i
3
fr I 9 3
/'
Lift the fourth finger very Lift the fourth finger very
fast to play the third fast to play the third
lifting off at the last possi ble moment

1 See also Rhythm is all too easily disturbed by fingers lifting off fractionally too early. 1
Examples 1 1 , 1 2,
page 3 1 The timing of lifting fingers is different from that of dropping fingers. The finger begins to drop before
the new note is to sound and lifts when it is to sound. For perfect accuracy of rhythm, the feeling of
raising fingers should be one of lifting off at the last possible moment, at the precise instant that you want
the new note to sound.
• Practising by exaggeration, play the lift-off fingers extra-long and then lift off extra-fast.
Example 1 Schubert: Sonatina in A minor, op. 137 no. 2, mov. 4, b. 1
p
At the bar marked '+' the finger action must be very disciplined to avoid any hint of the following:
1r r
2 See Placing fingers gently, • When you raise a finger, the new finger must be ready on the string before the lift-off.2 Lift off late
page 240
and fast:
Pause slightly,
�
then lift very fast
\i /':\
If
Ii
Example 2 J. S. Bach: Sonata no. I in G minor, BWVIOOI, Presto, b. 75
· 286 Further essentials

Rhythm
' � A t�J '4-� l H ,�� q_l2::_2j II

Lift off late and fast
l"'1
l"'1 \; t:I t:I t:I t:I
Avoid Practise
'titttt " �· 3 J ( b [ f CC 0 E f r er 1 LJ J J f r [ f Cr C � f r � ; II
� Lift off late and fast
'"
l"'1
:"\ 1"'1 ,/ /':\
�
Avoid Practise
Dotted patterns
In dotted patterns the short note usually belongs to the following note, not to the previous one.1 1 See also Timing the
rhythm of the tum,
The dotted pattern must not come out sounding like a triplet: page 1 26
'1 r : r : r : r 1 1 r p r � r p r p 1
Correct
,,, ,,, ,,, ,,,
Incorrect
�
Example 1 Schubert: Sonatina in G minor, op. 137 no. 3, mov. 1, b. 1
C' it I r 11c:; I F� f j £ ;J I J
v l"'1
V
v v 4 V
l"'1
l"'I V V
• Exaggerate by pausing slightly before each sixteenth-note (semiquaver) . Then feel the connection
between the sixteenth-note and the following note.
' �1' 1 {iJ I r F 1t I r

v t:\ v
v t:I v
Example 2 Brahms: Sonata no. 2 in A major, op. 1 00, mov. 2, b. 8
l"'1 v
._,. dolee
_
• Pause slightly on each dotted sixteenth-note and then play the 64th-notes a little faster (marked '--7'),
feeling them connected to the following sixteenth-note:
t:I
eG 6jj 1P
v
� �! �)
;...
1"'1;._
.- _
--7
l"'1
Fnrthf"r f'Ssf'ntials
Rhythm
Sound + silence = note value

When a note is played shorter than its full written value, e.g. when there i s a dot marked above it, the
silence that follows must be given its full value. Care must be taken not to shorten the space between
the notes, leading to a feeling of hurry or instability.
r.............. l
r
One quarter-note (crotchet) One quarter-note (crotchet)
� r """"'"''""'"'{
= =
.l' .l'
sound sound silence
• Exaggerate by very slightly lengthening the silence between the notes.
4"b 1e )1"' ;l
Wait and listen
2� ·
Ii
'"e fh 0
0
.l'
Wait and listen
I r F'�v I #f' tf: I #f' tf: I f f I ttr

+
r I
2
. �
3
�
f
1 1 cresc. p
Wait and listen
' #[ f
\i
1ttp
v '
r 1
1
� 1
f p f p
Playing the rest

In off-the-beat passages like the following, it is important not to play late after the rest.
' tt11 B 1r L F r r Fr r r r E r r r
I 1 F r F f F r r 1 r«r ----
EFErE 1 nr
--
-- -
2 1 2 1
3 2 -- 3 2-
• Play an extra note in the rest to check that you are not extending it and coming in fractionally late.
* "11 c
F Pr [ f r r Pc E r r E 6 F I F F E F r [ r E b r "c r r r r r 1 •r
v
� �
3
� ------=----
p

Rhythm
Example 2 Beethoven: Concerto in D, op. 6 1 , 1, b. 1 76
4 3 3
mov.
tf f[ .Q J]
v v
[fj lj JJ I q f f! JJ,J] 't Err J'<l �� 1 4

4 v
� �I B
f
0 0
't 0
11 � 3 3
0 0
r rf B .Q J] f f r f lj j] 1 f f pr B,J] ff r E j j �] 1 4
4 4 4
� ,,, !l
0 0 0
. 0 0
Example 3 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 1 05
• Another way to practise not coming in late after the rest is to play the rest shorter than written:
3 ---, 3
Ii 3 3 3 3 ,-----
3 ,----- ---, ,----- ---,
Playing the dot or tie

Playing a dot or tie first as a separate note on its own has been practised since at least the eighteenth century. 1 1 ' . . . the dot is at first to
be made noticeable by an
• Establish the pulse and exact note length by playing a dot or tie as a separate note. Then tie the after-pressure of the bow,
separate note back in, connecting it to the main note with a slight emphasis. in order to play strictly in
time. When, however, one
has established oneself
Example 1 Haydn: Concerto no. 2 in G, Hob. Vila, nwv. 1, b. 21 firmly in the time, the dot
Er
must be joined on to the
+
note . . . '
tr a r-J
Leopold Mozart: A Treatise
On The Fundamental
Principles Of Violin Playing
f
(Augsburg, 1 756; Eng.
�j§j 1
trans. Editha Knocker,
�
\i
r
Ii 0 Oxford, 1 948), 41 .
Ii '
...
Example 2 Mozart: Adagio in E, K26 1, b. 25
3 3 ,,---._ _
�
F r I1 f r "r r II
Ii Ii
tF r ( f4 r (
Ii
2_ Ii ' Ii 2_
II! ,.......,,
I I
� 'tt g # 1 r .d r J1 I r
Example 3
I r·
Kreisler: Sicilienne and Rigaudon, Sicilienne, b. 1
rr F ar r F
v 2 � v
__......_
...
j
This rhythm may be played with a slight lilt, so that the sixteenth-note (semiquaver) is played a little
later and shorter. However, it is still useful to practise first as follows:
r r If
�
' #H 8 E EF F r F F y -flP I
li,,.--.('1 v
y
2 2
j E
Ii Ii
- -
r j
ii'

Mental rehearsal
Mental rehearsal - picturing the ideal outcome or result - is
probably the single most powerful accelerated-learning technique
there is. Mental rehearsal techniques have been employed in sport
for decades. Coaches in international football, tennis, athletics or any other sport emphasize the
importance of building the mental pictures just as much as any physical training. All the most successful
performers in any field rehearse mentally, whether or not they do it lmowingly and deliberately.
Mental rehearsal is the simplest and the most natural activity possible. All it means is that you go off
into an ordinary daydream, the difference being that you actively choose the images that you hold in
your mind and actively screen out images that you do not want to include.
Each session of mental rehearsal may last for a fraction of a second, or several seconds, or sometimes a
few minutes. Even just the odd brief moment of really seeing the perfect result can be enough to make
a vast difference. As the performance date approaches, top athletes or musicians may spend every possible
moment building, sculpting, refining and polishing their mental picture of the perfect performance.
Mental rehearsal means to visualise exactly how you want to play the beginning, middle, and end of each
note, phrase, passage, movement, and entire work, musically and technically, as clearly as if you were
watching yourself on film. The pictures need to be in great detail and include the musical drama and
expression, tonal colours, precise physical motions, general ease of playing and physical calmness, a calm
mental and emotional state, and so on. Since there are no limits to what you can imagine, you are free
to 'design' images of yourself playing in any way you like.
The following example of mental rehearsal is concerned
with technique, but the same process of building pictures Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26. mov. 1, b. 8
of the ideal result can be applied to every aspect of a +
ad lib. 4
1 Many performers find performer's work. 1
that building vivid images
of themselves relaxed and Suppose that when you play the fourth-finger D (marked
calm during the concert '+') five things happen: (1) the finger feels tense, (2) vibrato
ensures a performance
und isturbed by nerves. feels tense and tight, (3) the scroll of the violin shakes,
disturbing the bow, (4) the bow arm feels awkward, (5) the
The key point is that it is
not enough simply not to stroke is uneven.
think about, say, the bow
shaking, with an approach
Without the instrument, picture yourself playing the up-bow D. Picture the fourth finger curved, relaxed,
of 'I am worried that my loose, light, contacting the string near the tip of the finger (see margin note 1 on page 255) . The finger
bow may shake, so I will is vibrating freely, evenly and expressively; it is relaxed and beautifully in tune, making the note ring. The
try not to think about it at
all'. Rather than not think left thumb is loose and free, the muscle of the base joint of the thumb soft to the touch, providing 'shock
ing about it, the answer is absorbers' which prevent the vibrato from shaking the scroll. The bow is perfectly smooth and even, the
to build clear pictures of
the result that you would
bow arm free and effortless, the shoulders relaxed and uninvolved, all the energy directed powerfully into
like - the bow arm easy, the string.
responsive and calm; every
bow stroke completely Use size and colour: visualize the results you want in large images, in three dimensions, in colour, including
smooth and even, the bow as much detail as possible. If this process is interrupted by images of what you do not want (e.g. the finger
carried by its own momen
tum, and so on.
being tense), shrink them into tiny, flat, two-dimensional images, in black-and-white, and in blurred detail.
At first it may take some time to assemble the picture. You may need to return to it on several occasions,
building more and more detail and clarity into it each time. The more times you run the picture through
your mind, the easier and quicker the process becomes. Carry on until you can summon up the complete
picture instantaneously. When you next come to play the note, you will find that it has improved
dramatically, and often far more than it might have improved had you actually practised it.
Negative images must be completely eliminated by putting a positive picture iµ their place. Since you
cannot think two thoughts at the same time, holding the image of what you want (e.g. the finger relaxed)
automatically gets rid of the image of the undesired result (the finger tense) . The same works in reverse:
if you allow into your mind a picture of the undesired result (e.g. a picture of yourself being very nervous)
it means that you cannot at that moment hold in your mind a picture of the desired result (a picture of
yourself being very calm) .
In mental rehearsal you tend to see in your mind's eye exactly the same strengths and wealmesses as exist
in your actual playing. If everything feels fine as you play a particular phrase, when you picture yourself
playing the phrase you will picture it that way too. You may even find your hand and fingers making
almost invisible playing movements, although you are not even holding the instrument. This is because
by picturing yourself playing you are directly accessing the very same 'computer program' that 'runs'
your playing. By changing the pictures in the 'computer program', you change the actual, physical playing.
If you habitually play a wrong note, you will see yourself going for that wrong note when you imagine
playing the phrase. Play through the phrase in your mind quite slowly, over and over again, hearing,
feeling and seeing yourself playing the right note. When you next play the passage on the violin, it will
Mental rehearsal
feel strong and secure. Changing the pictures in our mind is all that we are doing when we are practising
with the instrument anyway. 1 1 Most of the time that
we are practising we are
Always work on the picture before you work on the note or phrase. If you think you cannot stop gripping training the mind, not the
the neck of the violin too hard with your left thumb, then 'picture it perfect': see yourself playing with a m uscles. Suppose you
sight-read through a
relaxed thumb. If you want a faster and more relaxed trill; or a stronger fourth finger; or a fatter but piece, making many
sweeter tone; or a more relaxed left upper arm - first you must run the images of these things clearly mistakes of intonation,
sound, rhythm, and excess
through your mind, and then keep coming back to them. These images directly affect your performance. 2 effort. Then you practise it
Negative images often go back to first experiences of playing - the first time in your life you shift from for two hours, after which
you can play it fluently
one position to another, or play in a high position, or trill with the fourth finger, or begin to use vibrato, and with half the effort.
or play a run of fast staccato, and so on. If any difficulties are encountered in these first experiences, What has changed?
Physically you have not
memories of tension, precariousness or unreliability inevitably become associated with that particular changed at all. It is not
aspect of technique. Years later the same player may still be filling their mind with the same images of like working out in a gym
tension and difficulty every time they approach a passage of, say, double stops, and for that reason never for three months, after
which the muscles you
be able to play them easily and confidently. have trained are now
physically different. All
One way to achieve the picture is to imagine perfect playing in the future, and then to do it now. For example, that has changed is that
you play a scale: it feels a little effortful, the left hand is not quite relaxed and the fingers are a little uneven; your mental picture, of
some of the shifts are inaccurate and bumpy, the tone weakens as you reach the top of the scale; and so on. Ask what and how to play,
has now taken shape.
yourself this question: suppose over the next year you practised scales for at least an hour every day; and that
you always practised them intelligently and musically; always listening well; practising slow, medium and fast; 2 The g reat thing to avoid
is that you continually pic
in rhythms and accents; speeding up with the metronome; and so on. In addition, during the year you play ture what you want to
many pieces that contain scale-like passages, e.g. the Beethoven Concerto, so you are used to playing scales change, instead of what
very musically and expressively. The question is: at the end of the year what would your scale playing be like? you want to change to,
i . e. you want a faster
Assemble a detailed, vivid, colourful, three-dimensional picture of yourself playing the scale one year vibrato, but instead of
seeing yourself vibrating
from now, i.e. smooth, even, effortless; the hand and fingers relaxed and easy; every note in tune; a faster, you see instead a
glowing, even tone that crescendos up to the top of the scale; the posture upright and confident. See a picture of yourself with a
picture of yourself standing perfectly relaxed and calm, playing the scales easily and nonchalantly; see slow vibrato that you need
to practise to i mprove.
close-ups of your left hand moving effortlessly from position to position, the fingers so light that they are Instead, focus on a clear
almost without sensation, and so on. image of an already
improved fast and
The point is that if you can see it, you can do it. Having visualized yourself playing a scale excellently, free vibrato.
when you then play it the instantaneous improvement can be as great as if you had practised for hours,
yet the whole process can take just a minute or two. The reason why this is so effective is that if you did
practise scales for a year, most of what you would be doing in all that time is simply shaping, reshaping and
clarifying over and over again your mental pictures of what to do and what not to do, of what works and
what does not work. If you can arrive at the same mental pictures right now, you can expect the same
result and literally save yourself years. It is like leaping ahead through the months, thought by thought.
It is important to note that answering the question with 'great' or 'brilliant' or 'much better' is no good
at all if the words do not contain within them the detailed vision of the final result in all its perfection.
Mental rehearsal depends entirely on knowledge. That is why it is not possible for an elementary player
simply to visualize playing the Brahms Concerto and then be able to play it: an elementary player would
not be able to visualize it in the first place. To say 'picture every note in tune' is not enough in itself
unless the player has a vivid concept of the tuning and of the relationships of each note to others (as
described in Uniform intonation pages 1 97-204, or according to whatever other organization or concept
of tuning that the player has) .
Continually add to the mental 'bank' from which your images come. Attend as many concerts as possible,
hearing 'everybody who's anybody'; listen to recordings, if possible several different performances of the
pieces you are studying; watch videos of great players and teachers; read about music, players and teachers;
study technique books by great teachers such as Flesch and Galamian, violin in hand; work together with
a teacher; attend and participate in masterclasses; discuss music and technique with friends and colleagues;
study other activities and disciplines, like sport or yoga, to find principles which apply equally to playing the
violin, and so on.
Two essential aspects of mental rehearsal are ( 1 ) assemble sufficient detail in the visualization, (2) repeat
the process enough times for it to become easy, quick and automatic for you to summon up the picture.
With practice at building such detailed images they can be called up instantaneously, and in the end
become so habitual that you forget that you are holding them naturally, easily and unknowingly in your
mind. The process of mental rehearsal, applied to any activity or field, has been humorously summed up
as a simple three-step process:
(1) Picture the ideal result
(2) Make it happen
(3) If there is any problem with Step 2, repeat Step 1 .

Memory
Playing from memory is all to do with knowing the piece well.
there are any problems playing a passage from memory there
usually no need to look further than simply getting to know it
One of the main aspects of memorization is association. To remember something you create a 'peg'
'hook' on which to hang it. Playing music from memory involves criss-crossing associations between
the aspects of playing, i.e. aural, visual, tactile and intellectual. The musical character and expression
the ultimate 'hook' from which to hang everything else.
Practising from memory

From the very beginning of learning a piece for the first time, practise it from memory immediately,
if you have never heard it before.
Having first played it through from beginning to end to get the overall feel of it (playing up to tempo
where you can and as slowly as you need to elsewhere), suppose you then begin to practise in detail:
• Play the first short phrase while looking at the music and noticing every detail on the printed page -
notes, rhythms, bowings, fingerings, articulation marks, dynamics, etc.
• Having formed a clear picture of the phrase, move your eyes away from the music and practise the
phrase from memory. Work on the four main factors of intonation, sound, rhythm and ease, while
getting used to the bowings, fingerings, shifts, string crosssings, etc.
• The moment your memory fades in any way and you are no longer entirely sure what you are playing,
return to the printed music and play the phrase several times until you are clear again. Then look
away again and practise from memory.
If you cannot grasp the entire phrase, it may mean you are attempting too long a phrase all in one go,
and you should learn it in smaller units. If necessary, practise only two notes from memory at a time,
1 See ABC practice, joining them together like ABC practice. 1
page 275
Work through the whole piece like this, phrase by phrase or bar by bar. Then apply the same process to
longer phrases or passages. When you come to play the whole piece from memory it will feel entirely
normal because you will never have got used to playing from the music anyway.
Aural
Strengthen the memory of what the notes, phrases and passages sound like:
• Sing the piece through in your mind, hearing the pitch of every note very clearly.
• Sing passages aloud.
• Play short phrases or passages from memory, repeating many times over and over again until entirely
2 See Repetition practice, fluent and without hesitation. 2
page 280; Performing a
short phrase, page 305 • Listen to recordings and live performances.
Visual
Playing from memory does not mean that you have to play without the music - it is just that you read
from your inner 'photograph' of the music instead of from the printed page. During the process of
practising a piece you automatically become familiar with all the 'landmarks' on the page: you soon know
that such-and-such a passage is at the bottom of the page, that the top of the next page is 'black' with
sixteenth-notes (semiquavers) and then in the next line 'white' with many half-notes (minims) .
You get used to the shape of the phrases: some notes sitting on ledger lines above or below the stave;
some phrases looking like scales, arpeggios, broken thirds; rows ofrepeated notes; notes in regular patterns
You get used to the dynamic markings and other articulations: the 'f' marked at the beginning of a passage
or sequences; passages that are very irregular; the look of double-stop passages or chords, and so on.
soon becomes part of that passage in your mind's eye, or the accents or dots over each note of a particular
phrase; the appearance of hairpins and printed markings like cresc. or dolce become familiar, and so on.
• Study the printed music away from the instrument. Reading through, note all of the details and
landmarks which make up the inner music from which you 'read' when playing from memory.
• Mental rehearsal: play through mentally to discover exactly which notes or phrases are strong, vague
3 See Mental rehearsal, or blank.3 Play through phrases, passages or whole sections in your mind, visualizing the printed music
page 290 in detail, bar by bar, seeing all the bowings, fingerings and other markings. 'Hear' the violin tone;
'feel' the instrument and bow in your hands and under your chin. If you get lost or cannot remember
a note, look at the music or play the phrase on the violin, and then go back over it again mentally.
Continue until you can play fluently in your mind's eye without hesitation.
Mem ory
Tactile
It i s impossible to 'forget' whether the opening solo of the Brahms Concerto begins on a down-bow or an up
bow. The physical feel of the down-bow attack, and the tone and character of the note, are inextricably linked.
The same applies to every other note. Each movement of the bow or the left hand has a particular physical feel:
the feeling of a finger on a particular note, and the overall feeling of a group of notes; the feeling of a shift when
the timing and distance are exactly right; the feeling of the bow in the string when a particular note sounds just
right, and so on.
Obviously, it is by repeating that feeling that you can repeat the same sound over and over again. You bring
the bow down onto the string and get a certain tone. Then you bring the bow down on to the string again,
with exactly the same feeling of the bow in the string, and you get the same tone. Therefore, you can
think in terms of 'the feeling of the sound' and 'the sound of the feeling' . Experimenting during practice
is literally a matter of asking 'What does this sound feel like?' and 'What does this feeling sound like?'
• Practise phrases, passages or whole movements with your head turned away from the instrument, or
with your eyes shut, or practise in the dark, concentrating entirely on the feel of each note or action. 1
• Practise groups of notes and phrases until you can play each group under one mental command, instead of
one command per note. A major part of playing by 'feel', this was looked at earlier in Groups, page 24.
Intellectua l
Knowing all kinds of details about a piece i s an essential factor in memorizing. Each detail acts a s a
'hook' from which other aspects of the piece can hang: 1 Playing without looking is
also im portant in another
knowing that the first time a certain phrase comes it is loud, the next time soft, the next time loud again. sense: too much looking
at the fingers or the bow,
either directly or in a
knowing that the first time a certain phrase comes it is slurred in one bow, the next time slurred mirror, can be cou nter
in two bows, and the last time played with separate bows. productive if it encou rages
a feeling of 'I, who reside
knowing that a particular important note is going to be on a third finger in one bar, while in the somewhere behind my
next bar the same phrase recurs but this time requiring a fourth finger on that note. eyes and between my
ears, have a hand and
knowing the orchestral score or piano part, knowing the structure and form, the harmonic structure, fingers and I must m ove
them like this or like that'.
and how different phrases are derived from or related to other phrases. 2 There shou Id i nstead be a
feeling of 'I am my hand
• Throughout the whole process of working on a piece, constantly be on the lookout for facts, ideas and my fingers'.
and features which can help to anchor the memory. Similarly, players and
• If you continually stumble over a particular phrase because it is complex, confusing or deceptive in teachers throughout the
ages have emphasized the
some way, describe each note of the phrase in terms of the following: need for the violin to feel
as though it is a part of the
1 String 2 Interval 3 Finger 4 Position 5 Bow 6 Note body, and the bow an ex
tension of the arm, rather
Example Mendelssohn: Concerto in E minor, op. 64, mov. 1, b. 363 than being objects which
++ we hold and manipulate.
2 A classic analogy is that

learning only the violin
line on its own, without
mf
dim. getti ng to know the piano
part or orchestral score,
would be like an actor
• Describe each note one by one: learning a play from a
script that showed only
A string, first finger, 1 st position, up-bow, B; up an octave to fourth finger, 5th position, up-bow, B; their own lines. It would
be impossible to under
down a minor third to second finger, 5th position, down-bow, G#; up a semitone to third finger, 5th stand the play if you did
position, down-bow, A, and so on. not know what anyone
else was saying or doing.
• Describe groups and sequences :
Every rising pair o f quarter-notes (crotchets) i n the sequence rises by a semitone.
The first and third beats of the notes marked '+' (G#, F#, E#) share the same pattern of tones and
semitones as the notes marked '++' (E#, D #, D) . Both are a tone followed by a semitone.
• Describe exceptions, e .g. the second and third notes of bars 364 and 366 are a minor third apart, but
in 368 they are a major third apart.
You can do all this with or without the instrument. After fully describing just a few passages in this way,
the process soon becomes automatic and unconscious. Thereafter, only the most complex passages will
require conscious description again.

Memory
When you are driving a car very slowly, you do not need to look very far ahead. Driving at high speeds,
you may need to be aware of what could happen a great distance away down the road.
Playing a piece at a slow tempo, you may need to think (and hear the notes in your mind, like a singer) only
1 'When asked if I ever one or two notes ahead. Playing at high speeds, you may need to be thinking one or two whole bars ahead. 1
allowed myself to think
ahead while actually Memory often seems insecure when the cause is actually that you are not thinking ahead sufficiently.
playing in public, I Every note and phrase, every shift or string crossing, seems to come upon you too suddenly and feels
explained I never played
without thinking a
too last-minute, just as though you did not remember what to play.
measure or two a head.
I always had a mental
• Using the music, play through passages, sections or whole movements while focusing your eyes on
i mpression of the next the bars ahead of the actual notes you are playing. At moderate speeds look at the notes in the next
measu res. For me there bar, and at faster speeds look two or more bars ahead.
was always a key note in
each passage around • Do the same playing from memory, picturing and singing in your mind the bars ahead of where you
which I would plan my
fingerings and shifts.
are playing.
And then set the passage. Having consciously gone through this process just once or twice, you soon start thinking ahead all the time
In my mind, as I played,
I mentally had a without being aware of it anymore. Playing from memory immediately feels much easier and more secure.
picture of the
way my left Feeling relationships between notes
hand would set
and where the
fingers should be before
• Strengthen memory by feeling the relationships between notes, rather than the notes in isolation.
and after this key note.' Looked at earlier in the context of intonation (see Playing intervals not notes, page 2 1 7), this could
Isaac Stern: My First 79 also be thought of as 'emotional' memory: the musical character or expression in the intervals acts as
Years (New York, 1 999), memory 'pegs' on which to 'hang' the notes.
2 1 7.
The suggestions that follow are naturally intended to serve only as examples. Any number of other musical
views is possible, especially if the orchestral harmonies, colours and textures are included in the picture.
Prokofiev: Concerto no. 2 in G minor, op. 63, mov. 1, b. 52
q� �
A
54 55 3
2 - �
11,.. -- ] "
58 59 60
2
0
c�=== )
Bar 52 Part of the character of this phrase is in the expression of the minor second between the first two
notes, followed by a major second between the second and third notes. Playing a minor third from the F to
the D increases the feeling of momentum in the descent. This D has a feeling of leading forward because the
line immediately rises a minor second before settling again on the more-definite D at the beginning of bar 53.
Bar 53 Play a major sixth from the D to the F, and again from the C# to the E. Play an augniented fifth
from the F to the C#. Feel also the minor second between the D and the C#, and the F and the E.
Bar 54 Feel the minor third carrying into this bar from the E in the bar before. In the first two bars
the phrases have mainly been descending. Here, there is a feeling of expansion and opening out created
by playing a rising major second followed by a minor third followed by a perfect fourth.
After these expanding intervals, the semitones cause a momentary contraction and holding back, as well
as creating a build-up of tension. Play a minor second from the B into the A#, but then an augniented
1 See Wide and narrow unison from the A# to the A. In other words, play a narrow semitone and then a wide semitone. 1
semitones, page 2 1 4
Bar 55 After holding back in bar 54 there is a feeling of release? confidence? optimism? in leaping up
a major ninth from the A in bar 54 to the B here. The music continues to gather and lead towards the
first note of bar 56, which is the peak of the passage. Feel the E, D# and D the same as the last three
notes of bar 54 (except that being higher, being the second occurrence, and being just before the peak,
they have more energy than their counterparts in the previous bar) .
Bar 56 First practise going to the Eb an octave lower: feel how
the D seems to want to move up into the Eb, and the intensity
of the dose minor second. Then feel the same qualities in
going up to the Eb as written, feeling also the serenity?
satisfaction? of the minor ninth after the less settled but more
energetic character of the major ninth into bar 55.

Memory
This bar could have followed the same intervals as the first bar and still have arrived on the G in bar 57.
The openness of the perfect fifth from Db to Gb throws off the squeezed feeling of the semitones at the
beginning of the bar. Play a narrow minor second from the Eb to the D, and then a wide augmented
unison from the D to the Db. Play a wide augmented unison from the Gb to the G, and then a narrow
minor second from the G to the Ab.
Bars 57-60 Bar 57 is like bar 53. Also feel the descending line G-F#-E-Eb (ignoring the second and fourth
notes in bar 57) . Play a wide augmented unison from bar 58 to bar 59. The Eb in bar 59 is the resolution of
the E in bar 58, but it then begins to grow as it prepares to hand the phrase back over to the orchestra.
Accenting weak-memory notes

It can easily happen that we think we do not know something from memory, when actually we know
nearly all of it very well; however, because we are unclear about the odd note here and there, these notes
become like a weak link in a chain and the chain breaks. Then, if the passage breaks down as a result, we
think we do not know any of it from memory, when in fact it was only that one note that was not secure.
Example 1 Mozart: Concerto no. 4 in D, K2 1 8, mov. 1 cadenza (Joachim)
+ calando
I
01 v . � 0 4 0
Suppose, in this example, you continually play D instead of D# in the second bar (marked '+') . Perhaps
this happens because in bar 60 of the first movement the note is D.
• Play all the other notes at performance tempo but play the D# with an accent and a pause. Repeat
several times until the image of the note, as well as the physical feel of it, is solidly formed in your mind:
Ft 0
In the first bar, playing E instead of Eb (marked '+'), or in the second bar playing Bb instead of B, are
frequently-heard errors. It is easy to confuse the two notes because of their similar position in the sequence.
• Pause on the Eb and B� and play them with an accent. Play everything else up to tempo:
(
� � w JJJ JJ J fft r'f rI JJJ WJ@ Jtt� J :.w
Jg £ Ju� r [ c��
" 1 b� Jr In;3
I':'\
2 ' i= z
�
efz
0
� 0 2 1
efz
1 1
It may be tempting to play D� instead of D b (marked '+') because the tone-semitone pattern of the scale
is tone-semitone-tone in the lower half of the scale, but semitone-tone-tone in the upper half.
• Pause on each second finger and play it with an accent. Play everything else up to tempo:
Further essentials , 295

'<s
,/:�#:S5
Memory
2I 31 0 13 l 1 31
Example 4 Brahms: Concerto in D, op. 77, mov. 1 cadenza (Joachim)
+ ++
poco rit.
it Jl @ntU
_ _ _ _ _ -
Ji j)�tt
. U � J
�
. '---"" '-----""
dolee
At the double stops marked '+' the feeling is of placing the first finger a semitone behind second-finger
E on the D string, or behind second-finger D on the G string.
At '++' the feeling is of placing the first finger a semitone in front of the first-finger C. Following the
pattern of the previous double stops, you may mistakenly aim for D#-F# instead of E#-G#.
13
• Pause briefly on the two double stops marked '+' and play them with an accent. Pause longer on the
double stop marked '++'. Play everything else up to tempo:
0 �
ti.. 1
poco rit. _ _
r..
.
>
�
. efz #. .
Playing u nder tempo, exaggerating expression

Playing under tempo with exaggerated expression is a simple way to discover musical 'blind-spots', since
you have to know what you want before you can magnify it.
• Play through under tempo. The speed can range from very slow to only a little slower than normal.
• Using the extra time that the slower tempo gives you, enlarge every detail of the musical design to
larger-than-life proportions. Imagine that you are playing to someone who has never heard classical
violin music before, and you are playing everything very slowly, deliberately and obviously, to try to
make it as clear and easy to understand as possible.
1 See also Some other ways • Practise short phrases, passages, and entire pieces in this way. 1
to use playing-through
practice, no. 5, page 305
Example 1 Pugnanin-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Allegro, b. 41
�ti t J2 J J 30 I 3 r r F I
f/' JL
r = r Ir
ff
r F I r pf J I J 31 J r I F
:::=--
molto vibrato ====-- ritardando a tempo rit.
1
r I f' I C r F 1r r F
E ri � tr
tr ,,,----_ .
,,.--._
E i1 1� r
:::==- --=====
�
1> ,,,.---_ .
tr

Tec h n ica l bas ics
nica l Experi menting with proportions

Leonardo da Vinci was once asked to give his opinion of an ancient
statue that had recently been discovered. 1 When he arrived at the statue he found it surrounded by people 1 The Florentine artist
admiring and describing it in terms like 'the radiance of the expression' or 'the openness of the gesture', Leonardo da Vinci
(1 452-1 5 1 9), painter of
'the serenity of the line', or whatever. the Mona Lisa, was also a
scul ptor, architect,
Leonardo looked at the statue in silence and then took out measuring tools with which he measured the engineer and scientist.
statue in every possible way - the widths, lengths, diameters, angles, etc. He wrote everything down and, Always fascinated by the
without a word, went home. subject of proportions, he
assisted the Italian mathe
Like anyone else, he too could see the 'radiance', the 'openness', or the 'serenity' in the statue - but as matician Luca Pacioli in
the celebrated work Divina
an artist he knew that everything about the statue was the result of certain proportions. Proportione (1 509).
Looking at everything in terms of proportions is the key that opens the door to every aspect of technique
on a string instrument. It is also fundamental to every musical consideration, for example dynamics,
intonation, tempo, attack, etc.
Some key examples of proportions

The violin and bow
The shapeliness of the violin itself, the thinness of the plates, the spiralling lines of the scroll, the
design of the bridge, the properties and exact position of the soundpost, the weight, thickness and
balance of the bow, are key examples of proportionality.
Tone production See Describing the sound, page 48; Playing a phrase on each soundpoint, page 48
Every sound the bow makes is the result of certain proportions of speed ofbow to pressure to soundpoint.
The tension of the string See Quality, page 4 7
Greater, the nearer the bridge. The difference, in speed or weight, between playing on soundpoint 5
and playing on soundpoint 4 is much less than the difference between soundpoint 2 and soundpoint
1 . When you are playing on soundpoint 2, it can make a big difference if you move just a millimetre
closer to the bridge. If you are on soundpoint 5 and you change it by a millimetre, it barely makes
any difference at all.
The give of the wood of the bow and the hair See Different qualities of the bow at heel and point, page 69.
At the heel, the hair gives, and the wood of the bow is rigid; at the point, the wood gives (in the middle
of the bow), and the hair is rigid.
zero to ten: 1 0 = much give in the wood or hair, 0 = no give. At the heel (all hair, no wood), the
To illustrate the proportions, number the different tensions in the wood and the hair on a scale from
balance would be 1 0:0. At the point (all wood, no hair), the balance would be 0: 1 0. The middle of
the bow is therefore 5 : 5, where, as you would expect, both the wood and the hair give equally. The
entire range from the heel to the point:
10:0 (heel), 9 : 1, 8:2, 7:3, 6:4, 5:5 (middle), 4:6, 3:7, 2:8, 1 :9, 0 : 1 0 (point) .
Leverage in the bow hold See Spreading the fingers for leverage, page 259; Bow hold, page 302
The closer the first finger is to the pivot (i.e. the thumb), the harder the first finger has to work to
apply weight into the bow. The closer the fourth finger is to the pivot, the harder it has to work to
balance the weight of the bow.
At the heel, the thumb supports and helps balance the bow in the hand, but even in f it barely needs to
Pressure of the thumb into the bow
exert counter-pressure. At the point, the thumb must exert counter-pressure, especially when playing /.
2 A common mistake: start
at the heel with minimum
thumb cou nter-pressure;
On a scale from 1 to 1 0, thumb counter-pressure can be expressed as follows: play f to the point, by
which time the counter
1 (extreme heel), 2, 3, 4, 5 (middle), 6, 7, 8, 9, 1 0 (point) . pressure has gradually
The amount of counter-pressure should always be as much as necessary but as little as possible.2 increased to, say, '8';
retu rn on the up-bow to
Length of string and soundpoint See Moving in to the bridge, page 59 the heel without releasing
the thumb (keeping it at
The higher up the string the finger, the nearer to the bridge the bow. Playing top E, two octaves up '8'). This immediately
creates tension in the
on the E string, with the bow midway between the bridge and the fingerboard, is proportionately the thumb. The i ncrease in
same as playing the open string with the bow several centimetres over the fingerboard. cou nter-pressure when
playing to the point does
Lifted strokes not matter; what is
important is to release the
All lifted strokes are the result of the proportions of height of bounce to length of bow. The faster the thumb back to zero when
stroke the lower the bounce, the less bow, the higher up the bow, the nearer the fingerboard. These retu rning to the heel.
H'11rthn essentials 297

Tech n ical basics
proportions of length to height change depending on the tilt of the bow (how much hair), as well as
on the place in the bow.
Attacks See Beginning and ending notes, page 268
When attacking the string from the air at the heel or the point, the beginning of the note will be clean
if the angle at which the bow approaches and touches the string is neither too steep nor too flat. The
angle has to be gauged in proportion to the speed of descent: the faster the flatter.
Intonation See Uniform intonation, page 207; Tuning scales: three stages, page 2 1 0
Everything about intonation i s a question of proportions, since each note i s placed i n relation to another
note, e.g. tuning any stopped A to the open string, or placing C# or Eb as a 'leading note' to D.
The shorter the string, i.e. the higher up the string you play, the closer together the notes:
q
(1) Both fingers Same spacing now (2) Same spacing now plays a major third
t
\i
f
on the string plays a perfect fourth 2
�J r
\i \i
J � 1r II
3 2
r
3
� /'
// IJ
Keep the distance between the fingers

the same as you move up to 4th position
(1 ) Play a major third in 1 st postion. Keep both fingers on the string. Move up to 4th position, keep
ing the fingers exactly the same distance apart. Now the same spacing plays a perfect fourth.
(2) The same spacing that plays a major second in 1 st position plays a major third in 8th position.
Left hand and arm placement See Angle and height of knuckles, page 237
Longer arms: scroll of the violin pointing more to the left.
Shorter arms: scroll of the violin pointing more in front.
Larger hands: knuckles lower; in 1st position, first finger positioned closer to (or behind) the nut.
Smaller hands: knuckles higher; in 1 st position, first finger positioned in front of the nut.
Vibrato See Uirying speed and width, page 1 34
Each different type or quality of vibrato is the result of certain proportions of width to speed. These
proportions are affected by the amount of finger pressure (e.g. heavier finger pressure may necessitate
a narrower vibrato) .
Leaving aside musical considerations, vibrato must be narrower the higher up the fingerboard it is,
in proportion to the length of string: a note high on the G string is played with much narrower vibrato
than a note in first position.
Vibrato is also narrower the higher in pitch the note, so that first finger F# on the E string will generally
be played with a narrower vibrato than first-finger A on the G string.
Speed of shift See Speed of shift, page 1 72
The speed of the shift often reflects the speed of the passage.
Slow passages: slower shifts
Fast passages: faster shifts
Sometimes a fast shift in a slow passage helps to achieve a clean, inaudible shift.
Long shifts: when you slow into the arrival note (see Slow arrival speed, page 1 72), the speed pattern
of the shift is 'fast-slow'. How fast, how slow, and how much of the shift is fast before it is slow, is
proportionate to the speed of the passage and the distance of the shift.
Speed of left hand finger movement See Fast fingers, page 7; Placing fingers gently, page 240
The louder the volume, the wider the string vibrates (i.e. swings from side to side); the wider the
string vibrates, the faster the fingers must lift and drop. There is a sound of 'fuzz' at the beginning of
notes if the speed of stopping or unstopping the string is too slow in proportion to the sideways
movement of the string. The trill exercise on page 1 25 provides a good example.
Height of fingers See Low fingers, page 4
The faster the passage, the nearer the fingers must stay to the strings. High-lifted fingers are rarely
good in fast passages (up to a certain speed limit they are sometimes used for greater articulation) .
However, low fingers are often used in slow passages for greater legato and cantabile.

Tec hni cal bas ics
Defau lts: building good habits

'Default' is a term used in computer science, meaning a setting or mode of operation that is put into
effect automatically, without you having to think about it. You have a default size of print for the words
you type, the one the program automatically selects when it starts; the margins are already set to the
right width, and so on. You can change these settings whenever you want to, but if you do nothing then
they are the ones that will be used.
The settings of the controls on a television are defaults, so that when you press button 4 you get
Channel 4, the picture is a certain brightness, the volume is at a certain level, and so on. We employ
thousands of defaults in the day-to-day running of our lives.
In most music you do not have to decide how to tune the open strings because tuning in fifths, up from
G below middle C, is the default tuning. Sometimes this default is changed, as in Paganini's 'Moses'
variations in which the G string is tuned up to a B�. The clef at the beginning of a stave of music, and
the key and time signatures, are default settings.
Each bow has its own default tension to which you always adjust it before playing. This default is some
times changed to suit a particular piece or passage in a piece - the tension may be relaxed a little to give
the bow more spring for a piece full of spiccato, perhaps. Even the exact place you position a shoulder
rest on the instrument, or the height of the rest, becomes a default, one that you change if you wear
unusually thick or thin clothing. 1 1 Carl Flesch advised his
students to practise in their
Defaults can b e likened to habits. Anything that i s a habit i n playing, and therefore happens continually concert clothes for a day or
and automatically without conscious thought, could be called a default. The complete collection of so before the concert.
Putting on unfamiliar
defaults that you use is called your 'technique' . 'Good' technique is a collection of defaults that work clothes at the very last
well. 'Improving' technique means building up an ever larger collection of automatic, unthinking actions moment before walking out
on stage can cause an
that have a desired, not an undesired, effect, and means replacing the less helpful defaults with more otherwise well-prepared
helpful ones. 2 pertormance to feel
awkward or uncomfortable,
For example, placing the bow on the string without thinking about it: if the bow is not parallel to the e.g. new shoes that force
bridge, or too near the fingerboard or bridge, or too pressed, or too light, or not angled correctly to touch the body into an unfamiliar
state of bala nce, neck ties
only the intended string, the default needs to be redesigned. Finger pressure provides another key that force the violin into an
example. The default amount of finger pressure for any note should be as little as possible, i.e. just as unfamiliar playing position,
much as necessary to stop the note well. The wrong default here, where you habitually press your fingers materials that make the
actions of the bow arm feel
hard into the string, can make the left fingers feel heavy and laboured. different, etc. At the very
least such new sensations
The defaults of technique should be attended to before all else, so that you are left free to concentrate can be distracting just at the
on the music without having to think too much about how to play. moment when you need
the greatest concentration.
Some key examples of technical defaults 2 The well-known saying

tells us that 'Habits are easy
Height of scroll See Angle of strings to the floor, page 57 to make and hard to break'.
If that is so, then do not try
The scroll should ideally be slightly higher than the chin rest so that the strings are parallel to the to break old habits - just
floor. A further benefit is that this throws the weight of the violin towards the body, which helps to form new ones!
maintain an upright and balanced posture.
Angle of violin
Slightly tilted. If the violin is too tilted, the E string does not give enough support to the bow, causing weak
tone production on that string. If the violin is too flat, playing on the G string becomes effortful: the fourth
finger has to reach further to the G string, and you also have to raise the right, upper arm much higher.
The best default tilt is one where the E string gives sufficient support to the bow, while at the same
time the right arm and fourth finger can reach the G string easily enough. Like most defaults, this
can be changed while playing, sometimes tilting the violin less when playing on the E string, and
tilting it more when playing on the G string.
Left upper arm (elbow position)
The elbow is mobile underneath the violin, not fixed in one position.
E string: elbow positioned more to the left
G string:elbow positioned more to the right
The default position of the elbow is only as far to the right as necessary (for the fingers to reach the strings),
and no further.
The left upper-arm position is also affected by which part of the fingertip contacts the string. The
more the finger is placed on the left side of the fingertip, the more the elbow moves to the right; the
more the finger is placed on the right side of the fingertip, the more the elbow moves to the left.

Technical basics
Angle of base j oints to fingerboard See Angle and height of knuckles, page 237
This is largely determined by which part of the fingertip contacts the string. The more the finger is
placed on the left side of the fingertip, the more angled up are the knuckles; the more the finger is
placed on the right side of the fingertip, the more parallel are the knuckles with the fingerboard.
The placement of the hand varies according to the specific notes. The default should set the knuckles
neither at too much of an angle in relation to the fingerboard, nor too parallel to the fingerboard, but
at some natural point in between.
Space between fingers
How much space there is between the fingers is partly determined by which part of the fingertip stops
the string. If you place the first-finger B (on the A string) slightly more on the left side of the fingertip
(from your point of view), and place the second-finger C next to it more on the right side of the
fingertip, the fingers will open sideways at the base joints (Fig. 41 a) . If you place both fingers on the
left side of the fingertip, the fingers remain parallel to each other with a tendency to squeeze together
(Fig. 4 l b) .
The amount of space between the fingers naturally varies from player to player and from one group
of notes to another, ranging from a real gap to no space at all. What is important is that there is never
any sideways pressing between two fingers, for example always squeezing the fourth finger against the
third finger when playing the third finger.
Fig. 4 1
(a) Note the space between the fingers (b) The fingertip placement is causing the fingers to
squeeze together
Finger action See Moving fingers from the base joints, page 239
The fingers lift and drop from the base joints, the rest of the hand remaining entirely uninvolved. At
times, this default is changed and the hand itself moves as well, bringing the base joint towards the
string at the same time as the finger moves from the base joint.
Great tension may result if it is the other way round, the hand and fingers generally moving together,
with only occasional finger movements that are independent of the hand. This is true even when the
amount the hand moves is so slight as to be almost invisible.
In general, the fingers are not lifted up from the string so much as pulled back from the base joints.
Lifting changes the shape of the finger, which means that there is too much activity in the middle
joint of the finger; pulling back keeps the curve of the finger more as it was when the finger was on
the string, and the finger naturally moves more from the base joint.
Speed of finger m.ovem.ent See Fast fingers, pages 9-1 O; Lifting off at the last possible moment, page 286
The default should be fast, the fingers lifting and dropping 'at the last possible moment'. This changes
to earlier and slower actions for more dolce or piano passages.
If it is the other way round, with slow fingers the default and fast fingers the exception, there may be
many moments of 'fuzz' in the sound caused by the finger stopping or un-stopping the string too
slowly; or caused by poor co-ordination, the bow beginning to play the note before the finger is ready
on the string.
Finger pressure See Releasing the left hand, pages 233- 6

Dropping the finger in a passage of ascending slurs, after the initial impact the finger releases the
string slightly. The default should be 'stop-release' rather than 'stop-press'.
The general rule is always 'as much as necessary but as little as possible'. This default may be changed
for pizzicato when a very ringing tone is required, or for c ertain tone colours that you can get from
too-heavy or too-light finger pressure.

Tec hnic al bas ics
Contact point of first finger with neck See Fig. 1 7a, page 237
E string: nearer the middle joint
G string: nearer the base joint
Large hands: lower placement
Small hands: higher placement
In lower positions, the side of the first finger lightly contacts the neck to give the hand orientation
and stability. Galamian called this 'the principle of the double contact' . 1
1 'The term [double contact]
signifies that the left hand
Contact point of thumb with neck See Keeping a space between the thumb and first finger, page 229 has to have two points of
contact with the instrument
The thumb is mobile and active on the neck of the violin, never remaining 'fixed' in one position. in order to orient itself prop
The default position that it moves from, and returns to, is opposite the first or second finger, or erly and secu rely. In the
lower positions, the double
between them (Fig. 1 5a, page 229) . contact is provided by the
If the default position of the thumb is too near the nut, it throws the balance of the hand too much thu m b and the side of the
first finger . . . The contact
onto the first finger. It also increases the likelihood of squeezing between the base joint of the first need not be permanent or
finger and the thumb (Fig. 1 5b) . Nor should the default thumb position be too close to the third continuous . . . It must be very
slight, since the more gentle
finger, which can cause tension in the base of the thumb. it is, the more sensitive be
comes the feeling of touch
The thumb is sometimes higher (sticking above the fingerboard); sometimes lower (almost under ing . . . An exception [applies]
neath the neck) . in the playing of expressive
passages. In order to facili
tate the vibrato action, the
The left fingers 'lead' the bow; the bow 'leads' the right hand and arm hand can release the double
See Co-ordination, page 1 4 contact, retaining only that
of the thumb.
1 The finger must establish the string length before the bow can set the string into vibration, so the From the fourth position up
impulse is always one of the fingers 'leading' and the bow 'following'. If the bow leads and the fingers ward, the hand itself con
follow, there may be many impure sounds caused by the finger not being ready before the bow moves. tacts the body of the violin
and replaces the index fin
2 Although the physical fact is that the hand pulls the bow, feel the how's own momentum 'leading' ger in forming the second
point of contact. From the
the hand. The difference between a feeling of the hand trying to do things with the bow, as fifth position on, the thumb
opposed to the hand following the bow, can be dramatic. and hand contact various
pa rts of the i nstrument, but
the principle of double con
Finger preparation See Placing fingers gentfa page 240 tact is still maintained.'
Moving from a higher to a lower finger on the same string, every lower finger is placed on the string Ivan Galamian: Principles of
('prepared') before lifting the upper finger. This default is changed when playing fast spiccato or sautille, (New Jersey, 1 962), 2 1 .
where the left-hand finger action is more like that of a pianist (the lower finger dropping while the
upper finger lifts) . Finger preparation is indispensable for producing a legato, singing tone.
Separate-bow shifts
Shifting on the old finger: shift on the old bow.
Shifting on the new finger: shift on the new bow.
Left wrist See Wrist, page 238

In 1 st position, unless the arms are very short in proportion to the size of the instrument, the usual
default is a straight line from the elbow to the base joints of the fingers.
Double stops and chords often require a natural alteration of this straight line. Players with shorter
arms or fingers may need a default in which the wrist curves out slightly.
Tilt of bow See Flat or tilted hair, page 259

Full or three-quarters hair, playing on the side of the hair when required.
not
Playing on the side of the hair, playing full hair when required.
Speed not pressure See Quality, page 4 7

To produce a large, free, sweet and singing tone, tone production is based on speed of bow, not
pressure. More pressure is used for darker, denser or more depressed colours, but even then the speed
of bow is the controlling factor, not the pressure.
Soundpoint See Fig. 5, page 47

A logical default would be soundpoint 3, or 21/2 - a normal speaking voice is neither a whisper nor a shout.
Tech n ical basics
Pivoting See Crossing early, page 1 02

The default should be smooth string crossings - the bow moving early towards the new string before the
new string needs to be played - with later, more sudden and accented string crossings when required. If
it is the other way round, with accented string crossings the default and smooth crossings the exception,
it may be difficult to create long lines and to play with a naturally singing and sustaining tone.
Angle of the bow to the bridge See Angle of the bow to the bridge, page 7 6
When the bow is angled 'out', so that the frog is slightly further forwards than the point (Fig. 8a,
page 7 6), on the down-bow the bow automatically drifts towards the bridge; on the up-bow it
automatically drifts towards the fingerboard.
When the bow is angled 'in', so that the point is slightly further forwards than the frog (Fig. 8b), on
the down-bow it drifts towards the fingerboard, and on the up-bow it drifts towards the bridge.
The default is the bow parallel to the bridge. Angled bowing is used to move closer to, or further
from, the bridge. It is also used for tonal reasons. When the bow speed is not too fast, you can get a
different kind of resonance by deliberately drawing the bow at the slightest angle to the bridge (point
nearer fingerboard than frog) while forcing it to stay on one soundpoint.
Bow hold
How to hold the bow depends on where in the bow you are playing and the type of stroke.
At the heel, the hand is more upright (supinated), balancing the bow with the little finger (Fig. 42d) .
At the point, the hand is leaning (pronated) in the direction of the first finger (Fig. 42e) . Since the
change from more upright at the heel to leaning at the point is gradual rather than sudden, during
one whole bow the angle of the hand - and therefore the exact finger placement - is slightly different
1 Many bows seem to have at every place in the bow. 1
a built-in tremble just after
he middle d u ring the down- Spiccato requires a different kind of supination to allow the bow to 'swing' slightly within the hand
bow. The cause is often (see Playing without the first finger: lifted strokes, page 254), as does ricochet. Sautille requires a different
found in the hand resisting
the gradual leaning into the
kind of pronation, allowing the fourth finger (and even the third finger at times) to leave the stick
bow. If the hand remains in (Taking fingers off the bow, page 97). Playing pianissimo requires a looser, often feather-like contact with
the 'heel position' for too
the bow, whereas full-bodied playing requires a much firmer hold, with the first finger moved further
long, and then suddenly
leans into the bow some away from the thumb (Spreading the fingers for leverage, page 259), the third finger solidly on the frog
where around the middle, (Pulling in with the third finger, page 255), and lower knuckles.
the wood shakes. Instead,
lean gradually into the bow Basic functions and positions of the fingers are as follows:
as the down-bow progresses,
with a feeling of 'following • Thumb . The tip of the thumb, not the pad, contacts the bow (Fig. 42a), so that the thumb bends
the curve of the stick' .
outwards (see margin note 1 , page 255) . It contacts the bow partly on the thumb-piece and partly
2 Some of the job of con on the actual stick (or thumb leather, if the leather extends all the way to the thumb-piece with
tacting the string can be out leaving a gap) . Therefore the thumb sits diagonally on the bow. Note how the thumb wants to
given to the second finger
(see Playing without the first straighten if the pad is placed on the bow (Fig. 42b) .
finger in f passages, page
254); some can be given to • First finger. The part of the first finger on top of the stick helps to produce tone.2 The default
leaning into the string with position is neither too close to the second finger (leading to loss of leverage) nor too far from it
the hand (see Supporting
the wrist, page 256); some (leading to tension in the base joints) . The louder the playing = the further the first finger from
can be given to forearm ro the thumb = the most leverage (Fig. 42g) .
:ation (see Forearm rotation,
page 265) and arm weight, Fig. 42c shows how the contact point of the first finger changes between the heel and the point.
with a feeling of relaxing At the heel the contact point with the stick is nearer the crease at the first joint of the finger (Fig.
:he whole arm into the bow
and the string. 42d); this gradually moves during the down-bow so that at the point it is nearer the crease at the
middle joint of the finger (Fig. 42e) . During the up-bow the contact point gradually moves back
3 Note that this change of closer to the crease at the first joint of the finger.3
the first-finger contact point
is never made deliberately The pad of the first finger, on the side of the stick, helps steady the bow so that it can be drawn
but happens naturally and parallel to the bridge. This contact point barely changes between the heel and the point, so any
subconsciously. In some
;chools of violin playing, the change in the contact point on top of the bow is barely noticeable.
contact point of the first
finger with the bow is the • Second finger. The contact point of the second finger with the bow is around the crease at the
same at the heel and the first joint of the finger, higher or lower depending on the length of the finger (Figs. 42d, 42g) . The
point.
second finger sits opposite the thumb slightly to the left of centre (from the player's viewpoint) .
The pad and tip of the second finger should not curl in towards the thumb, and are entirely
redundant in holding and using the bow (Fig. 42f ) .
• Third finger. In the lower half, the pad o f the third finger contacts the bow between the pearl
eye and the rounded edge of the frog (Figs. 42d, 42g) . In the upper half, depending on the length
of arm, it may feel awkward to keep the pad of the finger on the frog. Then the contact point of
Tech nica l bas ics
the finger is around the crease at the first joint of the finger, contacting the bow on the upper,
outside edge of the bow (Fig. 42h) .
• Fourth finger. The fourth finger balances the weight of the bow. This is particularly so in the
lower half, where it sits on the bow as on a see-saw, but also in the upper half where it can
counterbalance the first finger. Sometimes it sits directly on top of the stick, sometimes on the
upper, inside edge. (See margin note 1 , page 255.) Playing in the lower half the finger is more
rounded and flatter at the knuckle (Fig. 42d); at the point the finger is extended (Fig. 42h) .
Fig. 42
(a) The thumb sits on its tip and bends outwards (b) The thumb should not contact the bow on the pad
(c) The contact point of the first finger is d ifferent (d) Playing at the heel
at the heel and at the point
(e) Contact of the first finger at the point (f) The second finger should not curl in to the thumb
(g) The fingers are spread to give more leverage (h) At the point, the third finger pad may leave the
bow
F11rthn P�sf"ntials 303

Practising performing
To be practising always from a technical point of view - breaking
passages down into their technical components, practising in
rhythms, practising slowly, practising for intonation, and so on _
can be counter-productive. It must not turn out that the one thing
you do not practise is your actual performance. This essential element of practice is often missed out
because of the constant feeling that you should practise the piece a little bit more first.
The closer the performance date, the more practice time should be given to playing as if in the heat of
petformance. Make music with intensity and communication for a long enough period, before standing
on the stage, for the performance simply to be a natural continuation. Whenever possible, performing
with the piano should obviously be a major part of this, but it is not essential.
Playi ng-through p ractice

In 1 983 at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado, USA, Itzhak Perlman gave a talk about making music
and playing the violin. The session included questions from the audience. He was asked how he goes
about learning a piece for the first time, starting from the very beginning. His answer went something
like this:
The first thing I always do, before anything else, is play through from beginning to end. Then I play through
a few times from beginning to end, and then finish off by playing through from beginning to end.
I have a wonderful way of continuing to work on the piece on the second day. What I do is this: I always
begin by playing through from beginning to end, and then I find that the best thing to do is to play through
from beginning to end a few times. I'll probably finish off by playing through from beginning to end.
The next day I play through a few times from beginning to end . . .
After a few days like this, I have t o admit t o myself that this o r that phrase i s still not i n tune; such and such
a passage is still not sounding good; I still need to find the best fingering for various phrases; I am still not
happy with this or that passage of double stops, and so on.
So I do the equivalent of spot-cleaning clothes before taking them to the laundry: I practise those particular
bars or passages that need attention.
Immediately after that, I play through from beginning to end. Then I play through from beginning to end a
few times, and then finish off by playing through from beginning to end.
'Playing-through practice' can be one of the quickest ways to learn a new piece. Two essential points are:
Listen so attentively that you hear every sound that comes out of the instrument.
2 Keep a clear musical conception of each phrase, and a clear picture of technical ease and comfort, at
the front of your mind.
Play as if in a real performance with full expression, dynamics and pacing (wherever possible) . Do not
stop whatever happens. As you play through, simply notice what is happening: 'That was OK oh,
completely missed all of that - good - that's difficult - great, that was fine - I hope nobody else heard
that - where is that note? - no problem - etc.'
Play through again and again. Simply notice what happens and continue without stopping. Many times
you will find something like this: 'Here comes that shift I missed last time I played through - yes, missed
again; here is the bit that gets all uncoordinated - yes, it really is uncoordinated; here is that passage
which was all out of tune - yes, the intonation is all over the place'; and so on. However, even in the
second play-through you will find that passages which were unsuccessful last time are now working better
this time.
Gradually the piece will begin to settle into shape, and the happy moments of - 'Oh, that was the bit I
used to miss all the time, but I've just played it and it was fine' - will start to occur more and more often.
After some days you will arrive at the same point as Perlman: you will find that while much of the music
is now lying naturally under the fingers, certain phrases or passages are still not working. Then is the
time to take those passages apart to work on them in detail.
Some other ways to use playing-through practice
1 End each day's practice with a full-performance play-through of whatever you were working on earlier.
1 When playing without 2 Begin each day's practice with a full-performance play-through. Playing when you are not warmed-up
warming up, take great care
not to force or strain.
exposes the weakest areas that can then be given priority in the detailed practice that follows. 1
The g reat Canadian pianist
Glenn Gould would often
3 In the same practice session, alternate playing-through practice with other types of practice so that
warm up by going for a all of the building work is always directly relevant: play through - decide which passages need remedial
brisk walk, or by soaking his work and apply a variety of different practice methods to them - play through - do remedial work,
hands in hot water.
and so on.
Practising performing
4 If you are studying more than one piece at a time, one approach is to practise one or two of them
only by playing through a few times each day, meanwhile concentrating all the detailed work on the
other pieces. After a few days swap them around: play through the pieces you were practising in detail,
and do detailed work on the ones you were playing through.
5 Play through under tempo, exaggerating expression. 1 Playing under tempo with enlarged musical 1 See Playing under
drama and expression brings great life, colour and variety into the playing which remains when you tempo, exaggerating
expression, page 296
return to a faster tempo. This is as helpful as playing a passage slowly for technical reasons. One way
to think of it is to imagine that you are playing to somebody who has never heard 'classical' music
before, and you are helping them understand the music by making everything very, very obvious.
6 Play through many times coolly and calmly, from beginning to end, at 1 0 or 20 per cent under tempo.
7 Add a new piece to your repertoire with playing-through practice. Set aside just half-an-hour each
week to play through a solo piece, a sonata or a concerto. Play through all the movements, playing
up to tempo where you can and as slowly as you wish elsewhere.
Having played through only once, from beginning to end, leave it for a week and then play through
it again. You may wish to work briefly on the odd passage or phrase, but basically just give the best
performance you can and leave it at that.
Continue like this for a month or two and you will find that you already know the piece and can play
it quite well. Later, when you begin to study it in depth, it will take much less time to learn than it
would otherwise have taken. Also there will be the feeling of it having deep roots that go back over
an extensive period, giving far greater confidence and sense of security than a piece which feels
completely new.
8 Relearning old repertoire is an important element of daily practice. To avoid having a list of pieces
that you once played, though you can't exactly remember what or when, continually relearn everything
on a rotating basis: piece number one in week number one, piece number two in week number two,
and so on until covering all of them. Then go back to the first piece and cycle through again.
Practise one or two passages for a few minutes if you like, but basically just play through from beginning
to end and enjoy the music and the playing. Play through concertos, sonatas, short pieces, everything
important that you have learnt.
You may be able to rotate your whole repertoire several times over just a couple of months. The feeling
of being at home with a whole repertoire as opposed to just one piece gives you tremendous confidence;
and regular practice of a wide variety of already familiar music adds to your overall command as a
musician and instrumentalist.
Perform i ng a short p h rase

Performing a short phrase over and over again is one of the very best ways of practising. Once you can
already play something, repeating it many times as if in the full heat of performance is where a different
level of practice begins. It is then that you gain real musical command, polish and security.
• Play a short phrase over and over again many times with the same inspiration, intensity, commitment,
involvement, passion, drama and expression as if you were in the middle of a performance.
• Each time, ask yourself if this is exactly how you want the phrase (or group of notes, or short passage)
to sound. Is this exactly the expression, colour or atmosphere that you want to create?
If you were in the middle of a concert performance, is this exactly what you would want the audience
to hear and feel when you play this phrase? If your playing were to be recorded, and later somebody
were to switch the recording on at this precise point, is this exactly what you would want them to
hear?
• Continue sculpting and polishing the phrase until there is no difference between your inner vision of
the music (which includes freedom, balance and lack of effort) and your actual playing.
• Begin by practising every phrase or other small group of notes in this way. Later, perform larger
passages over and over again in exactly the same way; then whole sections; then whole movements;
then whole works.

music exam les
Bach, Johann Sebastian Sarabande, bar 1 82
Concerto no. 1 in A minor, BWV 1041
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L 'j JL Partita no. 2 in D minor, BWV 1004
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Movement 2, bar 14 213
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Concerto no. 2 in E, BWV 1 042 i·
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Partita no. 1 in B minor, BWV 1 002

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Ciaccona, bar 33 106

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. 306 Index of music examples

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Fuga, bar 29 81
Ciaccona, bar 133 73 n V Y V y
Fuga, bar 58 83
Ciaccona, bar 187
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Partita no. 3 in E, BWV 1 006
Presto, bar 1 50
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Preludio, bar 49 75 Fuga, bar 7
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Gavotte en Rondeau, bar 6 255
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Sonata no. 1 in G minor, BWV 1001

No. 4 [Molto moderato], bar 3 233
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B eethoven, Ludwig van

Concerto in D, op. 61
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Index of music examples 3 07

178
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Sonata in D, op. 12 no. 1
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Movement 2 [Larghetto] , bar 45 115 Movement 1 [Allegro con brio], bar 1 203
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Romanze in F, op. 50 Sonata in A minor, op. 23
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18 Index of music examples

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Sonata in F, op. 24 ('Spring') Movement 1, bar 3 1
1 4 3 3
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Movement 1, bar 1 1 267 Sonata in A, op. 47 ( 'Kreutzer')
Movement 1 [Adagio sostenuto] , bar 1 132
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Sonata in G, op. 96
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Sonata in A, op. 30 no. 1

B eriot, Charles Auguste de
Concerto no. 9 in A minor, op. 104
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Movement 3 [Allegretto] , bar 1 284 Movement 1 [Allegro maestoso], bar 38 284
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bar 100 227 espress.
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Concerto in D, op. 77
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Sonata no. 1 in G, op. 78
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Sonata no. 3 in D minor, op. 108
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Index of music examples 31 1

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Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26
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Movement 3, bar 32 265 t i i z

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Poeme, op. 2 5
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Dvorak, Antonin
Concerto in A minor, op. 53
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La Follia, op. 5 no. 12 (arr. Leonard)
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24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 3 5
No. 1 [Prelude] , bar 1 80 bar 8 1 22
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Sonatina in G, op. 100
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Elgar, Edward Fibich, Zdenek
Chanson de Matin Poeme
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Sonata in A
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Sonata in E minor, op. 82 Movement 1 [Allegretto ben moderato], bar 5 130
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Concerto no. 3 in B min.or, op. 61
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Sonata in A, op. posth. 162 Sonata in A minor, op. 105
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Movement 1 [Mit leidenschaftlichem Ausdruck], bar 1 131
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Index of music examples

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Sonata in G minor ('Dido abandonata')
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bar 79 [Allegretto tranquillo] 280

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Vieuxtemps, Henri
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Concerto no. 22 in A minor
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Concerto in A minor, op. 3 no. 6
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Scherzo-Tarantelle, op. 16
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Sonata, op. 27 no. 2
Movement 1 [Poco vivace], bar 3 118
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bar 5 [Allegro maestoso] 255
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Sonata, op. 27 no. 4

Movement 1 [Lento maestoso] bar 1 53

-
ABC practice 275, 292 saving bow 1 1 4, 1 1 5, 1 1 6 mental rehearsal 290

Accent practice viii,43, 274 two-thirds-one-third-two-thirds 113 momentum 301
Accented legato 32 using enough bow 1 1 7, 1 1 8 open strings, practising on viii, 34
Acoustic beats 56 Bow hair overlapping 1 19
Active and passive 98, 260 chords 80 parallel to bridge 76, 299, 302
Aristotle 253 designing bow strokes 110 proportions 88
Arm (left) friction 56 reversed bowing 64, 65
hanging 230 give 48, 53, 54, 69, 70, 89, 1 1 3, 297 saving bow 7 1, 1 1 6
proportionate to instrument 301 hair-string contact 67 slow, sustained 7 1, 1 1 5
short 298 inner and outer edge 265 speed not pressure 47, 302
upper arm See Upper arm (left) sautille 99 sustaining 74
Arm (right) spiccato 94, 99 Breathing 1 10, 1 59
causing sympathetic movements 270 string crossing 83, 1 02, 1 0 6 Bridge, following curve of 82, 83
channelling power 256 tilt 89, 259, 297, 302 Bronstein, Raphael 158, 283
impulse 262 Bow hold
mental rehearsal 290 chords 84 Casals, Pablo 1 10, 123
upper arm See Upper arm (right) finger placement 88, 259, 297, 302 Chin
Arpeggios 147, 168, 175, 177, finger tips losing contact 259 excess pressure 43, 232
179, 182, 244 flexibility 253 placing on chin rest 27 1
dominant/diminished sevenths 1 47 gripping 90, 255 Chords 301
uniform intonation 212 leverage 88, 89, 259, 297, 302 ABC practice 279
Articulation martele 88, 90 balance of bow 80
left hand 7 pianissimo 302 bow division 82
right hand 57 responding to bow 69 bow hold 84
Auer, Leopold 282 spiccato 302 circular movement 264
tension 302 co-ordination with bow 83
Back 270, 271, 272 thumb counter-pressure 297 curve of bridge 78, 82
Balance 272, 274, 299 Bow pressure four-string 77
Banana notes 110 banana notes 1 10 intonation 79
Base joints 159, 232, 235, 270 bridge, playing near to 54 isolating fingers 81
angle to fingerboard 300 changing bow 86 joining 82
defaults 300 describing 48 light fingers 84
exercise using rim of violin 239 even 86, 1 00, 1 1 0 pivot string 78
extensions 250 extraneous sounds 56 point-of-balance 82
finger action 239 fourth finger, balancing with 255 reaching back 247
left-hand pizzicato 140 ghosting 1 60 soundpoint 77, 78, 80, 84
right hand 302 heavy-light 86, 1 1 2 split 78
straight line to elbow 301 high positions 59 sustaining 84
widening at 246 intonation 60 three-two 84
widening using tilt of finger 300 martele 89 voicing 80
Blocks proportions 5 1 , 297 weight of bow 84
thirds 222 ricochet 1 00 Chromatic glissando
tone-semitone patterns 1 97, 1 9 8 speed not pressure 302 building in groups 191
Bow Bow speed models 192
angle to bridge 258, 302 banana notes 1 10 speed 1 90
balance (chords) 80 changing bow 86 Chromatic scales 146, 149, 186
balance (double stops) 72, 73 describing 48 Clarity 7, 27, 32, 106, 124, 140 I
balancing with fourth finger 255, 303 even 86, 1 00, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 Classical shifts See Shifting
change 27, 57, 86 extraneous sounds 56 Clicks 83, 106
connecting strokes 57 fast-slow 87, 8 9 Clothes 299 I
control 143 ghosting 160 Colle-spiccato 96 I
elasticity 53, 69, 70, 82, 1 1 3, 297 proportions 47, 5 1, 297 Colour 47
friction 56 ricochet 100 Combination shifts See Shifting
give of wood and hair 54, 1 1 3, 297 speed not pressure 302 Command-response 36, 280
hair See Bow hair Bow strokes See also each stroke Co-ordination 36, 83, 1 19, 122, 243
in and out 258 active and passive 98, 260 bow change 57
independent of left fingers 137 attacks from the air 298 bowing patterns in scales 1 43
legato 137 character 87 fast lift-off 10
levels 1 05 circular 264 fingers leading bow 14
momentum 301 connecting 57 fuzz 14
pivoting See Pivoting curved 92, 2 6 8 pizzicato 14
around thumb 97, 254 designing speed and pressure 1 10 shifting 1 79
point-of-balance 82, 257 evenness 61, 1 12 spiccato 95
soundpoints See Soundpoints fast-slow 53, 86, 87, 89, 1 1 2 timing finger and bow 240, 245
springiness 69, 70, 89 gravity 64 Counter-exercising 272
tilt 89, 259, 297, 302 heavy-light 52, 53, 64, 86, 87' Curved strokes See Bow strokes
Bow division 89, 1 1 2
chords 82 legato 34, 1 3-7, 3 0 1 Da Vinci, Leonardo 297
more important notes 111 lifted 297 de Bono, Edward 56
Defaults 299 notes before and after 206, 2 1 3 light fingers, heavy bow 1 37
DeLay, Dorothy 207, 239 releasing after 232 like a pianist 1 93, 3 0 1
Detache 145, 147 widening by reaching back 246 localizing actions 270
accented 87, 26 1 wrist 238 low 4, 1 1 5, 1 23
length of bow 1 15 measuring from imagined fingers 1 95
proportions 87 Face 270 middle joint 300
simple 87 Fast playing moving at the last possible moment
Diminuendo, unwanted 74 clarity 27 7, 8, 10, 36, 300
Double contact, principle of 301 fast and slow intonation 215 non-consecutive 1 9 5, 197
Double stops See also each interval groups 24, 293 ping 7
alternate upper and lower line 226 height of fingers 1 1 5, 298 prepared fingers See Finger preparation
bow balance 72, 73 notes dropping out 27 pressure See Finger pressure (left)
bowing one string 225 speed limit 24 reaching back 246, 247, 2 5 1
fixed and movable notes 218 speed of shift 1 72, 298 relationships between 1 93, 207, 2 1 2
leaving fingers down 227 Feedback 56, 57 releasing 1 30, 1 82
light fingers, heavy bow 84 Fifths rhythm 1 22, 285
perfect intervals 209 double stop 56, 205, 224 shape, dropping and lifting 1 0, 270,
third tone 2 1 8, 220 interval 204, 209 300
using a model 227 Finger action See Fingers (left) short 301
vibrato exercise 138 Finger preparation 240 slow tempo, fast fingers 8
wrist 301 continuous vibrato 137 space between 300
Drop-outs 27, 29, 36 default 301 speed 1 25, 240, 241, 242, 270, 298
drop-outs 27, 29, 30 speed limit 11
Effort 275 fast-finger practice 8 square and extended 1 35, 194
bowing t o o near fingerboard 57 first finger 243 squeezing together 250, 300, 3 0 1
broad bow stroke 1 17 fourth finger 243 stopping the string, two ways 240
channelling power into string 256 scales 243 stop-release 300
economy of movement 207, 274 Finger pressure (left) tension 290
finger action (left hand) 240 default 299 timing 7, 286
forearm rotation 267 ghosting 160 tip See Fingertip (left)
fourth finger (left) hand weight 230 harmonic-like in shifting 182 tone-semitone patterns
levering elbow into string 258 harmonics 139 See Tone-semitone patterns
light fingers (left hand) 1 20, 234, 235 minimum pressure 1 40, 230, 235 Fingers (right) See also each finger
localizing actions 270 over-pressing in double stops 84 flexibility 253
mental picture 291 pizzicato 140 movement in martele 88
moving fingers from base joint 239 practising non vibrato 236 placement on bow 84, 297, 302
non-vibrato 236 releasing held-down fingers 231 Fingertip (left)
reaching back 246 stop-release 233, 300 angle of base joints to fingerboard 300
relaxed left hand 1 19 thumb counter-pressure 230 elbow position 299
repetition practice 280 trilling shifts exercise 1 83 one-finger semitones 212
spreading fingers on bow 88, 259, 297 vibrato 1 30, 298 space between fingers 300
tilt of hair 259 Fingered octaves vibrato 1 15
timing finger and bow 245 reaching back 251, 252 First finger (left)
upper arm, bowing from 258 scale short-cuts 152 contact point with neck 237, 238, 3 0 1
vibrato 134 Fingers (left) See also each finger double contact, principle of 301
violin angle 299 base joints See Base joints finger preparation 243
Elbow (left) blocks 1 1 , 1 97, 1 9 8 harmonics, artificial 1 39
left-hand pizzicato 140 chords 8 1 , 83 localizing actions 270
mobility 299 contractions i n chromatics 1 49, 1 8 6 reaching back in tenths 246
straight line to base joints 301 defaults 300 releasing base joint 1 83, 230, 2 3 1
upper arm default position 299 dropping release for fourth finger 230
Elbow (right) 262 continuous vibrato 137 square and extended 135
bowing from 257 one action 11 squeezing with second 250, 3 0 1
levering in upper half 88, 258 energy 4, 243, 245 vibrato 135
Elementary students 47, 57 evenness viii, 90, 93, 1 00, 1 1 9, 1 4 1 First finger (right)
Energy 4, 126, 215, fan-like shape 11 counterbalanced by fourth 303
245, 270 fast fingers 7, 240 giving at base joint 254
Equalizing feel of 1 42, 1 55, 193 martele 88
r-, and V 64 fifths 224 over-using 254
drop-outs 27 finger accents 242, 285 over-working 258
lifting and dropping 9 finger action 239 placement on bow 297, 302
Evenness 35, 100, 148 fingertip See Fingertip (left) position relative to thumb 259
bow disturbed by left hand 34, 6 1 fuzz See Fuzz sautille 97
bow length exercise 68 holding down 1 93, 231 Five forward three back 16
describing sound 48 independence from bow 1 37 Fixed and movable notes 218
different bowing as model 64, 66 leading the bow 14, 1 22, 244, 301 Fixing
sauti7M 97 leaving fingers down (double stops) 227 bow hold, release of 255
scales 141 legato 1 1 9, 241, 244 flexible musical ideas 1 10
separating bow and left hand viii, 1 1 9 legato bowing 1 37 tension 272
spiccato 65, 93 lift-off 8, 1 93, 270, 300 Flesch, Carl 253, 299
staccato 90 continuous vibrato 1 37 Forearm (left)
tone exercise 67 co-ordination 10 vibrato 1 34, 236
vibrato 1 30 fast 1 0, 240 wrist 238
Exchange shifts See Shifting fuzz 1 23, 240 Forearm (right) 272
Expressive intonation 212, 214 pulling against a resistance 9 angle to floor 269
Extensions 206 rhythm 286 elbow against wall 268
leading from the base joint 246 too early 27, 3 1 , 286 powered from upper arm 257, 258, 268
measuring from adjacent notes 203 light and effortless 120 string-crossing 267
333
Forearm rotation springs 253 Listening 27' 56, 182, 304
beginning and ending notes 268 string crossing 265, 266 Localizing actions 137, 270
definition of 265 tension 90 Loops 16, 278
hand movements 266 wrist, high and low 266
on one string 269 Harmonics Martele 32, 90, 141
proportions 267 double stops 139 bite 89
rounded gestures 268 finger pressure 139 designing strokes 88
spiccato 95 fourth finger 139 proportions 88
Four main factors See Pitch, Sound, shifting to 1 88 scales 1 44
Rhythm, Ease sustaining without the bow 189 vibrato accents 89
Fourth finger (left) Head 270 Memory
base joint 239 Hip joint 274 accent practice 43
extending reach of 250 accenting and pausing 295
finger preparation 243 In and out 76, 258 adding one note at a time 21
hand weight 230 Independence association 292
harmonics 139 actions 137 aural 292
placement o n tip o r pad 255 hands 34, 6 1 , 1 37, 235 blind spots 296
reaching back from 246 Intermediate notes See Shifting describing phrases 293
releasing 230 Intervals See Intonation emotional 294
squeezing with third 300 Intonation groups 24
tilt of violin 299 accents 216 intellectual 293
wrist 238 arpeggios 212 muscle memory 280
Fourth finger (right) arrows 216 note relationships 294
balancing with 255, 297 bow pressure 60 practising from memory 292
placement on bow 303 checking in other positions 200 rhythm practice 36
placement on tip or pad 255 chords 79 tactile 293
playing in upper half 269 chromatic tuner 218 thinking ahead 294
Fourths diminished seventh 214 visual 292
double stop 223 diminished third 214 Mental commands
interval 204, 206, 209 evenness 141 groups 24
Friction (bow) 56 expressive 2 1 2, 2 1 4 groups in staccato 26
Fuzz 240 fast and slow passages 215 rhythm practice 36
continuous vibrato exercise 137 feel of the fingers 1 93 Mental picture
co-ordination 14 holding fingers down 1 93 command-response 36
fast fingers 240, 298, 300 ignoring sound and rhythm 1 96 mental rehearsal 290
trills 1 23 insecure 218 rhythm practice 36
instantaneous correction 227 shifting 1 57
Galamian, Ivan 153, 207, 253 intervals 2 1 0, 2 1 7 thumb 229
double contact, principle of 301 leading notes 207, 2 1 4 using a model 126
half shifts 1 86 mental rehearsal 291 Mental rehearsal 290
in and out 258 octaves (double stop) 72 Metronome viii, 2, 24, 37, 92, 1 18, 141
practising slowly 1 piano, tuning to 218 Milstein, Nathan 2
rhythm and accent practice 36 playing on different strings 202 Mind-muscle unit 36
Ghosting See Shifting proportions 298 Minimum effort 43
Gould, Glenn 304 relationships viii, 207, 2 1 7 Models
Grooving 280 same notes, different octaves 207 chromatic glissando 1 92
Groups starting on different keynotes 201 double stops 227
chromatic glissando 191 structure 207 evenness of spiccato 65
mental command 24, 293 tempered 2 1 4, 2 1 5, 2 1 8 reversed bowing 64
rhythmic aiming-points 25, 284 tester notes 207 slurs for simple dhache 87
staccato 26 thinking in intervals 1 93 spiccato for staccato 91
tone-semitone patterns tone 53, 1 8 1
Habits 280, 299 See Tone-semitone patterns trills 126
Hair See Bow hair up-bow attacks 64
Hand (left) 240 Knees 274 vibrato 1 3 5, 1 3 8
angle of knuckles 237, 250 Momentum 301
base joints See Base joints Leading notes 207, 214, 218 Mona Lisa 297
based on upper fingers 246 Learning, four stages 280 Moses variations, Paganini 299
contracted fingering 1 49, 1 86 Left hand See Hand (left) Mozart, Leopold 289
double contact, principle of 301 Legato 7, 57, 134 Muscle memory 280
feel of the hand and fingers 1 53, 1 5 5 bowing close to next string 101 Muscles
higher and lower placement 238 finger action 241 active and passive 272
independence from bow 34, 61, 235 finger preparation 244, 3 0 1 contracting 252, 272
large 298 height of fingers 5 , 298 counter-exercising 272
octaves, position for 72 practising on open strings 34 fatigue 272
placement 298 separate bows 87 localizing actions 270
shape 1 93, 25 1 Lengthening and widening 272, 274 mind-muscle unit 36
small 298 Leverage 89 muscle memory 280
tension 2 5 1 , 252 bow hold in martele 88 responsiveness not strength 36
widening at the base joints 246, 252 elbow (right) 258 training mind, not muscles 29 1
Hand (right) first finger (right) 302
base joints 302 second finger (right) 254 Neck 43, 159, 271, 272, 273
channelling power 256 spreading fingers on bow 88, 259, 297
heavier at heel 64 string-crossing at heel and point 91 Octaves (double stop) 56
independence from bow 34, 235 Lifted strokes 297. See also each stroke upper and lower finger 72
independence from left hand 61 forearm rotation 95 Overlapping
responding to bow 69 rhythm practice 36 bowing 119
responsive to hair-string contact 67 Lifting fingers See Fingers (left) co-ordination 14
shifting viii, 179 playing the rest 288 releasing hand and fingers 182
spiccato 180 psychological up-beats 282 romantic shift 1 63, 1 65, 1 6 9
string-crosssing 102 rhythm practice viii, 36, 274 semitones 1 58, 2 1 2
fingers (left) 1 36, 243 rhythmic pulse 1 77, 282 slow arrival speed 1 72, 298
Overtones 56 shortened notes 288 speed 1 72, 298
Over-working 134, 240, 256, 258, 265 subdividing 282, 284 substitutions 1 59
timing shifts 177 timing 1 75
Perfect intervals 209, 210 timing trills and turns 1 23, 1 2 6 trilling 1 6, 1 50, 183
Performance practice 304 triplet patterns 261 weight of head in chin rest 271
Perlman, Itzhak 207, 304 Rhythm practice viii, 3 6 , 2 74 Shoulder rest 299
Ping 7, 8, 56, 240 Ricochet 99, 100, 254 Shoulders 43, 270, 290
Pitch-sound-rhythm-ease 2, 36, 43, Right hand See Hand (right) shoulder blades 272, 273, 274
141, 275, 280, 291, 292 Romantic shifts See Shifting tension 27 1
Pivoting Sight reading 1 10, 291
chords 78 Sautille 145, 254 Singing, imagining 181
string-crossing 1 0 1 , 1 03, 302 area of bow 99 Sitting 274
Pizzicato (left hand) 140 bow hold 302 Sixths (double stop) 147, 1 5 1
Playing-through practice 304 contrasted with spiccato 97 third tone 218
Point of contact See Soundpoints curved motion 98 tuning single stops 220
Point-of-balance 82, 257 fingers like a pianist 301 Slow tempo, fast fingers 8
Portamento 163 hair, amount of 99 Soundpoints viii
Posture 272, 274, 291, 299 legato slurs 97 chords 78
Pressure See Bow pressure unrestricted by fingers 97 default 302
Progress, fastest vii Scales 177, 183, 193, 276 describing 48
Pronation 88, 89, 269, 302 bowing patterns 1 43 high-position passages 51
Proportions chromatic 146, 1 49, 1 8 6 proportions 47, 50, 5 1 , 297
analogy of photograph 188 evenness 141 short string length 59
bow division, chords 83 finger preparation 243 Speed See Bow speed
colle-spiccato 96 fingerings 144 Spiccato 97, 145, 147, 299
Da Vinci, Leonardo 297 improvising 148 area of bow 96
describing sound 48 mental rehearsal 29 1 bow hold 302
detache 87 preparatory exercises 150 colle-spiccato 96
enlarged musical design 296 structure of intonation 210 contrasted with ricochet 99
forearm rotation 267 tone-semitone patterns 197 contrasted with sautille 97
height, length, soundpoint 94 vibrato 1 42 co-ordination 95
intonation 298 Scroll evenness 65, 93
lifted strokes 99, 297 height 57, 270, 299 fingers like a pianist 301
shift speed 1 72, 298 shaking 1 83, 290 for releasing left hand 236
shifting and soundpoint 59 Second finger (left) 246, 250 hair, amount of 94
speed, pressure, soundpoint 47, 51, 59, Second finger (right) height 115
96, 130 leverage 254 length of bow 99
spiccato 50, 93, 94, 96 placement on bow 303 listening 56
contrasted with ricochet 99 position relative to thumb 259 model for staccato 91
string-crossing at heel and point 91 Semitones overlapping bowing 180
strokes 88 not too narrow 212 playing without first finger 254
tone production 297 shifting 1 5 8, 2 1 2 proportions 93, 94, 9 6
trills 1 23 wide and narrow 214 rhythm practice 36
vibrato 1 23, 1 24, 298 Seven levels of the bow 105 soundpoint 94, 96
Psychological up-beats 282 Sevenths See Intonation speed of bow 96
Pulling down 270, 272 dominant/diminished arpeggios 1 47 Spine 270, 272, 274
Shifting Sport 290
Release areas of resistance 1 59 Square and extended See Fingers (left)
accent practice 43 balance of hand on finger 153 Staccato 32, 97
between fingers 231 beginning shift 160 co-ordination 90
first finger base joint 230 classical shift 1 60, 1 65, 169 curved stroke 92
fourth finger 230 combination shift 1 65, 1 6 9 evenness 90
martele 90 comparing feel o f adjacent notes 1 57 groups 26
reaching back 250 comparing with different finger 156 leverage 91
shifting 182 co-ordination with bow 179, 301 saving bow 91, 1 1 5
stop-release 233, 300 drop-outs 27 spiccato as a model 91
using spiccato 236 end shift 1 63 too-late string crossing 92
vibrato 130 exchange shift 166 Standing, playing sitting or 274
without chin on rest 271 fast-slow 1 72, 2 9 8 Stature 1 1 1 , 117, 270
Repetition 200, 280 fingers close t o string 6 Stern, Isaac 294
Resistance, line of least 57 ghosting 1 60, 1 63, 1 72, 182 String
Resonance 6 1 , 91 half-shifts 186 angle to floor 57
background 56 heavy slides 1 5 6, 182 bow change 57
pizzicato 140 Heifetz shift 172 bow weight 54, 59
Rhythm intermediate notes 1 54, 1 60, 1 70, 203 elasticity 297
aiming-points 242, 284 isolating 1 86 friction 56
dotted patterns 287 light fingers 1 1 5, 162 give 54
evenness 141 listening 57 length 7, 5 1 , 59, 72, 298, 301
fast lift-off 286 long 59 levels 262, 267
finger accents 285 memorizing feel of position 153 moving towards bow 270
fingering without bow 1 22 no 'shift' 160 physical properties of 58
left-hand pizzicato 140 overlapping viii, 1 79 sympathetic vibrations 56
lifting off too early 286 portamento 163 tension 47, 57, 78, 94
playing the dot or tie 289 pulling down during 270 vibration 7, 47, 57, 1 25, 240, 24 1, 301
335
String crossing Third finger (right) Tuning the violin 56
accented 302 placement on bow 255, 303 Two-thirds - one-third-two-thirds 113
awkwardness 262 pulling in 255
clicks 83 Third tone 218 Upper arm (left)
clockwise, anticlockwise 34 Third, diminished See Intonation counter-exercise 273
continuous 1 05 Thirds (double stop) 70, 146, 150 default position 299
drop-outs 27 blocks 222 localizing actions 270
forearm rotation See Forearm rotation bow weight 60 minimum effort 235, 236
hair and string contact point 83, 1 0 6 intervals between 221 mobility 299
hand movements 266 large and small distances 221 tension 159
looking at the hair and strings 101 reaching back 25 1 , 252 Upper arm (right)
one action not two 108 six most common pairs 221 bowing from elbow 257
overlapping See Overlapping tension 251 in and out 258
over-working 265 , third tone 218 over-working 265
pivoting See Pivoting tone-semitone spacing 221 rotation 265
playing as double stop 1 22 tuning single stops 220 string crossing 262, 267
pulling down during 270 using the perfect fourth 223 strokes directed from 257, 258, 262,
resting elbow against wall 268 Thumb (left) 183 268
smooth or accented 1 00, 1 0 1 contact point with neck 30 1 tilt of violin 299
staccato 92 counter-pressure 230 vertical movement 257
timing 101 default position 301
upper arm 265, 268 localizing actions 270 Vegh, Sandor 130, 255
wide 1 08 minimum effort 235, 236 Vibrato
Strokes See Bow strokes rolling 229 accents 43, 52, 89, 1 38, 242
Subdividing 282, 284 shifting 159 background vibrato 1 36, 1 42
Substitutions 150, 151, 152. See Shifting shock absorbers 290 complete cycle, description of 128
exchange shifts 166 squeezing with first finger 229 continuous 136, 1 37
Supination 269, 302 three joints 229 default 301
Surface noise 56 Thumb (right) dotted rhythm 130
Sympathetic vibrations 56 counter-pressure 297 double contact, principle of 301
opposition to first and third 255 double-stop rhythms exercise 133
Tapping 239 placement on bow 254, 302 even 1 30
Technique Timing, technical and musical 89 fast 1 15
definition of 299 Tone production fast-slow 52, 134
expression and mechanics 1 23 articulation (left hand) 7 finger pressure 130
serving music 181 bow change 57 fingertip placement 1 1 5, 1 29
Tempo 43 bowing too near fingerboard 57 first finger 135
clarity 27 colour 47, 302 hand 257
effort 245 describing 48 holding down fingers 136
intonation 215 fat and thin 259 inspiration 134
practising at performance tempo 2 finger preparation 301 mental rehearsal 290
practising slowly 1 first finger (right) 254 models 1 35
proportions 297 flat or tilted hair 89, 259 non-vibrato 1 30, 1 33, 236
slow tempo, fast fingers 7 fourth finger (right) 255 one active movement 123
slow, exaggerating expression 296, 305 friction 56 over-wide 130
slow, sustained 1 15 high positions 181 pitch 1 28, 1 30
speed limit 11 length of string 297 proportions 134, 298
speed of shift 1 72 non-vibrato 1 33 pulses 130
speeding up with metronome 2 octaves 72 range 1 34
spiccato 98 ping 7 releasing string 1 30
Tension ix, 280 pressure See Bow pressure rolling on fingertip 1 28
bow hold 302 proportions See Proportions scales 142
counter-exercising 272 pulsing 54 slow 130
fingered octaves 251 resonance 56 speed l l S, 1 34, 298
fingers moving from base joints 300 soundpoints See Soundpoints tendencies of certain fingers 135
forearm rotation 269 speed See Bow speed track 128
light fingers in double stops 84 speed not pressure 302 wide-narrow 52, 134
localizing actions 270 third finger (right) 255 width 1 1 5, 129, 1 34, 298
martele 90 tight, pressed 254 without expression in bow 1 33
mental commands 270 tilt of violin 299 wrist, definition of 257
mental rehearsal 290 widest possible string vibration 47 Violin
pressing with chin 271 wood scraping on string 259 angle of strings to floor 57
releasing between strokes 90, 97 Tone-semitone patterns 196, 197, 198, tilt 299
right-hand flexibility 253 216, 221, 222, 295
shifting 1 59 Tremolo 73, 1 1 5 Warming up 304
thirds (double stop) 25 1 Trilling shifts 16, 150, 1 8 3 Wrist (left) 183, 235
thumb (left) 229, 3 0 1 Trills arm length 301
thumb (right) 297 bow change 127 localizing actions 270
wrist (left) 238 fuzz 1 23, 1 25 pushing out 238, 250, 3 0 1
Tenths (double stop) height of finger 1 1 5, 1 1 8, 298 tension 159
playing in other positions 201 models 126 Wrist (right)
reaching back 246, 249 one active movement 1 23 high and low 266
tones and semitones 228 practising without 123 supporting in upper half 256
Third finger (left) proportions 123
harmonics 139 turn 126
moving from base joint 239 vibrato, likened to 1 23
square position 1 94 Triplet patterns 261

Simon Fischer - Practice (Violin) (2004, Edition Peters)

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Simon Fischer - Practice (Violin) (2004, Edition Peters)

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•

for the violin

LONDON • FRANKFURT • LEIPZIG • NEWYORK

First published 2004

ISBN 1 84367 008 9

Music-setting and typesetting by Musonix

Cover: Juan Gris, Violin and Glass

Text design by c eye, London

Printed in Great Britain by Caligraving Limited, Thetford, Norfolk

Bloch: Nigun Kreisler: Rigaudon

Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro Sibelius: Violin Concerto in D minor, op. 47

Fast runs: controlling the speed 3 Equalizing l"'I and V 64

String crossings 92 Playing without the trill 1 23

Metronome practice 92 Speed: height of finger 1 23

Playing the same notes in

Intermediate notes 160 Testing, relating, comparing 207

'Trilling' shifts 1 83 Thirds and fingered octaves:

Releasing the right arm 256

Practising very slowly

Example 1 Beethoven: Sonata in F, op. 24 ('Spring'), mov. 3, b. 18

"t "t "t "t

(1) Play very slowly, using a long stroke on the string.

Example 2 Tchaikovsky: Concerto in D, op. 35, mov. 1, b. 111

hLJ #j j d j j Ju! #C f j q= j 11d j d j d j n! t f I J

cresc. poco a poco

S peeding u p with the metronome

Examples Pugnani-Kreisler: Praeludium and Allegro, Allegro, b. 5

Vieuxtemps: Concerto no. 5 in A minor, op. 37, mov. 1, b. 109

Fast ru ns: controlling the speed

Example 1 Bruch: Concerto no. 1 in G minor, op. 26, mov. 1, b. 1 0

Example 2 Bruch: Scottish Fantasy, op. 46, mov. 1 b. 37

Slow aceel. Fast rit. Slow

Example 3 Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. 1, b. 40

Slow aceel. Fast rit. Slow

Example 4 Chausson: Poeme, op. 25, b. 151

Holding down the fourth finger

Example 1 Beriot: Scene de Ballet, op. 100, b. 70

,,t- 3]. 3:.�

Example 2 Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. 1, b. 13

Practising extra-dose to the stri ng

Example 2 Mozart: Concerto no. 5 in A, K219, mov. 1, b. 49

Barely clear the Position the third

Example 3 Brahms: Sonata no. I in G, op . 78, mov. 1, b. 3

Fast nassa!les 5'

Example 1 Rode: Concerto no. 7 in A minor, op. 9, mov. 1, b. 98

Example 2 Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy, op. 25, Introduction, b. 49

Example 1 Vivaldi: Concerto in G minor, op. 12 no. 1, mov. 1, b. 41

• Play very slowly, sustaining the tone f.

f /' /' /'

• Fast spiccato or sautille:

Example 4 Handel: Sonata in D, op. 1 no. 13, 2, b. 30

• Place the fingers marked '+' on the string gently,

• Fast spiccato or sautille:

Place first and third fingers, Drop (first and third

• Fast spiccato or sautille:

$�1'!il 4tteteteh�!Cftftfiii r r r re r r Ii tttt; ) I) tttt; )

Example 6 Wieniawski: Polonaise brillante, op. 2 1 , b. 155

Example 7 Sarasate: Zigeunerweisen, op. 20 no. 1, b. 7

Y'�HFFe�r 1qfffHrcrcr Er l[�E c r F r r

Jf Ht Ff 1qHfitrr;rr rf 1 c�c r; Erg� n w;o 1 f

Example 9 Faure: Sonata in A, op. 13, mov. 3, b. 4

Lift the Lift the Lift the

Playing slurred notes at a slow tempo, you can raise Fig. 4

Example 1 Paganini: Concerto no. 1 in D, op. 6, mov. 1, b. 298