UNIT-1: INSPIRATION

PART-1

Objective:

After learning this unit, the students will be able

 To understand the concept of Behavioural Psychology.

 To Know the Principles of Learner Behavioural Psychology.
 To analyze the Behavioural theories.

1. Introduction

Behavioral psychology, or behaviorism, is a theory suggesting that

environment shapes human behavior. In a most basic sense, behavioral
psychology is the study and analysis of observable behavior. This field of
psychology influenced thought heavily throughout the middle of the 20th
century. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are
learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have
very little influence on behavior.

1.1. Concept of Learner Behavioural Psychology:

Behaviorism emphasizes how people interact with their environment.

Over time, these interactions (called “stimuli”) form particular behaviors. The
process by which this behavior is formed is known as conditioning.
Psychologist John B. Watson is most commonly cited as a founding father of
cognitive-behavioral psychology.

According to this school of thought, also known as behavioral

psychology, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner
regardless of internal mental states. Behavioral theory also says that only
observable behavior should be studied, as cognition, emotions, and mood are far
too subjective.
 1.2. Principles of Learner Behavioural Psychology:

The primary tenet of behaviourism is that psychology should concern

itself with the observable behaviour of people and animals, not with
unobservable events that take place in their minds. The behaviourists criticized
the mentalists for their inability to demonstrate empirical evidence to support
their claims.

 Behaviourist psychology should concern itself with the observable

behaviour of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place
in their minds.

 The main influences of behaviourist psychology were Ivan Pavlov (1849-

1936), Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949), John B. Watson (1878-1958), and
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990).

 The idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that are not
naturally occurring is called “classical conditioning.”

 Operant conditioning refers to how an organism operates on the

environment or how it responds to what is presented to it in the environment.

 Reinforcement means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to

any stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of a specific
response.

 There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment,

and extinction.

 Behaviourist researchers used experimental methods (puzzle box, operant

conditioning or Skinner box, Little Albert experiment) to investigate learning
processes.

 Today, behaviourism is still prominent in applications such as

gamification.
I. Simple learned behaviors

Learned behaviors, even though they may have innate components or

underpinnings, allow an individual organism to adapt to changes in the
environment. Learned behaviors are modified by previous experiences;
examples of simple learned behaviors include habituation and imprinting.

(i) Habituation

Habituation is a simple form of

learning in which an animal stops
responding to a stimulus, or cue, after
a period of repeated exposure. This is
a form of non-associative learning,
meaning that the stimulus is not
linked with any punishment or
reward.

For example, prairie dogs typically sound an alarm call when threatened
by a predator. At first, they will give this alarm call in response to hearing
human steps, which indicate the presence of a large and potentially hungry
animal.

However, the prairie dogs gradually become habituated to the sound of human
footsteps, as they repeatedly experience the sound without anything bad
happening. Eventually, they stop giving the alarm call in response to footsteps.
In this example, habituation is specific to the sound of human footsteps, as the
animals still respond to the sounds of potential predators.

(ii) Imprinting

Imprinting is a simple and highly specific

type of learning that occurs at a particular
age or life stage during the development
of certain animals, such as ducks and
geese. When ducklings hatch, they
imprint on the first adult animal they see,
typically their mother. Once a duckling has imprinted on its mother, the sight of
the mother acts as a cue to trigger a suite of survival-promoting behaviors, such
as following the mother around and imitating her.

How do we know this is not an innate behavior, in which the duckling is

hardwired to follow around a female duck? That is, how do we know imprinting
is a learning process conditioned by experience? If newborn ducks or geese see
a human before they see their mother, they will imprint on the human and
follow it around just as they would follow their real mother.

II. Conditioned behaviors

Conditioned behaviors are the result of associative learning, which takes two
forms: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

(i) Classical conditioning

In classical conditioning, a response already associated with one stimulus is

associated with a second stimulus to which it had no previous connection. The
most famous example of classical conditioning comes from Ivan Pavlov’s
experiments in which dogs were conditioned to drool—a response previously
associated with food—upon hearing the sound of a bell.

As Pavlov observed, and as you may have

noticed too, dogs salivate, or drool, in response
to the sight or smell of food. This is something
dogs do innately, without any need for learning.
In the language of classical conditioning, this
existing stimulus-response pair can be broken
into an unconditioned stimulus, the sight or
smell of food, and an unconditioned response,
drooling.

In Pavlov's experiments, every time a dog was given food, another stimulus was
provided alongside the unconditioned stimulus. Specifically, a bell was rung at
 the same time the dog received food. This ringing
of the bell, paired with food, is an example of
a conditioning stimulus—a new stimulus
delivered in parallel with the unconditioned
stimulus.

Over time, the dogs learned to associate the

ringing of the bell with food and to respond
by drooling. Eventually, they would respond
with drool when the bell was rung, even
when the unconditioned stimulus, the food,
was absent. This new, artificially formed
stimulus-response pair consists of
a conditioned stimulus, the bell ringing, and
a conditioned response, drooling.

Is the unconditioned response, drooling in response to food, exactly identical to

the conditioned response, drooling in response to the bell? Not necessarily.
Pavlov discovered that the saliva in the conditioned dogs was actually different
in composition than the saliva of unconditioned dogs.

(ii) Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a bit different than classical conditioning in that it does

not rely on an existing stimulus-response pair. Instead, whenever an organism
performs a behavior—or an intermediate step on the way to the complete
behavior—it is given a reward or a punishment. At first, the organism may
perform the behavior—e.g., pressing a lever—purely by chance. Through
reinforcement, the organism is induced to perform the behavior more or less
frequently.
One prominent early
investigator of operant
conditioning was the
psychologist B. F.
Skinner, the inventor of
the Skinner box, see the
given image. Skinner
put rats in boxes
containing a lever that
would dispense food
when pushed by the rat.
The rat would initially
push the lever a few
times by accident, and
would then begin to
associate pushing the
lever with getting the
food. Over time, the rat would push the lever more and more frequently in order
to obtain the food.

Not all of Skinner's experiments involved pleasant treats. The bottom of the box
consisted of a metal grid that could deliver an electric shock to rats as a
punishment. When the rat got an electric shock each time it performed a certain
behavior, it quickly learned to stop performing the behavior. As these examples
show, both positive and negative reinforcement can be used to shape an
organism's behavior in operant conditioning. Ouch! Poor rats!

Operant conditioning is the basis of most animal training. For instance, you
might give your dog a biscuit or a "Good dog!" every time it sits, rolls over, or
refrains from barking. On the other hand, cows in a field surrounded by an
electrified fence will quickly learn to avoid brushing up against the fence.44start
superscript, 4, end superscript
 As these examples illustrate, operant conditioning through reinforcement can
cause animals to engage in behaviors they would not have naturally performed
or to avoid behaviors that are normally part of their repertoire.

1.3. Understanding Human Behaviour:

Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity (mentally,

physically, and socially) of human individuals or groups to respond to internal
and external stimuli throughout their life. Behavior is driven by genetic and
environmental factors that affect an individual.

A study on human behavior has revealed that 90% of the population can
be classified into four basic personality types: Optimistic, Pessimistic, Trusting
and Envious. However, the latter of the four types, Envious, is the most common,
with 30% compared to 20% for each of the other groups.
 Optimists: those who believe they and their partner are capable of
making the best decision for themselves
 Pessimists: those who pick the lesser of two evils when faced with
options
 Trusting: those who collaborate with their partners and don’t mind
whether they win or lose
 Envious: those who don’t mind what they achieve, as long as they’re
better than everyone else
The study of human behavior has played an important role in improving
the lives of people who have mental health and behavioral disorders. It has also
facilitated advancements in areas such as early childhood education,
organizational behavior management, and public health.

Summary

 Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment.
  Behavioural psychology influenced thought heavily throughout the
middle of the 20th century.
 Psychologist John B. Watson is most commonly cited as a founding
father of cognitive-behavioral psychology.
 The most famous example of classical conditioning comes from Ivan
Pavlov’s experiments in which dogs were conditioned to drool—a
response previously associated with food—upon hearing the sound of a
bell.
 One prominent early investigator of operant conditioning was the
psychologist B. F. Skinner, the inventor of the Skinner box. Skinner put
rats in boxes containing a lever that would dispense food when pushed by
the rat.
 Four basic personality types: Optimistic, Pessimistic, Trusting and
Envious.
************

Objective Type Questions 5×1 = 5

1. Behavioural psychology influenced thought heavily throughout the middle of

the _________ century

a. 18th b. 19th c. 20th d. 21st

2. Who is the father of cognitive-behavioral psychology?.

a. John B. Watson b. Ivan Pavlov

c. J. M. Cattell d. Alfred Binet

3. The idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that is not naturally
 occurring is called ________.

a. Operant Conditioning b. Classical Conditioning

c. Reinforcement d. Behaviorism

4. Skinner box used in __________

a. Classical conditioning b. Operant conditioning

c. Behaviourism d. Attention model

5. How many basic personality types in human behaviour?

a. 4 types b. 5 types c. 3 types d. 2 types

Objective Type Questions- Answer Key

1. c. 20th Century
2. a. John B. Watson
3. b. Classical Conditioning
4. b. Operant Conditioning
5. a. 4 types

References:

 Mishra, B. K. (2008). Psychology: The Study of Human

Behaviour. India: PHI Learning.
 Tierney, J. (2019). Behavioral Psychology Mastery: 2 Books in 1:
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Manipulation. United
States: Independently Published.
 Behavioral Psychology: Understanding Human Behavior. (n.d.). United
States: Clanrye International.
 https://www.bioscience.com.pk/topics/psychology/item/1311-types-of-
human-behavior-in-psychology
 https://www.rivier.edu/academics/blog-posts/an-introduction-to-
behavioral-psychology
 PART – 2

Objective:

After learning this unit, the students will be able

 To understand the concept of Inspiration

 To identify the types of inspiration
 To know the functions of inspiration

1.4. Introduction

Inspiration is a feeling of enthusiasm you get from someone or

something, which gives you new and creative ideas. To inspire students is in
some ways a more ambitious goal. It requires not only drawing out what they
already have, but also raising them to a new level—not only bringing out hidden
knowledge, but also breathing in new life.

1.5. Types of inspiration:

1. Passive inspiration: Consuming the success and ideas of others;

2. Active inspiration: Creating things, applying new ideas to our goals,
and making mistakes.
Role of Inspiration:
Feeling inspired in your day-to-day life can play a key role in unlocking
creativity, increasing productivity, and boosting happiness. People who
regularly feel inspired at home and at work tend to be more engaged, more
confident, and more motivated to solve problems and create new things.

Theory of Motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the 20th
century and the hierarchy of needs, accompanied by the pyramid representing
how human needs are ranked.
Maslow’s theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have needs
that are hierarchically ranked (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1954). There are some
needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, nothing else
matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher-order
needs. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.
The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs. Physiological
needs refer to the need for air, food, and water. Imagine being very hungry. At
that point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you eat,
though, the search for food ceases
and the promise of food no longer
serves as a motivator. Once
physiological needs are satisfied,
people tend to become concerned
about safety. Are they safe from
danger, pain, or an uncertain future?
One level up, social needs refer to
the need to bond with other human
beings, to be loved, and to form
lasting attachments. In fact, having no attachments can negatively affect health
and well-being (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The satisfaction of social needs
makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem needs refer to the desire to be
respected by one’s peers, feeling important, and being appreciated. Finally, at
the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-actualization refers to
“becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need manifests itself by
acquiring new skills, taking on new challenges, and behaving in a way that will
lead to the satisfaction of one’s life goals.

1.6. Function of Inspiration

The tripartite conceptualization (Thrash and Elliot, 2003) specifies the
three core characteristics of the state of inspiration: evocation, transcendence,
and approach motivation.
Evocation refers to the fact that inspiration is evoked rather than initiated
volitionally by the individual. In other words, one does not feel directly
responsible for becoming inspired; rather, a stimulus object, such as a person,
an idea, or a work of art, evokes and sustains the inspiration episode.
During an episode of inspiration, the individual gains awareness of new
possibilities that transcend ordinary or mundane concerns. The new awareness
is vivid and concrete, and it surpasses the ordinary constraints of will fully
generated ideas.
Once inspired, the individual experiences a compelling approach motivation to
transmit, actualize, or express the new vision. This set of three characteristics is
intended to be minimally sufficient to distinguish the state of inspiration from
other states.

Teacher can Inspire:

As an educator, finding inspiration is just as easy as finding frustration

is. Let’s be honest, teaching is hard, and it only gets harder every year. Teachers
can choose to focus on the things they can’t control and, in turn, let frustration
control them, or they can choose to focus on the things within their control and
work on improving their influence with those around them. It’s all about how
teachers approach their role in education.

Finding inspiration is all about mindset. If one has a growth mindset and a
continuous-improvement approach to education and life, then inspiration is
consistently present.

Teaching in Action: Simple Ways to Bring Inspiration into the Classroom

These ideas can be incorporated in small and brief ways in any lesson
plan of any course.
• Bring nature into the classroom with flowers, plants, objects such as shells or
stones, and natural oddities.
• Start classes or activities with poetry, music, and literature that is moving and
pertains to the theme of the lesson.
• Utilize art as decoration or as part of an activity that portrays the beauty,
strength, resilience, and diversity of the human body.
• Look for and use designs in art or nature that illustrate an organizing pattern in
the body.
• Plan moments of silence
• Begin or end classes with meditation, mindfulness exercises, or simply paying
attention to the breath.
• Plan moments when movement and stretching are used.
• Organize group activities such as setting a learning intention as a class.
• Acknowledge student progress and demonstrate compassion and gratitude.
• Find the laughter, fun, spontaneity, and creative expression in massage.
• Hold discussion about what and who inspires and motivates students.

Summary

 Inspiration is a feeling of enthusiasm you get from someone or

something, which gives you new and creative ideas.
 Passive inspiration: Consuming the success and ideas of others;
 Active inspiration: Creating things, applying new ideas to our goals, and
making mistakes.
 The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs.
Physiological needs refer to the need for air, food, and water. Imagine
being very hungry.
 The tripartite conceptualization (Thrash and Elliot, 2003) specifies the
three core characteristics of the state of inspiration: evocation,
transcendence, and approach motivation.
 Once inspired, the individual experiences a
compelling approach motivation to transmit, actualize, or express the
new vision. This set of three characteristics is intended to be minimally
sufficient to distinguish the state of inspiration from other states.
 Teacher can find inspiration is all about mindset.
************
Objective type questions 5×1 = 5

1. Inspiration is a feeling of __________

a. enthusiasm b. warmth

c. unwillingness d. weakness

2 The most basic of Maslow’s needs are __________needs.

a. Safety b. Physiological
c. Psychological d. Esteem
3. Which one of the following is not in core characteristics of the state of
inspiration?

a. Evocation b. Approach

c. Meditation d. Transcendence

4. Inspiration is also called _________

a. Motivation b. Remembering

c. Forgetting d. Attention

5. A teacher can inspire students depends upon her _________

a. mindset b. attitude

c. aptitude d. intelligence

Objective Type Questions- Answer Key

1. a. Enthusiasm
2. b. Physiological
3. c. Meditation
4. a. Motivation
5. a. Mindset
References:

 Lane, L. (2016). The Little Book of Inspiration. United

Kingdom: Summersdale.
 Breitweiser, C. (2014). Inspiration of Time. United States: Page
Publishing, Incorporated.
 Malamed, C. (2015). Visual Design Solutions: Principles and Creative
Inspiration for Learning Professionals. Germany: Wiley.
 Inspiration and Innovation in Teaching and Teacher
Education. (2013). United States: Lexington Books.
 https://bti.edu/pdfs/Smith_Role-of-Inspiration-and-Motiviation.pdf
 https://www.leaderinme.org/blog/finding-inspiration
 PART-3

Objective:

After learning this unit, the students will be able

 To understand the concept of Inspiration in Education

 To identify the usage of rewards and punishment in education.
 To know the factors influencing inspiration in education.

1.7. Inspiration in Education

One of the primary teaching objectives for instructors is to inspire students and
to encourage and stimulate them to engage with the learning in such a way that
they begin to generate their own enthusiasm. Inspiration gives us both the
means and the motivation to rise above, be creative, grow closer to our goals,
learn from others, and achieve enhanced well-being.

I. *Inspirational Quotes*

1. “Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the
world.” -B.B. King
2. “Genius is 10% inspiration, 90% perspiration.” -Thomas Edison
3. “Success is the sum of small efforts, repeated.” -R. Collier
4. “Learn from yesterday. Live for today. Hope for tomorrow.
-Albert Einstein
5. “A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new."
-Albert Einstein

II. Five common steps to get your students inspired about learning:

1. Encourage Students
Students look to teachers for approval and positive reinforcement, and are
more likely to be enthusiastic about learning if they feel their work is
recognized and valued. You should encourage open communication and free
thinking with your students to make them feel important. Be enthusiastic. Praise
your students often. Recognize them for their contributions. If your classroom is
a friendly place where students feel heard and respected, they will be more
eager to learn. A “good job” or “nice work” can go a long way.
2. Get Them Involved
One way to encourage students and teach them responsibility is to get
them involved in the classroom. Make participating fun by giving each student a
job to do. Give students the responsibility of tidying up or decorating the
classroom. Assign a student to erase the blackboard or pass out materials. If you
are going over a reading in class, ask students to take turns reading sections out
loud. Make students work in groups and assign each a task or role. Giving
students a sense of ownership allows them to feel accomplished and encourages
active participation in class.
3. Offer Incentives
Setting expectations and making reasonable demands encourages students
to participate, but sometimes students need an extra push in the right direction.
Offering students small incentives makes learning fun and motivates students to
push themselves. Incentives can range from small to large giving a special
privilege to an exemplary student, to a class pizza party if the average test score
rises. Rewards give students a sense of accomplishment and encourage them to
work with a goal in mind.
4. Get Creative
Avoid monotony by changing around the structure of your class. Teach
through games and discussions instead of lectures, encourage students to debate
and enrich the subject matter with visual aids, like colorful charts, diagrams and
videos. You can even show a movie that effectively illustrates a topic or theme.
Your physical classroom should never be boring: use posters, models, student
projects and seasonal themes to decorate your classroom, and create a warm,
stimulating environment.
5. Draw Connections to Real Life
“When will I ever need this?” This question, too often heard in the
classroom, indicates that a student is not engaged. If a student does not believe
that what they’re learning is important, they won’t want to learn, so it’s
important to demonstrate how the subject relates to them. If you’re teaching
algebra, take some time to research how it is utilized practically for example, in
engineering and share your findings with your students. Really amaze them by
telling them that they may use it in their career. Showing them that a subject is
used everyday by “real” people gives it new importance. They may never be
excited about algebra but if they see how it applies to them, they may be
motivated to learn attentively.

1.8. Rewards and punishments

Rewards and punishments are the potent and powerful incentives. They
can be safely used for the achievement of desired motivation in the classroom
situations. Both of these are powerful incentives and try to influence the future
conduct or learning of an organism favourably.
Both reward and punishment are essentially used for educational
purposes. They are deliberately chosen by teachers to make learning process
effective. It further aims to improve students' learning achievement. A well-
selected reward and punishment contribute to students' learning effectiveness.

The use of punishment and reward will bring forth: Useful result in the
learning process of the students. Punishment can effectively eliminate an
undesirable responses. In learning it is most effective to reward or punish the
student immediately after the desired response occur.

Punishment may take the form of suspension, manual work, expulsion,

dismissal, isolation, detention after school, scolding, written lines, restitution,
being sent to the head master and being deprived of certain privilege.
1.9. Factors that Influence Students’ Inspiration in Education:
1. Class and Curriculum Structure
When students sense or see that classes follow a structure, and the
curriculum and class materials have been prepared beforehand, it provides them
with a greater sense of security. The feeling of security is one of our basic
needs. When that’s provided in a learning environment, it allows students to
fully focus on the learning material. To help students feel more secure,
educators need to plan classes and curriculums. All materials that will be used
in class should be prepared in advance. Educators can also state the objectives
of a course or class at the beginning of a semester or a class.
2. Teacher Behavior and Personality
If a student has a negative emotion such as fear or disliking towards their
teacher, that can negatively affect their attitude toward the subject as a whole. If
a teacher shows a preference towards certain students or uses derogatory and
humiliating language, that can lower their motivation in education.
On the other hand, kindness, optimism, positive feedback, and
encouragement can positively affect students’ motivation to learn.
3. Teaching Methods
Students are more likely to retain their motivation in education if
educators use different teaching methods. That creates diversity and prevents
students from getting bored. Giving room for certain choices such as which
partner they’d like to work with can be beneficial too.
Students in a single class are likely to have different styles of learning. Thus, a
teacher is more likely to meet these needs by applying different teaching
methods.
4. Parental Habits and Involvement
Quite a few parental habits can indirectly affect the motivation of children,
intrinsic motivation in particular. These include:

 showing interest in the child’s learning material,

  inquiring about their day,
 actively listening,
 helping with specific tasks or skills taught at school,
 attending parent meetings,
 encouraging children t complete homework or study for a test.
Another habit that’s been proven to improve motivation, is reading. Reading to
and with small children helps them develop literacy faster than talking does.
However, reading comprehension level can determine students’ success in later
school years.
5. Family Issues and Instability
Same as the lack of security in the classroom, the lack of security at home can
negatively impact motivation in education.
Children who live with both parents, on average get better grades than children
who don’t. Family conflicts and disruption can result in poorer academic
performance. Some examples include:

 divorce,
 loss of one or both parents,
 not living with the biological father or mother,
 not having contact with the biological father or mother,
 frequently moving from one home to another,
 being or having been involved with Child Protective Services.
As a result, in certain instances, additional support may be needed from schools
to help students with their issues.
6. Peer Relationships
As children grow older, the influence peers have upon them increases as
well. Therefore, problems and conflicts with peers can make students feel less
secure about their social status among peers, increase their stress levels, and
lower motivation in education.
Keeping an eye on any conflicts, bullying, and other peer issues can prevent
serious problems.
7. Learning Environment
School environment or school climate is another factor that affects
motivation in education. School environment refers to different norms and
regulations that determine the overall climate in the school.
Positive school environment makes students feel safe and secure, meets their
basic needs such as daily meals, and provides an optimal environment for them
to build healthy social relationships.
Too many classes and learning environment that’s too serious can also lower
motivation in education. Adding a fun element to classes can help to ease the
atmosphere and improve motivation and results. Allowing enough time for
play and rest can also have a positive effect.
8. Assessment
While standardized assessment increases the standards of attainment, it
can negatively influence students’ motivation in education, especially at a
younger age. It is also common for students to lose motivation if tests are
continuously too challenging. This does not provide a sense of achievement and
lowers motivation in education over time. Thus, it’s important for educators to
experiment with and apply different testing methods which would be able to
address the different learning needs of students.

Summary

 “Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the
world.” —B.B. King.
 “A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new." —
Albert Einstein
  Inspiration gives us both the means and the motivation to rise above, be
creative, grow closer to our goals, learn from others, and achieve
enhanced well-being.
 Teach through games and discussions instead of lectures, encourage
students to debate and enrich the subject matter with visual aids, like
colourful charts, diagrams and videos.
 Rewards and punishments are the potent and powerful incentives.
 Quite a few parental habits can indirectly affect the motivation of
children, intrinsic motivation in particular.

Objective Type Questions 5×1 = 5

1. “Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world.” –
said by ____

a. Albert Einstein b. B.B. King

c. R. Collier d. Thomas Edison

2. Inspiration gives us _________

a. motivation to rise b. be creative

c. both a and b d. None of the above
3. Which one of the following teaching aid is not used in the creative method of
inspiration?

a. Visual aids b. Black board

c. Colourful charts d.Videos

4. Rewards and Punishments are the _____________ incentives.

a. Powerful b. Professional

c. Fun d. Profit
5. A few parental habits can _________ affect the motivation of children.

a. directly b. indirectly

c. strictly d. particularly

Objective Type Questions- Answer Key

1. b. B.B. King
2. c. both a and b
3. b. Black board
4. a. Powerful
5. b. indirectly

References:

 Lane, L. (2016). The Little Book of Inspiration. United

Kingdom: Summersdale.
 Breitweiser, C. (2014). Inspiration of Time. United States: Page
Publishing, Incorporated.
 Malamed, C. (2015). Visual Design Solutions: Principles and Creative
Inspiration for Learning Professionals. Germany: Wiley.
 Inspiration and Innovation in Teaching and Teacher
Education. (2013). United States: Lexington Books.
 https://www.builtbyme.com/students-motivation-in-education/
 https://www.adda247.com/teaching-jobs-exam/rewards-and-punishments-
cdp-notes

Prepared by
Dr. T. Sivasakthi Rajammal
Assistant Professor
Department of Educational Psychology
Tamil Nadu Teachers Education University
Karappakkam, Chennai – 97.
 UNIT II

ATTENTION AND MEMORY

Attention: Meaning, distraction, inattention, divided attention, Span of attention,

Factors influencing attention. Memory: Meaning – storage systems: Sensory
Memory, Short term, Long term Memory. Duration and functions of Memory
storage systems.

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

 Students will be able to characterize distraction, inattention, divided

attention, Span of attention
 Students will understand and be able to describe Factors influencing
attention
 Students will acquire knowledge of Memory and storage systems
 Students will develop an understanding of the research in memory and
attention

KEY NOTES

2.1 Attention:

In psychology, attention refers to the process by which our brains selectively focus
on specific information in our environment while ignoring other information.
Attention is crucial for our ability to perceive, process, and respond to the world
around us. And the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon to the
exclusion of other stimuli. Attention is also closely linked to other cognitive
processes such as perception, memory, and learning. Our ability to pay attention
can be affected by factors such as fatigue, stress, and distractions. Some people
may have difficulty with attention, such as individuals with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Types of attention:-

1. Analytical Attention:- When our attention is diverted towards the analysis

of problem and to find out the prospective for that occurring presently.

2. Habitual Attention:- This type of attention is determined by habits.

3. Ideational Attention:- When the attention is diverted towards some image

or status or structure selected to object.

4. Involuntary Attention:- Here the attention is diverted suddenly toward the

stimulus, It hinders the process of goal seeking sometimes but not always. Ex-
attention is attracted to a song while studying.

5. Voluntary Attention:- when the attention is diverted willingly to an object.

Internal Factors External Factors

Interest − Interest is the most important
factor in attention. We show more
attention towards those things to which
we have greater attention, which is
visible in our daily lives. We watch TV
shows or movies of great interest
because we are interested in that thing.
Motives − Our basic motives help to
draw attention. Factors like thirst,
hunger, curiosity, and fear affect
attention. For example, a thirsty person
is more attracted to water than anything
else.
Mindset − A person's readiness to reply
to any stimulus makes that person more
attentive. For example, if a student was
Intensity of the Stimuli − The greater
the intensity of the stimulus Then more
likely a person will be drawn toward it.
Our attention will be more easily drawn
toward a bright light, strong smell or
loud sound, etc.
Size −The larger the stimulus, the more
attention will be drawn toward it. For
example, a truck will draw more
attention than a scooter or smaller
vehicle.
Motion of the Stimuli − A moving
stimulus gets more attention than a
static one, and a person is more
sensitive to something moving in his/her
field of vision. For example, a moving
expecting an examination, then if the
timetable of the exam suddenly got out,
it will surely draw more attention to that
particular student.
Moods and Attitudes − The things to
whom we are attending are always
influenced by the person's moods and
attitudes. For example, an angry person
easily points out a person's mistake. In
the same, our positive and negative
attitudes determine attention.
Desire − A person's desire become a
major cause of paying attention to
something. For example, a student who
wants to be a cricketer in the future will
pay more attention to his cricket
practices.
Aim/ Goal − Each person has an
ultimate goal in his/her life. For
example, a student to pass the exam
with good marks will pay more attention
to his books and exams.
Past experiences − From past
experiences, if we can determine that a
particular person is sincere to us, we
will pay more attention to him/her. In
this way, an effective stimulus is always
chosen to draw maximum attention.
Organic State − The physical state of
the person, like tiredness, discomfort,
sickness, etc., also plays a role in giving
attention. Again, if a person is in a state
of survival, he or she will pay attention
to the stimuli related to the resources of
survival.
Emotion − Stimuli that call on stronger
emotion attract greater attention.
Although positive emotions lead to
better focus, negative emotions lead to
poor concentration.
person draws more attention than
someone standing still. Advertisers take
help of this fact and catch more
attention towards them by using moving
electric lights.
Contrast, change, variety − Variety,
and uniqueness catch more attention
than the monotonous surroundings, i.e.,
different from the environment. For
example, a word or a sentence in a
paragraph, if written in different color or
font, will catch more attention than the
list of the document. If a clock suddenly
stops ticking, we will only pay attention
to it. The factor contrast or change is
more highly responsible for capturing
attention than the stimulus's intensity,
size, or nature.
Repetition of the
Stimuli − Repetition is a significant
factor as it secures greater attention.
Because a person can ignore a thing for
once but cannot if it is repeated multiple
times. For example, when a teacher
2.2 Distraction

Distractions take attention away from what an operator needs to do when

performing a task. Distractions can be external or internal. Distractions may be
caused by a number of factors, including the loss of interest in the primary activity,
inability to pay attention due to various reasons, or intensity of the distracter.
Distraction refers to a state in which someone's attention is diverted away from the
task or activity they are currently engaged in. Distractions can come in various
forms, such as external noises, visual stimuli, mental distractions, or even physical
discomfort. The ability to maintain focus despite potential distractions is an
important skill for achieving productivity and completing tasks efficiently. Some
effective strategies for minimizing distractions include creating a quiet work
environment, setting goals and deadlines, eliminating unnecessary notifications
and alerts, and taking breaks when needed to refresh and refocus.

2.3 Inattention

Inattention is a symptom of many clinical disorders including attention

deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and is thought to be primarily related to
limitations in working memory. Inattention refers to a lack of focus or
concentration on a particular task or activity. It is a common symptom of attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) but can also occur in individuals without
the condition. Inattention can manifest in various ways, such as difficulty
sustaining attention, becoming easily distracted, or forgetfulness. It can lead to
poor performance in academic or work settings and can also affect personal
relationships. Strategies for addressing inattention include developing routines,
setting clear goals and priorities, using organizational tools like calendars and to-
do lists, and seeking support from professionals if necessary.
 Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect
of the environment while ignoring other things. Attention has also been referred to
as the allocation of processing resources. It is one of the important areas to be
studied in the field of education, psychology and neuroscience. Attention is a
mental effort or striving to control or regulate the conscious mind. Attention was
originally considered as an inborn mental faculty and due importance was given on
the cognitive or intellectual aspect of mind in attention. Although at present it is
described as a mental effort or striving, this has its effect on our cognitive process
is worth mentioning. So McDougal has described attention as a striving which has
its impact on the cognitive aspect of mind. It is an active effort of our conscious
mind. Through this act consciousness is being controlled, concentrated and
regulated to a particular object or idea of thought. Through attention, individual
selects a particular object or idea of thought in mind and concentrates or focuses
his attention on it. In short attention is an act of concentration consciousness. For
providing a proper meaning to the term “attention”, let us look at a few definitions
forwarded by eminent authorities on this concept.

2.4 Divided attention

Divided attention occurs when mental focus is directed toward multiple

ideas or tasks at once. Also known as multitasking, many people often use their
divided attention skills without realizing it. Divided attention refers to the ability to
allocate attention to multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously. It is a cognitive skill
that allows individuals to process information from multiple sources and switch
between tasks efficiently. Divided attention is particularly important in situations
that require multitasking, such as driving while talking on the phone or working on
multiple projects simultaneously. Effective strategies for improving divided
attention include practicing task-switching and time management, using memory
aids like notes and reminders, and minimizing distractions in the environment. It is
worth noting that while divided attention can improve productivity, it is essential to
balance it with the need for focused attention and deep work to achieve optimal
performance.

2.5 Span of attention

Attention span refers to an individual's ability to attend to a stimulus or

object over a period of time. This ability is also known as sustained attention or
vigilance. Span of attention refers to the length of time that someone can maintain
focus on a particular task or stimulus before becoming distracted or fatigued. The
length of an individual's span of attention can vary depending on factors such as
age, cognitive ability, motivation, and the nature of the task at hand. Generally,
younger children tend to have shorter spans of attention than adults, and attention
spans can decrease when someone is tired, stressed, or overwhelmed. The average
span of attention for adults is estimated to be around 20-30 minutes, after which a
short break can help restore focus and prevent fatigue. Strategies for improving
span of attention include creating a distraction-free environment, breaking tasks
into smaller, manageable chunks, and using visualization techniques to maintain
focus. Regular exercise, adequate sleep, and a healthy diet can also contribute to
improved attention span.

Psychologists have determined such limits by using an apparatus called

“Tachistoscope”. It comes from the Greek word “Tachistos” which means “quick”
and “scope” which means “to see”. The apparatus determines the span of visual
attention on presentation of a number of dots or figures for fraction of a second. It
has been obtained that on an average, man can report correctly the number upto 5
or 6. This span or range of attention is educationally significant so far as
limitations of sensory ability of one’s attention is concerned. For the measurement
of the other sensory span of attention, different techniques may be employed. For
example, the span of auditory attention may be measured by tapping a number of
times and asking the subject how many taps he heard.

The term „span of attention‟ refers to the numbers of object which can be
grasped in one short presentation. Sir William Hamilton (1959) was the first to
carry experimental study in this field. Later on serial studies were carried on
revealing significant facts. Dallerback (1929) studied the span of attention for dots,
words, figures and colors of found them to be 8,8,7,9, 3.9 and 3.0 respectively.
Attention is defined as the process which compels the individuals to select some
particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of
stimuli present in the Environment.

Thus in short it is the selective activity of consciousness as a process of

getting an object of thought clearly before the mind. Span of attention actually tells
us that how many things can exist in the focus of consciousness at one time in an
individual. The span of Visual apprehension is observed through the instruments
named Tachistoscope. Tachistoscope is an apparatus designed to expose objects for
a brief space of time. A subject is given a momentary glance from 1/5th to 1/10th
of a second on regular or irregular groups of dots or letter and is required to tell
how many he had observed. This instrument was manufactured by Hamilton and
was first used by Whipple.

Tachistoscope are of four type:-

1. Tall Tachistoscope
2. Rotatory Tachistoscope
3. Pendulum Tachistoscope
 4. Camera Tachistoscope.

2.6 Factors influencing attention.

Objective factors and subjective factors: The external factors are concerned
with the environment. The internal factors are concerned with individuals.

Several factors can influence attention, including:

 Cognitive ability: individuals with higher cognitive ability tend to have

better attention control and can sustain attention for longer periods.
 Age: attention spans tend to increase as individuals age, with younger
children having shorter attention spans than adults.
 Environment: factors in the environment, such as noise, temperature, and
lighting, can influence attention.
 Task difficulty: tasks that are complex or require sustained effort can be
more challenging to pay attention to than simpler tasks.
 Motivation: individuals who are motivated to complete a task or have a
personal interest in it are more likely to maintain attention.
 Sleep and rest: adequate sleep and rest can contribute to improved attention
and focus.
 Nutrition: a balanced diet that includes essential nutrients and vitamins can
help support cognitive function and attention.
 Stress and anxiety: high levels of stress or anxiety can negatively impact
attention and make it more challenging to focus on tasks.

Understanding these factors can help individuals identify strategies to improve

attention and reduce distractions in their environment.
2.7 Memory

Memory is the process of taking in information from the world around us,
processing it, storing it and later recalling that information, sometimes many years
later. Memory refers to the process by which information is encoded, stored, and
retrieved in the brain. It is the ability to acquire, store, and recall information or
experiences. There are different types of memory, including:

Sensory memory: a brief memory system that stores sensory information,

such as visual or auditory stimuli, for a short period of time. Short-term memory: a
temporary memory system that stores information for a few seconds to a minute
before it is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

Long-term memory: a more permanent memory system that can store

information for days, months, or even years. Long-term memory is further divided
into two types:
 Explicit or declarative memory, which is the conscious memory of facts
and events.

Implicit or procedural memory, which is the unconscious memory of

skills and habits. Effective strategies for improving memory include repetition,
chunking information into smaller parts, associating new information with existing
knowledge, using mnemonic devices, and getting enough sleep and exercise.
Additionally, maintaining a healthy lifestyle and managing stress can also help
support cognitive function and memory.

2.8 Sensory memory

Allows you to remember sensory information after the stimulation has

ended. Typically your sensory memory only holds on to information for brief
periods. Remembering the sensation of a person’s touch or a sound you heard in
passing is sensory memory. Sensory memory is the brief memory system that
briefly holds information from the senses for a very short time, usually less than
one second. Sensory memory allows individuals to retain information from the
environment long enough to recognize and interpret it. There are different types of
sensory memory, including:

Types of Sensory memory

A visual sensory memory system that
Iconic memory
briefly stores visual information
An auditory sensory memory system that
Echoic memory
briefly stores auditory information
A touch sensory memory system that
Haptic memory briefly stores information about touch
and texture.
 While sensory memory only lasts for a brief period, it plays a crucial role in
the transfer of information from sensory systems to short-term memory. If an
individual doesn't pay attention to the information or fails to transfer it to short-
term memory, the information is lost forever. Sensory memory is essential for a
variety of activities, including reading, listening, and reacting to stimuli in the
environment.

2.9 Short term

As the name implies, short-term memory allows you to recall specific

information about anything for a brief period. Short-term memory is not as fleeting
as sensory memory, but it’s also not as permanent as long-term memory. Short-
term memory is also known as primary or active memory. Short-term memory is a
temporary memory system that holds a limited amount of information for a short
period of time, usually less than one minute. Short-term memory is also called
working memory because it is used to actively process and manipulate information
in the mind while working on a task. The capacity of short-term memory is limited,
and the information stored there is vulnerable to interference and decay, meaning it
can be quickly forgotten if it is not rehearsed or used.

2.10 Long term Memory

We store a vast majority of our memories in our long-term memory. Any

memory we can still recall after 30 seconds could classify as long-term memory.
These memories range in significance from recalling the name of a friendly face at
your favorite coffee shop to important bits of information like a close friend’s
birthday or your home address. Long-term memory is a more permanent memory
system that can store information for days, months, or even years. Unlike short-
term memory, long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and is relatively stable.
Long-term memory is formed through the process of encoding, consolidation, and
retrieval. Encoding involves processing information and creating a memory trace
in the brain, while consolidation refers to the strengthening of the memory trace
over time. Retrieval is the process of accessing the stored information when
needed.

Effective strategies for improving long-term memory include practicing

active recall by retrieving information from memory, elaborating on the
information to be remembered, associating new information with existing
knowledge, and using mnemonic devices. Repeated exposure to the information
and spaced repetition can also help strengthen the memory trace and improve long-
term memory retention.

2.11 Duration and functions of Memory storage systems

Learning and memory operate together in order increase our ability for
navigating the environment and survival. Learning refers to a change in behavior
that results from acquiring knowledge about the world and memory is the process
by which that knowledge is encoded, stored, and later retrieved.

Encoded –stored – retrieved

Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory

Sensory memory is the Short-term memory is a Long-term memory is a
brief memory system that temporary memory more permanent memory
briefly holds information system that holds a system that can store
from the senses for a very limited amount of information for days,
short time, usually less information for a short months, or even years.
than one second. Sensory period of time, usually Unlike short-term
memory allows less than one minute. memory, long-term
individuals to retain Short-term memory is memory has an unlimited
information from the also called working capacity and is relatively
environment long enough memory because it is used stable. Long-term
to recognize and interpret to actively process and memory is further divided
it. Sensory memory acts manipulate information in into two types: explicit or
as a buffer between the the mind while working declarative memory and
environment and short- on a task. Short-term implicit or procedural
term memory and helps memory helps with memory. Long-term
with the perception of the learning, problem- memory helps with
world around us. solving, and decision- recalling past events,
making. facts, and knowledge and
with learning new skills
and habits

2.12 Conclusion

The relationship between attention and memory has long been recognized.
Recent neuroimaging studies have begun elucidating how attentional control
mechanisms might affect episodic and perceptual encoding and how, in turn, such
control and orienting might be modulated by past experience. As this research
progresses, the distinction between attention and memory becomes increasingly
less clear.

2.13 Summary

The attention, memory or influence of one in the other? Selective attention

tasks related to learning can be assessed using electroencephalography , functional
near-infrared spectroscopy or invasive electrophysiology techniques, and can be
used for the use of brain activity in prefrontal, parietal, temporal or hippocampal
cells, areas related to attention and consolidation of memory.

Question and Answers

1. Attention means
a. forget b. concentration c. inclusive d. difficult

Ans. Concentration

2. Distraction is a

a. performing a task b. failure c. lazy d. interruption

3. Carelessness means

a. Inattention b. attempt c. unable d. easy

Ans. Inattention

4. Span of attention is a

a. an individual's ability b. Group activity c. forget d. jobless

Ans. an individual's ability

5. The factors influencing attention is

a. External factors b. Main activity c. outside d. Society

 Ans. External factors

6. Memory means

a. process of taking in information b. forgetting c. choice d. delete

Ans. process of taking in information

7. Sensory memory is…

a. remember sensory information
b. forget sensory information
c. Delete information
d. avoids information

Ans. remember sensory information

8. Short-term memory is also known as

a. sensory memory,
b. permanent memory
c. long-term memory
d. primary or active memory.

Ans. primary or active memory

References

 S.S.Chauhan (2004) , Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing

House PVT .LTD., New Delhi- 110014
 S.K. Mangal (2008), Advanced Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of
India Private Limited. New Delhi.
 Chawla D, Rees G, Friston KJ: The physiological basis of attentional
modulation in extrastriate visual areas. Nat Neurosci 1999, 2:671-676.
 akley, T. (2009). From Attention to Meaning: Explorations is Semiotics,
Linguistics, and Rhetoric. European Semiotics Series, Vol. 8. Berlin: Peter
Lang Verlag.
 Oberauer, K. (2009). Design for a working memory. Psychol. Learn.
Motiv. 51, 45–100. doi: 10.1016/S0079-7421(09)51002-X

 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00880/full
 https://chat.openai.com
 https://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/memo/memory.htm
 https://www.understood.org/en/articles/attention-how-its-different-from-
working-memory
 https://ntblab.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Chun_CONB_2007.pdf
 1

LEARNER PSYCHOLOGY [subject Code: ONC1]

Unit 3: Learning
Learning: Meaning, Nature and importance of learning for human excellence - methods-
styles of learning - conditions of learning.

Objectives

After completion of this module, the students will able to:

 understand the nature and importance of learning for human excellence

 explain the methods of learning
 develop the different styles of learning
 understand the important conditions of learning.

1.1 Introduction
Learning is an essential process that allows individuals to acquire new knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that can benefit them throughout their lives. It is a continuous process
that begins from birth and continues until the end of one's life. Learning enables people to
adapt to new situations, make informed decisions, and achieve their goals. In this unit, we
will explore the meaning of learning, concept of learning, Nature and importance of learning
for human excellence, methods of learning, styles of learning and conditions of learning. By
understanding the significance of learning, we can take steps to improve our learning
abilities and maximize our potential for success.
1.2 Meaning of Learning
Learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, or information through study,
experience, or instruction. It involves a process of acquiring new insights or abilities,
developing new perspectives or behaviours, and adapting to changing circumstances.
Learning can occur in many different ways, such as formal education, on-the-job training,
personal exploration, or social interaction. It is a lifelong process that allows individuals to
expand their understanding and capabilities, and to better navigate and engage with the
world around them.
The concept of learning refers to the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, or
behaviours through experience, study, or instruction. It involves the acquisition of
information or insights that allow individuals to adapt to new situations, solve problems,
and improve their performance. Learning can take place in many different contexts,
including formal educational settings, through informal experiences, or through social
interaction.
The concept of learning is closely related to the concept of memory, which involves
the storage and retrieval of information in the brain. Effective learning requires attention,
engagement, and repetition to encode information into long-term memory. It also involves
the ability to apply what has been learned in new and different situations, and to adapt to
changing circumstances. Learning is a fundamental aspect of human experience and is
essential for personal growth, development, and success in life.
 2

1.3 Definition of learning

Learning can be defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, or
behaviours through experience, study, or instruction. It involves a change in an individual's
behaviour, attitudes, or values as a result of exposure to new information or experiences. It
is a dynamic and ongoing process that allows individuals to adapt to new situations, solve
problems, and improve their performance. Learning enables individuals to develop critical
thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration skills, which are essential for
success in personal and professional life. Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent
change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice and experience”.

1.4 Nature of Learning

Learning is a complex and dynamic process that involves acquiring new information,
skills, or behaviours through experience, study, or instruction. It involves cognitive,
emotional, and behavioural aspects, and it occurs through various channels, such as
observation, imitation, trial and error, feedback, and reinforcement.
1.5 Importance of Learning for Human Excellence
 Personal Development: Learning helps individuals to improve their cognitive
abilities, emotional intelligence, and self-awareness, which are essential for personal
growth and development.
 Professional Development: Learning is critical for professional development as it
helps individuals to acquire new skills, knowledge, and competencies that are
essential for career advancement and success.
 Social Development: Learning plays a vital role in social development as it helps
individuals to understand and respect cultural differences, develop empathy, and
build positive relationships.
 Cognitive Development: Learning helps to develop cognitive skills such as memory,
attention, and problem-solving, which are essential for intellectual growth and
academic success.
 Adaptability: Learning enables individuals to adapt to changing circumstances and
environments, and to respond effectively to challenges and opportunities.
1.6 Methods of Learning
There are several methods of learning that people can use to acquire new knowledge
and skills. Here are some of the most common methods:
 Reading: Reading is one of the most traditional methods of learning. People can read
books, articles, and other written materials to gain knowledge.
 Listening: People can listen to lectures, podcasts, audiobooks, and other forms of
spoken communication to learn new things.
 Watching: People can watch videos, movies, documentaries, and other visual media
to learn new information.
 Practice: Practice involves actively engaging in a task to gain new skills and
knowledge. This method is commonly used in fields such as sports, music, and art.
 Experimentation: Experimentation involves trying new things and learning from the
results. This method is commonly used in scientific research and development.
 3

 Collaboration: People can learn from each other by working together on a project or
task. Collaboration is common in team-based work environments.
 Reflection: Reflection involves thinking critically about past experiences and learning
from them. This method is commonly used in education and personal development.
 Memorization: Memorization involves committing information to memory through
repetition and other memory techniques. This method is commonly used in
academic subjects such as history, mathematics, and foreign languages.
1.7 Styles of Learning
There are various styles of learning that people use to acquire new knowledge and skills.
The most common styles of learning are:
 Visual Learning: Visual learners prefer to use images, diagrams, and other visual aids
to help them understand new concepts. They may benefit from charts, graphs,
videos, and other visual materials.
 Auditory Learning: Auditory learners learn best through listening and speaking. They
may benefit from lectures, group discussions, podcasts, and other audio materials.
 Kinesthetic Learning:Kinesthetic learners prefer a hands-on approach to learning.
They learn best by doing and experiencing things for themselves. They may benefit
from interactive activities, experiments, and other practical experiences.
 Reading/Writing Learning: These learners prefer to learn through reading and
writing. They may benefit from textbooks, articles, written notes, and other written
materials.
 Social Learning: Social learners prefer to learn through interacting with others. They
may benefit from group discussions, brainstorming sessions, and other collaborative
activities.
It's important to note that everyone has their own unique learning style, and most
people use a combination of these styles to some extent. Understanding your preferred
learning style can help you maximize your learning potential and make your learning
experience more effective and enjoyable.
1.8 Conditions of Learning
Learning is a complex process influenced by many different factors. Some of the most
important conditions of learning include:
 Attention: Learners must be actively engaged and focused on the material they are
trying to learn. Distractions and competing stimuli can interfere with attention and
reduce the effectiveness of learning.
 Motivation: Learners must have a desire to learn and a sense of personal relevance
or importance attached to the material. Motivation can be intrinsic (driven by
personal interest or curiosity) or extrinsic (driven by external factors like rewards or
punishments).
 Feedback: Learners need to receive feedback on their performance in order to
understand what they are doing well and what they need to improve. Feedback can
be positive (reinforcing good performance) or negative (correcting errors or
mistakes).
 Practice: Learning is reinforced through repetition and practice. Learners need
opportunities to apply what they have learned in a variety of contexts to strengthen
their understanding and retention.
 4

 Memory: Learning is dependent on memory, both short-term and long-term.

Information must be encoded, stored, and retrieved effectively for learning to occur.
 Environment: The learning environment can play a significant role in supporting or
hindering learning. Factors like noise, lighting, and temperature can impact attention
and focus.
 Prior Knowledge: Learners bring their own experiences, knowledge, and
perspectives to the learning process. New information is more likely to be retained
and integrated into existing knowledge when it is relevant and connected to what
the learner already knows.
Conclusion
Learning is an essential aspect of human excellence. It helps individuals to acquire
knowledge, skills, and values that are necessary for personal growth and development.
Learning is a continuous process that occurs throughout one's life, and it is important for
individuals to embrace it to achieve their goals and aspirations. Learning is a process of
acquiring new knowledge, skills, and values. It is an essential aspect of human life that helps
individuals to adapt to changing environments, make informed decisions, and achieve their
goals. Learning is important for personal growth, development, and success in life. There is
various methods and styles of learning that individuals can use to acquire new knowledge
and skills. Some of the most common methods include reading, listening, observing, and
practicing. Learning styles refer to the different ways that individuals prefer to learn, such as
visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic. Several conditions are necessary for effective learning.
These include motivation, relevance, feedback, and practice. Motivation is critical because it
drives individuals to learn and achieve their goals. Relevance is important because it helps
individuals to understand how the information they are learning relates to their lives.
Feedback is essential because it helps individuals to know how well they are progressing in
their learning, and practice is necessary to reinforce learning and improve skills.
Summary
 Learning is a natural and continuous process that occurs throughout our lives. It is the
acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that enable us to adapt and thrive
in our environment.
 There are various methods and styles of learning, and people tend to have unique
preferences and strengths in their learning approaches. Some of the commonly
recognized methods and styles are 1. Visual learning, 2. Auditory learning, 3.
Kinaesthetic learning, 4. Reading/writing learning and 5. Social learning.
 Conditions of Learning: Learning is a complex process involving various factors related
to environment, learner, and materials. Some of the key conditioning factors affecting
learning are 1. Attention, 2. Motivation, 3. Feedback, 4. Practice, 5. Memory, 6.
Environment and 7. Prior Knowledge
 Understanding the nature and importance of learning, different methods and styles of
learning, and conditions that contribute to effective learning can help learners optimize
their learning experience and achieve their goals.
References
 Nabi Dar.GH(2021), Understanding Human Learning and Cognition, New Delhi:
Academic Aspirations
 Anderson, J. R. (2014). Cognitive psychology and its implications. Macmillan
International Higher Education.
 5

 Ausubel, D. P. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. Grune&

Stratton.
 Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological review, 84(2), 191.
 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Prentice-Hall.
 Mayer, R. E. (2014). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The Cambridge
handbook of multimedia learning, 2nd Ed, 43-71.
 Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities
Press.
 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Pearson.
 Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International
journal of instructional technology and distance learning, 2(1), 3-10.
 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Harvard University Press.
 Zeidner, M., &Schleyer, E. J. (1999). Introduction to educational psychology.
Springer.
Check Your Understanding

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is the process by which we acquire knowledge or skills through experience,
study, or instruction?
a) Teaching
b) Learning
c) Memorization
d) Practice
2. ---------- can be intrinsic or extrinsic
(a) Attention
(b) Motivation
(c) Practice
(d) Memory
3. Memory, attention and problem solving are ……. type of development.
(a) Personal Development
(b) Social Development
(c) Cognitive Development
(d) Professional Development
4. Which one is the most traditional method of learning?
(a) Reading
(b) Practice
(c) Experimentation
(d) Collaboration
 6

5. How do auditory learners prefer to learn?

(a) through images and diagrams
(b) by reading books
(c) through hands on approach
(d) listening and speaking

Answers for the MCQs:

1. (b) Learning
2. (b) Motivation
3. (c) Cognitive Development
4. (a) Reading
5. (d) listening and speaking

Module Prepared by: Dr. A. Rajeswari, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Curriculum Planning and
Evaluation, TNTEU, Chennai-97
 1

UNIT III: FACILITATING AND ENHANCING LEARNING

Learning Objectives
After completion this unit students will be able to
 Explain about the three factors affecting learning 1. Personal factors.2.Teacher
related factors. 3. Content related factors
 Explain about principles of learning and find the solution of various learner
problems.
 give the suggestion for solving some of the learning difficulties.
 To know about factors affecting learning.
 To know about the principle of learning.
 To know about learning and learning problems.
 To know about suggestions for solving the learning difficulties.

2.1 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Factors Affecting
Learning

1. 2. 3. 4.
Learner Related Teacher Related Content Related Process Related
Factors Factors Factors Factors

1. Learner related factors:

The learner is the key figure in any learning task. How he will learn or what he will
achieve through a particular learning act depends upon his own characteristics and the way
of learning, Such things associated with him can be described as follows:
 Learner physical and mental health: Learning is greatly affected by the learner physical
and mental health maintained by him particularly at the time of learning. A healthy child
learns better, similarly, a tense emotionally and mentally disturbed child does not show
much progress in learning.
 The basic potential of the learner: The results achieved by the learners through a
process of learning depends upon his basic potential like
- Learner innate abilities and capacity of learning a things.
- Learner basic potential in terms of general intelligence and specific knowledge,
understanding and skills related to the particular learning areas.
- Learner basic interest, aptitude and attitudes related to a learning particular
area.
 2

 Level of aspiration and achievement motivation: Level of aspiration refers to the

personal goal of an individual which he expects to achieve. Keeping in view his abilities,
one has to maintain the level of his aspiration and achievement to a reasonable level.
 The goal of life: Learning depends on the goal. Goals and philosophy of one’s life
determine his way of looking towards the things, his inclination towards the learning in a
particular area, patience maintained for continuing his learning despite the heavy goals.
 Readiness and willpower: no one can make a learner if he or she is not ready to learn.
On the contrary, if the learner has the will to learn a thing the automatically he will find
the way to its effective learning.
2. Teacher related factors
The teacher is the most prominent factor in the teaching-learning process and is
responsible for the children’s learning activities
 Knowledge of the subject: Proper knowledge of the subject is very important. Teachers
knowledge, experience and abilities greatly influence learner learning
 Teacher behaviour: Teacher behaviour is greatly influencing the learning of the students
directly. A teacher should inherit all the essential qualities of a good teacher are
sympathy, cooperation behaviour, objectivity, sweet temper, polite etc are all such traits
that should always reflect in the teacher’s behaviour.
 Personality: Good and appealing personality is the basis of successful and effective
teaching. He must create an impression on his students by keeping an appropriate
balance between his deeds and action.
 Class management and control: Optimum learning is not possible without proper class
management and control. So, a teacher should know the art of managing and controlling
the class.

3. Content related factors

The following are the content-related factors:
 Effect of previous experience: New learning depends upon old learning. Learning is
always influenced by previous experiences. Previous learning in the field makes the task
familiar and therefore, more approachable.
 Meaningfulness of material: The result of experimental studies have clearly indicated
that meaningful material can be easily memorized as compared to meaningless material.
Meaningful means that the material conveys some sense and has some associations and
previous experience with the learner.
 Difficult of material: This is another important factor in learning when there are more
than 20% difficult words in a lesson the task of reading becomes very difficult for the
reader.
 Multi-Sensory Approach: Number of illustrations, figures, pictures, tables projecting the
abstract unfamiliar and significant aspects of the lesson facilitates learning.
 Nature of content: The nature of content is a very important factor that influences
learning. The nature of the content should be simple to complex
 Selection of contents: The contents should be selected according to children need,
interests and abilities that influence greatly the children learning.
 3

 Organization of contents: The contents should be organized in such a way that they can
easily accessible and enjoyable for children learning and it should be according to
children age and class.
4. Process related factors
The methodology adopted for teaching-learning experiences
 Linking new learning with the previous learning
 Co-relating the learning with subjects such as Social science-history, geography, civics.
Biology-Botany, Zoology, Microbiology
 Utilization of maximum number of sense
 Provision of drill work. Eg. Revision and practice
 Provision of proper reinforcement and feedback. Ex- Smiling, excellent, answer is
correct.
 Selection of suitable teaching-learning method. Ex- Discussion method, heuristic
method, laboratory method etc.

2.2 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

1. Learning is a process of actively constructing knowledge. Therefore, teachers and
administrators have a responsibility to
 Create environments and plan experiences that foster inquiry, questioning,
predicting, exploring, collecting, educational play, and communicating.
 Engage learners in experiences that encourage their personal construction of
knowledge, for example, hands-on, minds-on science and math; drama; creative
movement; artistic representation; writing and talking to learn.
 Provide learners with experiences that actively involve them and are personally
meaningful.

2. Students construct knowledge and make it meaningful in terms of their prior

knowledge and experiences. Therefore, teachers and administrators have a
responsibility to
 find out what students already know and can do
 create learning environments and plan experiences that build on learners’ prior
knowledge
 ensure that learners are able to see themselves reflected in the learning
materials used in the school
 recognize, value, and use the great diversity of experiences and information
students bring to school
 provide learning opportunities that respect and support students’ racial, cultural,
and social identity
 ensure that students are invited or challenged to build on prior knowledge,
integrating new understandings with existing understandings.
 4

3. Learning is enhanced when it takes place in a social and collaborative environment.

Therefore, teachers and administrators have a responsibility to
 ensure that talk, group work, and collaborative ventures are central to class
activities
 see that learners have frequent opportunities to learn from and with others
 structure opportunities for learners to engage in diverse social interactions with
peers and adults
 help students to see themselves as members of a community of learners

4. Students need to continue to view learning as an integrated whole. Therefore,

teachers and administrators have a responsibility to
 plan opportunities to help students make connections across the curriculum and
with the world outside and structure activities that require students to reflect on
those connections
 invite students to apply strategies from across the curriculum to solve problems
in real situations

5. Learners must see themselves as capable and successful. Therefore, teachers and
administrators have a responsibility to
 provide activities, resources, and challenges that are developmentally
appropriate to the learner
 communicate high expectations for achievement to all students
 encourage risk taking in learning
 ensure that all students experience genuine success on a regular basis
 value experimentation and treat approximation as signs of growth
 provide frequent opportunities for students to reflect on and describe what they
know and can do
 provide learning experiences and resources that reflect the diversity of the local
and global community

6. Provide learning opportunities that develop self-esteem 6. Learners have different

ways of knowing and representing knowledge. Therefore, teachers and
administrators have a responsibility to
 recognize each learner’s preferred ways of constructing meaning and provide
opportunities for exploring alternative ways
 plan a wide variety of open-ended experiences and assessment strategies
 recognize, acknowledge, and build on students’ diverse ways of knowing and
representing their knowledge
 structure frequent opportunities for students to use various art forms— music,
drama, visual arts, dance, movement, crafts—as a means of exploring, formulating,
and expressing ideas
 5

7. Reflection is an integral part of learning. Therefore, teachers and administrators have a

responsibility to
 challenge their beliefs and practices based on continuous reflection
 reflect on their own learning processes and experiences
 encourage students to reflect on their learning processes and experiences
 encourage students to acknowledge and articulate their learning
 help students use their reflections to understand themselves as learners, make
connections with other learning, and proceed with learning

2.3. LEARNING AND LEARNER PROBLEMS

 Many children suffer from learning disabilities, which affect their performance at
school; fortunately, they can learn to manage them and still find success in the
classroom.
 ADHD, memory and processing deficits, and dyslexia are some of the most common
learning disorders students are facing today.
 Teachers quickly take notice of these disabilities: For example, teachers notice that
children with dyslexia have difficulty with reading, spelling, or pronouncing words.
 Children can still find success, despite their learning disability; it’s all about becoming
aware of the problem and finding the right help.
 If your child has a learning disability, do your best to support them and work with
their educators and/or a counselor to help them succeed in school.

2.4. SUGGESTIONS FOR SOLVING THE LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

 Identify Learning Styles
 Seek the Right Therapy,
 The use of Assistive Technology (AT)
 Achieve Goals with Hard Work and Perseveranc,
 Be Accountable., Identify Strengths and Passion,
 Rewards and Positive Reinforcement, Take care of your Mental Health.

Conclusion:
Learning is different for different people in terms of time, spacing in between
lessons, amount of content they can study in a particular amount of time, how long they can
retain that information, and so on. The factors affecting learning change with the age group
as well.
 6

Check Your Understanding

Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Which one is related to personal factors?
(a) Mental Health.
(b) Teacher Behavior
(c) Class control
(d) Material
2. Which one is related to Teacher factors?
(a) Mental Health.
(b) Teacher Behavior
(c) Class control
(d) Material
3. Learning is a natural activity of _________.
(a) Learner
(b) Teacher
(c) Individuals
(d) living organism
4. Learning may be _________.
(a) Formal
(b) Informal
(c) formal and informal
(d) None
5. Learning is a continuous process form _________.
(a) Adolescence to death
(b) Childhood to old age
(c) Infancy to adulthood
(d) cradle to grave
Answers for the MCQs:
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. b
References
 Berk, L. E. (2003). Child Development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
 Crow Factors Affecting Learning , L. D. and Crow, A. (1973). Educational Psychology.
New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House.
 Eggen, P. and Kauchak D. (1999). Educational Psychology. New Jersey : Prentice Hall.
 UNIT – 4 CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES

Disabilities – Sensory impairment – Cognitive disabilities – Physical disabilities

Man must search for what is right, and let happiness come on its own.

- John Heinrich Pestalozzi.

4.1 Introduction

Children constitute the nation’s future human resources. It is, therefore, very
important that their welfare receives the highest importance. Disability is defined as an
environmentally contextualized health-related limitation in a child’s existing or emergent
capacity to perform developmentally appropriate activities and participate, as desired, in
society.

“Disability” is the umbrella term for impairments at the body level, activity
restrictions at the person level, and participation restrictions at the person-in-society level.
“Persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or
sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and
effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.”

Children with disabilities “include those who have long-term physical, mental,
intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder
their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis”. Children with disabilities
are a highly diverse population group. They include children who were born with a genetic
condition that affects their physical, mental or social development; those who sustained a
serious injury, nutritional deficiency or infection that resulted in long-term functional
consequences; or those exposed to environmental toxins that resulted in developmental
delays or learning disabilities. Children with disabilities also include those who developed
anxiety or depression as a result of stressful life events.

According to a new UNICEF report, nearly 240 million children in the world today
have some form of disability. This estimate is higher than previous figures and is based on a
more meaningful and inclusive understanding of disability, which considers several domains
of functioning, including those related to psychosocial well-being. Most children with
disabilities have difficulties in just one functional domain. Psychosocial issues predominate at
every age, in some cases in combination with other functional difficulties.

Developmental disabilities begin anytime during the developmental period and

usually last throughout a person’s lifetime. Most developmental disabilities begin before a
baby is born, but some can happen after birth because of injury, infection, or other factors.
Most developmental disabilities are thought to be caused by a complex mix of factors. These
factors include genetics; parental health and behaviors (such as smoking and drinking) during
pregnancy; complications during birth; infections the mother might have during pregnancy or
the baby might have very early in life; and exposure of the mother or child to high levels of
environmental toxins, such as lead.

4.2 Sensory impairment

Sensory disabilities are the disabilities affecting an individual’s senses, such as

hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste. The main causes of sensory disabilities include
accidents or injury, genetic factors, illnesses, or environmental factors. Some of the sensory
disabilities can be corrected through surgery, while others are long-life disorders. The main
types of sensory disabilities include blindness and low vision, hearing loss and Deafness,
deaf-blindness, and sensory processing disorder.

4.2.1 Characteristics of students with sensory impairments

1. Total or partial loss of vision
2. Total or partial loss of hearing
3. Loss of significant degree of both hearing and vision
Sensory impairment does not affect the cognitive skills of a student. However, some
students with sensory impairments also have cognitive impairments. A sensory impairment
will affect how the student accesses information and ultimately learns.

4.2.2 Curriculum and Educational approaches for students

Early intervention is very important for children who have sensory impairments. For
children who are deaf or hearing impaired, early intervention will help to improve speech and
language development. The critical period of language development happens before a child
turns three, therefore it is very important for children who are deaf or hearing impaired to
receive early intervention services as early in life as possible.
 The following is a list of strategies for the general teacher to follow:
1. Always face the student when presenting information
2. Allow the student to choose his/her seat in the classroom
3. Remember that the student's speech translator only facilitates communication and
does not provide instruction
4. Provide visual aids to support instruction
5. Assess the student's background knowledge and be aware of gaps in knowledge that
could affect learning
6. Avoid ambient noise and noise distractions. A classroom amplification system may
help a student with a hearing impairment.

Early intervention services will help a child who is blind or visually impaired achieve
milestones and begin their learning of basic concepts. During the first year of life, most of the
learning takes place through repetition and exploration. Children who are blind or visually
impaired need help in learning how to use gross and fine motor skills. Once children enter
school, most receive their education in the general classroom and receive services from a
teacher who has been trained in teaching students who are blind or visually impaired.

The general education teacher can help the blind or visually impaired student by using
the following strategies:
 Allow the student opportunities for tactile exploration by providing models, realia,
and other hand-on teaching aids.
 Designate a space for the student to store specialized equipment such as
assistive/adaptive technologies.
 Give verbal descriptions of visual information, make the student aware of transitions,
and other changes to his/her environment.
 Adjust lighting and increase the size of print if needed.
 Allow the student to choose his/her seat in the classroom.

4.3 Cognitive Disabilities

“Cognitive disabilities” is a nebulous term that describes a person who has more than
average difficulty with mental tasks. A person’s ability to learn, speak, memorize and
problem-solving skills are disrupted. The person suffer from dementia and delirium
disease. Further it affects the memorizing and reasoning power also.
4.3.1 Definition

The definition of cognitive disability is an impairment of functioning in terms of

intelligence and mental ability. Cognitive disabilities are also referred to as cognitive
impairments or intellectual disabilities. Cognitive disabilities can detrimentally impact the
functional skills of a person in the realms of interpersonal communication, problem-solving,
and comprehension, as well as many other psychological and social processes.

4.3.2 Types of Cognitive Disabilities

There are four specific types of cognitive disabilities which are mild, moderate, and severe
and profound. These specifiers are grouped by IQ as well as the level of impairment that
individuals face when afflicted with cognitive disabilities:

 Mild — This type of cognitive impairment is the most common. Approximately 85%
of individuals diagnosed as intellectually disabled fit into this category. The IQ scores
of persons falling into this category range from 55 - 70.
 Moderate — People who fall into this level of cognitive impairment range from 30 to
55 and are very limited in their ability to be independent.
 Severe and Profound — This category is indicated by an IQ score of less than 30 with
less than 4% of people who have been diagnosed with cognitive disabilities falling
into this category. These individuals are severely limited in their functional ability and
may need another person to feed, bathe, and dress them. Individuals in this category
need supervision day and night in order to ensure their safety.

4.3.3 Symptoms
1. Memory disorder
The person will have problem in listening and recalling things.

2. Hyperactivity

The person tends to hyper during sitting, standing phase and remains in undue hurry.

3. Dyslexia
The person who faces problems in reading, writing and memorizing.
4.3.4 Causes of Cognitive Disability

This normally occurs due to problems of the brain like tumor, head injury, shock,
infection, harmful brain neurotoxins, heredity or any other brain related disease. It affects a
person’s memorizing power, learning skills and ability to do routine activities.

4.4 Physical Disabilities

A physical disability is anything that limits the physical function of the child’s body.
Physical disabilities can include challenges with large motor skills like walking, or small
motor skills like holding objects and using scissors. A child may also have a medical
disability that limits her ability to be physically active, such as a heart or breathing issue.
Physical disabilities may be present from birth, or may develop at any point during a person’s
lifetime.

4.4.1 Definition

A physical disability is a condition that substantially limits one or more basic physical
activities in life (i.e. walking, climbing stairs, reaching, carrying, or lifting). These limitations
hinder the person from performing tasks of daily living. Physical disabilities are highly
individualized.
According to RPWD act (2016) Locomotor disability means problem in moving from
one place to another ie. disability in legs. But, in general, it is taken as a disability related
with bones, joints and muscles. It causes problems in person’s movements (like walking,
picking or holding things in hand etc).
4.4.2 Characteristics of students with physical or locomotor disability
The characteristics of a physical disability will vary significantly depending of the
type and severity of the physical disability as well as the body parts affected. Some of the
more common physical disabilities are:
1. Cerebral Palsy
2. Muscular Dystrophy
3. Spina Bifida
4. Orthopedic and Musculoskeletal Conditions

The characteristics of students with other health impairments also vary depending on
the health impairment. Students may be weak, tired, or in pain. Students with other health
impairments tend to have more absences due to their illness.
Common health conditions that may classify a student as other health impaired are:

1. Asthma
2. HIV/AIDS
3. Sickle-Cell Disease
4. Epilepsy
5. Cancer
6. Type 1 (Juvenile) Diabetes
7. Cystic Fibrosis

Some students with physical disabilities have difficulty communicating. It is important

for educators to determine the intellectual abilities of these students so teachers can provide
students with instruction that is academically challenging.

4.4.3 Special Attention and Instruction

Early intervention is important for both students with physical disabilities and
students with other health impairments. Early intervention can provide students with physical
conditions with therapeutic intervention which can help to improve the student's strength,
posture, and range of movement. Early intervention also helps parents provide interventions
at home. When students are enrolled in early intervention, school personnel, health-care
providers, and social workers offer support to parents who may be having a difficult time as a
result of their child's physical limitations or illness.
It is important that teachers determine the individual learning needs of the student.
Some students with physical or health impairments may be academically gifted and some
may have other disabilities, including learning disabilities. All students with disabilities will
participate in the general curriculum, but some will receive modifications or instruction in
daily living skills.
4.5 Conclusion
The lives of children with disabilities can be surrounded by stigma, discrimination,
cultural prejudices, ill-perceptions and shocking invisibility. In addition, children with disabilities
are at dramatically heightened risk of violence, neglect, abuse and exploitation. It is urgent to
adopt in all countries legislation banning all forms of violence if any against all children and
to establish effective and well-resourced child and disability sensitive mechanisms to prevent
and address incidents of violence. It is essential to invest in awareness raising and
information, including research about child disability and the forms and prevalence of
violence compromising the enjoyment of their rights. This can be best done if we work
together with children with disabilities and their families, and organizations promoting their
rights.

4.6 Summary

Children with disabilities “include those who have long-term physical, mental,
intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder
their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis”. Sensory disabilities are the
disabilities affecting an individual’s senses, such as hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste.
The main causes of sensory disabilities include accidents or injury, genetic factors, illnesses,
or environmental factors. Some of the sensory disabilities can be corrected through surgery,
while others are long-life disorders. The main types of sensory disabilities include blindness
and low vision, hearing loss and Deafness, deaf-blindness, and sensory processing disorder.
“Cognitive disabilities” is a term that refers to a broad range of conditions that include
intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, severe, persistent mental illness, brain
injury, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. A physical disability is a
condition that substantially limits one or more basic physical activities in life (i.e. walking,
climbing stairs, reaching, carrying, or lifting). It is essential to invest in awareness raising and
information, including research about child disability and the forms and prevalence of
violence compromising the enjoyment of their rights. This can be best done if we work
together with children with disabilities and their families, and organizations promoting their
rights.

4.7 Check Your Progress

1. Most children with disabilities have difficulties in _____ functional domain.
a. Five b. four c. two d. one
2. _______disabilities are the disabilities affecting an individual’s senses, such as
hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste.
a. Physical b. Health c. Sensory d. Cognitive
3. A child with an intellectual disability will have less than 70 IQ and adaptive behavior
will have a _______ effect on learning achievement.
a. Positive b. Null c. Severe d. Negative
4. A physical disability is categorized under ________ impairment.
a. Therapeutic b. orthopedic c. medical d. health
5. Early _______ is important for both students with physical disabilities and students
with other health impairments.
a. Intervention b. treatment c. education d. training
Answers:
1. d, one
2. c, Sensory
3. d, Negative
4. b, orthopedic
5. a, Intervention

References
1. Janet Currie & Robert Kahn (2012). Children with disabilities. The Future of
Children. Princeton-Brookings. Vol 22, No 1.
2. https://violenceagainstchildren.un.org/content/children-disabilities
3. https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-disability/overview/
4. https://disabilities-informational-resources.weebly.com/sensory-impairments.html
5. https://www.enableme.ke/en/article/4-most-common-types-of-sensory-disabilities-
1535
Prepared by:
Dr. R. Rajalakshmi,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Value Education,
Tamil Nadu Teachers Education University,
Chennai – 600 097
 ADJUSTMENT

Objectives

 To understand the concepts of adjustment and maladjustment.

 To analyse the process and causes of adjustment and maladjustment.

6.0 Introduction

The concept of adjustment was initially a biological one and was a corner stone in
Darwin's Theory of Evolution (1859). In Biology, the term usually employed was an
adaptation. Darwin maintained that only those organisms which were most fitted to adapt
to the hazards of the physical world would survive.

6.1 Adjustment: Meaning

In psychology, adjustment refers to the behavioural process of balancing conflicting

needs or needs challenged by obstacles in the environment. Humans and animals regularly
adjust to their environment.

6.2 Adjustment as Achievement

This model focuses on adjustment at a specific point in time, taking into account an
individual's adjustment to one challenge rather than all challenges they have faced.
Adjusting to one scenario can be independent of struggling to adapt to another method.

6.3 Adjustment as a Process

The process of adjustment is continuous. It starts at one's birth and goes on without
stopping until death. A person and his environment are continually changing, and his needs
follow the demands of the changing external environment. Consequently, the processor
terms of an individual's adjustment can be expected to change from situation to situation.

6.4 Maladjustment: Meaning

'Maladjustment' is a process whereby an individual cannot satisfy his personal needs

biological, psychological, or social needs successfully and establishes an imbalance between
and expectations of society, resulting in the disturbance of psycho-equilibrium.

6.5 Causes of Maladjustment

The following factors causes for the maladjustment,

a) Unhealthy home environment b) Heredity causes c) Poverty d) Environment causes e)

Faulty teaching method f) Strict Discipline g) Lack of equipment (facility) h) Lack of guidance
and counselling i) Lack of recreational facilities j) Mass media k) Social laws and bindings l)
Bad company/neighbourhood.
6.6 Conclusion
This chapter deals with the concept of adjustment and maladjustment. Further, it
describes its process and achievement and causes of maladjustment for easy assimilation of
important key points.
References:

1. Elizabeth Hammer., Wayne Weiten and Dana S. Dunn (2011). Psychology and
contemporary life human adjustment. Cengage Learning.
2. Narendra B. Kapadiya (2018). Psychology of adjustment theory, methods and
statistical trends. New Delhi: JTS Publications.
3. Weiten Wayne (2016). Psychology applied to modern life adjustment in the 21st
Century. (11 th Edition). Cengage Learning.
4. https://study.com/academy/lesson/adjustment-mechanisms-definition-types-
uses.html
5. https://www.samareducation.com/2022/06/adjustment-meaning-and-
definitions.html

Answer the following questions:

1. The process of adjustment is ________________________.

a) Fragment b) Constant c) Continuous d) None of the above
2. Adjustment refers to __________________ of balancing conflicting needs.
a) the behavioural process b) the social process c) cultural process d) None of the
above
3. Maladjustment results in the disturbance of ___________________.
a) physic-equilibrium b) psycho-equilibrium c) physical-equilibrium d) none of the
above
4. Cause of maladjustment is ____________________.
a) poverty b) smoking c) inebriate d) none of the above
5. ‘Theory of Evolution’ was developed by ______________________ in the year 1859.
a) Skinner b) Pavlov c) Maslow d) Darwin

Answers:

1. c)
2. a)
3. b)
4. a)
5. d)
 Mental Health

Objectives
The objectives of the scheme are to
 To develop Physical and Mental Health
 To develop self-respect and respect for others
 To develop positive attitude towards life
 To develop adjustment with family, school and society
 To develop self control
INTRODUCTION:
Mental health and well-being are crucial aspects that contribute to all aspects of
human life. It has an intrinsic value for the individual, society, and culture. Positive
mental health is an inherent and quintessential resource for individuals, families,
communities, and nations. It contributes to every individual's social, human, and
economic capital to form society. WHO defines ‘mental health’ as "a state of
wellbeing in which the individual realizes his or her abilities. This helps them to
cope with the stress of life, work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute to
his or her community." In this definition, WHO changed its earlier perspective of
“illness” to a new perspective of “wellness” It neither speaks of mental health as an
absence of illness, nor it mentions the lack of stress in life. Instead, it accepts that
there will be everyday challenges and an individual can face and fight them
regularly, which decides one’s mental health.
Thus while explaining mental health; it chalks out the life goals for an
individual in expressing the need to be productive, fruitful and contribute to the
community as a responsible citizen. In this manner, it also counts for the physical,
social, and self-esteem needs as also the role of different stakeholders be it family,
schools or community, in shaping the everyday life experiences at home, in
schools, in workplaces, and society, thus contributing towards positive mental
health.
This module has been specifically designed for teachers to make them more
aware, empowered, and enhance sensitivity towards mental health issues and
concerns, and feel empowered in preventing illness and promoting wellness in
schools. While in this module, we are addressing teachers; through teachers, we
wish to reach out to students, families, and the community at large, so that all
could join hands together in shaping healthy habits, behaviors, good environment,
and a healthy society.
HEALTH
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as 'a state of
complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity'.
The word health refers to a state of complete emotional and physical well-being.
Healthcare exists to help people maintain this optimal state of health.
Physical Health
A person who has good physical health is likely to have bodily functions and
processes working at their peak.
This is not only due to an absence of disease, regular exercise,
balanced nutrition, and adequate rest; all these contribute to good health. People
receive medical treatment to maintain balance, when necessary.
Physical well-being involves pursuing a healthful lifestyle to decrease the
risk of disease, maintaining physical fitness, for example; can protect and develop
the endurance of a person’s breathing, heart function, muscular strength,
flexibility, and body composition.

Mental Health
Meaning of Mental Health
Mental health is not just a concept that refers to an individual's psychological and
emotional well being. Rather it's a state of psychological and emotional well being
where an individual is able to use their cognitive and emotional capabilities, meet
the ordinary demand and functions in the society.
Mental health refers to a person's psychological, emotional, and social well-
being; it influences what they feel and how they think and behave.
The state of cognitive and behavioural well-being is referred to as mental health.
The term 'mental health' is also used to refer the absence of mental disease.
Mankind generally is more focused on keeping their physical body healthy
so people tend to ignore the state of their minds.
Man has been able to control life due to his highly developed brain. So, it
becomes very important for a man to keep both his body and mind fit and healthy.
Both physical and mental health are equally important for better performance and
result.

GOOD MENTAL HEALTH

Good mental health is not only categorized by the absence of depression, anxiety,
or another disorder. It also depends on a person’s ability to:

 enjoy life
 bounce back after difficult experiences and adapt to adversity
 balance different elements of life, such as family and finances
 feel safe and secure
 achieve their full potential
Physical and mental health have strong connections. For example, if a chronic
illness affects a person’s ability to complete their regular tasks, it may lead to
depression and stress. These feelings could be due to financial problems or
mobility issues.

It is important to approach “health” as a whole, rather than as a series of separate

factors. All types of health are linked, and people should aim for overall well-being
and balance as the keys to good health.
Importance of Mental Health
An emotionally fit and stable person always feels vibrant and truly alive and
can easily manage emotionally difficult situations. To be emotionally strong, one
has to be physically fit too. Although mental health is a personal issue, what affects
one person may or may not affect another; yet, several key elements lead to mental
health issues.
Many emotional factors have a significant effect on our fitness level like
depression, aggression, negative thinking, frustration, and fear, etc. A physically fit
person is always in a good mood and can easily cope up with situations of distress
and depression resulting in regular training contributing to a good physical fitness
standard.

Mental fitness implies a state of psychological well-being. It denotes having a

positive sense of how we feel, think, and act, which improves one’s ability to enjoy
life. It contributes to one’s inner ability to be self-determined. It is a proactive,
positive term and forsakes negative thoughts that may come to mind. The term
mental fitness is increasingly being used by psychologists, mental health
practitioners, schools, organisations, and the general population to denote logical
thinking, clear comprehension, and reasoning ability.
SYMPTOMS OF A MENTALLY ILL CHILD
Symptoms can be divided in to the following three categories:
a) Physical Symptoms: Drumming with fingers, facial twitching, nail biting,
restlessness, rocketing feet, scratching head, stammering and vomiting.
b) Behavioural Deviations: Aggression, bullying hyperactivity, lying,
negativism, poor school achievement and gender disturbance.
c) Emotional Symptoms: Persistent anxiety, intense conflicts and tensions,
fear, hatred, inferiority complex, extreme timidity, temper tantrum and
excessive worry.
ROLE OF THE SCHOOL IN PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH OF THE
CHILDREN:
The School has a great responsibility in the promotion of mental health of the
children. It must provide a suitable emotional, intellectual and physical
environment in which a child should develop the ‘feeling of security’ and the
‘feeling of belongingness’. He should feel that his personality is given its due
recognition.
Following measures can be very helpful in securing mental health of the
students.
1. Relationship between mental health and physical health: mental health is
tired up with the physical health of an individual. A sound mind in a sound
body is a popular saying which truly reflects the vital connection between
the mind and the body. Apart from a well organized programme of games
and sports in a school, there should be a regular programme of yogic
exercises.
The yogic exercises help to maintain a sort of psycho-physical
balance. They tone up the endocrine glands, nervous system and the
 muscular system.when the yogic exercises are combined with
PRANAYAM,the individual enjoys a good physical and mental health.
2. Emotional stability of the Teacher: A Teacher’s personality has a great
bearing on the personality development of the students. It is started, “while
book can teach, only personality can educate”. It is observed in a UNESCO
publication entitled The Education and Training of Teachers:Various
research show clearly that the emotional stability of teachers affects that of
pupils.Unhappy, frustrated, dissatisfied teachers cannot help their pupils to
become happy, well-adjusted young people”. The teacher should be mentally
alert and stable to develop alertness and stability in the students.
3. Love for children: A Teacher must have abundance of love for children. “
One who does not like children should not stay in the teaching profession”
4. Meditation and Moral Education: On the face of it, it looks strange to
suggest meditation for students in the school. Here it is clarified that
meditation not to be done in an elaborate manner accompanied by several
rituals. Meditation is just observance of silence foe a few minutes either in
the morning assembly or in a regular period. Meditation is likely to provide
peace of mind and calmness, if practiced regularly.
5. According respect for the individuality of the child: A Child should not be
treated just like a dumb driven cattle. He has his own individuality. He
thinks and feels. He sense of respect should not be injured. Emerson has
rightly remarked, “ the secret of education lies in respecting the pupil.” A
child wants to be heard. His opinion should not be brushed aside merely
because he is a child.
6. Establishing close pupil-teacher conducts: the teacher is expected to
observe the child carefully in and outside the class and also to know his
 home environment. This will enable him to understand the child in a better
way.
7. Regular medical examination: There should be a regular medical check up
of the students and follow up action taken to safeguard the health of the
students. cases requiring special treatment should be sent to child guidance
clinics.
8. Patience: A Teacher has to deal with a large number of students having low
and high power of understanding. He may have to repeat his lessons many a
time for the sake of the less intelligent and he should not be irritated in doing
so. Some students, by nature, pick up lessons very slowly and a teacher
should possess the required patience to make them understand gradually.
Good habits are not formed overnight. It requires time and patience to
inculcate virtues in the students.
9. Provision of co-curricular activities: properly planned co-curricular
activities are very helpful in providing suitable opportunities to the students
to sublimate their instincts.
10.Healthy Competitions: Students should not be made to engage themselves
in the blind race of excelling others. This disturbs their mental equilibrium.
For winning, they may resort to unethical ways which may lead to conflicts.
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF A MENTALLY HEALTHY PERSON
The common characteristic of psychologically healthy individual as given by
several psychologistic are listed below:
 Adaptable and resilient
 Calm
 Cheerful
 Conscious control of life
  Emotionally balanced
 Definite philosophy of life
 Enthusiastic and reasonable
 Independent in Thinking
 Insight into one’s own conduct
 Habit well regulated
 Good tempered
 Realistic imagination
 Satisfied with the work or occupation
 Socially adaptable
Summary
Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we
think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make
healthy choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and
adolescence through adulthood.
References
Albertyn C, McCann M (1993). Alcohol, Employment and Fair Labour Practice. Cape Town,
Juta.
Babor TF, Grant M (1992). Project on identification and management of alcohol-related
problems. Report on Phase II: A randomized clinical trial of brief interventions in primary health
care. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Berto P et al. (2000). Depression: Cost-of-illness studies in the international literature: A review.
The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 3: 3-10.
Infant Health and Development Programme (1990). Enhancing the outcomes of low birthweight
premature infants: A multi-site randomized trial. JAMA, 1990, 263: 3035–3042.
J.C.Aggarwal (2013):Psychology of learning and development, shipra publications.N ew delhi
Mark T et al. (2000). Spending on mental health and substance abuse treatment, 1987-1997.
Health Affairs, July/August
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Objective Type Questions

1. Which are intimately related?

a) Body and Mind
b) Body and Health
c) Disease and Health
d) Body and Spiritual Values

2. Psycho analysis was founded by

a) Jenner
b) Parkinson
c) Freud
d) Hansen

3. Community health aims

a) Care of the infants old
b) Care of infirms
c) Improvement of Health of all
d) Improvement of health of children

4. Global Immunisation programme was started in

a) March 1974
b) August 1984
c) August 1974
d) May 1974
5. Head quarter of world health organisation (WHO) is located at
a) New York
b) Geneva
c) London
d) Paris

6. When is Annual World Mental Health Day Observed?

a) 10 th October
b) 7 th November
c) 11 th September
d) 17 December

7. When was World Mental Health Day celebrated for the First time?
a) 1991
b) 1990
c) 1993
d) 1992

8. What ledto the rise in mental health issues in recent yrars?

a) Covid Pandemic
b) Floods
c) Climate change
d) Monkypox

9. What was the World Mental Health Day theme in 1994?

a) Preventing Sucide
b) Making mental health and wellbeing for all a global priority
c)The Psychological First Aid
 d)Improve the Quality of mental health services throughout the world

10.Who took the initiative of establishing World Mental Health Day?

a)Richard Hunter
b)Chris evans
c)Freud
d) Anderson

Answer:
1. a)Body and Mind
2. c)Freud
3. c) Improvement of Health of all
4. d)May 1974
5. b)Geneva
6. a)10 th October
7. d)1992
8. a)Covid Pandemic
9. d) Improve the Quality of mental health services throughout the world.
10.a)Richard evans.

Dr. K. RATHEESWARI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF VALUE EDUCATION
TAMIL NADU TEACHERS EDUCATION UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI-600097