Agrosystems
Soil Chemical Property Changes in Response to Long-Term
Pineapple Cultivation in Costa Rica
Leslie A. Sherman* and Kristofor R. Brye
Core Ideas
• Soil organic C was lower under pineapple
cultivation than in an adjacent pasture
and secondary forest.
• Soil organic C did not differ between 7-
and 20-yr-old pineapple fields.
• Soil pH and base cations were lower in
a 20- than in a 7-yr-old pineapple field,
pasture, and forest.
• Anion exchange capacities were larger in
soils under pineapple cultivation than in
pasture soils.
• Pineapple cultivation may require
increased liming rates to help maintain
long-term soil quality.
L.A. Sherman, Dep. of Chemistry and Depart-
ment of Environmental Science and Studies,
Washington College, 300 Washington Ave,
Chestertown, MD 21620; and K.R. Brye, Dep.
of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences,
115 Plant Sciences Building, Univ. of Arkan-
sas, Fayetteville, AR 72701.
Received 6 July 2019.
Accepted 23 Sept. 2019.
*Corresponding author
(lsherman2@washcoll.edu).
Agrosyst. Geosci. Environ. 2:190052 (2019)
doi:10.2134/age2019.07.0052
Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment
Abstract
Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] has been cultivated in Costa Rica for decades on land pre-
viously under forest and pasture vegetation. A pineapple plantation in Costa Rica was chosen to
investigate the impact of long-term pineapple cultivation on soil chemical properties. Soil samples
were collected at pineapple sites under cultivation for 7 and 20 yr, as well as in an adjacent pasture
and secondary forest. Samples were analyzed for extractable nutrients, total C and N, and cation
and anion exchange capacities (CEC and AEC, respectively). Soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil N
concentrations did not differ (P > 0.05) between the 7- and 20-yr-old pineapple sites nor between
the pasture and forest sites in the top 20 cm. However, the average SOC concentration in the pas-
ture and forest sites was 1.5 times greater (P < 0.05) than that in the pineapple sites. Soil AEC was
3.5 times greater (P < 0.05) in the top 10 cm of both pineapple sites than in the pasture. The 20-yr-
old pineapple site, which had a soil pH of 4.1, had 2 to 13 times greater (P < 0.05) exchangeable
acidity and 2 to 5 times lower base cation concentrations in the top 20 cm than the 7-yr-old pine-
apple, pasture, and forest sites. The greater acidity and lower base cation concentrations in the older
pineapple site suggest that agronomic management practices may need to be adjusted to minimize
negative changes in soil chemical properties and help maintain future soil productivity.
Abbreviations: AEC, anion exchange capacity; ANOVA, analysis of variance; CEC, cation exchange
capacity; SOC, soil organic carbon; SOM, soil organic matter.
P
ineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] has been grown and traded for centuries; how-
ever, global pineapple cultivation has increased significantly over the past several
decades (Leon and Kellon, 2012; UNCTAD, 2016). Pineapple is typically produced in
humid tropical regions where temperatures are conductive to vegetative growth (Ingw-
ersen, 2012; UNCTAD, 2016). Large-scale pineapple cultivation requires large fertil-
izer inputs and is a high-density system, where pineapple is harvested year-round with
up to 70,000 plants grown per hectare (Ingwersen, 2012; UNCTAD, 2016).
In Costa Rica, forested land, initially converted to pasture in the 1960s, was
subsequently developed for pineapple cultivation and other cash crops in the 1980s
(Powers, 2004). Pineapple cultivation has become increasingly important in Costa Rica,
leading to the presence of plantations ranging in age from a few years to several decades
old in various regions of the country (Powers, 2004). By 2014, Costa Rica had become
the second largest pineapple-producing country globally and exported pineapple at a
rate five times greater than any other exporter (UNCTAD, 2016).
Most pineapple cultivation in Costa Rica occurs in regions with highly weathered
soils, with naturally low pH, nutrient status, and organic matter and C concentrations, as
well as low cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Powers, 2004; Cornwell, 2014; Chacón et
al., 2015). In contrast to most soils in temperate regions, tropical soils can also have anion
exchange capacity (AEC) due to the presence of variably charged minerals, such as Fe and
Al oxides, which have positive surface charges at low soil pH (Ludwig et al., 2001; Ryan
et al., 2001; Hyun and Lee, 2004; Harmand et al., 2010). Pineapple vegetative growth is
optimal in moderately acidic soil (pH 4.5–6.5), which minimizes fungal and nematode
infection and maximizes cation nutrient bioavailability, and in well-drained soils, which
© 2019 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
1 of 9

prevents root anoxia (Morton, 1987; Mite et al., 2010; Vásquez-
Jiménez and Bartholomew, 2018). To maintain soil organic C
and sufficient soil fertility, management of pineapple plantations
can include tilling surface crop residue into the soil after the final
harvest and liming before the next planting (Vásquez-Jiménez and
Bartholomew, 2018). In addition, during the 2 yr of pineapple
growth in the typical cropping cycle, after an initial soil-applied
fertilization, foliar fertilization occurs approximately bimonthly
and pesticides are applied as needed (Vásquez-Jiménez and
Bartholomew, 2018). Fertilizers typically include major nutrients
(i.e., N, P, and K), Mg, S, B, and trace metals (i.e., Cu, Fe, and
Zn), whereas Ca is provided primarily by liming (Vargas, 2010).
However, similar to many other row crops, N is still the nutrient
required in largest quantities for optimal pineapple cultivation
(Vásquez-Jiménez and Bartholomew, 2018).
In contrast to many other non-tropical, row-crop commodities,
comprehensive studies of the long-term impact of pineapple cultiva-
tion on soil fertility are uncommon (Mubyana, 1997; Isuwan, 2007;
Cornwell, 2014). Agricultural production on tropical soils requires
a comprehensive understanding of soil chemical properties (Men-
zies and Gillman, 1997; Ludwig et al., 2001; Juo and Franzluebbers,
2003). However, many studies of the impact of pineapple produc-
tion on soil chemistry have investigated only a few soil parameters,
most commonly soil C and N (Powers, 2004; Chacón et al., 2015).
In addition, the research often involved only one plantation site, sites
of various ages for which results were averaged, or a chronosequence
of pineapple sites, but only compared the results with uncultivated
sites with no indication of land cover (Mubyana, 1997; Powers,
2004; Isuwan, 2007; Cornwell, 2014; Chacón et al., 2015).
The few studies of pineapple cultivation report lower soil nutri-
ents, pH, C and N, and CEC under pineapple cultivation compared
with other land uses. In the northeastern region of Sarapiquí in Costa
Rica, average SOC and soil N concentrations in Ultisols and Incep-
tisols were lower in the top 20 cm of soil in six pineapple plantations
ranging in age from 1.5- to 10-yr old after conversion from pasture
relative to two nearby pastures (Powers, 2004). In a comparison of
a cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) plantation grown under shade-tree
crops with a pineapple plantation in the Northern Limón province
of Costa Rica, soil pH, CEC, and Ca, C, and N contents in the top
10 cm of Inceptisols in the pineapple plantation were significantly
lower than in the soils in the cacao plantation (Cornwell, 2014). In
a 12-yr-old pineapple plantation in the northeast region of Costa
Rica on a clayey Inceptisol, soil organic C in the top 10 cm was sig-
nificantly lower in the pineapple plantation compared with under
banana (Musa acuminata Colla) and palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)
cultivation and in an undisturbed rainforest (Chacón et al., 2015).
In Swaziland, soil organic matter (SOM) concentrations were lower
in the Ap horizon of sandy clay loam and sandy loam soils in 8-,
10-, and 20-yr-old pineapple plantations compared with nearby
uncultivated soils under grass or tree/scrub vegetation (Mubyana,
1997). Similarly, in a 1- and 4-yr-old pineapple plantation in Thai-
land, soil pH, SOM, CEC, and exchangeable Ca and Mg in the top
30 cm were lower than in neighboring uncultivated soil (Isuwan,
2007). Although SOM is typically approximately 58% SOC (Juo
and Franzluebbers, 2003), the measurements of SOM cannot be
directly compared to studies that measured SOC.
The impact of long-term pineapple cultivation in Costa Rica on
soil chemical properties requires a thorough understanding of near-
surface soil properties. The near-surface soil, approximately the upper
2 of 9
26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
30 cm, in tropical regions is usually the most biologically active and,
for those under cultivation, is the soil region most chemically and
physically altered (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003). In Costa Rica, Pow-
ers (2004) determined that average soil C and N changes in pineapple
plantations in a region in Costa Rica that includes the current study
were significant in the top 20 cm of soil, even more different in the top
10 cm, but not at lower depths. In addition, despite its importance for
the nutrient status of variably charged, tropical soils, AEC is a prop-
erty not commonly measured in soils under agricultural cultivation,
but can provide useful insight into the impacts of agricultural manage-
ment practices (Van Ranst et al., 1998; Ludwig et al., 2001; Ryan et al.,
2001; Harmand et al., 2010). Furthermore, a comparison of various
fertility-related soil properties under present pineapple cultivation to
other common, historic land uses in Costa Rica that have not expe-
rienced the intense management practices associated with pineapple
cultivation, such as pasture and secondary forest, can provide useful
insight into the degree of change in soil chemical properties from long-
term pineapple cultivation (Powers, 2004; Cornwell, 2014).
Therefore, the objective of this field study was to evaluate the
effects of varying durations of pineapple cultivation (7- and 20-yr old)
in Costa Rica and adjacent pasture and forest land use on near-surface
(20 cm) soil chemical properties, including AEC. Unlike previous
studies (Mubyana, 1997; Isuwan, 2007; Cornwell, 2014; Powers,
2004; Chacón et al., 2015), this study compared pineapple cultivation
sites of two different ages on the same plantation that have experienced
the same soil fertility and residue management. It was hypothesized
that the soil pH, exchangeable acidity, and cation nutrients of the older
pineapple plantation would be similar to that of the younger planta-
tion due to use of intensive fertilization and liming regimes. It was also
hypothesized that the soils at the pineapple sites and the pasture would
have AEC, which would be correlated with soil pH. Moreover, it was
expected that SOC and soil N would be depleted, as well as soil CEC
due to lower SOC in the older compared with younger plantation,
despite crop residue incorporation into the topsoil at the beginning
of each cropping cycle. In addition, both pineapple sites were expected
to have lower SOC and soil N than the pasture and forest sites due to
lower organic inputs, namely incorporated crop residue, in contrast to
manure and leaf litter, respectively.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Site Description
Research was conducted in 2012 at a pineapple plantation
near Valencia de San Carlos, Alajuela (10°26¢ N, 84°15¢ E) in
north-central Costa Rica at approximately 320 m above sea level
(Fig. 1). Annual precipitation throughout the region ranges from
3500 to 4000 mm yr-1 and the mean annual air temperature is 25°C
(Vargas, 2010; Powers, 2004). Soils throughout the study area are
an indistinguishable mix of Udults and Udepts (CIA, 2016).
Soil texture at all four sites in the top 20 cm was a sandy loam.
The 7-yr-old pineapple site had a particle-size distribution of
0.64 kg kg-1 sand, 0.26 kg kg-1 silt, and 0.10 kg kg-1 clay, whereas
the 20-yr pineapple site had 0.66 kg kg-1 sand, 0.22 kg kg-1 silt, and
0.12 kg kg-1 clay. In the pasture, the top 20 cm had 0.62 kg kg-1
sand, 0.26 kg kg-1 silt, and 0.12 kg kg-1 clay, whereas the forest site
had 0.68 kg kg-1 sand, 0.18 kg kg-1 silt, and 0.14 kg kg-1 clay. Soil
bulk density in the top 20 cm was 1.00, 1.07, 1.09, and 0.87 g cm-3
in the 7- and 20-yr-old pineapple plantations, pasture, and forest,
respectively.
dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/age

Fig. 1. Location of study site in the north-central Alajuela region of
Costa Rica.
The 530-ha plantation encompassing the study area has been
under pineapple (hybrid MD-2) cultivation since 1992. At the time
of sampling (August 2012), the plantation was composed of fields
from 12 to 20 ha in size, which ranged from 7 to 20 yr under contin-
uous pineapple cultivation and were at various stages in the growth
cycle. Pineapples were harvested year-round from the various fields.
The previous land use was pasture. A small, 0.4-ha remnant parcel
of the previous pasture, grazed by 10 to 20 head of cattle (Bos sp.),
existed adjacent to the plantation. Many primary forests were cut
down and pastures established across Costa Rica in the 1960s and
then cash-crop agriculture grew in the 1980s, replacing many pas-
tures (Powers, 2004). Therefore, the pasture could be up to 40 yr
old, but was at least 20 yr old at the time of this study. The species
of grass is unknown at the plantation; however, the typical grass
planted for pastures in the region was a C4 African grass (Ischemum
timorense Kunth.) (Powers, 2004). In addition, a small, 2-ha mixed,
hardwood, tropical, secondary forest was also present within the
plantation. The age of the forest is also at least 20 yr old, but could be
up to 40 yr old, based on the history of deforestation in Costa Rica
(Powers, 2004). The pasture and forest sites were within 3 km of the
two pineapple sites studied at the plantation. Since the plantation
was established in the pasture, it was assumed the soil conditions
were the same in the plantation and pasture when the plantation
was established. A similar assumption is more difficult for the forest,
based on the history of deforestation in Costa Rica (Powers, 2004)
and the lack of pre-cultivation information. The forest is most likely
older than the pasture, but comparisons can still be made.
The duration of the pineapple cropping cycle was approxi-
mately 27 mo. Prior to each planting, crop residue from the previ-
ous harvest was tilled into the top 30 cm of soil and the land was
left fallow for 3 mo. The soil was limed with Ca carbonate (CaCO3)
Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment
26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
or Mg carbonate (MgCO3) at a rate of 1 to 2.5 Mg ha-1 and fertil-
ized with major nutrients (N, P, and K), where annual amounts
depended on the results of annual soil testing. Soil fertilization rates
on pineapple plantations in Costa Rica are typically 20% of that
applied by foliar application later in the growing season, with typical
foliar rates of 500 to 580 kg ha-1 N, 44 to 61 kg ha-1 P, and 380 to
580 kg ha-1 K (Leon and Kellon, 2012). Shoots cut from the base
of a previous pineapple crop were planted in double rows in raised,
cultivated beds. The crop was manually fertilized by foliar applica-
tion for 16 cycles, approximately every 2 wk, from 1 mo of age until
forced floral induction with ethylene, after which three cycles of
foliar fertilization occurred until the first harvest, approximately 4 to
5 mo after flowering. A similar schedule was followed for the second
harvest. The foliar fertilizer was a liquid mixture composed primar-
ily of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), potassium chloride (KCl),
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and monoammonium phosphate
(NH4H2PO4), as well as additional compounds to provide minor
elements, applied at a rate of 4000 L ha-1 (Vargas, 2010). The pine-
apple crop was rainfed, but substantial water was applied with the
foliar fertilization applications. The first harvest occurred at approxi-
mately 12 mo and the second harvest at 24 mo in the cropping cycle.
Field Sampling
Two sites under pineapple cultivation, one 7- and one 20-yr-
old, were sampled in August 2012, 3 to 6 wk prior to the first har-
vest. In a randomly selected, 1-ha region in each site, soil cores were
collected with a 2.5-cm-diameter metal soil corer at eight random
soil locations. Fifteen 2.5-cm-diameter cores were collected from the
top 20 cm within a 1-m2 area encompassing the sampling location
and sectioned into the 0- to 10- and 10- to 20-cm depth intervals.
Core samples were combined by depth at each sampling location. In
addition, the adjacent remnant pasture was sampled at eight random
locations in the same sampling manner as for the pineapple sites. The
adjacent secondary forest was only sampled at four random loca-
tions. All loose organic material laying on the forest floor was manu-
ally brushed aside before soil sampling.
Soil samples were air-dried for 24 h and then oven-dried at
40°C for 48 h. Based on visual observations, there were very few
large, living roots. Those that were present were manually removed
from the soil sample prior to grinding and sieving. Oven-dried soil
samples were ground and sieved to <2 mm for chemical analyses.
Chemical analyses were conducted on all soil samples, except for
AEC from the 10- to 20-cm depth interval and CEC and AEC
at the forest site. For bulk density and texture determinations, one
small soil pit per site was excavated to a depth of 80 cm to visually
inspect the soil profile, and single samples were collected horizon-
tally by manually inserting a 5.4-cm diameter, 5.9-cm long metal
cylinder in the center of the 0- to 20-cm depth interval.
Soil Physical and Chemical Analyses
Soil pH was measured potentiometrically in a 1:2.5 soil mass/
water volume suspension. Soils were extracted with 1 M potassium
chloride (KCl) to measure exchangeable acidity and base cations
(Díaz-Romeu and Hunter, 1982). Exchangeable acidity was mea-
sured by titration of the extracts with 0.01 M sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), whereas cations were measured by atomic absorption spec-
trophotometry (AAS; PerkinElmer Optical Emission Spectrometer,
OPTIME 8000). Trace metals (Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) and
P were extracted using the modified Olsen procedure (Díaz-Romeu
3 of 9
 26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
and Hunter, 1982). Extracts were analyzed colorimetrically for P by
the ascorbic acid method with an ultraviolet-visible spectrometer
(Genesis 105 UV VIS, Thermoscientific), whereas trace metals were
measured by AAS. Total C and N were measured by high-tempera-
ture combustion using a CHNS/O analyzer (PerkinElmer Series II
CHNS/O Analyzer 2400). Due to the highly weathered nature of
the soils, the soil pH, and the large annual rainfall and because the soil
did not effervesce on treatment with 1.0 M hydrochloric acid (HCl),
all measured total C was assumed to be organic C (Loeppert and
Suarez, 1996; Powers, 2004). Soil bulk density samples were dried at
105°C for 72 h, weighed, ground, and sieved to <2 mm for particle-
size analyses using the 12-h hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002).
Cation exchange capacity and AEC were measured using
the compulsive-exchange method (Gillman and Sumpter, 1986).
The soil was extracted with 0.1 M BaCl2 and the initial pH mea- Fig. 2. Soil exchangeable acidity in different land uses: 7 and 20 yr
sured. The soil was rinsed with 2 mM BaCl2 and then extracted under pineapple cultivation (Pineapple 7 and Pineapple 20, respec-
with 5 mM MgSO4. The solution pH was then adjusted to the tively, n = 8), remnant pasture (n = 8), and secondary forest (n = 4). Dif-
ferent letters atop bars indicate significant differences among land
initial pH with 0.05 M H2SO4. The residual Mg2+ concentration
use–soil depth combinations at P < 0.05.
was measured by AAS and subtracted from the initial Mg2+ added
to calculate the CEC. The residual Cl- concentration was mea- RESULTS
sured by titration with AgNO3 using a silver ring electrode (model
DM141-SC, Mettler Toledo) and a pH/ion-selective-electrode Chemical Properties
meter (Orion Dual Star, Thermoscientific), from which the AEC Numerous soil chemical properties differed among soil
was calculated by difference from the initial Cl- added. depths and land uses. The greatest difference was in exchangeable
acidity. Exchangeable acidity in both soil depths was much greater
Statistical Analyses in the 20-yr-old pineapple site than that in the 7-yr-old pineapple
Though the land uses evaluated in this study were not themselves pasture and forest sites (Fig. 2, Table 1). Exchangeable acidity was
spatially replicated, due to the lack of additional available sites on the 7.1 times greater in the top 10 cm and 8.1 times greater in the 10-
plantation (i.e., on similar soils within close proximity to one another to 20-cm depth in the 20-yr-old site compared with the 7-yr-old
and under the same management), the separate soil samples collected site. Compared with the pasture site, exchangeable acidity in the
from within each land use were assumed to be independent of one 20-yr-old pineapple site was 13.1 and 8.3 times greater in the top
another. In addition, despite the soils being mapped as an indistin- 10 cm and in the 10- to 20-cm depth, respectively. In contrast,
guishable mix of Udults and Udepts, soil sampling was limited to the the 20-yr-old pineapple site had only 3.6 and 2.0 times greater
upper 20 cm of the soil profile, where soils had similar textures. exchangeable acidity in the top 10 cm and in the 10- to 20-cm
Based on a split-plot, completely random experimental design, depths, respectively, relative to the forest site at these depths.
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted using SAS (version 9.4,
SAS Institute, Inc.). Based on visual inspection, a majority of the soil
property data followed a normal distribution to justify the assumption Table 1. Summary of the effects of land use, soil depth, and their interac-
tions on soil chemical properties collected from the top 20 cm in a 7-yr-
of normality for use of ANOVA. One ANOVA was conducted to
old and 20-yr-old pineapple site and a nearby pasture and forest in the
evaluate the effects of land use (i.e., first-harvest pineapple plantation north-central Alajuela region of Costa Rica in 2012.
after 7 and 20 yr, forest, and pasture), soil depth (i.e., 0- to 10- and
10- to 20-cm depth intervals), and their interaction, where land use Source of variation
was the whole-plot and soil depth was the split-plot factor, on soil Land use ×
pH; exchangeable acidity; extractable soil K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, Soil property Land use Soil depth Soil depth
and Mn concentrations; total C and N concentrations; and soil C/N ————————— P —————————
ratio. Treatment differences in soil bulk density and particle-size distri- pH <0.001 0.926 0.055
bution were not formally evaluated, since only one set of samples was Exchangeable acidity <0.001 0.615 <0.001
collected; thus, results were only used to physically characterize the K <0.001 0.545 0.174
soil. Since CEC was not analyzed at all land use sites, a second sepa- Ca <0.001 0.013 0.001
rate ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the effects of land use (i.e., Mg <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
first-harvest pineapple plantation after 7 and 20 yr and pasture), soil P 0.039 0.032 0.047
depth, and their interaction on soil CEC. A third separate ANOVA Fe 0.001 0.070 0.073
was conducted, based on a completely random design, to evaluate the Cu 0.002 0.364 0.187
effect of land use (i.e., first-harvest pineapple plantation after 7 and Zn 0.001 0.049 0.807
20 yr and pasture) on soil AEC in the top 10 cm only. To evaluate Mn <0.001 0.068 0.031
soil property relationships, linear correlations were performed among C 0.012 0.377 0.551
measured soil chemical properties using Minitab (version 16, Minitab, N 0.001 0.980 0.468
Inc.). Significance was judged at P < 0.05. When appropriate, means C/N ratio 0.016 0.209 0.451
were separated by least significant difference (LSD) at the 0.05 level. Cation exchange capacity <0.001 0.632 0.185

4 of 9 dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/age

Fig. 3. Soil Ca concentration in different land uses: 7 and 20 yr under
pineapple cultivation (Pineapple 7 and Pineapple 20, respectively,
n = 8), remnant pasture (n = 8), and secondary forest (n = 4). Different
letters atop bars indicate significant differences among land use–soil
depth combinations at P < 0.05.
Unlike the other sites, the exchangeable acidity at the forest site
was lower in the top 10 cm than in the 10- to 20-cm depth.
Similar to exchangeable acidity, soil Ca and Mg concentrations
in the 20-yr-old pineapple site differed substantially from those in
the other three sites (Fig. 3 and 4). Both soil Ca and Mg concen-
trations were lower in both soil depths in the 20-yr-old pineapple
site compared with the 7-yr-old, pasture and forest sites. Average
soil Ca and Mg concentrations were 2.9 and 2.6 times, respectively,
lower in the 20- compared with the 7-yr-old pineapple site. Com-
pared with the 7-yr-old site, differences in soil Ca and Mg were
even greater between the 20-yr-old pineapple site and the pasture
and forest sites. Concentrations were 4.9 and 3.3 times lower for
Ca and 6.6 and 4.0 times lower for Mg in the top 10 cm and 10- to
20-cm depths, respectively, in the 20-yr pineapple site relative to the
pasture. In addition, soil Ca was 4.1 and 2.1 times lower and soil
Mg was 4.0 and 2.5 times lower in the top 10 cm and 10- to 20-cm
depths, respectively, in the 20-yr-old pineapple site relative to the
forest. Although soil Ca and Mg concentrations were greater in the
7-yr-old than those in the 20-yr-old pineapple site, soil Ca and Mg
concentrations were lower in the 7-yr-old plantation than in the
Fig. 4. Soil Mg concentration in different land uses: 7 and 20 yr under
pineapple cultivation (Pineapple 7 and Pineapple 20, respectively,
n = 8), remnant pasture (n = 8), and secondary forest (n = 4). Different
letters atop bars indicate significant differences among land use–soil
depth combinations at P < 0.05.
Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment
26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Fig. 5. Soil Mn concentration in different land uses: 7 and 20 yr under
pineapple cultivation (Pineapple 7 and Pineapple 20, respectively,
n = 8), remnant pasture (n = 8), and secondary forest (n = 4). Different
letters atop bars indicate significant differences among land use–soil
depth combinations at P < 0.05.
pasture. Soil Ca and Mg concentrations in the 7-yr-old plantation
were 1.5 and 2.4 times lower in the top 10 cm, respectively, than the
pasture and 1.6 times lower in the 10- to 20-cm depth for Mg. Soil
Mg concentrations were also 1.4 times lower in the 7-yr-old pine-
apple site compared with the forest in the top 10 cm.
In contrast to soil Ca and Mg concentration patterns, soil Mn
concentrations were greatest in the forest, and soil P concentra-
tions were greatest in the pasture (Fig. 5). Soil Mn concentration
was similar in both depth intervals in the 7- and 20-yr-old pine-
apple sites and the pasture. Soil Mn concentrations were 2.8 to 4.5
times greater in the top 10 cm in the forest compared with all other
land use–soil depth treatment combinations and was greater in all
10- to 20-cm depths as well (Fig. 5). Soil P concentrations were
similar between soil depths for the two pineapple sites and the for-
est but were the highest in the pasture (Fig. 6). Soil P concentra-
tions in the pasture in the top 10 cm were 6.0, 1.7, and 2.8 times
greater than that in the top 10 cm in the 7-yr-old and 20-yr-old
pineapple sites and forest, respectively. In the pasture soil P con-
centration was 6.2 times greater in the top 10 cm than in the 10- to
20-cm depth (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Soil P concentration in different land uses: 7 and 20 yr under
pineapple cultivation (Pineapple 7 and Pineapple 20, respectively,
n = 8), remnant pasture (n = 8), and secondary forest (n = 4). Different
letters atop bars indicate significant differences among land use–soil
depth combinations at P < 0.05.
5 of 9
 26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Table 2. Land use effects on soil C; N; C/N ratio; pH; extractable soil K,
Fe, Cu, and Zn; cation exchange capacity (CEC); and anion exchange In addition to the numerous differences in soil properties
capacity (AEC) averaged across soil depth in a 7-yr-old and 20-yr-old among land uses, soil depths, and/or their combination, sev-
pineapple site (n = 8), a nearby pasture (n = 8), and forest (n = 4) in the eral significant correlations were identified among measured soil
north-central Alajuela region of Costa Rica in 2012. Soil AEC was only properties across land uses. Soil N and SOC concentrations were
measured in the top 10 cm.
strongly, directly correlated with one another (r = 0.95; P < 0.001).
Land use In addition, SOC was directly correlated with CEC (r = 0.97; P <
7-yr-old 20-yr-old 0.001). Soil Ca and Mg concentrations were strongly, directly cor-
pineapple pineapple related (r = 0.94; P < 0.001) and soil K was directly correlated with
Soil property site site Pasture Forest both Ca (r = 0.78; P < 0.05) and Mg (r = 0.89; P < 0.01). Soil Mn
C, % 2.96 b† 2.66 b 3.95 a 4.27 a and Fe concentrations were also strongly, directly correlated to one
N, % 0.33 b 0.27 b 0.49 a 0.50 a another (r = 0.99; P < 0.001). Soil CEC was uncorrelated with soil
C/N ratio 9.0 b 10.0 a 8.0 b 8.6 b pH, and soil CEC in the top 10 cm was also uncorrelated with soil
pH 4.96 a 4.14 c 5.09 a 4.53 b AEC. In addition, no correlation existed between CEC and any of
K, cmolc kg-1 0.33 b 0.23 b 1.25 a 0.49 b the soil cations nor between soil P and AEC.
Fe, mg kg-1 81.2 b 66.9 b 88.8 b 206.4 a
Cu, mg kg-1 16.8 a 9.4 bc 7.6 c 13.8 b DISCUSSION
Zn, mg kg-1 4.1 b 5.7 a 4.1 b 3.4 b Soil pH, exchangeable acidity, C and N, CEC and AEC, and
CEC, cmolc kg-1 7.09 b 5.65 c 10.6 a –‡ numerous soil cation concentrations in a plantation under pine-
AEC, cmolc kg-1 0.83 b 0.80 b 0.23 a –‡ apple cultivation in northeastern Costa Rica differed depending
† Means in a row followed by different letters indicate significant differences on duration of cultivation and compared with a nearby remnant
among land uses at P < 0.05. pasture and secondary forest in the top 20 cm. Although it was
‡ CEC and AEC were not measured in the forest soil samples. hypothesized that SOC would be lower in the 20-yr-old than in
the 7-yr-old pineapple site, SOC did not differ between the two
In contrast to exchangeable acidity and soil Ca, Mg, Mn, and P, when averaged across soil depths. The management practices of till-
numerous soil chemical properties were unaffected by soil depth (P > ing in the surface residue to a 30-cm depth and leaving the field fal-
0.05) but differed among land uses and age under pineapple cultiva- low for 3 mo after the second harvest in the 27-mo cropping cycle
tion (P < 0.05; Table 1). Averaged across soil depths, SOC and soil likely partially helped maintain SOC and soil N over the long term
N concentrations were 1.5 and 1.7 times greater, respectively, in the (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003; Havlin et al., 2014; Powers, 2004;
pasture and forest, which did not differ between one another, than Chacón et al., 2015). The decomposition of surface crop residue
that in the 7-yr-old and 20-yr-old pineapple sites, which did not differ releases nutrients and the humidified residual becomes SOM (Juo
from each other (Table 2). However, the soil C/N ratio in the 20-yr- and Franzluebbers, 2003). Soil under pineapple cultivation has pre-
old pineapple site was 1.1 to 1.2 times greater than that in the three viously been shown to experience a decline in SOM when there is
other sites, which did not differ (Table 2). Averaged across depths, no residue incorporation (Cornwell, 2014; Powers, 2004; Chacón
soil CEC differed among pineapple sites and the pasture, where soil et al., 2015; Vásquez-Jiménez and Bartholomew, 2018).
CEC in the pasture was greatest and nearly twice that in the 20-yr- The lower SOC and soil N concentrations in both pineapple
old pineapple site, which was the lowest, whereas soil CEC in the sites relative to the pasture and forest land uses indicates that SOC
7-yr-old pineapple site was intermediate. Conversely, the pasture had and soil N were lower after 7 and 20 yr of cultivation than under the
the lowest soil AEC in the top 10 cm, and soil AEC was more than other less-disturbed land uses. Organic inputs from manure and leaf
three times greater in the two pineapple sites, which did not differ. litter and roots in the pasture and forest, respectively, as well as lack of
Similar to SOC, soil N, and CEC, soil pH, K, Fe, and Cu tillage, likely facilitated the greater SOC and soil N concentrations in
were also unaffected by soil depth (P > 0.05) but differed among the less-managed land uses compared with the cultivated sites (Juo
land uses (P < 0.05; Table 1). Soil pH was lower in the 20-yr-old and Franzluebbers, 2003; Havlin et al., 2014; Powers, 2004; Chacón
pineapple site than all three other sites, by almost one pH unit, et al., 2015). The lower SOC and soil N under pineapple cultivation
whereas soil pH in the 7-yr-old pineapple site was comparable to relative to pasture was similar to the results of Powers (2004), who
that in the pasture (Table 2). Soil pH in the forest was intermedi- reported that average C and N concentrations in the 0- to 10- and
ate. Averaged across depths, soil K concentrations were 2.6 to 5.3 10- to 20-cm depths intervals in pineapple plantations ranging in age
times greater in the pasture than that in the other three sites, which from 1.5 to 10 yr in northeast Costa Rica were lower than in nearby
did not differ (Table 2). In contrast, averaged across depths, soil Fe pastures in the same depth intervals. In the Powers (2004) study,
concentration was more than two times greater in the forest than however, the pineapple residue was burned and not tilled under after
in the other three sites, which did not differ (Table 2). In addition, the last harvest as in the current study, which may have contributed
averaged across depths, soil Cu concentration was 2.1 times greater to the greater magnitude of difference between the pineapple planta-
in the 7-yr-old pineapple site than that in the pasture, whereas soil tion and pasture in plantations compared with the soil C differences
Cu concentration in the other two sites was intermediate and did measured in the current study. The forest results of the current study
not differ from one another (Table 2). In contrast, averaged across were similar to those of Chacón et al. (2015), who also reported
soil depths, soil Zn concentration was 1.4 to 1.7 times greater in the greater soil C and N concentrations in the top 10 cm in the forest
20-yr-old pineapple site than in the other three sites, which did not sites than in a 12-yr-old pineapple plantation in Costa Rica. How-
differ (Table 2). Unlike all other measured soil properties, averaged ever, the forest site in the Chacón et al. (2015) study was primary
across land uses, soil Zn concentration was 1.1 times greater in the rainforest and the soil texture was clay, both of which were much dif-
top 10 cm than in the 10- to 20-cm depth interval. ferent than the forested site investigated in the current study.
6 of 9 dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/age

The greater soil C/N ratio in the 20-yr-old pineapple site rela-
tive to the other three sites indicated a small change in the balance
between C and N under long-term pineapple cultivation. Larger
C/N ratios could lead to a slower rate of decomposition of the
SOM (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003; Chacón et al., 2015). Soil
C/N ratios above 10, the value at the 20-yr pineapple site, can indi-
cate soil that is fairly resistant to degradation (Juo and Franzlueb-
bers, 2003; Havlin et al., 2014). In contrast to the current study,
both Chacón et al. (2015) and Powers (2004) reported no differ-
ence in soil C/N ratio in the pineapple plantations studied and the
nearby forest and pastures, respectively, likely due to the different
plantation management and difference in vegetation, respectively.
Although the Chacón et al. (2015) and Powers (2004) studies
provide interesting comparisons for C/N, as well as soil C and
N concentrations themselves, these two studies did not compare
pineapple sites of different ages and did not include older sites.
The SOC results from the current study can also be compared
with the results of Mubyana (1997) and Isuwan (2007) for SOM
in the Ap horizon and upper 30 cm of soil, respectively, in a chro-
nosequence of pineapple plantations in Swaziland and Thailand, as
a major portion of SOM is SOC (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003).
However, a direct comparison cannot be made. Moreover, the sites
for comparison were not identified in terms of land use, but only
listed as uncultivated. Nevertheless, in both studies, SOM was
lower in pineapple plantations compared with the uncultivated
sites (Mubyana, 1997; Isuwan, 2007). A statistical comparison
across plantations of different ages, which were sampled, was not
conducted in the Mubyana (1997) study. The Isuwan (2007) study
indicated lower SOM in 1- and 4-yr-old plantations compared with
an undisturbed site, but the two plantations did not differ from
each other in terms of SOM. Since SOM is correlated with SOC
(Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003), the studies support other findings
that show a decrease in soil C in soils under pineapple cultivation in
comparison with other, less intensively managed land uses.
In contrast with SOC and soil N, differences in pH, exchange-
able acidity, and base cations in the 20-yr-old pineapple site com-
pared with the other three sites in the current study indicated a major
deviation in these soil chemical properties in the top 20 cm, which
differed from what was hypothesized. The low mean soil pH of 4.1 at
the 20-yr pineapple site, the lowest of all the sites, was a pH unit less
than the agronomic goal of a soil pH > 5.0 (Vargas, 2010). Moreover,
the elevated exchangeable acidity at the 20-yr-old site was associated
with threefold lower Ca and Mg concentrations in the soils at the site
in the top 20 cm in comparison with the other sites. Exchangeable
acidity (i.e., hydronium and aluminum ions) compete with base cat-
ions for soil exchange sites, hence base cations can decline as soil pH
declines (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003; Havlin et al., 2014).
Long-term N fertilization likely contributed to soil acidifica-
tion and basic cation depletion, despite N applications being foliar,
and the liming regime did not sufficiently neutralize the acidification
effects from N fertilization (Hepton, 2002; Cornwell, 2014; Havlin
et al., 2014). Although less fertilizer reaches the soil surface using foliar
fertilization, large rates of foliar fertilization (i.e., >2500 L ha-1) can
result in some runoff from the plants onto the soil (Hepton, 2002)
and direct addition to the soil between plants can occur. The primary
N fertilizers used at the site were ammonium nitrate and urea, both
of which are acid producing through microbial nitrification in soil
(Havlin et al., 2014). When nitrate in excess of plant uptake leaches
from the soil, with an equivalent number of base cations to maintain
Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment
26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
charge balance, net soil acidification occurs (Havlin et al., 2014). The
data suggest that soil acidification has likely occurred over time at the
plantation as a result of long-term N fertilization. The greater soil K
in the pasture compared with the three other sites was likely due to
periodic inputs from cow urine, which was assumed to be somewhat
evenly distributed across the pasture in the free-range grazing man-
agement that was used (Betteridge et al., 1986).
The trends in trace metal concentrations among the four sites
were not as clear as for the base cations. The elevated soil Fe and
Mn concentrations in the forest site could reflect different inputs
to the soil from tree vegetation, slightly different soil mineralo-
gies, enhanced weathering under the tree canopy, and/or reduced
moisture inputs compared with the other sites that could have
solubilized and translocated Fe and Mn away from the surface and
deeper into the soil profile (Havlin et al., 2014). The strong correla-
tion between Fe and Mn suggested their behaviors are controlled
by similar factors, although which of the factors above are the pri-
mary ones cannot be determined given the data at hand. The lower
soil Cu concentration in the 20-yr-old relative to the 7-yr-old pine-
apple site was in contrast to the greater soil Zn in the 20-yr-old
pineapple site. The foliar fertilizer used at the pineapple site was
almost 1000 times greater in Zn than in Cu (Vargas, 2010) and Zn
may have built up over time in the older pineapple site.
The soil pH and SOC concentrations likely explain the differ-
ences in soil CEC and AEC among the land uses (Ryan et al., 2001;
Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003; Isuwan, 2007; Harmand et al., 2010;
Cornwell, 2014). The strong correlation between CEC and SOC
across the land uses evaluated in this study was expected given the
large CEC of SOM (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003). Even though clay
minerals and metal oxides in the weathered soils of the humid tropics
contribute to soil CEC, the CEC of SOM compared with kaolinite,
for example, is much greater and hence provides a larger contribu-
tion to the soil CEC overall in tropical soils (Juo and Franzluebbers,
2003). The greater SOC in the pasture was likely the primary source
of the greater CEC compared with the two pineapple sites, since the
7-yr-old pineapple site had a similar pH as the pasture soil, but lower
SOC (Isuwan, 2007). Although SOM and inorganic minerals have
pH-dependent charge and soil pH can impact both CEC and AEC
(Ryan et al., 2001; Harmand et al., 2010; Havlin et al., 2014), soil pH
and CEC were not strongly correlated in the current study. Neverthe-
less, the 20-yr-old pineapple site had the lowest CEC in comparison
with the three other sites, which could be the result of the loss of some
pH-dependent, positive charge in the soil, from both organic matter
and clay minerals, due to the low soil pH of 4.1, which was almost a
pH unit lower than the other sites (Isuwan, 2007; Cornwell, 2014).
Similarly, the difference in soil pH could be the primary cause of the
CEC differences between the pineapple sites, as SOC concentrations
did not differ between the two sites (Cornwell, 2014). Further study
would be needed to distinguish between these controlling factors.
As hypothesized, soil AEC was present in the sites in which
AEC was measured and was greater in the pineapple sites compared
with the pasture. One would expect the soil AEC to be greater in
the 20-yr-old than in the 7-yr-old pineapple site due to lower CEC
(Havlin et al., 2014); however, the low AEC overall may have
masked any detectable AEC differences. The expected inverse
relationship between AEC and CEC in the top 10 cm occurred
in the pasture, where soil AEC was lowest, and CEC was the larg-
est among the three sites. Comparisons of soil AEC from the cur-
rent study to other studies are difficult due to the lack of soil AEC
7 of 9

measurements reported under pineapple cultivation. However, soil
AEC measured at the pineapple sites in the current study was gener-
ally greater than most of those from comparable studies. Soil AEC
associated with the pineapple sites in the current study was slightly
greater than soil AEC reported in Costa Rican Ultisols under cof-
fee (Coffea arabica L.) (0.34 cmolc kg-1), whereas the pasture site’s
AEC was comparable, and the CEC reported (5.06 cmolc kg-1)
was similar to that of the 20-yr-old pineapple site (Harmand et
al., 2010). In other Ultisols in Costa Rica, soil AEC in the top
20 cm (0.20–0.25 cmolc kg-1) reported by Hyun and Lee (2004)
was lower, whereas soil CEC was greater (8.1–10.4 cmolc kg-1)
than in both pineapple sites but were similar to the pasture of
the current study. Soil AEC in the pineapple sites of the current
study was also greater than those reported in an Amazon Ultisol
(0.1–0.4 cmolc kg-1 tested over pH range of 6.5–3) (Ludwig et al.,
2001) and in surface soils in Cameroon (<0.1 cmolc kg-1, 0–15 cm;
Menzies and Gillman, 1997; 0.4 cmolc kg-1, 0–20 cm; Van Ranst
et al., 1998). However, CEC and AEC depend on numerous site-
specific properties, such as soil pH and mineral nutrient and SOM
concentrations, which further complicate comparisons between
results of the current study and results of other studies.
Soil P concentration differences between sites of contrasting
land use suggest that the primary control on soil P was inputs to the
soil surface. As occurred for SOC and soil N, the greater soil P con-
centration in the pasture compared with the pineapple sites and the
forest was likely due to manure inputs from grazing cattle (Cornwell,
2014; Havlin et al., 2014). Although the mean soil P concentration
across depths in the 20-yr-old pineapple site was more than three
times greater than that in the 7-yr-old site, the soil P concentrations
variability was large in all land uses. The difference in soil P between
the pineapples sites was not statistically significant; however, the
threefold difference in soil P in the top 20 cm was likely a significant
agronomic difference for pineapple cultivation (Leon and Kellon,
2012; Vásquez-Jiménez and Bartholomew, 2018). Although P can
be fixed to AEC sites in tropical soils (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003),
the AEC measured did not differ between the two pineapple sites,
despite the differences in measured soil P. The differences in soil P
may be due in part to greater P availability due to the greater pH in
the 7-yr-old pineapple site, which could allow greater plant uptake
and hence less residual P stored in the soil (Havlin et al., 2014).
CONCLUSIONS
Pineapple cultivation in Costa Rica is a major industry, with
plantations ranging in age from only several years to more than 20 yr,
on land that was previously in pasture or forest. This field study aimed
to investigate differences in selected soil chemical properties among
different aged pineapple plantations and adjacent, less-intensively
management land uses. Though this study included only a single site
representing each land use with unknown specifics about their pre-
cultivation history and had a limited number of samples collected,
results obtained are still valuable to understanding the long-term
impact of pineapple cultivation on soil chemical properties.
Although it was hypothesized that SOC and soil N concen-
trations would be lower in the older 20-yr-old compared with
the younger 7-yr-old site, long-term cultivation of pineapple did
not significantly impact SOC and N concentrations at the sites
investigated in this study. The similarity in SOC and N in the two
pineapple sites was most likely due to the practice of tilling under
the residual pineapple biomass and allowing time for decomposi-
8 of 9
26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
tion before the next crop was planted, a management technique
that is not used at all pineapple plantations. The pasture and for-
est benefit from additional organic inputs and fewer losses from
being less disturbed and only minimally managed.
Pineapple cultivation clearly negatively impacted near-sur-
face soil fertility, particularly in the older pineapple plantation.
In particular, long-term pineapple cultivation led to increases in
soil acidity and decreases in base cations. A change in fertilization
and/or liming regime (i.e., amounts and/or timing in the rotation
cycle) could help reduce soil acidity, minimize AEC, and increase
base cation concentrations, which can contribute to improve-
ments in soil health. Additional C inputs could help increase SOC
and soil CEC. Although pineapples continue to be grown in Costa
Rica, long-term soil management may require careful attention to
near-surface soil fertility, particularly soil acidity and base cation
concentrations, to maintain soil pH and nutrients at levels for
optimum pineapple growth or if the land is converted to another
use in the future that is not well-suited to acidic soils.
Conflict of Interest Disclosure
There are no conflicts of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was financially supported by Washington College. The
assistance provided by Herberth Arrieta and Luis Peneda Castro is grate-
fully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Betteridge, K., W.G.K. Andrewes, and J.R. Sedcole. 1986. Intake and excretion of
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus by grazing steers. J. Agric. Sci. 106:393–
404. doi:10.1017/S0021859600064005
Centro de Investigaciones Agrinómicas (CIA). 2016. Digital soil map of Costa Rica.
CIA, San Jose, Costa Rica. http://www.cia.ucr.ac.cr/cia_en/?page_id=114
(accessed 19 June 2019).
Chacón, P., K. Lorenz, R. Lal, F.G. Calhoun, and N.R. Fausey. 2015. Association of
soil organic carbon with physically separated soil fractions in different land uses
of Costa Rica. Acta Agric. Scand. Sci. 65:448–459.
Cornwell, E. 2014. Effects of different agricultural systems on soil quality in North-
ern Limón Province, Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 62:887–897. doi:10.15517/
rbt.v62i3.14062
Díaz-Romeu, R., and A. Hunter. 1982. Methodology of soil sampling, chemical anal-
ysis of soils and plant tissue and research in greenhouse. (In Spanish.) Centro
Angronómico Tropical de Investigatión y Enseñanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica.
Gee, G.W., and D. Or. 2002. Particle-size analysis. In: J.H. Dane and G.C. Topp, edi-
tors, Methods of soil analysis. Part 4. Physical methods. SSSA Book Ser. 5.4.
SSSA, Madison, WI. p. 255–293. doi:10.2136/sssabookser5.4.c12
Gillman, G.P., and E.A. Sumpter. 1986. Modification to the compulsive exchange
method for measuring exchange characteristics of soils. Soil Res. 24:61–66.
doi:10.1071/SR9860061
Harmand, J.M., H. Ávila, R. Oliver, L. Saint-André, and E. Dambrine. 2010. The
impact of kaolinite and oxi-hydroxides on nitrate adsorption in deep layers
of a Costa Rican Acrisol under coffee cultivation. Geoderma 158:216–224.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.04.032
Havlin, J.L., S.L. Tisdale, W.L. Nelson, and J.D. Beaton. 2014. Soil fertility and fertil-
izers. 8th ed. Pearson, New York.
Hepton, A. 2002. Cultural systems. In: D.P. Bartholomew, R.E. Pauli, and K.G.
Rohrbach, editors, The pineapple: Botany, production, and uses. 1st ed. CABI
Publishing, Honolulu, HI. p. 109–142.
Hyun, S., and L.S. Lee. 2004. Factors controlling sorption of prosulfuron by
variable-charge soils and model sorbents. J. Environ. Qual. 33:1354–1361.
doi:10.2134/jeq2004.1354
Ingwersen, W. 2012. Life cycle assessment of fresh pineapple from Costa Rica. J.
Clean. Prod. 35:152–163. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.05.035
Isuwan, A. 2007. Effect of pineapple cropping on soil chemical and physical changes
in Tha-yang soil series, Petchaburi province. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol.
29:297–305.
dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/age

Juo, A.S.R., and K. Franzluebbers. 2003. Tropical soils: Properties and management
for sustainable agriculture. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
Leon, R.G., and D. Kellon. 2012. Characterization of “MD-2” pineapple planting
density and fertilization using a grower survey. HortTechnology 22:644–650.
doi:10.21273/HORTTECH.22.5.644
Loeppert, R.H., and D.L. Suarez. 1996. Carbonate and gypsum. In: D.L. Sparks, A.L.
Page, P.A. Helmke, and R.H. Loeppert, editors, Methods of soil analysis. Part
3. Chemical methods. SSSA Book Ser. 5.3. SSSA, Madison, WI. p. 437–474.
doi:10.2136/sssabookser5.3.c15
Ludwig, B., P.K. Khanna, B. Anurugsa, and H. Fölster. 2001. Assessment of cation
and anion exchange and pH buffering in an Amazonian Ultisol. Geoderma
102:27–40. doi:10.1016/S0016-7061(00)00099-9
Menzies, N.W., and G.P. Gillman. 1997. Chemical characterization of soils of a
tropical humid forest zone: Methodology. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61:1355–1363.
doi:10.2136/sssaj1997.03615995006100050010x
Mite, F., J. Espinosa, and L. Medina. 2010. Liming effect on pineapple yield and soil
properties in volcanic soils. Better Crops Plant Food 92:7–9.
Morton, J. 1987. Pineapple. Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN. https://hort.purdue.
edu/newcrop/morton/pineapple.html (accessed 19 June 2019).
Mubyana, T. 1997. Effects of continuous sugarcane and pineapple cropping on
organic matter and soil microbial biomass. J. African Res. Dev. 27/28:258–
269.
Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment
26396696, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/age2019.07.0052 by Honduras HINARI REGIONAL, Wiley Online Library on [20/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Powers, J.S. 2004. Changes in soil carbon and nitrogen after contrasting land-use
transitions in Northeastern Costa Rica. Ecosystems 7:134–146. doi:10.1007/
s10021-003-0123-2
Ryan, M.C., G.R. Graham, and D.L. Rudolph. 2001. Contrasting nitrate adsorption
in Andisols of two coffee plantations in Costa Rica. J. Environ. Qual. 30:1848–
1852. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.3051848x
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). 2016. Pine-
apple: An infocomm community profile. UNCTAD, New York. https://
unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/INFOCOMM_cp09_Pineapple_en.pdf
(accessed 19 June 2019).
Van Ranst, E., J. Shamshuddin, G. Baert, and P.K. Dzowa. 1998. Charge characteris-
tics in relation to free iron and organic matter in soils from Bambouto Moun-
tains, Western Cameroon. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 49:243–252. doi:10.1046/j.1365-
2389.1998.00159.x
Vargas, R.F. 2010. Fertilización mediante el método de stroller en el cultivo de piña
(Ananas comosus) (L.) Merr. Hibrido MD-2, en lab finca El Tremedal S.A. San
Carlos, Costa Rica. Trabajo Final de Graduación Presentado a la Escuela de
Agronomía, Instituto Technológico de Costa Rica Sede Regional San Carlos.
https://repositoriotec.tec.ac.cr/handle/2238/2893 (accessed 19 June 2019).
Vásquez-Jiménez, J., and D.P. Bartholomew. 2018. Plant nutrition. In: G. Sanewski,
D.P. Bartholomew, and R.E. Paull, editors, The pineapple: Botany, pro-
duction, and uses. 2nd ed. CABI Publishing, Honolulu, HI. p. 175–202.
doi:10.1079/9781786393302.0175
9 of 9