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City and Guilds 9210 UNIT 103 Hydraulics and Hydrology Level 6 Tutorial 2 - PIPE NETWORKS
City and Guilds 9210 UNIT 103 Hydraulics and Hydrology Level 6 Tutorial 2 - PIPE NETWORKS
UNIT 103
HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY Level 6
Tutorial 2 - PIPE NETWORKS
Outcome 1 Identify and process solutions for problems in fluid mechanics, pipe flow,
rotodynamic machines and open channel flow
PIPE FRICTION
4Cf Lu 2m
When a fluid flows in a pipe the friction head is defined by the Darcy equation h f
2gD
hf = friction head
um = mean velocity = Q/A
D = pipe bore
L = pipe length
Re = Reynolds number = ρumD/μ
R = Hydraulic resistance
The friction coefficient Cf is dependent on the surface roughness and degree of turbulence and there are
many theories about its relationship. The most common method for finding C f is from the Moody Chart
or from one of many developed formulae such as :
Basically we are saying h f umn and n is only 2 for complete turbulent flow.
We must remember that Cf depends on the Reynolds number. In this case we would need to think about
recalculating Cf every time we change the flow.
32Cf L
R (or often K) is the fluid resistance. When n = 2 R and when n is not 2, Cf and hence R
gπ 2 D5
changes with the flow rate. The units of R are s2/m5.
MINOR LOSSES
Minor losses occur at Entry and exit from a reservoir, at sudden changes in sections and sharp bends. In
general these are small compared to pipe friction when the pipes are long and are neglected for short
connections they are important. In terms of pressure head the losses are usually formulated as:
8k
h L RQ2 where the resistance is given by R where k is a factor that depends on the pipe sizes
2D4
and can be found in literature.
The Moody chart and other details concerning pipe losses can be found in tutorial 1.
The diagram shows a typical example with four reservoirs A, B, C and D connected to a common
junction J. The problem is to find the pressure head h at the junction.
For a system such as that illustrated, suppose that we need to find the flow in each pipe but we don't
know the pressure at the junction.
We could do four simultaneous equations in order to find the flow in each pipe but these days with fast
computational methods it is relatively easier to guess at values and make corrections.
Applying Bernoulli between the free surface of any reservoir and the junction gives:
h + z + u2/2g = hJ + zJ + uJ2/2g + hf
Many sources of information ignore the velocity term and state hf = z - zj - hJ and this will be so here.
For a given pipe we calculate the hydraulic resistance R (or K) and get the form h f = R Qn
Suppose we guess at the value of hJ (or more likely hJ + zJ). With a suitable programme such as Excel™
it is easy to guess the head and keep changing it until ΣQ = 0.
The point is that at the junction the total or net flow rate must be zero so each time we guess we add
up the total flow until ΣQ = 0. If it is not very close to zero then we guess again.
A more systematic method of arriving at the correct answer is to make a correction after each guess
based on the error formula derived previously.
nh f δQ nh f δQ nh f δQ nh f δQ n δQ
δhf δhf
Q A Q B Q C Q D Q/h f
This method is called the nodal balance method.
Find the pressure head at the junction by guessing and hence the flow rate in or out of each reservoir.
SOLUTION
32Cf L L
Calculate R for each pipe. R 2 5
0.001653 5
gπ D D
RA = 677.8 RB = 816 RC = 66.1 RD = 193.7
The following solution was done on a spread sheet. Remember that on the spread sheet the values in
the table will automatically change when you change hJ in the programme. Adjusting hJ until ΣQ ≈ 0
gives the following.
Note that if Q is minus it is implied that h f is minus but this will cause a problem in the calculations so
use Q = √Modulus(hf/R)
In an examination you may not have access to a suitable programmable calculator so you would have to
keep repeating all the calculations with an adjustment to the value of h J each time.
Repeat the last worked example but use iteration to arrive at the answer.
n δQ
The correction to be made after each iteration is h f
Q/h f
With this formula you can calculate the adjustment each time. With no other data, a good idea for the
starting value is the mean height of the reservoirs. Also note that the height of the junction is not
normally given but if we guess at hJ + zJ we get the same result but do not know the static head at J.
Also note that K is commonly used instead of R. A good starting guess might be h J = (63 + 54 + 40 +
20)/4 = 44 m
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 19 0.16743 0.00881
B 816 54 10 0.1107 0.01107
C 66.1 40 -4 -0.246 0.0615
D 193.7 20 -24 -0.352 0.01467
Σ=-0.3199 Σ=0.09605
Now find the correction
2 δQ 2 x (-0.3199)
δhf Q/h 0.09605 6.66 Change the values of hJ to 37.34 and repeat.
f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 25.66 0.19457 0.00758
B 816 54 16.66 0.14289 0.00858
C 66.1 40 2.66 0.2006 0.07542
D 193.7 20 -17.34 -0.2992 0.01725
Σ=0.23886 Σ=0.10883
Now find the correction
2 δQ 2 x (0.23886)
δhf Q/h 0.10883 4.39 Change the values of hJ to 41.73 and repeat.
f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 21.27 0.17715 0.00833
B 816 54 12.27 0.12262 0.00999
C 66.1 40 -1.73 -0.1618 0.09351
D 193.7 20 -21.73 -0.3349 0.01541
Σ=-0.1969 Σ=0.12725
Now find the correction
2 δQ 2 x (-0.1969)
δhf Q/h 0.1273 3.09 Change the values of hJ to 38.6 and repeat.
f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 24.64 0.19066 0.00774
B 816 54 15.64 0.13844 0.00885
C 66.1 40 1.64 0.15751 0.09605
D 193.7 20 -18.36 -0.3079 0.01677
Σ=0.17875 Σ=0.1294
2 δQ 2 x (0.17875)
δhf Q/h 0.1294 2.76 Change the values of hJ to 41.4 and repeat.
f
The number of iterations depends on how accurate you want the answer to be but you can see the
answer is converging on 40 m.
The table shows the data for the network of pipes shown connecting four reservoirs to a common
junction.
Calculate the flow in each pipe using iteration until the final head correction at the junction is less than
0.1 m.
SOLUTION
The height of the datum is not given so we can only calculate the combined head and height. The best
guess is usually the mean height of the reservoirs which is (50 + 45 + 40 + 30)/4 = 41.25
1st ITERATION
2nd ITERATION
2 δQ 2 x (0.5991)
δhf 0.0678 This is less than 0.1 so meets the answer
Q/h f 1.76786
QA = 1.55 m3/s QB = 1.24 m3/s QC = -0.45 m3/s QD = -2.28 m3/s
The table shows the data for the network of pipes shown connecting four reservoirs to a common
junction.
Calculate the flow in each pipe using iteration until the final head correction at the junction is less than
0.1 m.
If the flow in any pipe is the opposite way, then hf will be negative and all is taken care of.
The solution is based on calculating the total h f for either the clockwise or anti-clockwise flow and
adjusting the Q values until Σhf is zero.
Pipe AB R = 50 s2/m5
Pipe BC R = 30 s2/m5
Pipe AC R = 60 s2/m5
SOLUTION
Guess the flow in each pipe bearing in mind the total flow at a node is zero. Clockwise is positive.
The starting guess is:
Q (AB) = 0.6 Q (BC) = -0.6 Q (BC) = -0.4
First iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.6 18 30
BC 30 -0.6 -10.8 18
AC 60 -0.2 -2.4 12
-0.2 4.8 60
Second iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.56 15.68 28
BC 30 -0.64 -12.288 19.2
AC 60 -0.24 -3.456 14.4
-0.32 -0.064 61.6
δQ f1
h - 0.32
0.000524 Correct the Q values by subtracting
2 h f1/Q 2 x 61.6
Third iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.56052 15.708 28.025
BC 30 -0.6395 -12.2688 19.185
AC 60 -0.2395 -3.44162 14.37
-0.3185 -0.00005 61.58
This is one iteration more than we need. The head loss is so close to zero that this is the correct
answer.
Q (AB) = 0.56052 m3/s, Q (BC) = -0.6395 m3/s and Q (AC) = -0.2395 m3/s
If we check the flow into each node we will see that the original figures have been maintained.
When a network contains multiple loops, there will be pipes common to adjoining loops with a clockwise
flow in one loop appearing as anti-clockwise in the other. Each loop must be identified and the
corrections made systematically to each loop in turn. The correction to the flows must be made each time
before moving on to the next loop. For more than two loops in a network, the process becomes very
elaborate and computer methods need to be used.
SOLUTION
PIPE
AB
R
1000
Q
0.09381
hf
8.79956
hf/Q
93.80597 δQ
h f1 -1.8132 0.00266
BE 7500 0.01264 1.19829 94.80084 2 h f1/Q 2 x 341
EF 1000 -0.0662 -4.38165 66.19403
FA 1000 -0.0862 -7.42941 86.19403
-1.81321 340.9949
Correct all flows by adding 0.00266
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
δQ
h - 0.849
f1
AB 1000 0.09646 9.30543 96.46467 2 h /Q 2 x 323.866
f1
BE 7500 0.01071 0.8604 80.33071
EF 1000 -0.0635 -4.03674 63.53533 δQ 0.00131
FA 1000 -0.0835 -6.97815 83.53533
-0.84905 323.866
Correct all flows by adding 0.00131
Do BCDEB again
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
BC 1000 0.03575 1.278342 35.75391
CD 1000 0.00575 0.033107 5.75391 δQ
h - 0.3603
f1
PIPE R Q hf
AB 1000 0.09778 9.56004
BE 7500 0.01087 0.88554
EF 1000 -0.0622 -3.87189
FA 1000 -0.0822 -6.76087
BC 1000 0.03691 1.362302
CD 1000 0.00691 0.047739
DE 1000 -0.0231 -0.53318
BE 7500 -0.0109 -0.88554
Pressure at B = 50 – 9.6 = 40.4 m Pressure at E = 40.4 – 0.9 = 39.5 m
Pressure at F = 50 – 6.8 = 43.2 m Pressure at E = 43.2 – 3.9 = 39.3 m (check)
Pressure at C = 40.4 – 1.4 = 39 m Pressure at D = 39 – 0.05 = 39 m
Pressure at D = 39.4 – 0.5 = 38.9 m (check)
1. The diagram shows a simple pipe network in the horizontal plane with nodes at A, B, C and D with
flow rates as indicated. The hydraulic resistance of each pipe is as follows:
AB 500 s2/m5
BC 500 s2/m5
CD 1200 s2/m5
DA 1200 s2/m5
BD 600 s2/m5
2. The diagram shows a water supply network with the demands indicated at the nodes.
The value of K for each pipe is 500 s2/m5 except for BE which is 600 s2/m5.
The supply pressure head at A is 120 m above the ground elevation for the area served which is flat
and level. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe and the pressure head at each node.
ANSWERS
Q m3/s hf m Node h m
AB 0.373 69.6 A 120
BE 0.126 9.6 B 50.4
EF -0.227 -25.7 C 35.4
FA -0.327 -53.4 D 32.7
BC 0.173 15.0 E 40.7
CD 0.0732 2.7 F 66.6
DE -0.127 -8.0
BE -0.126 -9.6