Global Political Thought

HM
Context to learning political thought

• critically re ect the historical dimension of international political theory/IR

theory

• develop critical skills in reading classical, medieval and modern texts of

international theory

• critically discuss the 20th century mainstream of international political theory/

IR theory, analyse how it developed and consider how it impacted on
practical thinking in international politics
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 Syllabus
Global Political Thought- I

Unit- I Ancient & Medieval Political Thinkers

Chapter 1- Plato- Ideal State, Philosopher King, Allegory of the Cave (SSS)

Chapter 2- Aristotle- State, Citizenship, Classi cation of Constitutions, Revolution

Chapter 3 - Kautilya- Saptanga theory (Seven organs theory of the state), The Theory of

Rajamandala (The Circle of States)

Machiavelli- State, The Prince (SSS), Moral indi erence

Unit-II Modern Thinkers- I

Chapter 4 -John Stuart Mill- State, Liberty, Extension of Franchise

Karl Marx- Historical Materialism, Class struggle, Revolution (SSS)

Chapter 5- John Rawls- Theory of Justice, International justice

Chapter6- Mao Tse-tung- Democracy, Theory of protracted war

Unit III- Modern Thinkers-II

Chapter 7- J. Ann Tickner- Gender in International Relations, Critique of Security (SSS)

Chapter 8- Mahatma Gandhi- Satyagraha (SSS), Democracy, Peace and Non-violence

B.R. Ambedkar-Social Justice and Constitutional Democracy (SSS)

Chapter 9- Nehru- Concept of Socialism, Independent foreign policy

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• The module “International Political Thought” is based on “classical” texts of
political philosophers and international legal theorists thematising
international politics.

• considering their original contributions to the body of present-day

international political theory/IR theory,

• the historical legacies of present-day international theory.

• Political thought also called political philosophy or theory is concerned with

the study of fundamental questions about the state government or
governance, politics, liberty, justice, rights and law.
Why is an international approach unique?

• Relationship between International Relations theory and the history of political thought: Classical
political thought has long been part of International Relations

• There is a relative dominance of analytical political theory in the Anglo-American academy, and it is
mirrored by the rise of neo-positivist, social choice thinking in Political Science and International
Relations

• History of international political thought are in uenced by later twentieth ways of thinking about the
world,

• We will be discussing well-known themes such as relations between independent sovereign states
and the tension between raison d’état (reason of state) and the universal code of natural law.

• We will also examine less familiar ideas which have in uenced the development of international
political thought such as the distinction between civilization, national culture and barbarism,
religious attitudes towards in dels, and theories about racial di erence and imperialism.
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Personalities of International Relations Thought

• Construction of Identity is important in the conduct of international relations. So

understanding the role of thinkers and theorists, is as important as learning the
theories of International Relations.

• You will often see the word “canon”: it is a term applied in areas of intellectual
life to works which are paradigmatic, exemplary within a particular eld.

• Of particular relevance here is the use of the term in Western political philosophy
to refer to the masterpieces, the great achievements, of that discourse by
writers such as Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke,
Spinoza, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Bentham, Mill, and Marx.

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Thucydides and Socrates
• Thucydides: an ancient Greek historian who wrote the History of the Peloponnesian
War and is also cited as an intellectual forbearer of realpolitik. Thucydides was an
Athenian historian who also happened to serve as an Athenian general during the
Peloponnesian War. (Ideas of Power and Security Dilemma)

• Socrates: his ideas laid emphasis on the law as the criterion for classi cation of the
forms of government, the contrast between monarchy and tyranny, and others.

• His thought has exerted a considerable in uence on the subsequent political theories
of ancient thinkers, above all Plato, Aristotle and Polibius and through them various
politico-legal doctrines of the Middle Ages and modern times.

• Socrates’s views on democracy in uenced both Plato and Aristotle. He did not
consider democracy as a desirable form of government on the grounds that
incompetent o cials are appointed to run the administration of democratic state. He
also believed, common people have no ability to participate in the state a airs.
Socrates also advocated the concept of Philosopher-King. (Discussed by Plato)
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• Socrates introduced a new concept which may be called ethical politics. We nd its reappearance in
Plato and Aristotle. Without ethics politics is bound to contam nate the whole society. For an ideal or
good and well-ordered state both ethics and politics must travel hand in hand.

• “Socrates is traditionally regarded as the founder of theoretical ethics which paved the way for Plato’s
and Aristotle’s logical and political conceptions”

• These three great Greek philosophers built up the fabric of political philosophy with the help of the
experience of Greek city-state

• The thought systems of Plato and Aristotle are really comprehensive.

• Socrates was charged with worshipping false gods and corrupting Athenian youth by the democracy
and then sentenced to death by means of ingesting hemlock

• “international” political thought and not simply “political thought” suggests immediately that relations
between collectivities are at the heart of the matter.

• international political thought addresses relations between separate collective entities, such entities
are not necessarily autonomous, territorial political units.

• Most present-day thought in International Relations have their origins in Roman/Greek thinkers.
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Plato
• PLATO was born around the year 428 BCE.

• He was a scion/descendant of a distinguished and Aristocratic Athenian family with

known and pronounced antidemocratic sympathies.

• He was expected eventually to play a part in oligarchic politics himself.

• However, his meeting with Socrates changed his life.

• Socrates death led Plato to develop a distaste for Greek democracy that emerges in
most of his writings from his early middle age until his death.

• But, it is worth knowing that Socrates equally disputed the oligarchs.

• for example, Socrates refused a direct order of Plato’s relative Critias when the latter
was one of the so-called “thirty tyrants” who brie y seized power in Athens in 404
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• Almost all Plato’s writings until his extreme old age feature Socrates as the protagonist and
clearly one of his intentions in writing as he did was to vindicate his masters memory and
methods (though there is much scholarly debate about how much of his own “doctrine,” if
any, Plato puts into the mouth of his Socrates).

• After Socrates’ death, Plato abandoned any idea of “going into politics” as his family had
expected and instead set up a school – we would call it a university – called the Academy
which rapidly became the most famous in the Greek world. While head of the Academy,
Plato published his “dialogues,” his philosophical writings, which included a number
directly concerned with politics, most especially the Republic (widely considered his
masterpiece), the Statesman, and the Laws.

• In keeping with his philosophic precepts he (and the Academy) also acted in politics,
usually working to sustain or establish “constitutional” regimes.

• Most famously, he intervened twice in the tangled politics and international

• relations of the city of Syracuse, an intervention from which he barely escaped with his life,
and of which he writes an account in the Seventh Letter. Still head of the Academy, still
writing and thinking, he died in about 347 at the age of eighty- one.
• In the Greek cities of southern Italy, he became familiar with the doctrines of mystic
Pythagorean society. This society stressed class structure and mathematics, which later
occupied an important position in the curriculum of Plato's Athenian academy.

• He visited Syracuse rst in 387, then in 367, and again in 362-361, with the general
purpose to moderate the Sicilian tyrants with philosophical education and to establish a
model political rule.

• His Academy, which provided a base for succeeding generations of Platonic

philosophers until its nal closure in C.E. 529, became the most famous teaching
institution of the Hellenistic world. Mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, dialectics, and
other subjects, all seen as necessary for the education of philosophers and statesmen,
were studied there.

• Some of Plato’s pupils later became leaders, mentors, and constitutional advisers in
Greek city-states. His most renowned pupil was Aristotle. Plato died in c. 347 B.C.E.
During his lifetime, Athens turned away from her military and imperial ambitions and
became the intellectual center of Greece. She gave host to all the four major Greek
philosophical schools founded in the course of the fourth century: Plato’s Academy,
Aristotle’s Lyceum, and the Epicurean and Stoic schools.
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Political Philosophy of Plato
Ideal State

• Although the Republic, the Statesman, the Laws and a few shorter dialogues are
considered to be the only strictly political dialogues of Plato, it can be argued that political
philosophy was the area of his greatest concern.

• In Plato's time, many Athenians considered their large towns and their city-states to be
perfect. That is, ideal in regards to their cultural and military achievements. (Plato did not
agree)

• He was skeptical of a society that gave no speci c place to those with expertise in politics.

• Plato was well learned in the seediness of Athens — its arrogant nature, military, political,
and social errors, and even its contempt towards its own citizens. Plato saw through the
Athenian state's facade and became inspired to formulate the ideals of his perfect state, or
"ideal," state.
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 Philosopher- King

• Plato proposes the concept of the philosopher king in his dialogue, the Republic. A philosopher king
is a theoretical leader who combines knowledge, commitment to the pursuit of truth and the common
good, and many other positive points.

• Philosopher King, idea according to which the best form of government is that in which philosophers
rule. The ideal of a philosopher king was born in Plato’s dialogue Republic as part of the vision of a
just city. It was in uential in the Roman Empire and was revived in European political thought in the
age of absolutist monarchs.

• In Plato’s Republic the leading character, Socrates, proposes the design of an ideal city as a model
for how to order the individual soul. Such a just city will require specialized military “guards,” divided
subsequently into two groups—rulers who will be “guards” in the sense of guardians, dedicated to
what is good for the city rather than for themselves, and soldiers who will be their “auxiliaries.”
Already at this stage of the Republic it is stressed that the guardians must be virtuous and sel ess,
living simply and communally as do soldiers in their camps, and Socrates proposes that even wives
and children should be in common.
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Three Waves of the Ideal State

• The blueprints for Plato's new society were designed to be established in

three waves. Three waves to eliminate corruption, and bring in new principles
and ideals. The three waves are as follows:

• A new ruling class of Guardians, consisting exclusively of Philosopher-

Kings.

• Guardians of the state, being a mixture of men and women.

• Guardians would live communally, without any private property of their

own.
 First Wave

• The rst wave consists of the new ruling class of Guardians, which is to
consist of only Philosopher Kings.

• He de ned a philosopher as an individual who has a great a nity for

knowledge. He believed that knowledge was the key to a successful ruler.
According to him, either philosophers should become kings or kings should
become philosophers.

• Plato's desire for this rst wave was due to Athens' dislike of people of high
stature. The Athenians considered Plato's kind rogues or useless individuals
who thought themselves better than the rest of society.
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Second Wave

• Plato's second wave consists of the Guardians being a mixture of men and
women. This idea was very rational for Plato's time because women were not
involved politically in that era.

• Women were not active politically until relatively modern times, which means
that Plato was quite a knowledgeable philosopher, not just by ancient Greek
standards, but also by modern-day standards.
Third Wave

• His third wave stated that the Guardians would live communally, without
owning any private property of their own. They would not even own any
wealth. They would share their things, and in this way, Athenians would lose
their need to be jealous of one another because of class rankings. Envy would
become non-existing because there would not be a concern with the
possession of wealth. As everyone would have the same items, there would
not be disagreements over who owns what.
The Republic
Plato explains what he thinks life in his ideal state would be like, through the guise of his character of 'Socrates'
Criticisms of Ideal State Theory
• We can't say whether or not the three waves of Plato's Ideal State would be able to instate a lifestyle that would positively a ect even the most
common of common farmers.

• The biggest fault of the Ideal State theory is that the political structure that Plato wanted for the state was never disclosed.

• Even with the philosopher kings, there isn't any law mentioned. This gives way to the crazy notion that there would not be any need for laws as
the citizens would be so happy and blissful that they would have no need or want to commit any criminal act.

• It is pure wishful thinking from Plato that made him ignore all these fundamental elements of his ideal state.

• Three classes would be needed in his state: At the top, the rulers: would be intellectuals who could think rationally.

• The middle class: they would be auxiliaries, who would make up a courageous and spirited military, and would be obedient to the ruler.

• And the third class would be money-makers: farmers and tradesmen, etc. They are not "working class" as they are allowed to earn money and
own property.

• Plato warns that there is a need to take measures to stop excessive wealth or poverty, bounding the money makers to their class forever, just
like everyone else to their class. Once born in a certain class, you stay there forever.

• It is also interesting that there is not a fourth class mentioned in his "ideal state," the working class", a class for slaves, as they are the ultimate
working class. That doesn't mean that there were not any slaves in his ideal state, on the contrary, they were still very popular, but they were not
considered to possess any human rights.

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Allegory of the Cave

• Plato's Allegory of the Cave shows how characters can free themselves from intellectual darkness through enlightenment and
the bravery to experiment with new ideas.

• Plato’s Allegory of the Cave is an allegory: a story with a hidden meaning. In much the same way, Orwell's Animal Farm is not
really about animals but what those animals represent, so the Cave is not really about a cave.

• The story is told as a dialogue between philosophers Glaucon and Socrates, narrated by Socrates.

• A group of prisoners live in a cave. A bright re is burning behind them, seemingly preventing them from escaping. A series of
people they can't see project shadow puppets onto the wall in front of them.

• To the prisoners in the Cave who have lived there since early childhood, this is what they believe to be their world. However,
one prisoner manages to escape, and somebody drags one of the prisoners around the re and into the real world.

• Once they escape the Cave, the freed prisoner is initially angry and upset because their eyes burn in the overwhelming
sunlight. But eventually, their eyes adjust, and they see the world for what it is, a new reality.

• If this man tried to go back into the Cave to rescue other prisoners, he would not be able to do it. His eyes, having adjusted
to the sunlight, would not be able to see in the darkness of the Cave.
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Aristotle
• Aristotle (384 - 322 BC), was a Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist.

• Born in northern Greece, and his father was a court physician to the king of Macedon.

• Aristotle was sent to Athens, the cultural centre of the Greek world, to pursue his education.

• He was the disciple of Plato and attended his school at the age of 17. Plato himself was nearly sixty when Aristotle
joined the Academy yet he clearly recognized the young man’s precocity and very soon Aristotle became a favored
pupil – and leading disciple. However, on Plato’s death in 347 BCE Aristotle left Athens. It is often supposed he left
Athens because Plato’s nephew, Speusippus, was appointed Scholarch – head of the Academy – when he thought the
position should have gone to him.

• He was teacher of Alexander the great.

• Came back to Athens, after alexander succeeded his father, and established his school and library at Lyceum.

• Considered as Father of Political Science.

• Aristotle wrote extensively on subjects like metaphysics, psychology, poetry, biology, moral sciences, politics, etc.

• The most notable of his works on political science were Politics, Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics.

• He also made certain notes on numerous constitutions but most of it was lost.
Works of Aristotle
• The two books on ethics discussed the nature of individual happiness or well being.

• Politics described the role of State to ensure individual happiness.

• It explained the ideal city where happiness could be achieved and the means to do so, in speculative and practical manner.

• The main idea of Aristotle's politics is that government exists to promote and foster virtue in a way that leads to the good life
of its citizens. Virtuous citizens are prepared to live together under common laws and contribute to their community.

• Nicomachean Ethics: According to Aristotle, the moral virtues include: courage, temperance, self-discipline, moderation,
modesty, humility, generosity, friendliness, truthfulness, honesty, justice. The moral vices include: cowardice, self-indulgence,
recklessness, wastefulness, greed, vanity, untruthfulness, dishonesty, injustice.

• In The Eudemian Ethics, Aristotle explores the factors that make life worth living. He considers the role of happiness, and
what happiness consists of, and he analyzes various aspects that contribute to it: human agency, the relation between action
and virtue, and the concept of virtue itself.

• The Eudemian Ethics is shorter than the Nicomachean Ethics, eight books as opposed to ten, and some of its most
interesting passages are mirrored in the latter.

• Aristotle wrote two ethical treatises: the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics. The words “Eudemian” and
“Nicomachean” were added later, perhaps because the former was edited by his friend, Eudemus, and the latter by his son,
Nicomachus.
Aristotle’s Political view

• He regarded political science to be a master science and state as highest of all communities aiming at highest good.

• His approach was scienti c and practical-

a) Study based on facts

b) Evaluating the facts

c) Respecting traditions

d) Comparative analysis

• State as a natural institution

• Rejected Sophists view that political society is the product of convention.

• Man is political and social animal, hence State is natural- as it re ects both the aspects.

• Three arguments to prove the aforesaid

a) natural instincts argument


b) Teleological argument

c) ‘state as an organism’- argument.
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Classification of State

• Aristotle, classi ed states on the basis of two principles:-

• (1) In whom the sovereign powers are vested? • (2) Whether it is exercised for
the good of the community or for the good of the ruler?

• If it is good for the community then it is a pure or correct state. If it is good for
the ruler it is a deviant state
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• Aristotle on Slavery
• He defended and justi ed slavery (household).

• He declared slavery to be an institution of nature. A superior would rule over inferior.

• A slave belongs to a free man and as such he exists only for the sake of latter. 

However, he insists on the humanitarian treatment of the slaves.

• Aristotle on Property
• Defends system of private property as opposed to Plato’s views of community
property.

• Every citizen should possess property of optimum size.

• Natural and unnatural forms of property.

• Continuance of xed amount of property for generations by birth control.

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• Aristotle on Citizenship
• not to be determined by residence

• citizen as a person who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration.

• A good citizen would have the intelligence and the ability to rule and be ruled

• young and the old could not be citizens, for one was immature and the other in rm.

• Women were also not regarded as citizens.

• Aristotle on Education
• He believed that education should be designed to train man in a certain type of character suitable
to the state.

• Three stages of schooling: • Primary- Ages 7-14 years.


Secondary- Ages 14-21 years. • Higher education- 21above.

• Higher education was for males only as Aristotle believed women were not capable of such
complex studies.

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• Aristotle on Distributive justice
• Aristotle thought that justice is the core of the state. It is a complete virtue.

• He also introduced the concept of Distributive justice.

• ‘Just’ has two meanings- abiding to legal rules and using fair means.

• Distributive justice consists of proper allocation to each person according to his worth.

• Aristotle on Women and Family

• Family is the rst unit of state.

• There is a natural friendship between man and a woman for a human thrives to live in pairs.

• It was a relation between husband and wife; and parents and children.

• He believed that marriages without children would dissolve easily, for they create necessary bond.

• He did not believe in gender equality. •He criticized Spartans for giving their

• women excessive freedom.

• Women by nature cannot have virtue of courage and also they don’t have intellect to participate in administration.

• Woman should be part of the city but left out of political process.

• A husband is head of the family and wife must obey to his commands.
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Classification of Constitutions
• Aristotle divided constitutions into two major categories: the right or ideal constitution or government, and the incorrect or warped form of
government, which he de ned as follows: Constitutions that are oriented toward the common welfare or the common interest are referred to as ideal
or right constitutions.

• Using a scienti c technique to classify the constitution, Aristotle made history by becoming the rst person to do so. Based on the research of 158
ancient constitutions from around the world, he developed his classi cation. On the basis of the location of sovereign authority and the objective or
purpose towards which that power was oriented, he categorises the constitution into four categories.

• despite the fact that Athens was a democratic city-state, Aristotle was not a supporter of democracy, and he included it as one of his "wrong"
constitutional systems. Aristotle felt that democracy meant that every free-born man had the right and obligation to participate in the governance of
the city. The Assembly sessions were open to everyone, whether they were wealthy or poor, educated or uneducated, brilliant or dull-witted, and they
let everyone to vote and hold public o ce. This style of government, according to Aristotle, was dangerous. Even under the best of circumstances,
the poor majority would always be able to outvote the wealthy. He asserted that democracy had the potential to devolve into a tyranny with many
heads.

• Aristotle’s Book III of Politics is regarded by many as Aristotle’s best work on politics. The major part of this book is devoted to the analysis of
constitutions and citizenship. These two discussions constitute the kernel of Greek political thought.

• It begins with the observation of polis or state. He asks what is state? Polis or citizen and politeia or constitutions are the two constituent parts of
state. In his discussion of citizenship, Aristotle has drawn a distinction between good man and good citizen. The excellence of a citizen is relative to
the constitution.

• In Book III Chapter 7 Aristotle has further subdivided each category of const tution into three forms. Thus the normal or right or ideal form of
government or constitution has three subdivisions. When a single man is at the helm of the government and looks to the common interest of the
society, it is called kingship.

• If few persons run the government with the same objective it is to be called aristocracy. Sometimes it is found that people at large govern the state
and the purpose is common interest—it comes to be called polity.
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Rule of law and Constitution
Aristotle had the idea of constitutionally based order.

•Rightly constituted law was the nal authority.

•Constitutional Rule had 3 main elements: • Common interest


• General regulations to carry out Government. • Subjects were ruled by consent.

“A constitution can be described as an organisation of o ces in state, by which

the method of their distribution is xed, the sovereign authority is determined
and the nature of the end to be pursued by a community.”

•Constitution has two aspects: • Ethical and Institutional

•Three elements of constitution:


• Deliberative, O cial and Magisterial
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 Revolution
• According to Aristotle, "If any change occurs in the existing system or constitution of the state, it means the revolution.

Di erent types of measure of revolution:


A revolution may take the form of a change of constitution of state.

The revolution may try to grasp political power without changing the constitution.

A revolution may be directed against not the inter system of government, but a particular institution or set of persons in the state.

Causes of revolution
General Causes:

• Psychological motives or the state of mind.

• The objectives in mind.

• The occasions that gave rise to political upheaval and mutual strife.

Other causes:

Dishonour, pro t at the expense of public, negligence on part of administrators, Fear of sanctions, Poverty, disproportionate increase in power.

Prevention of Revolution

maintaining law and order for even smallest of matters.

• Not taking people for granted.

• The principle of democratic equality must be followed and liberty of ecpression must be accorded.

• Holders of o ces should not be able to make private gain.

• too much power should not be allowed to one man or one class of men

• Honours should be awarded to people of worth.

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 Kautilya
• Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, who defeated the Greek ruler Seleukos and the mighty
Nandas whose empire stretched over a large part of eastern India. Political thoughts of Kautilya are summarized in a book he wrote known as the
Arthashastra, a Sanskrit name. ‘Arthashastra’ can be explained as ‘Science and art of politics and diplomacy.’ Kautilya’s Arthashastra is magni cent
work on ancient political thought which was undoubtedly composed between 3rd -2nd century B.C. In his political and administrative ideas, the
focus of attention was the king. Kautilya used power as a tool to control his society as well as his enemies. He aslo believed that it is the king’s duty
to seek material gain, spiritual good and pleasures. Kautilya thinks that for a king to attain these three goals must create wealth, have armies and
should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. He thought that for the smooth functioning of administration and for the welfare of the
people, the king had to be acquainted in the four vedas and four sciences of government (Anviksiki, Trayi, Varta and Dandaniti). Kautilya proclaimed
that politics was the supreme science and supreme art. After alexander left India, The Mauryan Empire was the most powerful Kingdom in India and
kautilya was minister who advised the king. Chanakya (C.350- C.275BC) also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta [2]. He was the man to envision the
rst Indian empire by uni cation of the then numerous Kingdoms in the Indian sub-continent and provide the impet us for ghts against the Greek
conqueror Alexander.

• Kautilya, Chanakya or Visnugupta is considered as one of the most able politician and minister in the Indian history. He was a philosopher and a
statesman of outstanding class and his classic compilation on material success and polity- ‘Arthasashtra’ is valued even today. Kautilya had a great
in uence behind the rise of Chandra Gupta Maurya, the commencer of the great Mauryan dynasty.

• Born to a Brahmin family during the third century BC, Kautilya studied in Taxila, one of the famous centers of education at that time. His father Rishi
Canak was a teacher himself. Kautilya was attracted towards political studies from an early age and with his education and experience he developed
into a great political strategist.

• After completing his education, Kautilya started teaching in Taxila but left for Pataliputra, a very important and prosperous city. Pataliputra at that time
was ruled by Dhanananda. Kautilya became the President of Sungha or Trust which controlled the Royal charity. Dhanananda removed Kautilya from
the post without any reasons and utterly insulted- he promised to dethrone him. At this juncture he met Chandra Gupta a bright young man of royal
blood. Under the guidance of Kautilya, Chandra Gupta defeated the Nanda King and established the famous Maurya empire.

• Kautilya was a shrewd politician and an excellent strategist. His policy of using spies to destroy enemies proved useful in successful running of the
kingdom. Apart from politics and religion, he had an interest in economics. He wrote ‘Nitisashtra’ to teach the ideal way of life.
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• Not every historian accepts that Kautilya, Chanakya, and Vishnugupta are the same person. K.C. Ojha suggests that Viṣṇugupta was a redactor
of the original work of Kauṭilya, and that the traditional identi cation of Viṣṇugupta with Kauṭilya was caused by a confusion of the editor with
the original autho

• Artha-shastra (“The Science of Material Gain”), a compilation of almost everything that had been written in India up to his time regarding artha
(property, economics, or material success).

• He is known to have had a knowledge of medicine and astrology, and it is believed he was familiar with elements of Greek and Persian learning
introduced into India by Zoroastrians. Some authorities believe he was a Zoroastrian or at least was strongly in uenced by that religion.

• Chanakya’s book came to be Chandragupta’s guide. Each of its 15 sections deals with a phase of government, which Chanakya sums up as
“the science of punishment.” He openly advises the development of an elaborate spy system reaching into all levels of society and encourages
political and secret assassination. Lost for centuries, the book was discovered in 1905.

• Compared by many to Italian statesman and writer Niccolò Machiavelli and by others to Aristotle and Plato, Chanakya is alternately condemned
for his ruthlessness and trickery and praised for his sound political wisdom and knowledge of human nature. All authorities agree, however, that
it was mainly because of Chanakya that the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta and later under Ashoka (reigned c. 265–c. 238) became a
model of e cient government.

• One of the earliest Sanskrit literary texts to explicitly identify Chanakya with Vishnugupta was Vishnu Sarma's Panchatantra in the third century
B.C.E

• Thomas Burrow suggests that Cāṇakya and Kauṭilya may have been two di erent people.

• The date of origin of the Arthahastra remains problematic, with suggested dates ranging from the fourth century B.C.E. to the third century C.E.
Most authorities agree that the essence of the book was originally written during the early Mauryan Period (321–296 B.C.E.), but that much of
the existing text is post-Mauryan.

• At the time of Alexander's invasion, Chanakya was a teacher at Taxila University. The king of Taxila and Gandhara, Ambhi (also known as
Taxiles), made a treaty with Alexander and did not ght against him. Chanakya saw the foreign invasion as a threat to Indian culture and sought
to inspire other kings to unite and ght Alexander.
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• Chanakya then went further east to the city of Pataliputra (presently known as Patna, in Magadha, in the state of Bihar, India), to seek the help of Dhana Nanda, who ruled a
vast Nanda Empire which extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to eastern Punjab in the west. Although Chanakya initially prospered in his relations with Dhana
Nanda, his blunt speech soon antagonized the ruler, who removed him from his o cial position. In all the forms of the Chanakya legend, he is thrown out of the Nanda court
by the king, whereupon he swears revenge.

• There are various accounts of how Chanakya rst made the acquaintance of Chandragupta. One account relates that Chanakya had purchased Chandragupta from Bihar,
on his way back to Taxila. Another interpretation, says that while in Magadha, Chanakya met Chandragupta by chance. He was impressed by the prince's personality and
intelligence, saw his potential as a military and political leader, and immediately began to train the young boy to ful ll his silent vow to expel the Greeks. An account by the
Roman historian Junianus Justinus suggests that Chandragupta had also accompanied Chanakya to Pataliputra and himself was insulted by Dhana Nanda

• There are numerous legends regarding Chanakya and his relationship with Chandragupta. Thomas R. Trautmann identi es the following elements as common to di erent
forms of the Chanakya legend:

• Chanakya was born with a complete set of teeth, a sign that he would become king, which is inappropriate for a Brahmin like Chanakya. Chāṇakya's teeth were therefore
broken and it was prophesied that he would rule through another.

• The Nanda King threw Chānakya out of his court, prompting Chānakya to swear revenge.

• Chānakya searched for one worthy for him to rule through, until he encountered a young Chandragupta Maurya, who was a born leader even as a child.

• Chānakya's initial attempt to overthrow Nanda failed, whereupon he came across a mother scolding her child for burning himself by eating from the middle of a bun or bowl
of porridge rather than the cooler edge. Chāṇakya realized his initial strategic error and, instead of attacking the heart of Nanda territory, slowly chipped away at its edges.

• Chānakya betrayed his ally, the mountain king Parvata.

• Chānakya enlisted the services of a fanatical weaver to rid the kingdom of rebels.
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• Chanakya is credited with advising Chandragupta during the conquest of the Nanda and the defeat of the Greeks, and on the
formation of a strong e cient government, which allowed the Mauryan Empire to rule almost the entire subcontinent (except
the area south of present-day Karnataka), as well as substantial parts of present-day Afghanistan. He is best known,
however, for his work, Arthashastra, an encyclopedic work on political economy and government, which he refers to as “the
science of punishment.” Each of its fteen sections deals with some aspect of government, such as scal policies, coinage,
commerce, welfare, forests, weights and measures, agriculture, law, international relations, and military strategy. The central
purpose of Kautilya's doctrine was to achieve the prosperity of king and country, and to secure victory over rival neighboring
states.

• Kautilya identi ed seven factors which a ected a government’s ability to accomplish these ends: the qualities of the king,
then of his ministers, his provinces, his city, his treasure, his army, and his allies. In describing an ideal government, Kautilya
articulated contemporary assumptions of political and economic theory, providing historical information about the political
circumstances of the time.

• Kautilya is admired for his understanding of human nature and his political wisdom, and sometimes condemned for
condoning ruthlessness and treachery. He openly advised the development of an elaborate spy system reaching into all
levels of society, providing detailed instruction for spies and agents, and encouraged political and secret assassination.

• Two additional works are attributed to Chanakya: Nitishastra, a treatise on the ideal way of life, and Chanakya Niti, a
compilation of his nitis, or policies.
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Saptanga Theory
• Translated as seven limbs—saptanga, it helped one understand the prakriti (nature or character) of
the state. The seven constituent elements can also be described as the building blocks, which
determined the prakriti of the state. These building blocks were important for augmenting the state
capacity and in uence.

• The seven components of a state are Svami (the king), Amatya (ministers), Janapada (the territory),
Durga (a forti ed capital), Kosha (the treasury), Danda (justice or force), and Mitra (ally).

• One could evaluate the individual strengths or weaknesses of each member by breaking the state
down into its seven fundamental components. This is the approach used in the Saptanga theory of
Kautilya. Each of the seven basic components is described by a set of ideal characteristics. They are
not all equal.

• Svami (The King) The Saptanga theory of Kautilya views monarchy as the norm, and all of its
teachings are directed at the king. Kautilya believed that the king's fate was intimately correlated
with the population of his domain. The kingdom's subjects would be enthusiastic if the monarch
was. On the other hand, if he was lethargic, his subjects would also be indolent and deplete the
kingdom's resources. Consequently, Kautilya promoted the idea of a king who was always vigilant,
industrious, and wise.
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 • Amatya (Ministers) The name "Amatya" is used as a collective noun for all senior o cials, advisors, and departmental executive heads. They
were signi cant parts of the Saptanga theory of Kautilya. Two di erent types of consultative bodies are mentioned in the Arthashastra. The
mantra-parishad, a small consultation group of Mantrins (ministers), was the rst. The other was a larger group known as the Mantri-Parishad,
which was composed of all of the department's executive leaders.

• Purohita was a crucial member of the Saptanga theory of Kautilya. According to the Saptanga theory of Kautilya, a Purohita should come from a
well-known family and have received a complete education in the Vedas, the understanding of divine signs and omens, and the study of
politics. By examining the Kautilya-provided salary data, we may also determine the purohit's signi cance.

• The chief minister, the purohit, and the military leader received 48,000 panas each, while the nance minister and the chief collector received
24,000 panas, according to Kautilya. The senior o cials were reportedly compensated exceptionally well.

• Janpada (Territory) : This referred to the realm of the empire, a recognized region. The Saptanga theory of Kautilya illustrates the many
investments, rewards, and punitive measures employed by the state to enhance its tax income based on agricultural production, which was
derived from the Janapada, which was a signi cant source of money for the king. The Saptanga theory of Kautilya also pays attention to trade
routes and port cities and shows how much the king's perception of his own larger domain was in uenced by economic considerations.

• Durga (Forti ed Capital) Forti ed cities are essential to the realm's defense since they guard crucial border areas, act as safe havens in times of
invasion, and house the state's main administrative and economic hubs. In the Saptanga theory of Kautilya, an ideal state features a variety of
forti cations, each serving a distinct geographic function.

• The capital city, which serves as the kingdom's administrative, economic, and military center, is the biggest of the forti cations. According to
Kautilya, the fort should be built with mud ramparts and parapets made of brick and stone, and it should be well-stocked with provisions for a
siege, including food and other requirements. It's interesting to note how grandiose Pataliputra, the capital of the Magadhan empire, is
described in Greek sources.

• The Saptanga theory of Kautilya also proposed placing soldiers at strategic points along the fort's approaches. He speaks of a permanent army
composed of the infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants as its four main divisions. We can infer from Ashoka's edicts that following the
Kalinga war, he tried to practice nonviolence and dedicated himself to dhamma-Vijaya rather than ghting. Yet, it is noteworthy that he left the
army intact.
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• Danda (The Army): Danda can be taken to mean either force or justice. Dharmasthas (judges) and Pradeshtris (like cops) are
mentioned in the Saptanga theory of Kautilya, which describes the legal system in depth. Fines, amputation of limbs, and even the
death penalty were used as sanctions for o enses and crimes. According to Kautilya, the kind of penalty imposed depended not only
on the crime's nature and seriousness but also on the o ender's varna. The Saptanga theory of Kautilya reserved lenient penalties for
higher varnas for the same o ense. For instance, a Kshatriya was required to pay the maximum ne if he had intercourse with a
Brahmin woman. A vaishya's entire estate could be seized for the same o ense. The worst penalty was set aside for Shudras.

• Mitra (Ally/Friend) This term alludes to political allies or "friends of the realm." The vijigishu, or would-be conqueror, is at the center of
Kautilya's polity. The various players surrounding the vijigishu, including the ari (enemy), madhyama (the middle monarch), and
udasina, are the focus of the interstate strategy (the indi erent or neutral king). According to the situation, the king might choose from
a peace treaty (sandhi) if the enemy was stronger to a vigraha (hostility) if the opponent was weaker, according to a list of policies and
strategies provided by Kautilya. Military expeditions and collaborating with the enemy's enemy to launch joint attacks were further
alternatives.

• To increase trade with the northwestern Hellenistic kingdoms, Ashoka dispatched emissaries there. The Mauryan alliance with the
Seleucids, which began with the pact negotiated under Chandragupta, was the most notable of these. There were more diplomatic
interactions with succeeding rulers. Several contemporary people with whom Ashoka exchanged missions are also mentioned. His
inscriptions refer to the kingdoms of the kings Tulamaya and Alikyashudala as well as the Greek king Amtiyoga. History has assigned
these names to Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonus of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander of Epirus, in that
order. To propagate the Dhamma and the Buddha's teachings, Ashoka also sent special ministers on dhamma missions to border
areas and neighboring realms.

• Kosha (The Treasury): This means treasury of the state. Finance is life blood of any state without which it is almost impossible to run
it. Money is needed for paying salaries, building new infrastructure, etc. The treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and
gems. The treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and gems. It can be increased through taxation and plundering
enemy states in war.
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Rajamandala Theory

• The Rajamandala theory consists of four principal types of states viz. Vijigishu (desirous for or would be world conqueror), Ari (enemy,
whose territory is contiguous to Vijigishu), Madhyama (Middle king with territory adjoining those of Vijigishu and Ari and stronger than
both) and Udasina (kingdom lying outside or neutral and more powerful than that of Vijigishu, Ari, and Madhyama). Each of them has
an ally and ally’s ally thus making 12 kings and 60 types of combinations called material constituents (for example, enemy’s enemy,
mitra’s enemy, enemy’s mitra, mitra’s mitra and so on). This together combines into the total 72 elements of Raja Mandala.

• This scheme is based on assumption that two neighbouring states which share their borders are hostile to each other; and the enemy
of hostile neighbour is a natural ally. The Vijigishu is located at the centre of this circle.

• In Arthashastra, Kautilya has made arguments about power, governance, statecraft etc. without any reference to any religion or
divinity, which makes him eligible as true founder of what we call realpolitik. However, following description makes it very clear that
Kautilya suggests a state to act in order to enhance its power and self-interest. There does not seem to be any moral / ethical or
religious obligation in his policy. War and peace are solely on basis of pro t. Many criticize this policy of Kautilya as ruthless
realpolitik, intrigue, deceptive and immoral. Despite of criticism, the policy holds relevance because Kautilya said something which
has always been actually practiced by states everywhere.

• At the same time, when discussing about India’s foreign policy, many observers connect the ancient Indian strategic thought of
Kautilya with contemporary Indian strategy, whereby foreign policy takes place within three widening concentrics, with the rst circle
encompassing India’s immediate neighbourhood region, the second its extended neighbourhood; and the third the entire global
stage. Many observers consider such principles to be both applicable to, and evident in, the conduct of Indian foreign policy since
1947.
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• Shadguna Sidhanta {Six-Fold Diplomatic Policy}

• This doctrine is a six-fold foreign policy for attainment of one’s national interests and goals based on realpolitik. Kautilya had suggested this recipe for a Vijigishu to realise his
dream to become world conqueror. The six principles are Sandhi, Vigraha, Asana, Yana, Sansraya and Dvaidhibhava. A very brief explanation of these is as follows:

• Sandhi

• Sandhi (making peace with strong enemy) has been advised for a weaker nation with strong enemy. When you enemy is stronger than you, don’t confront with him and rather
make peace on terms and conditions of your enemy {i.e. surrender troops, treasury or territory}. Sandhi will thwart the strong enemy and will give enough time to get strong
enough to overthrow the strong enemy. Thus, this policy is based on “opportunism” and seeks time to become strong and wait for enemy to get weaker.

• Vigraha

• Vigraha (policy of hostility) has been advised for stronger nation with relatively weaker enemy. There can be two dimensions of policy of hostility viz. Defensive and O ensive.
Kautilya says that policy of Vigraha is advisable only when you are sure that you should be either repel attack of enemy or are strong enough to ruin enemy or seize his
territories (in such case go ahead with Yana).

• In this policy, Kautilya has hinted some kind of cost-bene t analysis and says that if cost appears more than bene t, then Sandhi is preferred over Vigraha.

• Asana

• The Asana is basically a stance of keeping quite. It is to wait for enemy to get weaker either by plunging itself in some di culties or getting involved in war at some other front.
Asana also includes secret e orts to weaken the enemy or some kind of proxy war in modern terms.

• Yana

• Yana {March or Expedition} is direct manifestation of a policy of Vigraha and is to be followed when you are sure that you shall ruin the enemy and win over him.

• Sansraya

• Sansraya means seeking shelter with another king. If a king is weak and threatened to be attacked by a powerful enemy, it’s better to seek protection from another King or
another place / fort etc. This policy corresponds to status of Protégé in modern sense.

• Dvaidhibhava

• Dvaidhibhava refers to the double policy of Sandhi with one king and Vigraha with another at a time. It is suggested for a King who is strong enough to ght but may not win
without getting additional strength of an ally.

• Apart from the above Shadgunas, Kautilya has mentioned four tactics to overcome the opposition viz. Saman (Conciliation), Dama (Gifts), Bheda (Dissension) and Danda
(Force).
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Machiavelli- Early Life
• Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence on May 3, 1469, to Bernardo and Bartolomea. Though the family
had formerly enjoyed prestige and nancial success, in Niccolò’s youth his father struggled with debt.
Nevertheless, his father was actively interested in education and provided young Niccolò with access to
books.

• The world of Machiavelli’s youth was one of great ferment in matters political, intellectual, and ecclesiastical.
Florence was among the many Italian city-republics frequently contested by the larger political powers of the
day—the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, along with France and Spain. New editions and translations of
classical Greek and Roman texts provided the material for the intellectual movement known as the
Renaissance, which combined an interest in Christianity with a newfound curiosity about classical culture.
Meanwhile, although the Church had always been important politically in Europe, in Machiavelli’s time the
Church’s involvement in worldly politics included its direct participation in wars of acquisition.

• Florence had risen to prominence as a banking center, and the Medici banking family had been the e ective
rulers of Florence since 1434. Machiavelli’s youth saw a failed attempt on the Medici dynasty by the Pazzi
family in 1478, in addition to the dramatic rise of the Dominican friar Savonarola. When Machiavelli was
twenty- ve, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, and the subsequent departure of the Medici family left
Florence in the hands of Savonarola. After a tumultuous rule of under four years, Savonarola was executed,
and Piero Soderini reestablished republican government.

• “The Prince”, “Discourses on Livy” “Art of War.” “History of Florence.”

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