Name: Janne Aerdts

Student Number: 2015178

Course: Knowledge production in health and medicine
Date: 28-10-2022

Psychedelics: Are we being drugged up or are we healing?

Introduction
According to the World Health Organization a clinical trial is “A type of research that studies
new tests and treatments and evaluates their effects on human health outcomes.” (WHO, n.d.).
Clinical trials have been conducted since the 18th century and are important in order to
conduct evidence based medicine (Herr, 2005).
Over the past thirty years, clinical trials have been conducted in the field of
psychedelics and treating mental health disorders, in the 1960’s research had been conducted
as well, however due to addiction concerns governments shut the programs down and were
not picked back up until the late 1990s (Marseille et al., 2020; Mitchell et al., 2021).
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) causes patients to feel anxious, depressed, stressed,
suicidal and often suffer from insomnia, this often means that due to their symptoms patients
are unable to contribute to society nor have a form of social life (Marseille et al., 2020).
Recent studies have shown that psychedelics such as Ketamine, MDMA and lysergic acid
diethyl amide (LSD) can be helpful in treating depression, PTSD and other mental health
disorders (Inserra et al., 2021). American research has shown that MDMA in combination
with therapy is statistically proven to be an effective treatment for people with PTSD (Inserra
et al., 2021; MAPS, 2021). Ketamine has even been approved for treatment by the American
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), MDMA and LSD are still in the process of clinical
trials (Inserra et al, 2021). Psychiatrist can now prescribe Ketamine as medication that can
improve the mental health and well-being of patients. For MDMA this is not yet the case, it is
believed that outside of clinical trials for PTSD, it has no medical benefits (MAPS, 2021).
In September 2022, the Interdisciplinary Conference on Psychedelic Research 2022 was
held in Haarlem. Here leading scholars, psychiatrist, psychologists and other stakeholders
came together, to discuss the progress in current research as well as what investments still
need to be made in order to have a successful outcome of research regarding psychedelics
(ICPR, n.d.). The Dutch Government has decided to conduct further research, both proponents
as well as critics believe that further research should be conducted. Further research is not
only of importance for the development of the psychedelic therapies but also for the
Netherlands to create a leading role for themselves within this research field. The intention of
the Minister of Public Health, Welfare and Sport is to invest 35 million by 2026 (ICPR, n.d.;
Vice, 2022).
Antidepressants are a common prescription for patients with mental health issues,
however it is estimated that around 400.000 people in the Netherlands suffer from a severe
mental health disorder (Universitair Medisch Centrum Groningen, n.d.). What remains
complex is when and how much psychedelics to prescribe, every client is different and has
different needs, this is where the risks are coming in (Inserra, 2021). Patients who believe that
they need psychedelics as a form of medication are asking for it when visiting their
psychiatrist, some scientists even say that psychedelics are becoming a hype (Vice, 2022).
However the results that we see are from clinical trials, the results of large scale research are
unknown (Inserra, 2021). It is suggested that further research should take the risks, the target

1
audience and how to integrate this specific treatment with psychedelics into our healthcare
system, into account (MAPS, 2021; Vice, 2022).
The question that remains is ‘Do psychedelics have an overall societal benefit or is it
just a hype?’
In this paper I will first discuss the effect of psychedelics, secondly I will discuss the
benefits of psychedelics within psychotherapy, furthermore the risks of psychedelics will be
discussed and I will dive deeper into the topic of diversity within clinical trials. After this I
will come back to the research question and try to answer it with the research that I looked
into.

Effects of using psychedelics

Research in both the US as well as in the Netherlands has shown us that COVID-19 had an
impact on the mental health and wellbeing of people within our performance based society
(Inserra et al., 2021; Jones et al., 2022; Marangos et al., 2020). With increasing demands of
society, more and more people are showing signs of a mild depression (Feter et al., 2021).
Some people have such a severe case of depression or that their depression is defined as
chronic that no other anti-depressants would be helpful in treating the patient (Nichols, 2016).
The difficulty with depression is how do you define the seriousness of it, the experience of
depression or any other illness is from a patient itself. They feel sick and want help with their
experience, the guideline according to research is that someone has to suffer in order to
qualify for help and medically seen as ill (Miceli McMillan, & Jordens, 2022). For these
patients, psychedelics can be an option (Nichols, 2016). Thus, a certain paradox exists
between people who experience mental health disorders and how their mental health is
perceived by professionals (Miceli McMillan & Jordens, 2022). Mintz et al. (2022), wrote that
this is paradox can also exist within the case of people with a physical/sensory disability who
may need psychotherapy as well but either get under or overestimated by doctors.
Psychedelics are commonly seen as mind expanding, however scientists do not always agree
on the name since it suggests that psychedelics have a positive impact (Nichols, 2016).
Psychedelics are derived from nature, they are substances that have been used since the
Mayas. The psychedelics are used in rituals as well as for pleasure and according to some old
natural based medicine men they heal the body (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018; Inserra et al.,
2021). The important thing to mention is that psychedelics are not opioids (Jones et al., 2022).
Opioids are seen as highly addictive with a high risk of death while psychedelics are
associated with opening up your mind and treating various mental health diseases such as
addiction and depression (Nichols, 2016). Psychedelics are defined as drugs that are affecting
your psyche, your mind. They can change your mood and behaviour, it is often said that they
open up your mind and you become more aware of your surroundings. Psychedelics such as
MDMA and LSD are often used by recreational users due to their release of serotonin and
dopamine, the hormone that makes us feel happy (Inserra et al., 2021).
According to research, the people that use psychedelics, recreational or in
psychotherapy, are often more open-minded than people that refrain themselves from using
psychedelics (Erritzoe et al., 2019). According to some researchers, a difference should be
made between the use of psychedelics such as LSD, ayahuasca and MDMA users. MDMA is
often used within a party setting, people use it to get a kick and experience the music more
intensely. This can entail that the feeling of being open-minded is less found within MDMA
users than in LSD users. MDMA is often used in combination with other drugs such as
cocaine and amphetamines. LSD and other psychedelics on the other hand are more used
2
within therapy or within a group of open-minded people for instance in so called healing
sessions (Erritzoe et al., 2019).

Benefits of psychedelics
Previous studies have indicated that ketamine is a beneficial substance to treat PTSD and
depression, however these drugs do not have the same long term effects as psychedelics
(Davis et al., 2021). According to Jones et al. (2022), the use of psychedelics have a positive
result on treating addiction to opioids, alcohol and smoking (Nichols, 2016). Psychedelics in
itself are according to some researchers, not addictive (Jellinek, n.d.; Nichols, 2016). When
psychiatrists micro dose the amount of drugs a patient can have in order to receive
psychotherapy the treatment can be effective (Inserra et al., 2021). LSD in itself is not
addictive, people undergo a certain open minded experience that can be nice to experience
every once in a while but is not something most people would want to do on a regular basis
(Jones et al., 2022). Contemporary research argues that even life time usage of psychedelics is
not addictive and does not have a negative impact on your mental health (Krebs & Johansen,
2013). Besides psychotherapeutic use, micro dosing within recreational sessions is upcoming.
One of the psychedelics used within recreational and healing sessions is ayahuasca, this is a
psychedelic brewed drink that is less powerful and can positively influence the amount of
(deep)sleep a person can get each night (Inserra et al., 2021).
The use of psychedelics can be understood through phenomenology, we experience
something very consciously and within our body, we know that we take psychedelics and we
know the effects that it has on our body, mind and behaviour. We experience something via
our body, in this case we experience psychedelics via our body. We can feel what it does to
us, how it opens up the mind of someone, our experience is embodied (Miceli McMillan, &
Jordens,2022).
American research has shown that psychotherapy with MDMA can be cost effective
within three years of the start of the treatment. This is due to the fact that MDMA, according
to research decreased the amount of psychotherapy needed as well as the fact that by
effectively treating someone with for instance severe PTSD it lowers the costs of
hospitalization and deaths (Marseille et al., 2020). Some scholars do not speak of LSD or
MDMA but they speak about psilocybin another type of psychedelics that has a positive
impact on treating patients with treatment-resistant depression and cancer (Davis et al., 2021).
Some researchers state that the use of psychedelics has focused too much on mental
health disorders and neglected physical and sensory disabilities (Mintz et al., 2022). People
with a physical or sensory disability such as cerebral palsy or ALS/MS are more at risk of
developing severe mental health disorders due to their daily struggles to keep up with society
(Mintz et al., 2022). Besides mental health disorders, people with a disability can also suffer
from chronic pain, psychedelics can help relieving some of the experiences of pain (Mintz et
al., 2022).

Risks of psychedelics
In both the Netherlands as in the US a war against drugs has been going on. Policies and laws
are constantly created in order to put drugs dealers behind bars and decrease the influx of
drugs (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018; Bruijn, 2017). So far, research has stated that there is a
lack of management of psychedelics (Universitair Medisch Centrum Groningen, n.d.). With
the hippie culture in the 1960s people often started using drugs recreationally, this in turn was
worrisome to political parties as well as medical professionals (Belouin & Henningfield,
3
2018). If you do not take the right dosage of psychedelics, you can have negative side effects.
Recreational users of psychedelics often take the full dosage of the drug which in turn can
lead to hallucinations, bad trips or psychoses. This is the reason why it is advised to have a
trip sitter amongst your group of recreational users (Inserra et al., 2021; Jellinek, n.d.).
Exactly these hallucinations are according to Inserra et al. (2021), what lead governments to
decide that psychedelics are illicit and have a high risk of addiction. Psychedelics heighten
your emotions and your response to certain triggers, if not administered correctly with a
medical professional by your side, previous traumas could increase (NOS, 2022; Universitair
Medisch Centrum Groningen, n.d.). Furthermore, if a person decides to self-medicate the
usage of psychedelics can cause addiction if not administered correctly (Jones et al., 2022).
From a commercial point of view, another issue is that psychedelics cannot get patented, this
means that there is only small window where pharmacists can make money in (Inserra, 2021).

Diversity within clinical trials

What is striking is the fact that previous research acknowledges that most clinical trials done
with psychedelics do not have a diverse population. In the case of an MDMA study, there
were more females than males, however they were dominantly white and had a normal BMI.
Research states that PTSD is more likely to be seen in females than in males (Marseille,
2020). Other research has stated that they only conducted research amongst patients that had a
lower risk of suicidal behaviour and were not always extremely severe depressed (Davis et al.,
2021). A different study by Erritzoe et al. (2019), used more males than females in their study
but they recruited participants via flyers and if people had previous experiences with the use
of psychedelics. Drug use is more common amongst males than females (Inserra et al., 2021).
For research to be completely unbiased and transparent it should include all races, genders
and maybe even a deviant BMI in a somewhat equal manner (Mitchell et al., 2021). What
scholars have established is that the clinical trials conducted in the field of psychedelics
should be randomized controlled trials (Inserra et al., 2021). The clinical trials conducted
within the field of psychedelics were all small scale, it is advised by researchers and
demanded by governments that further research should be on a larger scale, preferably where
longitudinal trials are held (ICPR, n.d.; Inserra et al., 2021). In order to establish if
psychedelics are completely safe, have no side effects and do not have any long term
consequences, a diverse set of participants in clinical trials is needed (Clark et al., 2019;
Jellinek, n.d.). Females and males differ biologically seen (Greenberg, 1999). What we see in
previous studies done with psychedelics, is that mostly white, healthy males are participating.
The FDA uses data from multiple countries across the world but the ethnic diversity within
the data gathered is still low and in some studies is even decreasing (Knepper & McLeod,
2018). Although psychedelics have been used amongst native communities in countries such
as the US and Australia, data from this population has not been gathered or is
underrepresented (Krebs, & Johansen, 2013).
Aside from excluding gender and ethnicity, concerns have also been raised that people who
are not defined as ‘healthy’ such as disabled people, are not included in clinical trials, this
could lead to structural ableism (Mintz et al., 2022). People who experience a disability have
always been discriminated by doctors and professionals. Epistemic injustice towards the
disabled community is an ongoing issue. Disabled people do not feel heard by their doctors
and their opinions are often disregarded (Carel & Kidd, 2014). Although underlying health
conditions can have an unforeseen, negative impact on a disabled person, people that have no
underlying health conditions should be included and reached out to. The least that medical
4
professionals can do is start a dialogue so that they can hear the opinions of the target
audience. This is of importance due to the fact that a lot of the medication or psychedelics that
are being tested will later on be intended to use for people with a physical or sensory
disability (Mintz et al., 2022).

Conclusion
In order to answer if psychedelics are beneficial to our society or if they are just a hype, I
looked into previous research. What is of importance to mention is that the effects of
psychedelics in itself seems to be less harmful than other drugs (Jones et al., 2022). However,
that psychedelics are less harmful than opioids does not automatically mean that psychedelics
are without any risks. Psychedelics open up the psyche, however if they are not administered
correctly and if the dosage is not adjusted to your needs, it can cause or worsen mental health
issues (Jellinek, n.d.). The existing research all suggests that more research should be done
about the long term effects of psychedelics and how governments can implement the results
into practice. Governments need to create strict rules and regulations in order for
psychotherapy to be successful. However, the recreational use of psychedelics is still an issue.
By using drugs, you create a black market for people with the wrong intentions. People who
think that they suffer from mental health issues want to go to a psychiatrists and ask them for
psychedelics without trying less invasive treatments or antidepressants first. If they do not get
what they want, they will search for alternatives that can be more harmful (Jellinek, n.d.;
NOS, 2022).
Research has shown us that there are not a lot of risks related to the use of psychedelics.
What is however an issue is finances, pharmacist cannot make a lot of money from
psychedelics which leads to the question if it will ever be financially reasonable to include
psychotherapy in our basic health insurance (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018). That raises
further questions with regards to, if psychotherapy will be an option, will it be available to
everyone in our society that needs it? Or will it be something that only the elite can afford?
Another topic that I believe is of importance to mention is the lack of diversity within
clinical trials with regards to psychedelics but also in general (Knepper & McLeod, 2018). In
order to develop therapies and medication for people within society, I believe it is important
to include these people within the trials as well. This can be done by either letting them
participate if they do not have any underlying health conditions or by starting a dialogue
where everyone is included. If medical developments are not tested on a more diverse test
population, you will never know the true results of the clinical trial.
So, I believe that psychedelics can be helpful for people with mental health disorders or
physical/sensory disabilities. I do not believe that it is a hype, it can be beneficial. If treatment
is successful, patients can be reintegrated into society and participate.
I do believe that further research should be conducted, especially longitudinal studies
that include a diverse population are needed. It is also important to look beyond mental health
disorders and do further research in the field of physical disabilities as well. This research
touched upon the equality in health care but I did not discuss this in depth. Further research
could also dive deeper into the financial part of psychotherapy. Something that I believe is of
importance due to growing inequalities within our performance based society.

5
References
Belouin, S. J., & Henningfield, J. E. (2018). Psychedelics: Where we are now, why we got
here, what we must do. Neuropharmacology, 142, 7-19.
Bruijn, L. M. (2017). De bestuurlijke strijd tegen drugscriminaliteit: de War on Drugs
vermomd als aanpak ondermijning. Tijdschrift voor Criminologie, 4, 379.
Carel, H., & Kidd, I. J. (2014). Epistemic injustice in healthcare: a philosophical
analysis. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 17(4), 529-540.
Clark, L. T., Watkins, L., Piña, I. L., Elmer, M., Akinboboye, O., Gorham, M., ... &
Regnante, J. M. (2019). Increasing diversity in clinical trials: overcoming critical
barriers. Current problems in cardiology, 44(5), 148-172.
Davis, A. K., Barrett, F. S., May, D. G., Cosimano, M. P., Sepeda, N. D., Johnson, M. W., …
& Griffiths, R. R. (2021). Effects of psilocybin-assisted therapy on major depressive
disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA psychiatry, 78(5), 481-489.
Erritzoe, D., Smith, J., Fisher, P. M., Carhart-Harris, R., Frokjaer, V. G., & Knudsen, G. M.
(2019). Recreational use of psychedelics is associated with elevated personality trait
openness: Exploration of associations with brain serotonin markers. Journal of
Psychopharmacology, 33(9), 1068-1075.
Feter, N., Caputo, E. L., Doring, I. R., Leite, J. S., Cassuriaga, J., Reichert, F. F., ... &
Rombaldi, A. J. (2021). Sharp increase in depression and anxiety among Brazilian
adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: findings from the PAMPA cohort. Public
health, 190, 101-107.
Greenberg, J. A. (1999). Defining male and female: Intersexuality and the collision between
law and biology. Ariz. L. Rev., 41, 265.
Herr, H. W. (2005, September). Franklin, Lavoisier, and Mesmer: origin of the controlled
clinical trial. In Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations (Vol. 23, No.
5, pp. 346-351). Elsevier.
ICPR (n.d.). Learn More About ICPR. Retrieved from https://icpr-conference.com/about/
ICPR (n.d.). Minister: Nederland moet ‘voortrekkersrol’ nemen bij vormgeven psychedelica
in de ggz. Retrieved from https://icpr-conference.com/minister/
Inserra, A., De Gregorio, D., & Gobbi, G. (2021). Psychedelics in psychiatry: neuroplastic,
immunomodulatory, and neurotransmitter mechanisms. Pharmacological
Reviews, 73(1), 202-277.
Jellinek (n.d.) Risico’s van lsd. Retrieved from https://www.jellinek.nl/informatie-over-
alcohol-drugs/drugs/lsd/risicos/
Jones, G., Ricard, J. A., Lipson, J., & Nock, M. K. (2022). Associations between classic
psychedelics and opioid use disorder in a nationally-representative US adult
sample. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1-8.
Knepper, T. C., & McLeod, H. L. (2018). When will clinical trials finally reflect diversity?.
Krebs, T. S., & Johansen, P. Ø. (2013). Psychedelics and mental health: a population
study. PloS one, 8(8), e63972.
MAPS. (2021). MAPS’ Phase 3 Trial of MDMA – Assisted Therapy for PTSD Achieves
Successful Results for Patients with Severe, Chronic PTSD. Retrieved from
https://maps.org/news/media/maps-phase-3-trial-of-mdma-assisted-therapy-for-ptsd-
achieves-successful-results-for-patients-with-severe-chronic-ptsd/
Marangos, A. M., Schellingerhout, R., Kooiker, S., Schyns, P., Cerit, H., & Vonk, F. (2020).
Verwachte gevolgen van corona voor de psychische gezondheid.

6
Marseille, E., Kahn, J. G., Yazar-Klosinski, B., & Doblin, R. (2020). The cost-effectiveness
of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for the treatment of chronic, treatment-resistant
PTSD. PLoS One, 15(10), e0239997.
Miceli McMillan, R., & Jordens, C. (2022). Psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy for the
treatment of major depression: a synthesis of phenomenological
explanations. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 25(2), 225-237.
Mintz, K. T., Gammer, B., Khan, A. J., Shaub, G., Levine, S., & Sisti, D. (2022). Physical
Disability and Psychedelic Therapies: An Agenda for Inclusive Research and
Practice. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13.
Mitchell, J. M., Bogenschutz, M., Lilienstein, A., Harrison, C., Kleiman, S., Parker-Guilbert,
K., ... & Doblin, R. (2021). MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized,
double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study. Nature Medicine, 27(6), 1025-1033.
Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological reviews, 68(2), 264-355.
NOS. (2022). Keta kan ‘revolutionair’ middel zijn tegen depressie, maar er zijn ook zorgen. 
Retrieved from https://nos.nl/nieuwsuur/artikel/2413346-keta-kan-revolutionair-middel-
zijn-tegen-depressie-maar-er-zijn-ook-zorgen
Universitair Medisch Centrum Groningen. Manifest therapeutische gebruik van psychedelica.
Retrieved from https://open-foundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Therapeutisch-
gebruik-van-psychedelica-een-pleidooi-voor-centrale-aansturing-16-01-2022.pdf
Vice. (2022). De psychedelische hype in de ggz is niet zonder gevaar. Retrieved from
https://www.vice.com/nl/article/4ax74m/psychedelische-hype-ggz
World Health Organization. (n.d.). Clinical trials. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/health-topics/clinical-trials#tab=tab_1