TheTheoryoftheSteamTurbine 10064062

AN I M P O R TA N T NE W W OR K
I N T WO V O LU M E S Boun d i n han d so me cl o th E ach p ro fusely ill ustrate d

. .
,
co mp l e te in i tse l f an d so l d separate ly
, .
THE DE S IG N
C O N S T R U CT I O N OF S HIPS
B Y J OH N H A RV ARD B I LE S L L D , . .
,
PR OFE SSOR OF N A V A L A R CH I T E CT UR E I N T H E UN I VER S I TY O F GLA SG OW .
V O L I — CA L C U L AT I O N S AN D S T R E N G T H
.
P art I —Areas . lumes C entres

,
Vo , of G ra v ty i .
P art I I —S h ip . C a l cul a ti o n s .
P art I I I .
—S trength of S h ip s .
Wi th 3 6 Fold i n g P l at es , ther Illustrat i o n s

an d 245 o . Pp i—
v ii i. 4 23 .
Compl ete W i th I n d ex 2 58 ne t
, , . .
V OL . II .
— D e alin .
g W it h S T AB I L I T Y , W AV E S ,
O S C I L L AT I O N S , R E S I S T A N CE , an d PR O
P U L S I O N CO N S T R U CT I O N .
N O W I N TH E P RE SS .
OM E P R E SS O PI N I O N S ON V O L U M E I
S .
I t h as i al i i t s t h r ugh d eali g w i th t h subj c t

no r v n o o — E gin ri ng n e e . n ee .
N teac h er f n a al arc h i tec t re

0 o v i t i fi ally e qui pp ed s tude t a aff d to
u or sc e n c n c n or
b w i th ut t h prese t v l me — Tim E gi i g S pp l m t
”
e o e n o u . es n n eer n u e en .
I t wil l b th sta dard te x t b k f stude ts f a a l arc h i tec ture t wh m i t

e e n oo or n o n v , o o
is i di s e sab l
n a d w e,h ave p l easure
n i r c
e m m e d i g i t — St am h :p n e o n n e s z
n
p . .
Th pr fessi
e o i s d eply i d bted t Pr fess r B il es
on e n O all t h subje c ts
e o o o . u e
h d eal s Wi th h see ms t h ave said all th ere i s t o say —Sk pp i g W ld

” ’
e e o . e n or .
THE T HE OR Y OF THE STE AM TURBI NE
S T NT H E DI TION
I X EE T h r ghl y R vi d
o ou e se I n La rg e 8 vo Pp i xx i v+ 7 1 2 W i th 25 0 I l l u strati o ns
Pl at
-
. . . . .
an d 8 e s. 2 1 3 ne t . .
A M A N U A L O F M A R I N E E N G IN E E R I N G .
Co m pr isi ng t he Design i ng , Co ns tru c ti o n, an d W rki o ng o f M ar i e M ac h i ery n n .
BY A . E . SE ATO N ,
TH E M OS T V A L UA B L E H db k an oo of Re fr ce en e on th e M ri a ne En gi n e N OW I N EX I ST ENCE .
I n La rg e 8 vo Ha d n so m e Co hlt Wi th Fr ti p i c on s e e, 6 Pl at e s, 65 o th r I ll trati
e us o n s, and
00 T ab l
. .
12 6d es . 8 . . ne t .
T H E S C R EW P R O P E LL E R
AN D OT HE R C O M P ET I N G I N S T R UM E N T S FO R M A R I N E P R O P U L S IO N .
BY A . E . SE A TO N ,
Co n tai ns all that i s u se ul f t o k now a b t t h e cr

ou s ew pr ope ll re . T h r ghly up t d ate
o ou -
o- .
”
S te am ship .
I
S XT H E DIT O N I . I n La rg Cr e o wn 8 vo . Ve ry f
I ll u strate d ull y . 68 . ne t .
E N G IN E R O O M P RAC T I C E .
A H an dboo k for E n g n e i e rs
an d O ffi c e rs i n t h e Ro N v y an d an yal a M erc tile M ari e n ,
i cl udi
n n g t he n ge m n t o f t h e Ma a n an d A En g ne o n Bo M ai u xiliary i es ard Sh i ps .
B Y J OH G E R S DG E E n g
N . LIV
Co m m r , R N I , r . .
Th e o n te n ts CA NN OT FA IL TO B E A PP R E CI AT E D —S te amship
c ”
. .
FOUR TH E D T ON II . Rev i dase nd En a l rg ed . P ck t i z

o e s e . Le a h e t r . 1 28 6d .
B O I L E RS , M A R IN E A N D L A N D
T H E IR C O N S T R UC T I O N AN D S T REN GT H.
BY T . W . TR AI LL ,
M I nst C E
. . .
,
Th e mom V A L U A B L E B OO K ON BOI L E R S p bl i h d i
u s e n E n g an d l .
—S hipp i n g World .
Pl t 25In Q uar t o . Ha d n so m e C l th
o . W i th num e o us r a es . 3 .
T H E H E A T E F F I C I E N C Y O F S T E A M B O IL E R S
( LA N D , M A R I N E , AN D Lo c o mo n vs ) .
B R Y A N D O N KI N M I s t 0 E BY , . n . . .
A p r cti c l b k b y th r gh ly p racti c l m
a a oo —I d C l T da R i w o ou a an . ron an oa ra e s ev e .
F OURT H E I I N
D T O I ll tr t d w i th 1 8 P l t 59 F ld i g Di gr m
. us ae d 23 7 th r I ll tr t i a e s, o n a a s, an o e us a ons .
1 83 n e t
. .
S T E E L S H I PS
T H E I R C O N S T R UC T I O N A N D S T R E N G T H .
A Ma nu a lf i u ild rs S h i p Super i te d t s Stu de ts a d M ari e E gi eers

or Sh p b e ,
n n en ,
n ,
n n n n .
BY TH OS W A LT O N Na a l Arc h i t c t .
,
v e .
So th r gh d w l l writt i v ry ch p t r i t h b k th t i t i d i ffi l t t l ct y f
o ou an e en s e e a e n e oo a s cu o se e an o
th e m as b i g w rthy f xc p ti l p r i
e n o E xc ll
o t —E gi e e o na a se . e en . n n ee r .
T ENT H E DI ION T . Re v i se d . Po c k e t siz e . Lea he t r . 88 6d . .
A PO OKET-B O O K OF
M A RIN E E N G I N E E R I NG R UL E S A N D T A B LES .
Fo r t he Use of Mari e E gi eers n n n , N a al Arc h i tec ts Draughts me

v ,
n, S p u eri te nde n ts n
,
an d Oth ers .
BY A . E . SE ATO N M I M ech E
, . . . AN D
H M ROUN TH WAI T E, M I M e c h E . . .
d i b ly f l fi l it
A m ra u s s p u p oser .
—M ari n e E ngin ee r .
LO N DON : C H A R L ES G R I FF I N CC .
, LTD .
, E XE I ' '
ER S TRE E T ,
ST R A N D .
THE THE OR Y OF
TH E S TE A M T UR BI N E
El t re at i s e 0 11
T HE P R I N C I PL E S OF CON ST R UCT I ON OF TH E
STE AM T UR B I N E , W I TH H I ST O R I C AL N OT E S
ON I TS D E V E LO P M E N T
AL E XAN DE R J UDE
W ith 3 7 7 {i ll ust rati ons ano 3 jf oloing p lates
S E CON D E DI TI ON .
Revised th ro
ughou t an d rewri tten .
L O N D O N
CH A R L E S G R I F FI N COM P A N Y ,
L I M I T E D,
E X E T E R S TR E E T, S T R A N D
. .
[All R ights R eserved ]

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDI T I ON .
TH E general s cheme of the fi rst edition has been retain ed and although s ome
of the pr i nc i pal problem s have been e l aborated a li ttle more an endeavour ,
has been made to keep the general mathematical treatment within fairly
s imple lim i ts Some revi si on has been nece s sary i n place s owing to the rapid
.
development of the turbine new data and in a comparatively ne w s ub j ect

, , , ,
the inevitable m od ifi cat io n of view s .
A word s eem s advisable in regard to the treatment of the problem of the

reaction turbine S everal highly involved theories and arithmetical s olutions
.
of the problem have been publish e d during the interval ( notably by

E ngin e ering 1 9 06 S chmit and K oob ) wh i ch have certainly ass is ted me
, , ,
ma t e rially in pro s ecuting the s ub j ect A careful s tudy of the s e s olutions .
and their a ss u mption s s ugge s t s however that fundamental simplifi c at io n s

, ,
are warranted M echani cal restr i ctions are u navoidable and formidable and
.
,
it i s d iffi c ult to avoid very arbitrary a ss umptions A few experiment s made .
to ind i cate the nature of s ome of the re s trictions are given I t may further .
be note d that the fac t that two preci s ely s imilar s ection s of blading of
,
different s ize s ha ve yet to be mad e i s a prima ry d iffi c u lty The s e d iffi c u lt ie s .
lead to the conclu s ion that extremely involved calculat i on s which end in an
,
inevitable compromise are unremunerative .
S ome of the notes in my fi rs t ed i tion relating to labyrinthal leakage are

not correct A s eparate section has been added the approxi mate t he o ny and
'
.
,
new experimental data being I think fairly concordant , ,

.
The spe c ifi c heat of s uperheated s team having been sub j ected duri n g the
las t three or four yea rs to very elaborate investigat i on has it i s hoped nearly , , ,
reached fi nality N evertheless s ome divergence yet existing between the

.
,
res ults of the latest exper i men te rs I have not altered the value s of the ,
thermo dynamic e ffi c ie n c ies of the original exampl e s given in variou s tab l es

-
and curves The error i nvolved by the subst itution of current values of the
.
s e c ifi c heat is however not more than two or three per cent and in no way
p , ,
.
,
a ffects the general conclus i ons The temperature e n t rOpy diagram ( B) has
.
been revised to date and a ll new examples bas ed thereon

,
.
vii
E A E
PR F C .
I am i ndebte d to M es srs B el li ss Sr M o rco m Ltd for fac ili t i es i n p resenting

.
a few ad d i ti ona l exper i ments of a more o r less fundamental characte r They .
are g i ven here not so much for any intr i ns i c value they may poss es s but in ,
the h0pe that others may be led to deve l op them and diverge a littl e from
,
the bea t en track of c i rcul ar nozzle ex p eri men ts .
I am al so under further obligation s to the technica l pre s s for s ome of

their contr i butors valuable article s and to con temporary pa p ers genera ll y
’
, .
Al though the ed i t i on is i ntended to have a str i ctl y practical aspect no ,
attempt has been made to i llustrate the mechanica l deta il s o f the various
turb i nes of the day— o r rather of the mome n t—as cha n ge s take place so
,
rapid l y that I feel the proper s p heres for my readers to seek th is i n formation
is in the current press and in the s evera l ma n ual s devoted more particu l arl y
,
to th is sid e of the subj ect .
ALE XAN DE R J UDE .
Ap ril 1 9 1 0
.
PREFACE TO THE FI RST E DI TI ON .
A LMOST every read er of the ne w s papers has heard of the S team Turbine and ,
is often led to talk glibly of the wonderful results achieved thereby in M arine
prop ulsion and E lectrical generation but it is doubtful whether many even
, ,
among engineers clearly gra s p the broad principle s underlying the desig n and
,
the factors which limit the possib l e performance of this type of prime mover .
O ur knowledge of the propertie s of s team ha s made great advance s but ,
the mass of research work on this s ubj ect has been performed in view of t he
ultimate applicat i on of the results to the reciprocating engine D uring the .
last few years however re s earch ha s been exte nd e d towards turbine phenomena
, , ,
and has elicited novel information but up to the present mo s t of it is qualita

,
tive rather than quantitative .
M any fundamental propositions applicable to the water turbine are not

s o to the steam turbine except by re s ervations of a practi cal nature d i ffering
,
va s tly from tho s e of the former c ase A nd although hydro dynamic theory
.
-
and practice have been careful l y worked out and app li ed to the water turbine ,
it cannot yet be s aid that a s imilar harmony exi s ts in the ca s e of the s team
turbine — indeed the mechanical ob s tacle s are extreme l y formidable
,
.
I n thi s volume an attempt i s made not on l y to pre s ent the well known -
fundamental principle s in a conci s e and connected way but in a way which

,
will enable direct application to be mad e to the steam turbine problem .
F urther to enable the reader to acquire the c orrect point of vie w

, ,
numerous arithmetical example s are g i ven exhibiting the way in which the
,
formul ae may be manipulated .
The de s cri ptive mat ter which i s arranged as far as practicable as a com
,
mentary upon the theory has been curtailed to a mi nimum but it is given
, ,
s u fi c ie n t l
y fu l ly to a ff ord an idea of the present development and p robable
future progre s s of s team turb i ne de s ign and manu facture .
M ore or les s novel treatment of the s ubj ects of leakage governing etc are
, ,
.
presented and als o the results of some hitherto u npubl is hed re s earch e s o n the
,
ix
E A E
PR F C .
impact of an d flow of steam through buckets and the ero sion of me ta l lic ,
s u rfaces by hi gh veloc i ty ste am .
Several s ub j ec ts s uch as app li ed thermometry and the sp e c ifi c heat of

,
su perheated steam which may a ppear at fi rs t gl ance t o be extraneous matter

, ,
have been embod i ed i n t he b ook principal ly b e cause lack of attent i on to the se

points has m ade s o many test resu l ts c o n fl ic t in g and mislead i ng .
The b o ok w i ll at any rate serve a u s eful purpose if some who read it are
prevented from was t in g the i r time and ingenu i ty in devis i ng S team Turbine s
which are th eo ret i cally im p ossibl e or ( more probab l y ) mechan i cally imp rac
t icab le and if others are assisted to form a sound j udgment of the S team
,
Turb i ne problem unswayed by the om i ss i ons an d exagg eration s of advert i se

,
ments or the enthusiasm of fashion .
I acknow l e dge my indebtednes s to the variou s technical j ou rnals for much

informat i on of a general character al s o to the E ditors of E ngin e ering for
p erm issi on to reproduce s everal blocks and diagram s ; to the Counc il s of the
I nst i tution of Ci v i l E ngineers and the I nstituti o n of E n gi n eers and Ship
builders in Scotland for variou s technical informat i on O ther ack n o wle dg .
ments are made in the text M y thank s are also due to my friend
.
M r Reginal d M o rco m M A for kindly read i ng the proofs and to my

, . .
, ,
pub lis hers for their he l p and for many s uggest i ons .
ALE XA NDER J UDE .
B I R M IN G H A M , J u ne 1 9 06 .
CON T E N T S .
CH A PT E R 1 .
FU N DA M E N T AL .
FAQ 8
I tr duc t ry D fi iti o f T urbi es T he rems Ber u illi s T h e rem ’
Cl sed Buck e ts a d Passages —

n o o e n on n o no o
Ge eral Cases f S tea m A c ti in T urbi es
—M d ifi ed Pri ci ple —Ra ti f a Turbi e Summary
o n n o on n
o n o o n -
CH A P T E R II .
H l STOR l CA L N OT E S ON T UR B I N E S .
Ear ly Rec rd s and Pate ts—I mpul se T urbi es —Reac ti on Turbi es

o n n n
CH A PTE R III .
T u n V E L O CI T Y OF ST EAM .
T he Vel ci ty f S team—U r si sted Fl w f Gases—T tal H ea t f Steam —E xamples

o o o
Fl w—E xamples—S t rai ght C v rge t R u ded I le t N zz le
n e o o o
o on e n or o n n o
—D i verge t N zzl e—E xam pl es —Ce tri fugal E ffe t f Steam m v i g i a
, ,
n o n c o o n n
Curved Path — E xam pl es f ge eral T h e rem —a d am tal T h ry

o n f o en eo o
Impul se Turbi es n
CH A PT E R I V .
T YP E s OF S TEA M T URB I N E S .
G enera O u t in e—S m p e urb n es ;

l l i i I mpul se Ty pe—Pure Reac ti Ty p —Co
l T on e rn
l c i Type —C m p u d T urbi es Impulse Ty pe

b i n ed 1 m u se an d Rea t o n o o n n
Pressure Turbin es — G raduated V l ci ty Tu rbi es — C mbi ed
,
G radua
G raduated Pr ssure a d V el oc i t Tu rbin es—C m p un d Reac ti Thi b in
e o n o n
on r es
Pure and Mix d —Ge eral Remarys

e n o o
e n
xi
CON E T N TS .
CH A PT E R V .
PR A CT I CA L TU R B I N Es .
A
P G E
i
S mp le ul se T urbi nes —The De Laval Turbi ne —Th Pel t n W hee l Ra teau
I mp e o
S team Pel to W heel —R iedler St nm nf Turbi e—C mpou d Turbi es—T h
n -
n o n n e
R teau T urbi e —The Fullagar Tu b m e —T he Z oe lly a h i e—The S tu m p f
i n r n
T urbi ne —The Ham il t n H ol z w rth T urbin e—The Ke rr T urbi ne —The Terry
o o
T urbi ne —S t m p f Variable Speed T urbi e—The Curti s Turbi ne—Th Pars n s

-
u n e o
Turbi e —M dern Pars ns Turbi e—Oth er Turbi es —D uble m ti on T u

n o o n n o o r
bi nes —H ybrid T urbi es
-
CHA PTE R V I .
V
T H E E FF I C I E N C Y
C O MP OUN D T U RB I N E S T YPE 1
or . .
D iagram E ffi i y—Ty pe 1 E ergy T ra sf rmati s L sses f Ki etic E ergy

c e nc n n o on -
o o n n
— —
,
E xam ples f E fii i y oI m pul se T urb i

c e nces w i th O pe Bu ck e ts Number n n of
S tages —Area f F ix ed N zzl e Passages ; Ex am ple—E fl t f Leak age '
o or o ec o
T h ickness f Va es— Pi tc h f Va es —M iscella us p i ts— Lead
o n o n neo o n
CHA PT E R VI I .
TH E T R AJ E CT OR Y OF THE S T E AM .
Cases 1 and 2 ; I mpul e Turbi ne wi th ou t L ss—Case 3

s o I mp ul se Turbi ne wi th
L ss —Case 4 the E fi t of the Vane Rack —Case 5
o ec R eac i on T urbi e
t n
CH A PT E R V I II .
T U R B I N E S T YP E S 2 A N D 3
E FFI C I E N CY OF . .
E ffi c i
e nc
y f Tyope 2 —E xam p l es —R el a t i ve L e g th s f t h V a es — Arra g me t n o e n n e n
w i th C s ta t V a e Le gth — T h ick ess P tc h a d W id th f Va es —V a e
L sses —Err rs i tr duced —Lead —Ty p 3 —E fi t f L akage
on n n n n , i ,
n o n n
'
o o n o e ec o e
CH A P T E R 1 X .
E FFI CI E N CY OF T UR B I N E S . T YP E 4 .
Ty pe 4— Variati s f D iame ters f Drums— Number f S tages f r a give S tepped o
Drum— T tal Number f S tages tc Case 1 —Case 2 —Case 3 — Area th r ugh

on o o o n
o o e o
Va e Passages a d Shape f Va es —E ff c t i ve Ar a—P i tc h f Va — E fl ct

.
, ,
n ,
n o n e e o ncs e
f L eakage
o
CH A PT E R x . l/
M I S C ELLA N E O US Po m rs f
.
Sel ec t i on o f a ti o
R —Sel ec ti o n of —Value of m—E x pansi o n L i ne
C O N T EN T S . xiii
CH A PT E R XI .
T U RB I N E VA N E S .
M eth od s of M aki ng an d Fi tti ng T urbi ne Vanes —Fr o m 1 89 1 to 1 9 08
CH A PT E R X II .
D 1 so AN D VA N E F R I CT I ON I N T U R B I N ES .
D i c F ric ti n—Cri t ical Speed —Vane Res is ta nc e —Forrnulae

s o for A ir an d St ea m
E x ampl es
CH A PT E R XI I I .
S P E CI F I C H E AT or S UP E R H EA I E D S T E AM
’ ‘
.
S pec i fi c H eat S p of u erh eated Steam—Average Value of t he Sp ec i fi c H ea t -

Spec ifi c
V lu e
o m of S p u erh eated S team
CH A PT E R XI V .
ST R E N G T H or RO T A T I N G D i s cs .
S tren gth o f Ro ta ting D i scs —I so tro p y o f M a terial —P o i sso n s Ra ti o —G en eral

’
—
Preli mi nary Equati on s—T h i n Flat D isc s Gen eral Solu ti on o f Fc m o f Free
Surfac e —S tress w i th i E lli p s id s S l u ti assu mi g U i f rm St ress
T h i Flat Elli p s id —Perf rated D isc s —Stress
n o o on n n o
T h i Ri g P e rfo 1 at io n s
h roudings—Loca ti o n o f F rac ture
n o o i n 9. n n
in S
CH A PT E R XV .
G O VE R N I NG STEA M T URB I NE S .
G eneral C n sid erat i ons —Superh ea t b y T h rottli ng—Cnr e of T o tal Steam Con ~
o v
sump ti on—G over ni ng by T h r ttli ng—Si mpl e I m p ul se T urb in e—E x am ple

o s
C m poun d Tu rb in e s ~ E x amples —G o ve m in g by V ariabl e Ad mi ss i n S m pl e

I mpul se Turbi ne —Exampl e—Co m pound a b in es— Ex amplfi —
o o i
Variabl e Ad
m i ss i on to all S tages —G overn ing b y Peri o dic Ad m iss i o n —G overn ing Dev i ces
T h ro ttl i ng—Parso n s Peri odic Cut ff Gear—Govern ing M ix ed fi ow T urbines
o -
—Fnrt l e r P o in ts i n G o e rn in —Fly w h eel E lfec t —E xampl es — T rsi on al

Osc illa ti ons of S h afti ng—E x am pIes —M m on t o f I n er ti a f Ro to r
1 v o
o o
CH A PT E R XVI .
STE AM CO N S UM P T I O N OF T UR B I N E S .
T he E ff ec t o f V ac uum —Th e V acuum Augmen to r—E fi ec t o f Supe rh ea t i g—The n
M easurem e ts f Supe rh ea t—General S team Co nsum p ti on —T herm o dy amic

n o n
E ffi i cy a d Effi c ie nc y Ra t i
c en n E c n m i cs o f Co n de s i n g
o- o o n
C O N T EN T S .
CH A PT E R X VI I .
E XH A U ST ST E A M TU R B I N ES x
AGE
.
The E x haust S tea m T urbi e —T h n e M ixed fl -

ow a bine —Combi nati o n of E ng i e
n
a d T urbi e
n n
CH A P T E R XV I I I .
WH I R LI N G o r S H A FTS B ALA N C I N G arc

TH E , ,
.
T he Wh i rli n g o f Ro tat i ng S h afti ng—Cri tical Vel oc i ty— M assl ess L oad ed S haft
O verhun g Shaft— S haft Suppo rted a t bo th E nd s Shafts F ix e d at bo th E nd s -
—E xam ple o f E le me n tary M ul ti D isc Sy s tem—Cri ti cal Speed o f Drum

R to rs— Balan ci ng Ro to rs —G e neral Problem —S tati c Bal an ci ng—D y namic
-
Bala ci n n
g
CH A PT E R XIX .
S PE E D T U RB I N ES
OF .
Speed of rbo A l ternat rs and D y nam

Tu -
o o s—Speed of M arine T urbi nes —E xampl e
Table o f T urbi ne S teamers
CH A PT E R XX .
L AB YR I N T H o n F R I CT I O N PA C K I N GS .
T he ry o f Labyri n th —E x perimen ts wi th Labyri th —C e fii cie n t o f D i sc h arge

o n o s
L o ng Sli t —E x peri m ts — Co fiicie ts f D i sc harg —Cen tri fugal Packi g

en e n o e n
Co m pressor Ty pe f Packi ng o
CH A PT E R XX I .
DUMM Y AR RA N G E ME N TS .
T hree Ty pical Arra geme ts —D uble fln n o -

o w T urbin es—R versed e -
flo w Turbi es n
CH A PT E R XXII .
M I S C ELLA N E OUS E XP E R I M E N TS AND COE FF I CI E N TS .
Stan dard Apparatus f E filux— D i sc h arge thr ugh Rec tangular and Curved
or o
N zzl es ( 1 ) Isola te d N zzles ; ( 2 ) M ul ti pl e N zzles

o : o Va e Passages o or n
Leakage over Vane Ti ps —E ffec t o f Obli q ue I m pac t —Asp irati n i n C verg

divergen t N ozzl es—Ferran ti St o p Val ve—Pr nre V ariati ons i N zzl e
o on o
e ss n o
Passages f th Parso s Ty pe—Pr ssure O scillati ons i Vane Passages w i th

o e n e n
H igh Vel oc i t ies —T h same w i th Low Vel ci ti es

e o
I N DE X
PRI NCI PAL SYMBOLS USED
nozz l e outlet angle .
movi n g pas sage outlet ang l e .
e ffi c ie n cy ; a l so Po i sson s ratio
’
.
c o e fli c ie n t of leakage through labyr i nths .
over vane t i ps .
vol ume of steam cub ft per lh , . . .
den s ity lb s per cub ft

,
. . .
absolute temperature .
angle of obl i que impact .
angular velocity .
E, 3
4 energy u s ually ft lb s per lb of s team per s ec
, . . . .
H total heat of steam .
J J oule s equivalent
’
.
K coe ffi c ie n t of effect i ve area of nozzle s an d passages .
Icc '
kl k = contr i butory coe ffi c ie n t s to K and m
. , .
L l atent h eat .
m kinetic energy e ffi c ie n cy of nozzle and vane stream s .
= quantity of steam usuall y lb s per sec

Q , . .
t temperature .
V, v = velocitie s on l y ;
” = nozz l e or absolu te inlet velocity in moving passage s
1
.
0
2
inlet re l at i ve veloc i ty in moving pass age s .
o
s
out l et
v
4
absol ute out l et veloc i ty from mov i ng passage s .
11 vane or
spe c ifi c heat of superhea ted s team at con s tant pre ss ure .
A few exception s will be found loca ll y but the immediate conte x t should ,
prevent confus ion Var i ous su ffi x e s are a ls o employed which s hould be

.
2 T HE T H EO RY 0 1? T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
I t may be we ll to recall at the outset certai n fun damenta l pri nciple s

, ,
underlyi n g the theory of turb i nes ; but to beg in with it will be advisable to , ,
frame a d e fi ni t io n of what is meant by a turb i ne .
D E F I N I T I O N O F A T U R B I N E — A tu r bin e is a p rime m over in .
whi ch gr ad u al c hanges i n the mo me ntu m o f a flu id are u t il i sed to p rod u ce

ro tati on of the m o bile me m bers .
I t w il l be seen from the forego i ng that gi ven a quant i ty of fl u id— s team , ,
for ins tance — fl o w in g w i th a vel oc i ty s uch that its k i net i c energy i s o f app re c i
abl e magn i tude the p rob l em is to determ i ne ho w the change of momentum
,
can be e ffected and the general fo rm of the mechanism requ i red

,
.
T he mea s ure of the k i net i c energy of a body s ol id li qu i d or ga s eous is , , , ,
1 72
given by the expres si o n 29 1 when M i s the ma ss pas s ing i n a unit of time
,
d
( the s econ d ) and v the ve l ocity per unit of t i me ( feet per s econd ) .
The momentum of a body is given by the ex p ression M e .
I n order to falhl the requ i rement s of the above d e fi n it io n the on l y ,
method su i tab l e in p ract i ce for commun i cat i ng the energy of the fl u id to the
rotor parts i s to occas i on a change i n the vel oc i ty of the fl uid I t i s to be .
p art i c u l arly noted i n th is connect i on that p re s s u re ac t io n p l ays n o p art

,
in t h e o p e rat io n s A ny ro tary machine invol v i ng act i on re s ul ting from

—
.
p ressure i s a rotary eng i ne a mechan is m entirely dist i nct from the clas s n o w
,
under cons i derat i on .
I t w ill be nece s sary at t i me s to ass ume that the machine is e ffi c ie n t or ,
that i n other words the ch ange in the momentum of the actuat i n g fl u id is

, ,
p roduced w i thout wastefu l i nternal res i sta n ce such as is p rodu c ed by frict i on ,
or eddy currents and that the fi n al abso l ute ve l oc i ty of the fl u id is reduced

,
to a minimum .
For u l t i mate mathemati ca l demonstration of the theorem s wh i ch foll ow ,
the reader is referred to standard works on hydrau li cs or hydro mechan i cs -

.
The accompanying demonstrat i o n s w ill however be fo und su ffi c ie n t for the , ,
p urp o s e s in v i ew and wh il e much wh i ch foll ow s i s d oubtl es s fami l iar a

, ,
renewed acquaintance i s n everthe l es s recommended i nasmuch as i t may be ,
the mean s of s ugge s t i ng new i d eas and has in any cas e an important bearing , , ,
upon the problems discu s sed i n sub s equent s ections .
T H E O RE M I A j e t of fl u id i mp inging at ri ght angles on an i nfi n ite

.
-
p lane m rf ace .
Let W be the weight of fl u id pas s ing p e r second v1 be the velocity of ,
the j et in feet per s econd and v the vel oc i ty of the p l ane in feet per second
,
in the d i rection of the j et .
Then i f the p l ane be pract i call y s mooth so as not to cause spl ash i ng the
, ,
fl u id w ill be d e fl e ct e d a l ong the p l ane u n i form l y in a ll d i rect i ons whether ,
the p l ane move or be at rest I t is further necessary to sat i sfy the requ i re
.
,
ment a s to maximum e ffi c ie n cy that the j et s ha ll be free from interna l ,
d i sturbance as for exam p l e i n the j et produced by the ant i s p l ash n o zz l e

, , ,
‘ -
’
common l y fi tte d to dome s t i c water taps -

.
W hen the pla n e is at rest the momentum of the j et des tr o y e d i n a

( )
a ,
W vl
time t is t and the i mpu l se given to the p l ane in the same t i me is Pi
, ,
9
where P i s the total norma l re s ultant pressure on the p l ane .
“P0 1
Therefore
9
F U NDAM E N T A L . 3
( 6) Suppo s e the plane to move with a velocity 7) repre s ented by AO, F ig . 1 .
Let AB = vl the velocity of the j et .
Then CB = v2 the velocity of the j et ? elati ve to the plane or the veloci t y

-
,
with which the j et s trike s the plane .
The p re s s u re on the plane is therefore

—v) ( 2)
As before the j et is d e fl e c te d along the plane s o that it flow s o f? in all

, ,
direction s w i th a ve l o city 1) re l ative to the plane D raw CD CB parallel .

:
to the p l ane Then AD i s the ab s olute veloc i ty relative to the earth or to

.
,
the je t p ro d u cing ap paratu s w i th which the stream fl o ws away

r .
W
The work done per s econd i s —
29
0
2 2
7 ”
FI G . 1 .
Therefore the w o rk d o ne al s o equal s

X V
( v v 71 )
g 1
Thi s is an important form of the expre ss ion and ,

nature s houl d
well noted .
The d iag ram e ffi c ie n cy of the Operation i s then

2 “
11 v4 2 z) ( vl v
)
" = 1
I 2 2
v
1 1
The velocity of the plane that gives maxi mum e ffi c ie n cy is
in which cas e 1
,
The term diagram e ffi c ie n cy has been u s ed here to distingui s h th i s kind

'
of e ffi c ie n c y from numerou s other e fli c ie n c ie s that occur in the a p p l icat i on of

variou s physical laws (e g the e ffi c ie n cy mentioned in the foll owing s t ateme n t )
. .
,
and may be obtained ent i rely from g eometrical considerat i ons .
Fo r a s t e am j e t t h e m ax im u m p rac t ic al o r p hys i c al e ffi c ie n c y
o f t he im p ac t c o rre s p o n d in g t o ( 1 ) ap p e ars t o b e ab o u t 82 p e r c e n t ,
4 T HE T H EO RY or T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
t hat is , P is ly re al ise d t o t he e x t e n t o f 82 p e r c e n t The diagram

on .
e ffi c ie n c y ( 5 ) wi ll be reduced i n pract i ce a corres p ond i ng amount .
I n a p ractica l de term i n at i on of th i s c oe ffi c ie n t i t is nece ssary to use a

,
comp l ete re fl e c t io n of the j et as i n F ig 2 ,

. .
Under the most favourab l e c o n dit i on s there is

alway s a ce rta i n amount of s p lashing s o that if a ,
d iam s i mp l e p l ane be employed accord i ng to F ig l the, .

,
a pp arent e ffi c ie n cy is too h i gh By provi di ng the .
doub l e d e fl ec tion all particle s of the j et have the

,
O
pp ortun i ty to emerge i n the same direction .
The degree of e ffi c ie n c5 gre atl de I) ends 11 on the

rati o of the s u rface of B to the area?A of the im ingin g
7
14
‘
Fm 2
3 g lam;
.
j et The c o e ffi c ie n t g i ve n above is an ap p rox i mate
.
g
max i mu m for thi s general case and occurs when the ,
s urface B is a s nearl y a m i nimum as p oss i bl e Se e als o page 405 . .
F or the doubl e d e fl e c t ion P is of cours e equal to 2 M x practical

, ,
e ffi c ie n cy .
9
T H E O RE M II —
J e t of fl u id
. i mp inging o bliq u ely on an i nfi ni te p lan e
( a) Plane at rest .
Let (9 be the angl e wh i ch the j et makes w i th the p l ane ( Fi g .
FIG . 3 .
Then a s the fl u id s preads i n all direct i on s — a l though not un i forml y the

,
momentum de s troyed by the plane i n the d i rection of the j et i s the same for
any inc li nation of the p l ane an d the pressure normal to the plane is therefore
,
sin 9
9
Su pp o s e the p l ane to move w i th a veloc i ty 1) re p resented by A G .
Then CB = v2 i s the ve l oc i ty of t he j et rel at i ve to the p l ane .
Let <1) be t h e a n gl e A C makes w i th the p l ane , a s in Fig 3 . .

F U NDA M EN T A L . 5
Let makes with the p l ane Then the pre ss ure normal
'
6 be the angle 12
2 .
to the plane is P =E sin

' '
2
0
g
Re s olv ing along and at right angles to A C the , p re s s u re d i r ec tion
“
Z
”
f mo tion i s s in s in <1:
'
o P ?
0
7
W1) 21)
The w o rk d one 18 s1 n
’
0 sm qt
9
D raw 0G l _ _ to the plane and , G H _ L to v.
i
V v
.
9
Se that wh en ( ti e . tangen t ial en try ) the w ork d one 0, as i s bvi us
o o .
FIG . 4 . F1 0 5 . .
The d iag ram e ffi c ie n c y is 7

;
A mach ine prope lled in the manner t yp ifi ed by the above two theorems
is n o t recogn i sed as a t u rb in e but is ca ll ed an impact mach i ne
. The , .
momentum i s not gradually changed in a practical s ense but suddenly The , .
theorems invol ved have however a very important bearing on turbine

, ,
problem s .
T H E O R E M III J et of fl u id i mp in gi ng on a su rface that d efl ec ts the

.
-
j et who lly thr o ugh a gi ve n angle . .
is s
Th refer to any of the fi gu re s 4, 5 , 6 , 7 .
(a) Let the s urface be at res t .
Then £2 1
( 1 0)
9
I n case s ( typ ifi e d by F igs
and 7 ) where the s urface is in the form of
. 6
a channel wide enough to receive the j et without s p ill in g or shock on the
s ide wal l s of the channel it i s necessary if the whol e of the s tream i s to be
, ,
6 T HE T H E O RY OF T H E S E T AM TU RB IN E .
d e fl e c te dat the angl e 0 that the j et shall be received by the s urface

,
tange n t i all y as shown .
Fo r sup pos e this i s not the case Then a ce rt al n port 1on of the Je t
0 0
. ,
,
depend i n g upon the width of the channel wi ll be d e fl e c te d up the s i des of ,
the channels an d wil l spurt out as in F ig 8 ,

. .
L
5/
FIG . 6 . FIG . 7 .
This quantity is in general qui te indeterminate I t i s poss i ble but

, , .
,
high l y i mprobable that w i th a certain width of channel angl e and velocity

, , , ,
of impact the total pres s u re may be greater than ,
P but the determination i s pure l y e x p e ri

mental and pecul iar to the actual cond i t i ons As
, .
a rough e s timation the max i mum pressure for ,
normal impact cannot exceed

1 .
Fo r a s t e am j e t t h e p rac t i c al e ffi c ie n cy
Em 8
o f t h e p ro c e s s re p re se n t ed b y F i g s 6 , 7 , .
an d b y ( I O) h as b e e n p ro v e d t o b e as h i g h
as 98 p e r c e nt , b u t b y Fig 5 o n l y ab o u t 88 p e r c e n t o n acc o u n t
. .
o f t h e g re at e r s u rfac e in v o l v e d .
( )
6 Let the s urface move wi t h a vel ocity 1) p arallel to the j et Th i s is .
the on l y usefu l movement for Fi gs 5 6 and 7 because the cond i tion of .

, ,
tangent i al i mpact or entry is essential F or any other movement it i s .
necessary that the j et be s upp li ed from a s uccess i on of sources or to a ,
s ucce ssi on of buckets correspond i ng w i th the lateral movement This in .

‘
effec t i s what is done in the actua l turbine

, .
The p re ss u re i n the d i rect i on of mot i o n is therefore
The wo rk d on e is
M ”
The d iag ram e ffi c ie n c y is

2 u( v l ) l
v
cos 0)
0
2 (
1
FUNDA ME N T A L . 7
M aximum e ffi c ie n c
y occurs when 0= 0 ( i . e . complete re fl e c t io n
) and when
,
$ in which ca s e
0 ,
1
1 .
This i s the ideal cas e of the Pelto n wheel .

’
T h e hig he s t p rac t ic al effi c ie n cy ye t re c o rd e d wit h s t e am fo r

p ro c e s s ( 1 3 ) ap p e ars t o b e ab o u t 7 5 p e r c e n t x 7 Compared wi th . 7 .
the e ffi c ie n cy of i t i s evident that the mot i on leads to d i stu rbance s and

further lo ss e s .
A machine propelled in the manner typ ifi ed by theorem III is a t u rb in e .

,
although to F ig 4 the mach i ne would be partly an impact wheel and pa rt l y

.
a turbine combined .
I n each of the forego i ng cas e s of theorem III the impul s e s given to .
the s urface s may be c lassifi e d thu s

(a) The impul s e derived from the norm al im p ac t or s hock I n F ig 4 , . .
thi s i s E (v, v) I n F igs 5 6 7 it i s o

g
.
, ,
. .
( b) The direct impulse derived from d e fle ct io n as far as at right angles

to the direct i on of motion I n F ig 4 th i s is O I n Fi gs 5 6 7 it i s . . . .
, ,
W
() v
1
v .
()
c The reactive impul s e derived from the re fl e c t io n . Thi s i s
W
( 11 1 )
v co s 0 for all four fi gure s .
(7
The distinction drawn between the s e three operation s is merely a matter of
con ven i en c e
. The radical process i s pre
c ise ly the same and all three may have
,
the same a l gebraical expressions On .
thi s account many writers do not make

any distinction s B ut the divi s ion into
.
clas s e s ha s an impo rtant practical sign i

fi can c e for in s tance (a) doe s not occur
F‘G 9
in a turbine except when that machine
is w o rking as it ought not to work .
T E H O R E M IV B E R N O U I L.L I S T H E O R E M —This theore m ’

.
( orig i nally app l ied to hydraulics ) i s si m ply an expre ss ion of the principle of
the conservat i on of energy .
Let A B ( F ig 9 ) be a p i p e l i ke passage b f any form whatever but with

.
-
,
‘
eas y lines s o that the fl u id has ample opportunity to completely fi ll the
’
,
pas sage at all po i nt s .
The total energy of the fl u id plu s any external work that may be done 1 8
0
the same at al l sec t i ons .
At A B let the pres s ure of the fl u id be 19 1 p 2 resp ectively :

.
head w i th reference to some fi xe d hor i z on tal plane or s ome

su i table datum be hl h2 respectively -
,
.
veloc i ty of the fl u id be 0 1 v2 ,
s e c ifi c vo l ume v v
p 1 2 ,
internal energy I 12 ,
Al l quant i t i e s mu s t be in sim il ar uni ts feet and lbs ,

.
Then hl
el
f II h2 + p 2v2
i
ia + I2
29 2g
F or wate r ,
I1 an d I2 are neg l igi ble .
8 TH E T H EO RY OF T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
F or steam ,
hl and h are negli gi bl e but ,
I1 an d [2 vary with the pressure ,
dryne ss etc, .
The formula may be extended by i ntroduc i n g factors for interna l l osses or

change s other than I but in any case the s um of the energi e s— pote n t i al
, ,
kinetic internal and pressure energi es — is constant whatever val ues and
, ,
nature they may ind i v id uall y assume

C L O S E D B U C K E T S A N D P A S S A G E S — I t has been
.
‘ ’
.
expla i n ed that i n any Op e n bucket or channel where the whole mot i on of the
fl u id i s required to be parall el to one p l ane tangential entry is necessary if ,
sp i ll i ng i s to be avoide d .
A fter tangential reception of the fl u id in the bucket the subsequent ,
curvature of the surface w il l graduall y increase the w i dth of the stream if

the latter be not retained by the side wal l s I f the w i dth of the channel is .
j u s t su ffi c ie n t to receive the j et there w ill therefore be a tendency for the

,
stream to rise up the s i de wall s as i t app roaches the out l et end of the bucket ,
with the cons equent tendency for the s tream to become d i s i n tegrated or d i s
t u rb e d from a cond i tion of un i fo rm fl o w towards the latter end of it s progres s .
W ith a perfectl y c l o s e d bucket system s uch as ind i cated i n Fige 1 0

‘ ’
.
and 1 0A the above obj ect i on st ill ho l ds but i n a s omewhat d i sguised manner ,
.
Em 1 0 . . FIG . 1 0A .
Supp ose a j et or stream of water t o be pass ing through the c l os ed

pa s sage a wh i ch ha s the relative i n cli nation <1) to the passage b that i s the ,
p assage b may be s t il l or moving s o l on g as the re l ative angle be cons i dered ,
i n wh i ch geometr i ca l sense b o th pass ages are relat i ve l y st il l .
When O the e n try is tangent i a l

, W hen not tan gent i al draw c d and .
,
e f at r i ght a n gles to the resp ective p a s sages Then it i s obvious that there .
w il l exce p t for a large d i vergence be a gradua l change of sect i on from that

, ,
of pas sage 0 to that of p assage b together with a ge n eral change in the

.
,
di rection of mot i on of the fl uid as represented by the centre li n e The .
change of area not being strictl y sp eak i n g sudden there is l i ttl e or no loss of
, , ,
energy ( total head) from this cause and B ernoui l li s theorem for s teady fl o w
,
’
wou ld apply .
On the other hand the oblique i mpact causes a tendency for the stream
,
to s pread in a l l d i rectio n s on the s u rface of i m p act and the backward ,
d e fl e c t io n s r r Oppose the inc o m i ng stream to a d egree de p end i ng on the

ob li quity of the i mpact thu s reducing the effective k i netic energy of the
,
stream at entry .
W i th a system of water pas sage s mo re or le ss of the type above il lustrated ,
there w il l therefore be a ten d ency for the pres s ure head w i th i n the passage b -
to be different from that of the stream at c d I n ge n eral the nett e ffi c ie n cy .
w i l l be l ess either from what i s equ i va l ent to a ch o k i ng u p or to the presence

,
-
of a pressure head h i gher than that of the atmosphere i n the l atter port i on of
-
the p assage b with the consequent break i ng u p of the stead y fl o w

, .
10 T HE T H E O RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
s team being s upplied through s ome st u ffi n g box arrangement at the centre of -
the shaft or i ts equ i val ent .
A mach i ne p rope ll ed in the manner typ ifi e d by thi s theorem is con si dered

to be a t u rb in e .
I n general the generation of the velocity of the steam is rather s udden

, ,
particu l ar l y when it i s the on l y mean s of propu l sion and the head of pressure
is great I n this ca s e the mach i ne a s made i s call ed a re ac t io n W h e e l
.
, ,
.
’
I n case s where th i s k i nd of reaction i s m i xed with a d e fl e c t io n impu l se

( theorem particularly in compound turbine s the generation of ve l ocity ,
is com parativel y gradua l .
We l
The expre ss ion P 1 8 true for a s tationary chamber but when the
g ,
chamber move s the s imilar relation s do not hold unle ss the velocity of
,
the chamber be comparat i vely s mal l .
The rotat i on of the s team w i thin the

chamber s et u p by frictional contact with the ,
wal l s will it s e l f create an additional pressure , ,
due to centrifugal force .
I n the case of the water turbine : Let b

be the per i pheral or nozzle ve l ocity of the
chamber ( F ig 1 3 ) and H be the or i g i nal head . .
Then the additiona l head at the nozzle and

2
v
created by the centrifugal force is and the
2g
2
12 7)
tota l head at the nozzle is H = H+
FI G . 13 .which i s the velocity the issuing j et is capable
of having re l a tive l y to the moving orifi ce .
The fi n al absolute velocity i s obv i ous ly if v .
The work done is therefore H ( v v )

2
)
v
,
2 2)
and the e ffi c ie n c
y
e + d gH
I n the cas e where an e l as t i c fl u id i s used the centrifugal p ressure varies ,
2
accord i n g to a d ifi e re n t law and is not equal to K ( see Chapter III p
'
, .
,
.
2£
7
Let H be the original head corresponding to the i nitial pressure v the
veloc i ty of the nozz l e and H1 the hea d correspon di n g to the total p ressure at
the peri p hery .
Then the nozz l e ve l oc i ty of the i ssu i ng ga s or steam i s 2n v

2 '
As before the fi n al absol ute ve l ocity of the steam is v U

,
’
’
.
'
( )
2
v v
The w o rk d one is 257
where H=
g9 thu s correspond i ng to of the prev i ous theorem s
l
1) 0
1 .
The e ffi c ie n c y
F U NDA M E N T AL . 11
Confu s ion fr e quentl y ar i se s on account of the te rm s impulse ( s ometime s ‘
call ed action ) and reaction as d e s cr i p t ive l y applied to turbine s not fully

‘ ’ ‘ ’
,
ex p re ss ing the particular method s by which propul s ion 1 8 effected There are .
two expre ss ion s i n common u s e i mpu ls e turbine and reaction turbine I t ,

‘ ’ ‘
.
’
will here be convenient to s tate the s en s e in wh i ch these term s and expre s sion s
are u s ed i n the fol l owing page s .
The term impul s e turbine wil l be u s ed to describe a turbine employing

‘ ’
the d e fl e ct ion and re fl e c t ion impul s e e ff ect s of I II ( 6) and ( c) The term . .
‘
action will not be u s ed but the te rm re fl e ct io n wi l l be adop ted as
’
,
’
,
neces sary to describe the imp ul s e effect of III (c )

,
. .
Thi s impulse has s omet i me s been cal l ed reaction but the use of the word ,
’
re fl e ct ion
‘
will prevent confu s ion with the reaction of V F or
’
.
al though these operations may rad i cally amount to the same thing
there i s an important characteri s tic d i fference between the reaction of
III ( c) and the reaction of V I n the latter the velocity i s created
. .
whol l y in or about the o rifi c e and there i s a difference of fl u id ,
pre ss ure between one end of the o rifi c e or pas s age ( which may be
moving ) and the other B ut in the former III there i s no .
, .
d i fference of fl uid pres s ure and the veloc i ty ( kinetic energy) i s ,
conveyed to th e o rifi c e or pa s sage from an external source .
The term reaction wi l l be app li ed only to s uch reaction as i s described in V .
The prop er interpretation of the term reaction ha s been a fruitful cau s e

of d i spute and ap p ears to be an evergreen s ub j ect for discus s ion I t
, .
does not s eem po ss ible to give an exact d e fi n it io n of this unfortunate

word that will satisfy al l crit i cs and it therefore seem s ad vi sable to ,
d e fi n e the sense adopted in this treati s e

Al l the se —
.
cal led impuls e turbines are a s ha s been mentioned d e fl e c tion , ,
and re fl e c t ion impu l se ( o r in the di s carded s en s e impul s e with reaction )

, ,
‘ - -
’
turbine s The se ca ll ed reaction turbine s of to—

.
-
d ay are sim p l y impulse
‘ ’ ‘
w it h~ re ac t io n turbine s in the sen s e of III ( a) for the impuls e an d V for the

’
. .
reaction The two types as thu s indirectly d e fi n e d wi ll at once be s een to

.
, ,
pos s e ss characteri s tic di fferences wh i ch will become more apparent to the ,
reader after the general case which fol low s has been described .
The term impact alway s impl i es a normal component w i th the inherent

‘
in e ffi c ie n c y of a shock S uch act i on is to be avoided in the steam turbine and

.
,
i s characteristic of the primitive impact wheel s .
G e n e ral c ase of the action of a fl u id as ap p li ed i n the tu r bin e with c losed

bu cke ts o r p assages .
N OTE — Hereafter bucket s and s uch l i ke equivalent term s w i l l be referred

.
,
-
to a s vanes unl es s there is an y very obviou s reas on for the contrary

,
.
I n F igs 1 4 and 1 4A the A s ABC ACD represent the same th i ng each to

.
,
each .
The overlapping method of construction a s in F ig 1 4A pre s ents certain .
ad vantage s wh i ch will become m anife s t later o n .
Let 0 be the outlet ends of the fi x e d pas sage s ( o r guide pas sages or ‘ ’
‘
nozz l e s as the cas e may be the s election of the proper term depends on
,
’
the typ e of turbine ) .
Let M be a part of the sy s tem of moving vane s .
Let BC ( Fi g 1 4 only ) repres ent the path of an elementary thread of fl u id

.
travers i ng the pas sage between the vanes rel ative to the mot i on of the vanes ,
.
Let AB represent in magnitude and d i rection the ve l ocity of the stream

issu i ng from the fi x e d p assages .
12 T HE T H EO RY OF T HE S E T A M T U R BI N E .
Let AO represent the vel o c i ty of the m o ving va n es .
Then by the p re c e di n g remarks i t w ill be see n that i f the fluid is t o

,
en ter the mov i n g passages without res i stance it i s n e c essary that the entry
,
must be ta ngent i a l to the va n e Therefo re the tangent BE must be i n the

.
same d i rect i on as the ve l ocity CB wh i ch is the ve l oc i ty of the fl u id relative

,
to the vanes at entry ( theorem

D raw BF perp end i cul ar to A O produced if necessary .
Then AF re prese n ts the vel ocity of the fl u id parall el to the vane motion ,
and i s termed the v e l o c ity O f W h irl

‘
.
’
FIG . 14
.
Procee d
in a s i m il ar manner for the ve l o
cities at outl et from t he mov i n g p assages .
I n the tr i angl e ACD A O the ve l ocity ,
of moving vanes as before CD p aral lel to the ,
tange n t to the vane s at outl et the vel oc i ty ,
re l at i ve to the vane s at outl et and AD

the absolute veloc i ty of t he fl u id at outlet .
D raw DG perpen di cu l ar to AC p roduced

Fre 1 4A
. . if necessary Then AG is the ve l oc i ty of
.
‘
wh i rl at out l et .
T he above a pp l ies to an elementary thread of fl u id but i t may now be ,
as sumed to ap pl y to the mean relative p ath for the whole stream i n the
pas s age i n wh i ch case B C re p resent s the mean shape of the vanes BC may
,
.
,
i n general be any fair curve so l on g as the ends p oint in the d i rectio n s B E

,
an d CD re s pect i ve l y There are however l i mit i ng max i mum an d m i n i mum

.
, ,
curvatures de p ending on the general magni tude of the veloc i t i e s and the
roughne ss of the vane s u rface s .
The assum p tion a s to the mean path is le gi timate pro v idi ng that the
vane s are small compared w i th t he s i ze of the whee l a l so that the re l at i ve ,
ve l oc i t i e s of the fl u id are not too h i gh and the curvature of the absolu te path
of the fl u id not too s mall Al though the relative ve l oc i ty and the mov i n g
.
F U NDAM E N T A L . 13
vane shape are directly compa rable it i s ofte n be s t to view the whole con ,
s tru ct i on in terms of the ab s o l ute velocity s ince neither the gu i des nor vane ,
pas sages are sym metrical about the m e an path ( S e e Chapter XX II . .
0
The kinetic energy of the fl u id per 1h at entry i s —1 and this correspond s .
,
9
to a certain head (i e . .
v
_ fi = h) The analogou s
hydraul ic head e quivalen t
.
‘
,
’
29
to a given drop of steam pressure and the resu l tant k inetic energy are , ,
inve s tigated in Chapter III F or the presen t head is a conven i ent and
.
,
‘ ’
s imple term to u se .
N o w in the fi gu re s drawn it wil l be ob s erved that CD has been pu rpo s ely

, ,
de larger than CB As the quantity of flu i d pas s ing is the same at any

.
;
point it follow s that the energy A is greater than the energy 2
,
25 This i s
an impossi ble occurrence un e s s there i s s ome s ource of ener y to draw upon
l
2
g
.
during the p a ssage between the moving vane s .
The only po ss ible s ource is a us efu l pressure or head in the passage higher ,
at B than at C The only us eful way this exce ss pre ss ure can be obta i ned is
.
by not us ing up the who l e available head H in producing the velocity 11 1 .
This i s i n no way a ffected by the particu l ar local method s whereby CB

change s into CD
—
.
re ac t io n t u rb in e of mod em construc ti on i s mad e on this

‘ ’
The so calted
p ri ncip le .
Thu s is le ss than V ogH 2

.
How much less i s quite arb i trary but it i s u s ual in practice and where H is , ,
—
to be di s po sed of in one s et of vanes to make v, about one half V a s this
2 2
, ,
gives the be s t all round e ffi c ie n cy

-
.
The proportion of energy remaining in the s team afte r i s s uing from the
guide passage s i s call e d by Profe s sor Rateau the D egree of R eact i on and i s
’
,
v2 ”1 2
d eno te d b y e usua ll y about 5 and th i s represen ts the proportion '
,
2
V
of the total energy that i s ava il able for u s e in the reactionary manner con
sid e re d in theorem V .
The D egree of Re action as above does not posse ss the importance for
‘ ’
the react i on s team t u rbine which i s invariably com pounded a s it does for the
, ,
water turbine and it need not therefore be specia ll y dwe l t u p on here

, , ,
.
The s imilarity that e x i s ts between t he respective velocity diagram s is due

to s omewhat d i fferent cau s es a s wi l l be seen in Chapte r I X,
.
S uppose CD i s equal to or less than CB I n either cas e as there is no .

,
incr e a s e of kinetic energy the who l e he ad H may be converted at once into

,
kinetic energy that is , V v

2 = 2
, .
I f v3 v2 there is no l os s by friction or s ide sp illing and if v3 < v2 there

is a more or less unneces s ary or unavoidable los s of some kind .
T hese co mlz tzon s o btain i n the mod ern im p u l se t u rb i n e

' '
The reader will now s ee that the se — ca ll ed reac tion turbine s tarting with ,
any initia l ve l ocity whatever i s r e a ll y a mixed t urb i ne and i s p art l y an impu l se

, ,
and partly a react i on turb ine S i nce the days of the Barker m i ll the term
.
has been corrupte d from i t s true mean i n g~—whatever be the d e fi n it io n — into

a mere name which however i t is co nvenient to adhere to s o lo ng as it is
, , ,
unde rstood what is meant by it .
To fi n d the work done

The change of momentum in a time t per W lbs of fl u id passi ng per .
14 T HE T H E O RY OF THE S E T A M T U RB I N E .
second -
a
2
where “
1,
a
2
AF, AG respect i vel y mea s ured
,
9
al gebrai call y .
This change of momentum is equival ent to a force F acting for a time t

.
Therefore
“
g
The space moved in a time i s t
( a1 , a
S,
2 )t Ft
and i s equal to
.
at . The work done

r
Therefore the w o rk d o ne per s econd
g e
w
,
a
, )
o r, the work done per lb = ( a 1

.
g a
2v ( a
W
a a
The d i ag ram e ffi c 1 e n c y i s
The effective pressure F on the vane s is requ i red to be known when

determin i ng their strength under bend i ng &c ,
.
F i s someti mes conveniently ascertained by referring to the hor s e power -
and the number of vanes i nvolved .
The cal cu l at i on is then a s foll ows : F or any grou p of movi n g vanes of

s i m il ar s i ze let the maximum horse p ower ( indicated ) ex p ected be H P Let
,
-
.
r be the mean radiu s of act i on in inches N the re volution s per m i nute and , ,
m the number of vanes in the group .
6 302 4 H P
Then the tw i sti n g moment m Pr inch l b s .
and P
is the tota l pressure o n o n e van e i n p ou n ds

P .
R evert i ng to the express i on ( 1 8 ) for the d i agram e ffi c ie n cy the reader may ,

2
s ay : the work p u t into the mach i ne is H and the w ork thrown away i s
g
;
1
2 V2 0
3 and th i s s hould be the same as
59
—4 ,
and therefore the e ffi c ie n c
y is
V 2 ,
N o w this is on l y true for the imp u l se turb i ne when the losses with i n the
vane passage s are zero i t i s not true for the reaction turbine in any case
, .
2
7,
I n the l atter case — the whol e of the energy thrown away as may
,
4 i
s n ot ,
29
appear at fi rst g l ance .
R eferring again to F ig 1 4 1e t u s exami n e the transformations more c l ose l y

.
, .
V1 ?
l st step At entrance the kinet i c energy put m i s
. I f the vanes cons i ste d 0
29
sim ply of fl at str i ps set at t h e inc li nat i on BE ( Fi g . and
rece i ved the s tream tangent i a ll y then ,
The w o rk done U U cos a

<l )/ by
’
( 4 )
’
v
g
f
v
)/
g
2
F U NDA M E N T A L . 15
being in the form of pre ss ure .
29
2n d step . S inceit doe s not matter in the lea s t except s o far a s in fl u e n c e d ,
by internal di s turbance s ho w when or where the pre ss ure and , , ,
velocity changes take place w ithin the vane pa ss age it only ,
remain s to consider the conditions at outlet from the pa s sage .
2 ?
V v
The re s idual pre ss ure energy 1 may or may not be a l l
29
converted into kinetic energy within the pa s sage .
I t is very possible in t h e si m p le ca s e of water turbine s that if

11
3
2
11
2
2
V 2
v
1
2
the wa s te a} wi l l become s o large a s to more
,
than nullify the anticipated b e n e fi t I n the ca s e of the s team .
turbine which i s invariab l y compounded 113 i s very much le ss

,
2
,
than v2? V2 v1 2 except in the la s t s tage ,

.
2
So t hat at thi s second s tep the energy availab l e is s impl y + the art ifi c ial
29
The work done is c (v a

2 )/
g
2 2 2
0 0 ?J
3 _ _
4
2g 29
The total work done i s therefore
an d the particular diagram e ffi c ie n c

y is
which may ea s ily be s hown to be equal to
2 a )
( )
?
1 8
The energy thrown away or avai l able for the next s tage in a compound
,
turbine i s ( V v1
,
2 2
although s o far a s the d i agram ,
it s elf is concerned the k in e t ic e n e rgy thrown away i s the remain i ng

’
, ,
29
re j ected energy being in the pres s ure form .
I n the simple water turbine if v1 ? ,

then the re j ected energy i s
1)
—
9 vl 2
4
as k i neti c energy and in the equivalen t pressure head .
29 2g
N o w i t may be sup p osed that an ab s olute maximum diagram e ffi c ie n cy is
alway s to be a i med at in practice W ith the compound steam turbine i n .
part i cular it wi l l be s hown that th is i s by no mean s the case The re s ult is .
The f ll owin g tw o paragrap h s m ay b e omi t ted u t il Chatte r I V

o n . u
p to p g 64 be ae read .
16 TH E T H E O RY OF T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
that we have what for conven i ence in re ference in the p re l iminary stage s of
,
the i nvest i gat i o n may be call ed a

,
M O D I F I E D P R I N C I P L E O F W O R K I N G — This pr i nciple .
is very im p ortant for a l though in i ts p ractical ap pl i cat i on spec i al deviation s

,
are require d i t i s by thi s pr i nc i p le al one that the size o f turb i n e s can be

,
made very small for the i r ou tp ut .
The work done has been shown to be proportiona l to

2 2
v 9
2 3
an d the diagram e ffi c ie n c y
I f now 1) the vane velocity be kep t constant while and 11 3 be varied and if V
be large ,
11
2
2
0
3
2 v
4
?
may be increased to the l i mit when V ( impu l se
turb i ne ) or to the l im i t when 11 1 2 ( 11 3 2 21 22) V 2 ( react i on turbine type 4 seq )
,
‘ ’
, .
T hat is the max i mum e ffi c ie n c y of a si n gle stage is atta i n ed when v 1 = V

, ,
or when + 213
2
v
2
2=
V no matter how s mall 1) i s com p ared w i th V
2
,
.
I t does not foll ow that th i s m aximu m e ffi c ie n cy i s al ways l arge On the .
v
contrary the s mal l er the rat i o
,
the sma l ler i s the maximum value the
V
val ue in fact var i es from zero to zero passing through unity , .
W i th i n workable ranges of speed i t w ill be seen that by accept i ng a low

abs o l ute or nett e ffi cie n c y the dimens i on s and speed of a turb i ne may be
brought very low .
This pr i nci p l e app l ied in compound or mu l ti s taged turbine s ( s ee p 6 4) -
effects the same result but in general a h i gher absol ute e ffi c ie n cy may be
,
demanded the greater the amount of com p ounding for the greater that
amount the more nearl y may ap p roach 1) an d the greater are the ind i vidual
,
d i agram e ffi c ie n c ie s .
The rea d e r is recommended to draw various hypothet i cal ve l oc i ty

d i agrams i n or d er to trace the var i ation s of e ffi c ie n c y
R AT I O O F A T U R B I N E — The rat i o 3 is an important factor in .
”
1
turbine de s ign and i ts pre per selection for var i ous type s and construct i ons
,
may be s a i d to be the crux of the des i gn .
The ratios from exam p l es in actua l serv i ce vary very cons i derabl y ( from
about as l ow as 1 to and hard l y appear to have sett l e d as cons tants even
i n the s ame type of turb i ne The reason is that the ratio is often s e l ected
.
by guess work a ls o by force of circumstances — such as br i n gi n g i n exi s t i n g

'
p atterns — and to s ome extent the best rat i o depends on the size of the
turb i ne I t may in fact be lower the larger the un i t
. .
The se l ect i on or d ev i ation of the ratio depends on the nett economy aimed
at ( not necessar il y a l ways a max i mum ) an d the p robab l e rat i o of the various
losses of energy ( l eakage etc etc ) to the avai l ab l e energy in fact on a
, .
, .
,
rather elaborate heat or energy bal ance sheet .
E xamp l es ill ustrat i ng the var i ous p o i nt s are g i ven in the ensu i ng chapters .
F or convenience in reference the ratio 3 w il l be termed the rat i o O i t h e

”
1
t u rb in e I t must not be confused w i th the degree of reaction ( page
.
‘ ’
wh i ch i s qu i te an uns u i table quant i ty in the cases at issue .

18 THE T H E O RY OF T HE S E T A M T U RB I N E .
imping i ng on the dead stea m of the same density with i n the vane s partial ,
adm i ssion is ofte n forced o n the d es i gner by prac t i cal cons i derations .
I n the water turb i ne the l o ss by shock of water on a i r is obv i ou sl y much

less than in the s team turb i ne where the s hock is between s team and s team
,
or ai r.
G enera ll y the disadvantages and advantages of the bes t form s of both

,
types are about equal in present con s tructions but there s eem s to be an ,
indication that the compounded impu l se turb i ne w i ll u l t i mately prove the

better type .
Th i s must not be taken a s i m pl ying that of com p et i n g forms the i mpuls e , ,
turb i ne w ill neces sar il y be the v i ctor The steam turb i ne i s young yet and .
,
the reaction turbine p os ses s es sub s tant i al advantage s that can not be ga i nsa i d .
FI G . 15 .
—Reac ti T rbi e
on u n . FIG . 16 .
-
I m pul se T urbi en .
Fi g s . 15 a n d 1 6 are d i agrammatic sketches of the two types ( s imp l e ) of

turbine . Se e a l so Fi gs 5 1 and 5 3
. .
Fi gs . axia l or p aral lel fl o w (Fr h é le

5 1 and 5 3 both show the ‘ ’ ‘ ’
.
‘
ooida l ) variety
’
I nward and outward radial fl o w s team turb i n e s have
.
rece i ved a certa i n amount of attenti on at i nventors han ds p art i cu l arl y in ’

,
the earli er per i ods of the h i story of the turbine but w i th the except i on of , ,
Parson s rad i al fl o w turbine F ig 1 1 5 they have n o t h i therto achieved com

’
, ,
.
m e rc ial succes s ; and even the Parson s var i ety has been abandoned ow i ng to
the mechanical s uper i or i ty of the p ara ll el fl o w ty p e .
A ttempts are never t he l e ss be i ng frequentl y made in this d i rectio n t he ,
shortness of the turb i ne being the tempt i ng e l ement but it i s earl y yet to ,
s tate that d e fi n it e mechan i cal succe s s ha s been ach i ev ed .
L i ke the perennia l revers i b l e turb i ne i t is o n e of t h ose th i ngs that l oo k s o

,
easy at fi rst gl ance but wh i ch become s more d iffi c ul t in prop ort i on to the
,
attention the problem receive s .

CHAPTE R I I .
X
H I ST O R I CA L N OT E S ON T U R BI N E S .
CO N TE N T S —I m pul se T urbi s —Early Re rds a

ne co nd Pate ts —Reac ti
n on T urbi es n .
I M P U LS E T U R B I N E S —As s tated in
onn ection wi th theorem s
. c
I and II in the preced i ng chapte r the plain impact wheel is not a true
,
turbine al though i t often happen s that turbine s work partl y under impact
,
condit i on s a s when throttled or when the vane s are inaccurately incl i ned
, , .
Th e p lain impact wheel ( Fi g 1 7 ) I S met with m practice i n the old undershot

.
waterwheel having radial paddle— boards .
As a method of obta i n i ng rotation thi s contrivance is probably older than

,
history but the impact s te 1 m wheel of B ranca (c 1 630) i s freque n tly stated
,
. .
to be the progenitor of the modern impulse s team turbine The B ranca wheel .
FIG . 17 .
—I mpac t Wa te rw h eel . FI G . 18 .
—l ilb w C m p u d
’
ro
'
s o o n
Impul se T urbi e n .
is however only a p l ain impact machine as i n Fi g 1 7 ; and althou gh the

, , , .
pres ence of the high gearing i nd i cates that the great veloc i ty of steam as
compared with that of water was a p preciated by the inventor the retent i on ,
of the rad i a l va n e s indicate s that the co n ditions of improved e ffi c ie n cy o ver

that of the ex i sti n g waterwheel were not apprec i ated The B ranca wheel .
,
therefore can ha rd l y be cons idered as the progen i to r of the imp u ls e ste am

,
turbine except perhaps in being prope lled by steam

,
.
S evera l other impact whee l s of precisely s im i lar charac te ristic s were as ,
usual s ubsequently t e—
,
inven t ed but the fi rs t i nte ll i gibl e impul s e steam
,
turbine of wh i ch there app ears to be any reco rd is that of Pilb ro w .
Pilb ro w s pate nt spe c ifi cat io n is N o 9 6 5 8 of 1 84 3

’
Th i s inventor s eems
. .
to have taken the trouble to learn s ometh i ng about the beha v iour of k i neti c
19
20 TH E T H E O RY T A M T U RB I N E
OF T H E S E .
H I S T OR I CA L N O T E S on T U RB I N E S . 21
s team and he deter m ined that to obtain the greates t e ffi c ie n cy hi s vanes would
,
have to move with a ve l ocity of about 1 2 50 fee t per s econd with s team of ,
60 lbs pre ss ure

. H is turbine although exhibiting many e rrors according to
.
,
o ur pre s ent light s not only introduced a revers ible motion but an intel l igible
, ,
sy s te m of compoun din g as well (on the p rinciple of type 2 page s 60 and ,
Thi s sy s tem of compounding i s as will be s een radically diff erent from that , ,
adopted in the Par s on s turbine but it i s the same as embodied in the Cu rtis ,
-
turb ine F ig 1 8 illu s trates one of Pilbro w s ideas

. .
’
.
N is a fi x e d nozzle direct i ng a s team j et on to the moving vane wheel A ,
rotatin g 111 the direction of the arrow Thi s wheel move s c omparatively .
s lowly s o that the s team is sue s from its van e passage s with it s kinetic energy
,
only partly absorb e d The steam i s then pass ed through the wheel B having
.
,
it s vane s moving in the Op po s ite direction And s imilarly through other .
wheels until the energy i s exhau s ted

, .
The next impulse turb i ne of note of which mention i s made in the patent
FI G 2 0 —Pe Co mpo un d I mpul se Turbi ne

’
. . rrigau l t s .
record s is that of Robert W il s on ( Pat N o 1 2 06 0 of On e arrangement . .
i s s hown in F ig 1 9 . .
Th e e ss ential difference between thi s and Pil b ro w s turbine is in the

’
prov is ion of proper increas e of area for the stream of steam as it dimi nis hes
its velocity I n Pilb ro w s t u rbine although the s tea m i s s upplied through a
.
’
,
n arrow nozzle and although there i s the whole circumferen c e of the w heel at
,
di s posal it i s ob viou s on ins pection that the s tream can only extend itself
, , ,
along the circumference fortu i to u s ly .
I n 1 8 65 a patent from F rench s ource s was fi le d ( B rookes fo r Pe rrigau lt ,
and others N o 949 of ,

de scribing s everal v arietie s and arrangements for
.
compounding t h e impul s e t urbine .
F ig 2 0 is typ i cal of the s e s ome w hat extraordin ary arrangements and it

.
,
will be s een that the pr i nciple i s the same a s in those described above .
The de s ign however i s bad compared with W ils on s and quite apa rt from
, ,
’
,
the practica l impos sib il ity of deriv ing any fu rther us eful effect by the adoption
of more than half a dozen s tage s the inventors evi dently did not reali s e the ,
fact that kinet i c energy i s much more eas il y lo s t by friction conden sation , ,
etc than i s recovered from any heat theoretically gained therefrom

.
,
.
22 T HE T H E O RY OF THE S E T A M T U RB I N E .
In 1 8 89 began the ser i es of i mportan t i n vent i o n s o f D r D e Laval d i rected ,
towards the sol ut i on of the prob l em of the s imp l e im p ulse turb i ne .
O ne of the d i st i nguish i ng features

of the D e Laval turbine is the more
proper l y formed expand i n g nozz l e ,
whereby the maximum k i net i c energy

is obta i ned from the s team he ad .
Fig 2 1 i ll us trates the pr i nc i pl e

.
involved .
The advent o f th i s turb i ne u n

doubtedly created an e p och i n the
h is tory of im p u l se s team turb i n es .
I n 1 8 95 ( Pat N o 25 6 5) M r S Z ( 10
. . . .
F erranti p atented further var i et i es o f

the compound ty p e previously noted ,
for use either w i th steam or w i th the

gas eou s product s of combu s t i on Fi g . .
2 2 represent s the general arrange

ment of one of hi s prop osa l s .
The arrangement s hown i n F ig 2 3 F I G 2 1 —D Laval S i m le I m ul se T urbine

.
e
’
p p 3
ha s al so been suggested for returning
. . .
the steam to the same whee l some

what in the manner proposed by W il son The i n vento r al so claims the .
u s e of s uperheated steam with turbines of thi s type .
FIG 2 2 —Ferran t i s Co mp oun d I m pu lse Ferran t i s Comp ound I mpul se

’
FI G 23
’
-
. . . .
urbi ne
T . T urbi ne .
I t i s als o interesting to note that a pecu li ar name is appl i ed to this

turb i ne which he calls an im p ac t re ac t io n e n g i ne
,
‘
r .
’
I n 1 8 9 6 M r D av i d Cook patented ( Pat N o 607 3) a p aral l el fl o w . .
turb i ne particular l y for u se w i th an intern al combustion arrangement .
This inventor appear s to be the fi rst to not overdo the compounding by

H I ST O R I CA L N O T ES ON TURBl NE S . 23
the method now being noted and he ,

remarks to s tage
co n fi n e s h is a t wo -
turbine He als o illu s trate s th i ckened vane s

. .
A fe w month s late r M r Cu rtis of N ew ,
Yo rk patented ( Pat N o 1 9 2 4 6 of 1 8 9 6 ) a . .
steam turbine of thi s typ e but the only ,
distingu i shing feature of the appli cation

appear s to be the rather elaborate explana
tion given in the sp e c ifi cat ion as to the
reason s on which the arrangements are
ba s ed The i ll us trat i on s of the turbine its elf
.
are either very crude or are to be regarded ,
a s mere l y diagrammatic .
S ince the above date further invention ,
F I G 2 4 —T urnaire s Turbi ne
. . o relat i ng to the type ha s been d i rected more
’
.
toward s a perfectionment of detai l whi ch ,
had h itherto appeared to have been regarded as quite a s ub s idiary mat ter ,
or ignored altogether .
B roadly s peaking there i s another method

, compounding the imp ul s e
2 5 —Real an d P ic h on s Com p oun d I m pac t W h eel

’
FI G . . .
turbine viz by adopting a s erie s of s i mple impul s e turbines working un der

, .
,
progres s ively decrea s ing head s of s team .
To u rn aire ( 1 8 5 3 ) i s frequently quoted a s the inventor of this method of

compounding Thi s may be true so far as the method i s applied to a turbine
.
24 THE T H EO R Y OF T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
as d e fi n e d Fi g 2 4 show s hi s proposed arrangement The fi rst s et of fi x e d

. . .
pas s age s A are in e ff ect nozzles that generate a velocity in the s team corre
, ,
—
s pe nd i ng to a certain drop of pressure l oss than the range ava il able jne t the
same in fact as the drop from h i gh pre ss ure to fi rst receiver pre s sure in the
, ,
F IG . 26
F I G S 2 6 an d 2 6A —M o ot h ouse s Comp ound Im pul se T urbin e

. .
’
.
ordinary compound s team engine Th i s velocity is uti l ised as completely as

.
po s sib l e in the fi rst s et of mov i ng vanes A si m il ar p roce s s occu rs i n t h e next

.
pair and s o on I n modern app l icat i ons of thi s princ i ple such as the Rateau
,
.
,
and Z o elly turbines for in s tance the number of s tages i s much greater than
,
To u rn aire propose d .
Th i s method of compounding wa s however s ugge s ted by Real and Pichon

, ,
26 THE T H EO RY OF T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
to the ad vent of the Pars on s turbine al though fe w of them appear to have ,
emerged from the s tage of suggestion o r at most the toy s tage , , ,

.
I n 1 7 84 J ame s W att pate n ted an i n genious combination of the princip l e

of the reciprocat i ng engine and the react i on turb i ne F ig 2 8 The case A is , . .
near l y fi lle d w i th s ome heavy l i quid such as oi l water or mercury S team i s

, , , .
sup li ed to the i nner rotat i ng ve s sel B which is divided by the p art i t i on 0

p , , ,
by the p i pe D E i s the exhaust p i p e . .
F F are two ports opposite one another ,
an d o p ening a l ternately to the port G

and the Open i n g II res p ective l y The .
s team al ternate l y d i s pl ace s the li qu i d i n

e i ther compartme n t by its p ressure ( not
veloc i ty ) and the rotation i s obtained by ,
reaction from the p orts L The liqu i d .
is returned to the i nn er chamber by

the va l ves M and the s team exhau s ted ,
.
D evice s i nvo l v i ng the propu l sion of

a heavy liqu i d i n order to re pl ace the
h i gh ve l oc i ty of the l i ghter fl u id have
received a con si derable amount of atten
t i on at inventors hand s They have ’
.
hitherto achieved no practical s ucce ss ,
FI G 2 9 — V on Rath n Si mpl e Reac tie

’
but
s
it is s tated that one important fi rm
. .
T urbi e n
has recent l yon
given the matter very
c l o s e attent i on with very promi si n g
.
result s F rom a theoretica l p oint of view the system i s bad but it may
.
,
prove usefu l in the deve l opment of an interna l combust i on turbine .
The turbine inve n ted by Von Rathen ( N o 1 1 8 00 of 1 8 4 7 ) i s of interest .

,
a s it introduce s an expand i ng cone for the s team d i scharge A lthou gh the .
expans i on g i ven by the cones there i l l ustrated is out of all proport i on to that
actua ll y requi red there i s neverthe l es s the germ of the idea subsequently
, ,
i ntroduced in more correct form

b yD r D e Laval for h i s i mpu ls e
turb i ne I n other respect s the
.
Vo n Rathen turbine i s merely

a comb i nation of four Barker
mi l ls . A s ectional view i s
shown in F ig 29 . .
R obert Wil son in the same ,
patent sp e c ifi c at ion referred to

above in connection with im F I G 3 0 —W il so n s Parallel Fl ow Comp u d ’
o n
pulse turbines a l so i nc l uded . .
, Reac t i o T urbi e n n
de s igns that are practicall y on
.
the same princ i p l e a s the present Parsons turbine 2 e compound reaction

'
, . . .
F igs 30 an d 3 1 show p arall el —fi ow and rad i al fl o w arran gement s respective l y

.
-
I t i s stated that the alternate rows of vanes may e i ther be fi x e d or o p pos itely
rotating Thi s i s also the e s sent i al feature of many subsequent i nvent i on s
. .
I n 1 88 3 ( Pat N o 1 6 55 ) D r D e Laval p atented a B arker m i ll arran gement

. .
,
in wh i ch considerable attent i on ( for about the fi rst t i me in history ) w as given

to practical working deta i l s Th i s turbine was insp i red princ i p ally by t he
.
requ i rement of a fast run n i ng mot o r for drivin g the cream s eparator with
which the name of D e Laval is indel i b l y a ss oc i ated .
H I S T O R I CA L N O T E S ON TU BIN
R ES .
27
F ig 32
.
i ll ustrates the general arrangeme n t of this t urbine which employ s ,
friction gearin g for obtain i ng a lower s peed of rotation for purposes of more
FI G . 31 .
— W il son s ’
adial
R Flow Com p oun d eac ti o T urbi ne
R n .
general application The unba l anced axial pressure provides the nece ss ary
.
pre ss ure for friction drive a is the reaction wheel or pipe .

.
FI G 3 2 . .
—De L aval s Si mpl e Reac ti o n Tu rbi ne
’
.
The curved p i pe arrangement of F ig 3 2 i s s ometimes known a s the .
S cotch Barker mil l

’
.
The next im p ortant invent i on w as that of the Hon C A Parson s N o . . .

, .
6 7 34 of 1 88 4 which i s de s cribed in Chapter V

,
.
CHAPTE R I I I .
T H E VE L O C IT Y O F S T E AM .
S —
CON T E NT : Th V el ci ty f S team —U resi s ted Fl w f Gases—T tal H ea t f S team
e o o n o o o o
x l es—Resisted Fl w E xam ples —S traight C verge t R u ded I let N zzle
E am p o
D i verge t N zzle—E xam ples —Ce tri fugal E ffec t f S team m i g i a Curved Path
-
, on n ,
or o n n o
—
-
n o n o ov n n
E xam pl es f ge eral T h e re m—Fu dame tal T h e ry f I m pul se T urbi es
o n o n n o o n .
T H E V E L O C I T Y O F S T E AM .
—The s ubj ect of thi s chapter i s the
con version of the potential energy of steam into k i netic energy or as i t , ,
may sometime s be conven i ent l y expre ss ed the transfer of pre ss ure into ,
‘ ’
‘
veloc i ty .
’
The e ffl u x of s team from orifi ce s ha s been the s ub j ect of a great deal of

experimenting an d the phenomenon of the c rit ieal drop of pressure
,
‘ ’
,
wh i ch will be explaine d further e m ap pear s to have created much myst ifi c at ion ,
in former years The late R obert N ap i er was probab l y the one who contr i
.
buted most in demonstrat i ng the general harmony between exper i ment and
theory Latterly Profe ss or B ateau s experiments have e s tab li shed a perfect
.
,
’
ident i ty with theory so far as mass dis charge goe s .
G eorge W ilson in 1 8 7 2 conducted a most extensive series of experiments

, ,
on the e fll ux of fl u id air water and s team from o rifi c e s The resu l ts of h i s

, , .
inve s tigat i ons appeared in a voluminous serie s of p apers publ i shed in

E ngi n eering vo l X III , W i l son did not ho wever appear to have come to any
. .
, ,
very d e fi n it e conclusions respecting hi s experiments but they certain l y arou s ed ,
an equal l y vo l uminou s amount of d i scuss i on .
W ith i n the las t few years the ex p eriment s of M r R ose nha i n Professor s ‘
Rateau D elap orte Stodo l a and others have contr i buted to a c l earer under
, , , ,
s tanding than was commonly avai l ab l e before and some of their re sul ts w il l ,
here be referred to i n further deta il .
I t i s questionable whether we real ly know anyth i ng at al l about the ’
internal mechani s m of transformation s of energy Th i s need not however .

, ,
deter u s from using theor i es which from a general point of view have received , ,
ex p erimental con fi rmat ion .
I n the author s op i n i on a complete s erie s of ex p eriments with nozz l e s

’
,
shaped as nearly theoreticall y correct as po ssi b l e for g i ven cond i tions (an d
there i s reall y on l y one s et of cond i t i ons per nozzle not a num ber ) is st ill ,
want i ng in order to determine their practical e ffi c ie n cy in term s of other

variab l es s uch e g as the s hape of the cross s ection
, , . .
, .
U N R E S I S T E D F L O W O F GA S E S — When an expans i on or .
compre ss ion of a gas take s place in a very s hort interval of time or suddenly ,
the proce ss cannot very well be other than adiabatic or analogou s to it because , ,
28
T HE V ELO CI T Y os S E T AM . 29
the wall s of the contain ing vess el have no time to tran s m i t h eat either one
way or the other B ut s udden as the proce ss may b e there i s always a certain
.
, ,
amount of re s istance s et up by friction on the wall s of the apparat us and

internally . The theoretical ca s e of unresi s ted expan s ion will however be , ,
fi rs t dealt with .
W hen a ga s expand s adiabatically it mu s t do s ome work a and if it i s

not allowed to do any external work it will do work upon it s elf * , .
A gain if a gas expanding adiabatical ly doe s work upon its elf without
,
Op po si tion t h e on l y possible form in

,
which t his can be manife s ted i s appar

ently in energy of mot i on .
The quantity of work involved i s

equal to what may be termed the
di fference of ad iabatic s tate s between
the higher and lower pre ss ures and ,
therefore the velocity acquired i s calc u FI G 3 3 " °
lable from a knowledge of tho s e s tate s .
Let F ig 33 repre s ent an apparatus of any kind in which ce rtain trans

.
formation s of the energy of the s team take place This apparatus may be .
a nozzle or an o rifi c e or the whole turbine its elf

,
.
Let the vari ou s conditions at A and B be respectively

pres s ures ( lb s per sq ft )
p l , p g, . . .
e c ifi c volume s cub t per lb )

v
1
v
2
sp (,
f ,
. . .
5
1
11
2
velocitie s ( feet per
, second
, )
I I 1 2 internal energie s ( foot lbs )
, ,
.
J is J oule s equivalent ; the value 7 7 8 ft lb s per B T U W ill be adopted

’
. . . . . .
Let the useful work done between A and B be E ( ft Then collecting .

,
u p the total energies at A and B and equating them we have ,
2 2
” ”
I —1
+ P 1 V1 = E I 2
é
2
whence (II +P1 1) V
( 2 2 2)
I + P V E 2
Th i s formula must be sim plifi e d and s uitable expre ss ion s s ub s tituted for ,
the i nternal energies i n order for it t o be practical l y app l icable Thi s is

,
.
easily done for the term

, is the ‘
t o t al h e at of t he ste a m .
’
The expre s sion negl ects the sp e c ifi c volume of the water from wh i ch the
s team is generated but this is a legitim ate omis si on s ince thi s quantity is
, , ,
in any turbin e problem relative l y very s mal l , .
Let h h be the s en s ible heat ( from 3 2 F ) s upplied for s aturated and

, ,
°
.
superhea ted conditions re s pectively

Let r 7 be the saturation and s uperheat temperature s ( ab s olute )
‘
, ,
respectively
Let Cp be the mean sp e c ifi c heat of superheated s team between s atura
t i on and s uperheat tem p erature s ( see Chapter X I I I ) .
and let H re p re s ent the total heat pre s ent and ,
L repres ent the latent heat of s team ( from 3 2 F ) ‘ ’ °

.
T h i s i s on ly on e of the ma y me th o d s o f prese n ti ng t he probl e m

n .
30 THE T H EO RY OF T H E S E T AM T U RB I N E .
Then for the three condit i ons we have

saturated ste am
( ) a Fo r d ry
H h L
e t steam
( )
b Fo r w
H h xL
where x is the dryne ss fract i on ‘

.
’
sup e rhe ate d ste am

( ) 0 For
H = h + L + Cp ( —77
) 8
(1) may now be abbreviated a s fo ll ows
J ( H1 H 2) = E + ( 5)
I f the formu l a b e ap p li ed to a nozzl e or eq u i val ent pas sage where the
ge n erat i on of k i net i c energy i s i ts o n l y fu n ct i on E i s n il ,
.
2 2
Therefore J(H 1 H2)
Or, to p roceed a step further s u pp ose , v

1
is s mall compared w i th 22
2 (as i s
often the case ) then ,
2
0
—J H H 2)
29 ( 1
I n any cas e i t i s s een that the ve l oc i ty produced is d i rec t l y dep en d ent on
,
the tota l heats present at the beg i nn i ng an d end of the transformat i on .
A s a rule H2 w ill not be known i mmed i ate l y and p robab l y on l y one of

, ,
the l ower condit i ons ( usu al l y pressure ) w il l be g i ven H2 must therefore be .
cal c ul ated by an app li cation of the ad i abat i c law which has not h i therto ,
appeared in the formu l ae *

.
When s aturated vapour s that have a negat i ve sp e c ifi c heat— as is the case

with steam at least for all pract i ca l range s of pressure— expand a di abaticall y
, , ,
the expan sion i s accompan ied by condensat i on or decreas e of drynes s fract i on .
Saturated vap ours havin g a p os i t i ve sp e c ifi c heat increa s e in dryness or

become s uperheated E ther i s an examp l e and with thi s vap our the con
.
,
densat i on take s p l ace with ad i abat i c comp ress i on .
I t is often neces s ary fi rst to fi n d the dryne ss x 2 after expan s ion .
Thi s is given by the foll owing equation T
for we t ste am
2
F or i nitiall y d ry satu rated ste am,
i vest igati
T he n f t h adiabatic e x pressi s i s
on o t gi ve here a d th read r i s
e on no n ,
n e e
ref rred t b k s
e o h at a d steam f th em Th ex pressi s required a th ref r
oo on
‘
e
’
n
‘ ’
or . e on re e o e
only st t d h re a e e .
1 H yp e rboli c L ogari thms

“
.
THE VE LO CI TY OF S E T AM . 31
Op log for in itially sup erheate d
steam expand ing to fi nally we t s team

Then H2 h2 x L
2 2
i s known ,
and if H1 H W
The velocity alon e may be obtained in a more direct manner by u s ing the
expression s for the work done during an adiabatic expan s ion instead of ,
performing the double ca l culat i on a s above .
W ork J ( H, H 2) ft . lb s .
7
J ( 7
1
7
2)
l 7
2
log 1 for initially d ry steam
or J ( “
r
1 7
)
2
1 —1—1 — 2 log 1 1
7 for we t steam
or J log 11 l og
-
i c, ( r, 7
1 ) 0, ( lo g 7 ,
7
1 ) 7
, ( 1 31
1
l
for ini tially sup erheated ste am expanding to fi n ally j u s t dry or wet s te am .
I f the s uperheated s te am i s s t ill s uperheated after the expans i on as is the ,
cas e when the temperature is high enough and the drop of press ure s mall ,
the above expre ss ion i s un s uitable .
F or th i s ca s e the work done i s

,
J { rl ‘
LI 7
1) 2 7 L2 Cm(r,2 '
and v = 2 23 8
\/
W as before .
If is constant Cp l
Op the value for which it has been cu s tomary to
,
:
as s ume to be 4 8 ( s ee Chapter X III for more probable value s ) . .
i s then calculable from the foll owing re l ation that exi s ts between the
var i ou s quantitie s
L
log 7 1 Cp ( log log 7 1 )
1
log 7
2
C, (log log 7
2 )
Since 1
1,,
-
L I,
and 01
are either g iven
7 or fouL2n d from the steam ,
tables ,
is read il y
obta i ned .
I f 01 be not constant for al l te mperature s and pres s ures as appears to be

, ,
rea ll y the case it i s necessa ry to kn ow the law of variat i on of C, be fore r ,

, s
can be ca l culated the expre ss ion of the law (ii it be si mple enough ) formi n g
,
‘
the seco nd equation .
E xpe riments made up to the present date have not reveal e d any s imp l e
law that hol d s for both vari ation of pre ssure and of temperature Recours e .
may however be had to a diagram s uch as B ( F olding Plate ) for as certain i ng

, ,
the probab l e value of

32 T HE T H EO RY OF T HE S E T AM T U R B I N E .
D i agram B is con s tructed to particular s given in Chapt e r X I I I and it i s u s ed .
for the present purpose a s follow s : p l 1 p 2 and 2 are g i ven to fi n d ,

7 , , T
Through B ( F ig 3 4) on the , absci ss a . r ,
draw B C paral l el to the local curved dia

gon als of the diagram cutting the absci ss a ,
in 0 Proceed s imilarly for 2 thu s obtain . T ,
in g E G D rop an ordinate from C cutting .
E G in D Then D i s at .
I t is now nece ss ary to kno w O and Cm p1 ,
de p end not on l y on the pres s ure but

on the value s of and
S i nce G i s not constant the ave age , ,
r
valu e of each mu s t be taken over their
re specti ve ranges 1 to an d
2
to 7 7
The s e values may be d etermined from

F ig 23 1 page 2 3 1 .
, .
S ome example s w i l l he l p to make the genera l procedure a l i ttl e c l earer .
E x amp le H ighly sup e rheated steam and a s ma ll drop of pre ss ure .
Let P1 1 8 0 l bs ab s olute .
°
7 81
5 00 F .
absolute 1 72 1 2 0 l bs .
The other quant i ties are obtai n ed from the s team tab l es .
F rom diagram B the vertical through 0 ( F ig 3 4) cuts the

, . 1 20 lb s s uper .
heat li ne E G at 4 2 0 F that i s
°
.
, ,
By F ig 2 3 1 Cp = 5 6 9 and C 2 = 5 5 6
.
, 1
°
p
.
Then
W { 7 1 L 1 Cp ( 1 ) T
2
L 1 " sl 7
{ 83 4 8 5 1 8 02
1 7 2 0}
3 7 2 BT U .
foot lb s .
o 2 23 8 J 37 2
'
:
1 36 4 feet p e r s ec o n d .
The correspondi n g value s for i nitia ll y dry saturated steam are

33 2 B T U .
25 800 foot l bs .
1 2 9 0 ft per s ec . . respective l y .
E x amp le We t steam . Let P 1 1 50 lb s absolute

.
P2
-
5 and L 2 = 901 6
4 9 2
{
86 1 6 819 5 -
'
x
‘
9 01 6 -
81 9 5
-
7 64
071 3} 87 ( bare )
-
34 T HE T H EO RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
The total loss of energy duri n g the tran s format i on i s the area aa h l of ,
which the area b a h is present in the form of heat and the actual ,
ki netic energy is that corresp onding to the d i fference of total heats

at a an d 7: i n stead of at a and b
1 .
The fi n al cond i t i o n of the s team w il l either be a s u p erheat cond i t i on k

Fi g 3 6 or a d ryer cond i tion (x Q) than b
.
,
a s at h Fig 35 '
, ,
. .
Thus if by exper i ment it i s found that the energy

,
e ffi c ie n cy of the nozz l e
s ay 90 per cent the area
,
.
,
f ghab 0k
'
9 f ghab
that i s
H1 H2
where H 2 i s the actual fi n al tota l heat
'
.
N ow the ch i ef use of the above is not to d eterm i ne what the l oss of

,
energy can be in a nozzle— that is out of the que s t i o n an d i s pure l y a matter ,
FI G . 36 .
of exper i ment— but knowi n g how much the loss is to determine what is the
, ,
actua l fi n al con d i t i on of the steam Therefore in ca s e s where the fi n al .

,
con d i tion is w i th i n the dry saturated l ine m n a s at Ir F ig 35 w e requ i re , , .

,
to know what x 2 i s instea d of $ 2 for the unre si sted fl o w and when the fi n al
’
condit i on 1 8 represented by the p o i nt k F 1 g 3 6 to know the temperature of , ,
the steam and the other quan t i t i es dep endent on that temperature
, .
F or the four particu l ar cas e s these determ i nat i ons may be generali sed
,
as foll ows :
Let m be the e x p e i im e n t ally d e t e 1 m in e d e n ergy e ffi c ie n cy of the nozz l e ,
(
2
that i s
'
L ) =
Then f or i ni tially wet steam ,
1 m 7
l —l + log
L2
( TI l l
7
2 ) m 2 1
L2
F or i n iti ally d ry ste am
put
THE V E LO CI T Y OF S E T AM . 35
F or i n i ti ally su p e rhe ated ste am where the fi n al condition is wet ,
7
7
1
LI r
, 7
1 ) log -
1
C, I log 3 ( 7)
1
F or i n i t ially sup e r heated steam where the fi n al condition i s s till s uper

heated ,
7
2 ) ( 1 m){ 1 '
1
LI cp l ( 7 s
'
7
)
2
log 7
1
I
CD1 log log 7 2 £ 2
Op 2 log
TI 7
2
I f in ( 1 8) be con s tant the expre ss ion and determina t ion i s much

GP ,
sim p lifi e d , and become s
FIG . 37 . FIG . 38 .
I n the above expression s x 2 are found from ( 8) and ( 1 5) if required , .
W ith ( 1 8) considerable d iffi cu lty i s presented to a s traightforward calcula

tion becau s e w e have C O C} a ll d i ff erent and depending 0 11
, pl, p s, , 7 8,
and re spectively and we do not know any s imple law of variation of Op

, .
The calculation i s however facilitated by the t e mp e rat ure e n t ropy

, ,
diagram B .
Oh thi s diagram ab s tracted in F ig s 3 7 and 3 8 are lines of constant total

, .
,
heat that i s the total heat of the s team at any temperature condit i on a l ong
,
any one l ine i s the same .
Thu s H1 passes through a

H2 b
H2
’
Is
N ow , H1
H 2 = m ( H1 H 2)
"
'
Therefore if we know the easily calcu lated value H2 and the nozzle
e ffi c ie n cy m w e can fi n d the line H
'
, Q
.
H 2 line cut s the s uperheat line 8 2 S2 i n K and thu s

'
is known ,
.
The actual velocity of the s team is now

i f 2 23 8 J HI H
'
,
36 T HE T H E O RY OF T H E S E T A M TU RBI N E .
The velocity and drop of energy may also be found ve ry approximate l y for
s uperh eated conditions by di agram A the proce ss for wh i ch i s de s cribed ,
ther e on .
I n practice with nozzle s or o rifi c es properly des i gned and well made a
, ,
velocity e ffi c ie n cy per cen t may be obta i ned with fair rel iability
. .
E xamp le f
o re sisted flow wi th sup e rheated steam
Let p, 1 80 l bs ab s olute .
°
7 31 5 00 F .
1 22 1 2 0 l bsab s o lute .
( ) — 8 8 b ex e rim e n t
!
2
v
m 7 y p o
2
0
9 40
F rom exampl e on page ,
3 2, v = 1 36 4
T herefore f
i 1 28 1
H H
'
2 23 8 J , 2
diagram B
By H1
Therefore E 2 1 234 8
The superheat li ne for a pressure 1 20 lbs inters ect s . H
'
2
= 1 234 8 '
at a
temperature of 43 0 or °
The hua l con di tion of the steam is thus determined .
C rit ic al p re s su re — A few mea s urements which are read i ly taken from

.
diagram A w i ll soon reveal the fact that the steam fl o wing through an
o rifi ce pre s ent s some pecu li arities wh i ch are almo s t a s confu s ing at fi rst
as they were to the experimenters of old .
I t w ill be found for examp l e that, ,
1 G iv e n a fi x e d u p p e r p re ss u re ( e g bo il er pressure ) there i s a certain

. . .
,
lower pres s ure at which the quant i ty d i scharged through a given

area of orifi c e reaches a maxi mum and that however much the , ,
final pres s ure be l owered below th is critical pre ss ure the q u antity ,
d i scharged doe s not materia ll y in crea s e *
2 I n a nozzle of any form the velocity —pre s u p po si ng steady flow —at

.
.
,
the most contracted area i s that due to th i s maxi mum d i scharge .
I t is a l so dependent on
( a) the fall from the i nitial pressure to the l ower critica l pre ss ure
( about 5 8101 ) when the fi n al p re ss ure i s less than be i ng
therefore i n d ep en d ent of the lo we r p res u re and s
( b) the fall from the initial pressure P 1 to the lower pre ss ure p 2
when 192 is greater than 581 91 be i ng therefore d ep en d en t on “
the lo wer p ressure .
3 .The pre ss ure in the throat or most contracted area of a s team j et for a
total dro p o f pres s ure to below 5 8 p 1 cannot be less than about 5 8 1 7 1
' ‘
( note th is i s for perfectly s teady fl o w) and therefore expan s ion to the

, ,
hmal pressure mu s t take p lace outs i de the o rifi c e .
The earli er exp erimenters ob s erved precise l y the same facts when the
conc l usions of a vast amount of experimental work were com p ared a great ,
deal of thi s work being devoted to con fi rm in g the apparent l y cur i ou s resu l ts
Observe that the l in e BC is a tangen t to the x Q ( quan t i ty ) curve at the cri ti cal pressure
( D iagram A) .
THE V E LO CI TY OF S E M T A . 37
of predece ssors and endeavou ring to s ee if there were not somethin g w rong
,
with them There is th u s ample experimen tal con fi rmat ion of the gene ral
.
Observan ce s .
The theoretical observ ations per diagram A or from direct calculation , ,
have been derived from s omewhat abs trus e formul ae and the general explana ,
tion may therefore be lo s t sight o i .
S uch an explanation i s a s follow s

Let Q be the quantity of s t eam passi ng per s econd in lb s .
p be the density of the s team in lbs per cub i t . . .
a be the area of s ection at any point in sq ft . .
v be the velocity of the s team in feet per s ec .
Then at any moment Q pav

I n the cas e of a non—
.
,
elas t ic fl u id p is cons tant therefore a i s inversely ,
proportional to v av being con s tant s o that for an increas ing velocity the
, , ,
passage will alway s be convergent .
B ut for a gas p varie s with the pressure and it will be found that p x 1)
, ,
increas e s at fi rst and reach i ng a maximum decrea s es (purely a matte r of

, , ,
steam tables and arithmetic) ; s o that the pass age will at fi rst be convergent
and then divergent .
The s ection at the mo s t contracted part of the pa ssage i s called the neck
or throat
‘
.
’
I t naturally follow s that the quantity di s charged is a function of the size

of the neck and p x a x v and not of anyth i ng beyond The pre ss ure there fore
,
.
as well as Q mus t always be the same at the neck for any given in i tial pres
s ure provided of co urs e that the drop equals or exceed s P 1 to 5 8191
, , , .
F or a perfect gas the p re s sure at the neck is about 5 2p 1 whatever the °
value of p , and for steam the value i s 011 an average about 5 813 1
,
.
The foll owing tab l e gives various values of the co e ffi c ie n t of p I
Co tte r ill Dry air

Su perh ea ted s team
Dry sa turat ed s tea m
M o i st steam
Dry sa turate d s team ( sa tura t i on )
n is the index in the adiabatic equation s and c is the ratio of p 2 p , at ,
ma x imum d is c harge .
The values given above for s team are approxi mate They al s o vary a .
little wi th the pres sure 5 8 may however be safe l y used for ordi n ary
.
, ,
satu rated s team in most turbine ca l cu l ations .
The equation for the ve l ocity at maximum discharge with the c ritical fall
of pressure is gi ven by
where n is the index in pv

"
co n stant .
38 THE T H EO RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
F or saturated steam w i th the average amount of moi s ture pre s en t d urin g

an expan s i o n starting dry 9 is usuall y g i ven for n
1
, ,
.
S i nce 217
72 21 i s constant , 11 i s proportional to /
p 1 1 1 wh i ch is very nearl y
s x
,
a constant
S e that it fol lows that whatever be the initial pre ss ure — 5 lbs 5 0 lb s or
.
,
.
,
.
,
2 00 lb s — the ve l oc i ty created as far a s the throat or by the critical drop of

.
pressure to 5 819 1 is a l ways about the s ame Thi s can be read il y checked from .
d i agram A and 1) will be found to on l y vary from about 1 2 5 0 feet per s econd
,
in the v i c i nity of 1 or 2 l bs ab s ol ute t o about 1 45 0 feet per second for 3 00 to

.
4 00 1bs p ressure
. I t w il l be observed that a condition of s teady fl o w has
.
‘ ’
frequentl y been mentio n ed B ut in the case of unsteady fl o w that i s where

.
, ,
there are v i olent osc ill ation s of p ressure within the nozz l e s uch as are noted ,
on page 40 the quantity discharged i s not great l y differe n t from that for
,
s teady fl o w .
The reader mu s t not confuse the forego i n g phenomenon with those that
take p l ace when there i s a g iv e n l o w e r p re ss u re and a varying upper
pressure I n these cases there is no l i mit to the discharge per un i t area
. .
I ndeed this i s obviou s without further argument than point i ng out that the
,
density of the steam at the throat i ncrease s w i th the pres s ure F rom .
R ose n hain s ex p eriments however there appear s to be a practical limit of

’
, ,
veloc ity probab l y vary i ng i nver s e l y as the l ower pres s ure and which when
, , ,
that pressure is atmosp heric i s about 3 1 00 feet p e r s econd I n thi s connection

, .
he pert i nently observe s that it i s probab l y more than a mere co i ncidence “
that the maximum speed attained in any of hi s experiments viz 3 1 60 feet p e r , .
s ec i s p ract i cal l y the s ame as that observed by Profe ss or B oys for the velocity
.
,
of a rifl e bu ll et .
I t must not be inferred that the practical l i m i ts of velocity obtainable by

dropping from the s ame higher pre ss ures to l ower pressure s than atmos p her i c
is the same val ue — 3 1 00 There does not appear to be any direct e x p e ri
.
mental evidence on this p oint but i t does not seem unreas onab l e to suppose ,
that a s imi l ar maximum velocity e ffi cie n cy of about 9 5 7 can be obtained with ,
nozzles properly shaped and di s charg i ng into lower (or higher) pre s sure s than
atmospher i c .
The fact that the practical velocity curve s ( F ig 4 7 ) run a pp re s i .
mate l y p aralle l to the theoret i ca l c u rve strengthens th is sup p osition .
This i s further con fi rme d by the good effi c i ency that is given by l ow ,
pressure turbines which work excl u si ve l y between 101 abou t atmospher i c

and p 2 l to 2 lb s abso l ute . .
I t has been stated that with a nozzle of the form best suited to the ,
part i cular cond i t i ons a veloc i ty e ffi cie n cy of 9 5 2 may be re l ied o n corre

, , ,
s o n d in g to a 1 0
p % loss of energy .
The reader s attent i on w il l now be drawn to some of the va l uabl e

’
experiment s of Professor S todo l a which ind i cate the probab l e source of ,
the greater part of th i s l arge los s although it must be admitted that ,
they do not ind i cate tangible arithmetical val ues for such losse s Profes s or .
S todola conducted a serie s of experiment s w i th nozzle s of di ff erent shapes

mounted in a s uitable manner on the end of a steam s upply p i p e and ,
with an exhau s t pipe beyond the nozzle w h i ch could be choked by a valve ,
s o that the b aclg press ure could be varied at wi ll Through the centre of .
the nozzle wa s a s mal l manometer tube (known as a Pitot with ‘

TH E V E LO CI T Y O F S EAT M . 39
perforation s so that by moving the tube a l on g the nozzle the pre ss ure co u ld
be gauged at var i ous p o i n t s .
I n s ome cases pressure gauge s ounding pipe s were als o let in at various
place s on the nozzle walls so t hat the pre ss ure could be meas ured both on the
,
co n fi n e s and in the interior of the stream passing through the nozz l e .
R eadi n gs were taken both with the holes in the manometer tube s quare
to the axis and inclined either w ay as s hown in F ig 40 a b and c
, , .
, ,
.
N at u rally b would be expected to give a h i gh read i ng a low and c

, , ,
doubtful under the circum s tance s of the very high velocitie s present E x
, .
FIO . 39 .
—Apparatus f or measur ng i Variati son of Pressure i N zzl es
n o .
prove however that there i s very little difference F or instance b

p e rim e n ts , ,
.
,
reads high about 5 inch of mercury for pres s ures i n the v i c i nity of an ord inary
vacuum ; t he error rise s to 4} inches for pre ss ure s of 2 or 3 atmo s phere s and ,
then decreas e s The perpendicular hole s 0 appear to give readings not very
.
far removed from the truth .
F u rt her the d i fference s of pre s sure between the outer and the inner
,
portion s of the s tream are practical ly nil with any nozzle of approximately
correct progres s ion of area s This latter ob s ervation i s very important as it
.
,
FI G . 40
.
show s that the strea m ( for a s traight

always co mp l e tely axis at fi lls the noz z le ,
any rate ) and that there is littl e or no zonal format i on that i s an outer
, ,
zone moving at a d i fferent ve l ocity to the inner zone if the nozzle doe s not ,
happen to be quite the right s hape for the given expansion or drop of pressure ,
although there i s naturally a certain amount of frictiona l drag ging of the

s team at the su rface The above doe s not hold for absurdly divergent nozzl es
.
,
such as F ig 2 9 for in s tance I n s uch cases the s tream doe s detach its elf from
. .
the walls and apparently with much loss of energy

,
.
The next important observation of Profe ss or S todola w as that with any ,
nozzle the pre ss ure fall s — with a fe w exceptions — in the vic i n i ty of the throat
, ,
or it s equivalent to a pressure con s iderab l y below the outlet pre ss ure there
, ,
being a s udden ri s e of pres s ure immed i ate l y after the fall .

40 THE T H E O RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
Fi gs 4 1 42 43 are typ i cal curve s of press u re obtained with various forms

.
, ,
of nozzl es .
I t i s perh ap s un a t p i t t th a t all t h variati

n ece ss s o f pressure as sh w ab ve
o o n ou e on o n o
a e r t t h e sam e
no r t f t i g that ccurs w he a s t am e gi e indica to r fl tuat by
so o n o n e -
n n uc es
w rki g a t a h igh s peed W i th th i dicat r they a m s tly i f t e tirely s pri g
o n . e n o re o ,
no n ,
n
oscil lati s b t wi th t h
on ,
u zzles th ey a true variati s f pressure as measur d by t h
e no re on o ,
e e
m vabl e ma me t r tube t Refer al s t t h au th r s e x pe i me ts d esc i bed furth r

’
o no e ,
e c. o o e o r n r e on
These particu l ar ex p eriments s how that in general a s t rai g ht a , , ,
c o nv e rg e nt or a s t rai g ht ro u n d e d in l e t
,
n o z z l e a s udden drop to be l ow the lower p res s ure

,
occur s the max i mum dep res s ion p rogre s s i ng al o n g

,
the nozz l e as the lower pres s ure decreases O sc i ll a .
t i on s are s et u p in prop o rt i on to the depression and ,
extend for about o n e and a hal f times the length of

the nozz l e beyond it into the exhaust sp ace .
A pparentl y the depress i on tends to a m i nimum ,
w i th a s mall d i ff ere nce between outlet and i n l et

pressures and a l so w ith a large difference of
,
2
in as .
FIG . 41 . FI G . 42 .
pre ss ures when the l ower pressure approache s a perfect vacuum but the
depression and osc i llat i on s are at a max i mum in the m i dd l e ranges .
F or a d i v e rg e n t n o z z l e ( within such l i m i t i ng forms as do not encroach

on other s ) there a pp ear to b e i n general no interna l o s c ill at i o n s of pres s ure
, , ,
after those created at the neck have d i ed ou t I f the lower pre ss ure i s be l ow .
that for p rop er expansion within the nozz l e osci ll at i ons are s et up in the ,
exhau s t space .
42 T HE T H E O RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
The re action of the escaping j et ( as i n theorem V ) on t he nozz l e and the .
quant i ty d i scharged were measur e d the veloc i ty be i ng deduced therefrom ,

.
Fi g 45 i s a diagrammat i c sketch of the ap p aratus used for measurin g the

.
react i on F or meas uring the di s charge a co l lecting ves sel was p l aced around
.
the nozzle ( Fi g and the wate r meas ured after conden sation in a s urface
.
con denser .
The s e method s involved s ep arate experimen t s for each set of meas urements ,
but great care being taken i n each case by tak i ng the reaction re adings ,
with a graduall y risin g boiler pres s ure over a p er i od of many hou rs for each
test the s our ce of error and d is crep ancy must have been extreme l y smal l
,
.
The fo l lowi n g nozzle s were us e d
T A B LE I .
Die . O ut l e t
M ark . Desc ri pti on . Sec t i on . N eck . Orifi c e . Ta per .
Ins . I ns .
I H ol e i n th i n plate
11 Con vergen t —diverge n t no zzl e 2 87 1 in 2 0
HA Th e c verge t part A B
on n 1 86 6
The di verge t part B C 1 849 2 87 l in 2 0

‘ °
n
D ivergi g zzl e sli ghtly rou ded

n no n
“
1 82 2 3 68 1 in 1 2
i le t a d large taper
n n
D sh r t e d
o. o en
D o . d sh rte ed
o. o n
D ivergi g zzl e ; slightly r u ded

n no o n
i let a d small taper
n n
D sh r t ed
o. o en
Do d
. sh r t e e d
o . o n
I VC D o. d d sh rte ed
o. o. o n
I VD D o. d d o d . sh rte ed
o. o. o n
A s appl i ed to the turbine the ve l ocity results are of the greatest interest
, ,
for the velocity repre s ents the kinet i c energy p ossessed by the j et and it is ,
a matter of secon d ary cons i derat i on how large the nozz l e shal l be ( with i n
l imits ) to pass a g i ven quan t i ty of steam as the variat i on in si ze requ i re d i s ,
too small to a ffect the general s i ze of the turb i ne .
T he Veloci ty cur ve i s therefore an effi c ien cy cu rve of the n oz z le as a p rod u ce r

f
o kine ti c ene rgy .
F ig 47 shows
. the velocitie s obtained with the various nozzles working
under progre ss ive head s of pre ss ure the s team e s caping in each eas e into the ,
atmo sp here .
T HE V E LO CI T Y 0 11 S E T AM . 43
Curve I I for examp l e gives the velocity obtainable with nozzle

, , from 11
initial steam pressures ( gauge pressures ) varying from 40 to 2 00 lbs ; the .
velocity with t he drop 1 8 0 to 0 being therefo re 2 8 5 0 feet per s econd Curve .
a a give s t he the o ret i cal ve l ocity ob tainable with a perfect nozzle a s given by ,
diagram A or by ca l culation .
The velocity e ffi c ie n cy of nozzle II at 1 80 lb s pressure i s for example .
cd
_
9 2 9 and the energy e ffi c ie n c y is 8 6 2 1 3 8 per cent being there , .
cd
fore lo s t .
Considering the great variation in the form of the nozzle s and the great
variati o n of stea m pressure ( o r in other words the great range of de parture of , ,
the pressure s from the proper pres s ure of the nozz l e whatever it happe n s to ,
be in each part icular case ) the s mal l variation existing between s ome of the
,
F1 G . 4 5 —R 0
.
sc n hai n
’
s eac t i on
R FIG . 46 .
—Rose n hain s D i sc h arge
’
A ppara tus . A pparatus .
re s ults i s very remarkable indeed i t almost amount s to a licen s e for careles s ,
design B ut even this app l ie s only within reasonable limit s for none of M r
.
,
Ro se n hain s nozzle s approach s ome of the gro ss form s u s ed by D r Stodola

’
.
The following ma i n deduction s s hould be noted

Up to about 80 lbs pre ss ure per square inch discharging into the atmo
.
s phere the mos t e fii c ie n t form of n ozzle appears to be the o rifi c e in a thin

,
‘
p l ate.
’
Th i s does not however imply that it is the be s t nozz l e for a turb i ne
, ,
under s im i lar condit i on s of pre s sure W ith this kind of o rifi c e the spreadin g .
i s too great and the internal eddies and whirls too violent for u s e fu l
,
appl i cat i on the e ffi c ie n cy i s good s o far as the nozzle its e l f is concerned ,
but beyond the nozzle where the j et would be applied to th e turb i ne

,
vanes the j et is by no mean s in its best form for do i ng u seful work The
,
.
‘
o rifi c e in a thin plate would therefore appear to be more app l icable to
’
reaction turbine s of the B arker mil l type t han to other for m s -

.
A large roun ded inlet ( 1 1 ) ap p ears to choke up the nozzle a li ttle it give s
maximum di s charge but at the expen s e of kinetic energy that i s of the kin etic
, , ,
44 T HE T H EO RY OF T HE S E T AM U BINE
T R .
3 2 00
8 000
2 8 00
2 6 00
2 0 00
16 00
[4 0 0
I2 00
10 0 0
60 80 1 00 12 0 [4 0 16 0 [8 0 200
L b s p er sq
. . i c h b il r pressure
n o e .
FIG . 47 .
-
R ose n h ain s N zzl e E x peri me ts
’
o n .
THE VE LO CI T Y OF S E T AM . 45
energy effective in an axia l direction This result i s intere s ting when compared .
w i th Ba teau s exper i mental results W i thout th i s and S to d ola s investigation s

’
.
’
it would appear p ri ma f aci e that the e ffi c ie n cy of convergent nozzles is unity

, , ,
according to Rateau .
The greate s t e ffi c ie n cy appears to be obtain ed when the nozzle s lightly

u n d e r e x p an d s
-
and the l os s of energy increas e s rapidly w i th over
,
e x p an s1 on .
Too long a taper for the higher pre ss ure nozzle s i s detr i mental as i s also ,
too s hort a taper Mr R o s enhain considers I in 1 0 o r I in 1 2 the best ratio

.
, , .
The D e Laval nozz l e s however have a s omewhat le ss taper than thi s — about
, ,
1 in 20 .
The inlet end of the nozzle s hould not have a large rad i u s of curvature
(as in II ) but reviewing the condition s in the l ight of Profe ss or S tod o la s
’
,
experiments as wel l it appears that a small round i ng oti i s ,

-
'
advantageo us as recovery from the init i al s hock take s place

,
more rap i dly .
I t a l so appears that a s hort convergent taper between

the rounding o fi and the throat would conduce to a q u ie s
’
-
cent fl o w .
I n any cas e however it is s een that with a nozzle that

, ,
is reasonab l y correct in shape and that i s not expected to ,
work w i th pres s ures for which it i s entirely un s u i table an ,
e ffi c ie n c
y ( velocity ) of 9 5 % may be relied o n Thi s applie s .
to nozzle s of c i rcular cross s ection -

.
Undo u bted l y t he e ffi c ie n c y i s a little lower for s quare

or rectangular nozz l es on account of the natural intern al ,
in s tabi l ity of the j et .
An appendage to a circular nozzle to change the circular ,
j et into a square or rectan gular j et also involve s a lo ss of ,
e ffi c ie n cy rarely les s than another 3 per cent

, ( velocity ) .
,
and may often amount to 1 0 or 1 5 per cent according to

—
,
.
the way it is made its continu i ty and the condition of the F Ra teau 8
'
I G 4 8 .
s u rface s .
,
N zz l e Apparatus
,
o .
The s e are m atters for which there i s ample sc e p e for

future experimenters who are not under the re s tra i nt of private manufact u rin g
enterprise .
Profe ss or Rateau ha s made a number of experiments practically in two ,
s e rie s and in a s imil ar directio n .
I n one s erie s in s tead of mea s ur i ng the reaction of the nozzle the energy
, ,
of the j et after emergence was mea s ured by mean s of a double U vane mounted -
on a balance F ig 48 , . .
The velocity i s calculated by the formu l a P

I f there i s no frictional
( 1 2
v 5 co s 6 ( theorem II I
)
g
or other l ss on the vanes e 1) v
.
2
.
Rateau ass u mes the loss in the vane s to be very s m all and he gets a ,
com bine d efi c ie n c y of abou t

( veloc i ty ) or 907 ( energy ) , >
.
The s e experiment s certainly co n fi rm the reliability of the 9 5 Z e s timate

‘
.
>
before mentioned .
The e ffi c ie n cy of a vane however varie s con s iderably according to its , ,
rad i us e t c W i th the be s t rad i us commen s u rate with the s ize of the j et

, .
,
.
9 8 7 vane e ffi c ie n c y ( velocity ) can be obtained thu s leaving about 9 6 7 for

° , °
the nozzle in the above experiments .

46 T HE T H E O RY OF T H E S E T AM T U R B I N E .
B ateau s other series of ex p eriments was d i rected t o accurate ]y measuring

’
the quant i ty di scharged throu gh c o nv e rg e nt nozz l es The mod u s .
Op e r an d i of the exper i ment s d i ff ers from that of Rosenhain and other s in ,
that Rateau used an e j ector condenser and mea s ured the rate etc of the , , .
discharge of the total water and the temperature s of the i nlet and outlet ,
steam and water H e was thu s enab l ed to take a large number of readings
.
very rap i d l y and he co n s i ders that th i s feature pre s ents an advantage over
,
other methods s ince the d iffi c u l ty of keeping the cond i t i on s s teady is

,
e li mi n ated .
F or a ran ge of pressure s from 1 4 to 1 7 06 l b s press ure the d i fference .

,
bet ween the actua l an d theoret i cal d i scharge ( for steady unre si sted fl o w ) d oes
n o t amount to more than about 2 per cen t a s a max i mum The mean . .
d i scharge i s 07 per cent in ex ce ss of the theoretica l d i scharge and the e x p e ri

.
,
menter attr i butes th i s to a pos si ble fl u c t u at io n of the thermometer zero s .
N e ve rt he le ss Rose n hain s howed that the l arge r o unded i n l et such as that in

, ,
B ateau s nozz l es tended to pa s s a maximu m of steam

’
, .
Rateau g i ves a very useful formu l a for ca l cu l ati n g the e x p e c t e d

m ax im u m d is c h arg e per unit area from nozzl es As has been s tated in .
con nect i on with Ros e n hain s exp er i me n ts the shape of the c o n vergent p art
’
,
does not matter very much except that a l arge roun d ed in l e t a s 1 1 tends
, , ,
to g i ve a max i mum d i scharge Al so as before i t does not matter much so .

, , ,
far as the quant i ty d i scharged is concerned whether there i s a divergent ,
a pp e ndage or not the area of the throat being the princ i pa l d eterm i n i ng
,
factor.
Al l the following formu l ae ap p l y to initi al l y d ry s atu rat e d s t e am .
I be the maximum discharge i n grams per cm 2 per second .

,
D l bs per sq inch per secon d . . .
PI be the ab s ol ute in l et pre ss ure i n K g s per cm 2

. .
,
27 1 l bs per sq inch . . .
Then I = P1 9 6 l og P1 ) units ) ( )
2 1
or D =
p1
'
001 3 6 log P1 ) ( E ngli s h units) ( 2 2)

The l ogarithm s are ordinary logarithms I t goe s w i thout say i ng that .
the lower pressure w hich does not appear in the formul ae is e i ther equa l to
or below the crit i cal pressure
E x amp le Let P 1 1 65 lb s per. sq . inch ab s olute .
T hen D = 1 65 ‘
001 3 6 x
1 65 x ‘
01 4 03
lbs per s econd per . sq . i nch of thre at
or 8 3 3 0 lb s per hour .
This wi ll be fou n d to be about that given by d i agram A .
G rasho f s emp i r i ca l formu l a for max i mum d i scharge approximating very

’
clo s e l y to the theoret i ca l d i scharge i s ,
I = 1 5 2 6 P1 9 696 '
or D 0 1 6 5 419 1 9 69 6 ( E ngli sh )
THE V ELO CI TY OF S E T AM . 47
E x amp le Let p l = 1 6 5 lb s per . sq . inch ab s olute .
Then log D = log 01 6 5 4‘
96 9 6 ‘
log 1 65
22 1 8 5 3 6 969 6 x 2 2 1 7 4 8 4
'
3 6 8 6 08
‘
2 3 3 7 lb s per s econd per sq inch of thr e at

. .
or 84 2 0 lbs per hour pe r sq inch of thre at

. . .
Thi s value i s a little higher than given by diagram A .
N ap ie r s very s imple formula for maximum di s charge

’
, y accurate
su ffi c ie n t l
many purpo s e s i s ,
D
70
E x amp le Let p , 1 65 lb s per sq inch absolute
. . .
Then D 2 3 5 lb s per s econd per sq inch of thr e at

. .
or 846 0 lb s per hour per sq inch of thr e at

. . .
F or pre s sure drop s le s s than the critical the quantity di s charged m ay be

found by mean s of ( 1 0) applied to the expre ssi on Q = ap2v F or app ro x i .
mate ca l culat i on s the rather cumbersome thermodynamic formula may be

,
s imp lifi e d a s follow s
R eferring to F ig 3 5 the work done during expan s ion i s represented by

.
,
the area fg ab for unres i sted expan s ion or by m (fgab) for re s isted ex ,
p an sio n. F or smal l difference of pre ss ure gf is practically a s tra i ght line ,
and therefore the area

fgab 2 ) or t )
2
T
where L and ,
7m are the mean l atent heat and ab s ol ute temperature
re s pective l y .
Therefore ( 1 72
2
2n r
( )
26
S ince r m i s roughly equal to J ( probably a little le ss in the ma j ority of

ca s e s ) w e may put a s a fi rst approx i mation
,
5
2
2gm ( t 1 —t2)L 2 ( 7)
2
L , being t aken in s tead of L I or L partly to compen s ate for the p robab l e ",
d e fi c ie n c y in rm ( 2 3 ) i s very approximate l y true for any drop of pressure not

.
exceeding the critical s ince the l i ne gf i s on l y sl ight l y curved but for large ,
drop s of pres s ure the va l ue of s hould be taken into account .
E x amp le Let P 1 = 1 6 5 ab s olute a s before ,
pz 1 45
Then by ( 2 3 ) and with
, m= 1
2
11 : 6 44 x 7 7 8 x ( 3 6 6 3 5 6 ) x
hence v :
7 2 3 feet per s econd
Q = a 1)
p2 3 1 x 723
23 20 lb s per sq feet per s econd
. .
or 1 6 1 lb s per sq inch per s econd

. . .
The formul ae for d is c h arg e o f s u p e rh e at e d s t e am are not qu ite s o

amenable to empiricism or s impl i fi cation s o that it i s s implest to u se the ,
fundamental formul ae direct ( 9 ) to ( 1 5) according to circum s tance s ) a ,
pa rtial examp l e of which i s already g i ven on page 3 2 .
The velocity generated from s uperheated s team with a given pres s ure
head i s greater than that generated from dry s aturated s team the fi nal con
48 T HE T H E O RY OF T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
dit i on of the former i s dryer than t h e latter ; s o that in genera l great l y

d i fferent di scharges are not to be expected .
E x amp le S up erhea ted S team —pl 1 80 l b s ab s olute . .
°
7 8
1
5 00 F .
p, 1 2 0 l bs . absolute .
By diagram B, and formula on page 2 3 2,

2
v cubic feet per lb .
Therefore Q 1 36 4 (p .
33 2 l b s per sq fe e t per second

. . .
41 1 5
D ry S atu ra ted S team .
—
pl = 1 80 lb s absol ute .
192 1 20 lb s abso l ute .
x v
2 2
°
974 X
1 290
358 l b s per . sq . fe e t per second .
3 6
.
R ateau a l so g i ves e m p i rical formu l ae for ca l culating the theoretical con

sum p t i on of steam p e r horse power per hour on a bas i s of the up per and
-
l ower pressures an d a di abatic expans i on and for the ve l oc i ty theoretica ll y ,
obtainab l e for a g i ven drop of pres s ure .
Let K be the theoret i ca l consumption in k il o grams per cheval per hour ,
or C be the theoretical consumption in l bs p e r h o rse —power p e r hour . .
Let PI P2 and p l 102 be the upper an d l ower pressures in C G S and

, , . . .
E n g li sh un i ts respect i ve l y .
l o g PI l og P2
l og p l log 19 2
(ord i nary l ogar i thms ) .
E x amp le Let P 1 1 6 5 lb s ab s o l ut e .
102 3 lbs abso l ute . .
l og 1 6 5
Then C = 1 85 +
l og 1 6 5 —l og 3
1 7 4 03
-
1 85-
75 6
lbs per H P per hou r. . . .
This is the consumpt i on a theoret i cally p erfect s team e n g i ne or turbi n e

wou l d requ i re when work i n g with steam i n i t i all y dry saturate d at 1 6 5 l bs .
abs o l ute an d exhaust i ng at 3 l bs absolute pressure . .
The formu l a for obtaining the vel ocity of s team for a g i ven d rop is as
fo ll ows 1
Let V be the velocity in metre s per second
’
or V in feet per s econd .
Then V
’
1 00
or V 3 28
E x amp le Let C l bs per . H P hr. . .

( theoret i ca l ) .
Then V 32
36 7 0 feet p er s econd .
50 T HE T H EO R Y O F T HE S E T A M T U RB I N E .
Various writers appear to concur in the v i ew that the be s t form of the

divergent part of a nozz l e i s for it to be s lightly concave indeed as far a s ,
the uti l ity of the emergent j et is concerned this is obvious if an approach to , ,
paral leli s m i s de si red The po i nt referred to however is the attainment of a

.
, ,
maxi mum kinetic energy for the drop .
Parenty deduce s that the curve should be part of an el l ipse with the focus ,
in the thre at .
The length i s generally great enough for the e l liptic curve to be

approximated without cal cu l ations w hich are neces s arily complicated and, ,
W hich wou l d s erve l i ttl e useful pur p os e e sp ecially a s it i s not by any m eans ,
an ea sy matter to make a ho ll ow nozz l e even when of c i rcular cross—section , .
The d iffi cu lty is not les s ened if a s qu are or rectangular cro ss s ect i on i s -
adopted N e i ther i s it an easy matter to make the throat area outlet area
.
, ,
and proper concavity perfect l y rel ated and with cont i nuous and equal l ongi ,
t u din al s moothne ss S uch work can be done but the question of co s t is

.
,
important .
I n the previou s chapter it was ob s erved that head was a convenient ‘ ’
exp re ss ion for many purpose s I n the case of water the head in feet that
.
,
will produce a given p ressure or create a given velocity i s a magnitude that

is readily apprec i able and ha s a con crete a s pect I n the ca s e of steam it i s .
obviou sl y not so .
2
I n the equation
s uppos e v = 9 000 ft . per second

4 000 000
6 2 5 00 ft .
64
C E N T R I F U G A L E F F E C T O F S T E AM M O V I N G I N A
C U R V E D P AT H — I i the s team is perfect l y dry when travers i ng a curved
.
path the approximate pressure at any zon e of the s tream i s cal cu l ab l e B ut

, .
i f any water i s pre s ent it is pract i call y i mpossi bl e to obtain data for making
,
a cal c ul ation of any value or that w ill give re sul t s in accordance with
,
observat i on
The water has a habit— ii we may u se the term — o i collecting in s trings
.
and may or m ay not s pread over the who l e w i dth of the curved s urface of the
vane or bucket .
The posi t i on of these s tring s i s not at all s table an d with an apparently , ,
steady pre ss ure they take up fi rst one position and then another
,
.
The greate s t tendency i s neverthe l ess to s pread out over the whol e of the
, ,
c u rye d s urface and to c li mb the si de walls ( or s hrouding ) in the man n er

, ,
s hown in F ig 8 . .
The s preading out is a matter that takes time an d i s dependent upon ,
where the water s trings happe n to be l ocated w i th i n the stream at it s d is

charge from the nozz l e .
W ith rectangular nozzle s there ap pear s to be a tendency for the water to

collect in the corners .
When water i s p re s ent the pres s ure on the concave or dr i ving s urface
of the vane i s invar i ably greater than when there i s no wa t er— as may be
expected .
The actual e ffect i s m od ifi e d by the presence of wave s in the stream

T HE V ELO CI T Y T AM
OF S E . 51
F
( sig . 41 , 4 2 , These waves are s ometimes damped a littl e by the s tream
being forced into a ne w path but they neverthe l es s rema i n of a p preciab l e
,
ampl i tude right through the vane passage s or ,
at lea s t nearl y as far a s they would in the u n

d e fl e c t e d s tream d i scharged from the nozzle .
The exi stence of a centrifugal effect t e

quires the cond i tion that the s tream l ines
s hall be more or l e ss concentric that is the ,
y s tream mu s t be conceived to be a port ion

of a cylindrical volume of ga s rotating with
a certa i n angul ar velocity .
I f the s tream l ines are all of equal curva

ture there can be no centrifugal e ffect
, .
The centrifugal condition as it may be ,

’
te rmed i s not a s a ru le produced with i n a

,
turbine vane pa s sage without a considerab l e

di s turbance within the s tream The various .
points are d is cussed further in Chapter s VI .

,
V III and I X and p re ss ure variat i on s are

.
, .
,
i l lus t rated in F ig s 3 7 2 and 3 7 6 . .
T H E O R E M V I — Let F ig 49 rep re s ent . .
an annular s tream of ga s rotating with a

con s tant angular velocity ( 11.
Let p be the density of the ga s when not

rotating and let W be the total weight of,
the annular vol ume ( I n the case of the .
volume between two vanes a s in F ig 4 9A ,

.
,
W i s the weight of the complete annular

F I G S 49 and 49 A
.
volume The fact of the s team pa ssi ng in
. .
at one end and out of the other doe s not

affect the matter and may s imply be regarded as a mechanical way of
,
effecting the rotation ) .
k = p
p
Then at any point A mea s uring from the pl ane XY
dp = p x d
and by integration
p Cc
where C i s a constant .
F urther ,
whence by integration
52 T HE T H E O RY OF T HE S E T A M T U RB I N E .
E x amp le Let r
,
inch 0 27 7 feet
r2 1 i nch = 0208 3 feet °
h 1 inch 0 833 feet

p = 1 00 lb s ab s o l ute x 1 44 ( l bs per sq
. . . ft .
)
ve l ocity of s team 1 000 feet per se e .
k _
_
p
_
1 00 x l 4 4
x 1 0,
W 7r 7
(
'
1
2 x hp
x °
0003335 x 0 833 x 2 2 77
1 9 85 x
find 0 from ( 2)
W x 32 2 x 6 3 26 x 1
10 4
x x 33 335 x 10 "
0 17
e 644 x 6 326 x-
1 04
°
0833
8
6 3 2 6 x 1 04
1 39
°
x 10
1 0 ( 1 1 49x
‘
3 °
x
1 4 78 x 1 0 9 “
—5
1 9 85 X 1 °
Then 0 1 3 4 30 -
1 4 78 x
find p at any desired zone from
29 71:
I n thi s expression any value of 2 from 0 to It may be neglected a s it ha s no ,
appreciable effect h mu s t not however be neg l ected in

.
, ,
= 1 3430
p
x 1 1 49 -
1 5 43 0 lb s p e r sq ft . . .
or l bs per sq inch abso l ute . . .
2
7 Therefore
.
= C = 1 3 4 3 0 lbs per s
p q ft . . .
or 93 4 l bs per sq i nch . . .
Thu s the rotary motion cau s e s the pre ss ure to ri s e lbs at the oute
.
zone and to fa ll 6 6 l bs at the inner zone

, . .
I ntermed i ate pressure s may be found s imi l arly .

THE V E LO CI T Y OF S E T AM . 53
The above theorem might s trictly be regarded a s t he fu n d am e n t al

t h e o re m o f all im p u l se t u rb in e s inste ad of the mor e or l e ss ge o
metrical theorem s of Chapter I ; for i t is self— evident that i t i s the ri s e
.
of pre s sure on the concave s urface of t he bucket or vane that not ,
being balanced by a s imilar ri s e on the convex s urface i s its e l f the ,
driving force .
The state ment that pressure action play s no part in the Operation
‘ ’
( page 2 ) i s not radical l y true and it is rather the ,
environment of the pressure that differs in the ca s es

of the piston eng i ne and turbine I n the piston .
or pre ss u re engine a given pre ss ure can be retained

,
in d e fi n it e ly without any trans l ation of the fl u id but ,
in the turbine the pre ss ure can only be produced

by the translation .
A general theory of the ela s tic fl u id turbine

may be constructed on th i s theorem the deve l op ,
ment con si sting of tran s lating the variation s of

pres s ure into total e ffective pressure on the vane
or bucket .
I t i s s elf—evident that the total pre ss ure for a

given centrifugal p ressure on the concave s urface
is pro p ortional to the are a of the s urface and i s ,
therefore a maximum for a s emicircular bucket

( a ss um i ng the s tream can be got in and out tan FI G 50 . .
g e n t iall
y) The
. tota l e fi e c t ive p res s ure
'
in the
direction of motion i s then equal to the e fi e e t ive centrifugal pre ss ure x mean
'
width of bucket A B F ig 5 0 , .
,
or F = ( Pr, Pr2)AB x h
where h = length of bucket or vane .
Then reverting to t he u s ual notation we h ave

W ork done per second in one pass age (p , 1
where e i s the veloc i ty of bucket .
Thi s s hould equal ) a2 ( 2)

9
the expre ss ion previous l y obtained ( page where W1 is the weight of
steam pas s ing per s econd .
Take an example fro m the fi gu re s of page 5 2 .
Let the buc ket be s emicircu l ar and

velocity v = 400 feet per s econd
by ( 2 )
i ce th e relati ve vel ci ty
S n o : 1 000, 011 az z 2 000
W rko (p d p m)AB hv W rk E lga a )

o r
.
1 2
9
x °
x
08 3 3 4 00
3 23 2 ft lbs pe r see
. . . 3 2 3 2 ft l b s p e r sec
. . .
The direct application of the theorem to cases in practice i s s o com

pl i cated by mechanical restriction s a s to render the method al most im p rac
t icable .I n fact it would be i mposs i ble to who ll y dispense with the use of
54 T HE T H E O RY OF THE S ET AM T U RB I N E .
tr i a n gle s of veloc i ty and i n vie w of the vari ous phe n omena to which
,
attention ha s been drawn on p age 5 0 t he deve l opment of the method w o u l d

be too academic for genera l purposes The geometr i ca l methods therefore
.
, ,
cannot very we l l be d i scarded .
At the same t i me the fundamental function of centr i fugal pre s sure

, ,
e s pecial l y in the im p u l se or semi im p u ls e turbine mu s t be kept in mind as it

-
, ,
ha s con s iderab l e in fl u e n c e on des i gn .

CHAPTE R I V .
T YP E S O F S T E A M T U R BI N E S .
CO N T EN T S T urbin es I mpul se Ty pe —Pure Reac ti n l p —C mbi e d I mpul se

— Sim pl e
Ty e—C m p u d Turbi es Impul s Ty s—GraZ
o e
y
o n
a d Re ac ti n u ted Pressure T u binesn

—G raduated V p i ty T urbi es—C mbi e d GraduategP ressure a d Vel ci ty T urbi es
n on o o ,
e s r
—Compou d Reac ti T rb in es Pure a d M ixed—Ge eral Re mark s

e oc n o n n o n
n on u ,
n n .
G E N E R A L O U T L I N E — I n the pre s ent chapter a classifi c at ion of the

.
leading type s of turbine s n ow being manufactured i s presented Thi s i s

, , .
accompan ied by a brief d i sc uss ion of the ir principal features to s erve as a ,
preparation for detailed desc ri ption and more particul ar inve s tigation s .
The d i agram s which follow will largely be s elf explanatory s o that de scrip -
tions of them w i ll be curtailed as far as po ss ible .
S I M P LE T U R B I N E S — I M P U L S E T YP E The velocity of .
the s team in a turbine of this des cription i s generated i n a nozzle or nozzle

lik e pa ssage The j et or j ets impinge on the wheel ( theorem III and general
. .
cas e ) and give up the who l e or as much as po ssi ble of their energy to the one
,
wheel .
F ig 5 1 i s a diagramma tic repres entation of one form of s imple imp ul se

.
tu rbi n e in wh i ch N repre s ents the nozzle

, ,
W wheel vane s .
F ig 5 1 A i s a space — p re s s u re d i agram
F ig 5 1 13 i s a space —ab s olute veloc i ty diagram
. .
. .
F ig 5 1 0 is a diagram of velocit i e s
. .
As the pressure fal ls the velocity rise s and as the s team pass e s through ,
the wheel vane pa ss ages the veloc i ty fal l s to the ab s olute veloc ity at ex it
( A D) the mean pre ss ure remai ning practicall y con s tant therein
, .
To take an approximate numer i ca l examp l e S uppo s e the pre ss ure dro p to .
be from 1 60 to 3 lb s absolute The velocity create d in the nozz l e will be

. .
about 3 6 60 feet per s econd and by the diagram of veloc i tie s— taking no
,
accoun t of los s e s — the exit or waste velocity is 1 080 feet per second
P U R E R E A C T I O N T Y P E —As previou sl y described the velocity
.
. ,
of the s team i s generated in the nozzle 0 1 nozzle s fi x e d tangentially in the °
rotor and the rotation i s e ffected by a reaction proces s in the man ner of
,
theorem V .
Fi gs 5 2 5 2A 5 2B corre spond to Fi gs 5 1 5 1 A 5 1 13 re spectively I n an

.
, ,
.
, ,
.
approx i mate numerical example suppose the i nitia l and fi n al pre ss ure s to b e
,
1 6 0 and 3 lb s res p ective l y a s before and s up p ose the peripheral ve l ocity to

.
,
be abo ut one hal f the head velocity that is 1 830 feet per s econd This s peed
-
, ,
.
is the approximate lim i t po ssi ble w i th the very be s t mate rial an d de si gn .
55
TH E T H E O RY T AM T U RB I N E
OF T HE S E .
The p eri pheral pre ss ure wi ll on account of centrifugal actio n rise to

, ,
about 2 40 lbs when 1 6 0 lbs i s mainta i ned at the centre

. .
( Se e Chapter .
FI G 5 2A
FIG . 51A .
’ ‘
FI G . 5 2 13 .
FIG . 51 0
.
The nozz l e velocity is therefo re about 3 83 0 ft per second theoretically

.
,
and the fi n al absol ute veloc i ty or wa s te i s 2 000 ft p e r second

. .
Fm 54A
. .
FI G . 5 413 .
F IG . 5 40
Em 5 413
. .
Comp oun d I mpu l se Turbi e Type 1

n . .
T Y PE S 0 1? S E T AM T U RB I N ES . 59
F ige and 5 4s re p resent a p ortion of a sy s tem of vane s in which the

. 5 40
s i de or peripheral width i s constant whi l e the length of vanes increa s e s .
I n these diagram s extreme cases are illu s trated as it i s often helpful to an ,
appreciation of the various limitations aris ing from simple and apparently
convenient mechanical assumpt i ons Thu s with fairly great ranges of .
,
pressure neither arrangement would in general be pract i cally po ss ible and

, ,
a mixture of the t wo would be used .
The approximate general arrangement of thi s and of the other type s will
be better unders tood by numerical examples R ound fi gu re s will s u ffi ce for .
thi s purpo s e and the compari s on will be on a common basi s

, .
I t goe s without s aying that the ma i n reas on for compounding i s to br i n g

the veloci t y of rotation with wheels of a manageable s i ze down to a l imit
, ,
suitable for purpo s e s for which the s imple turbine without gearing i s
uns uitable .
Therefore in s tead of a peripheral velocity of about 1 5 00 ft per sec ond

, .
‘
,
as in the cas e of the si mple turbine a peripheral velocity of 5 00 ft per ,

.
second will be a ss umed as more like l y to meet the mechanical requirement s

of the ca s e s .
S uppo s e in all cas e s the initial pre ss ure i s 1 6 0 lb s ab s olute and the .
exhau s t pre s sure 3 1b s absolute Theorem III s how s that with the perfect
. . .
impul se vane arrangement the veloc i ty of the vane s ho u ld be one half the -
ve l ocity of the i nlet s trea m in order to obtai n max i mum e ffi cie n cy .
I t i s shown in Chapter V I that in practice a velocity of rather more than .
one half the velocity of impingement s hould give be s t effect I n the pre s ent
-
ca s e suppo s e if 401
,
.
N ow refer to D iagram A S tarting from 1 6 0 lb s it i s found that to

,
. .
,
obta i n a velocity of 2 x 5 00 = 1 000 ft per sec the drop of pre s sur e requ ires . .
,
to be to 1 2 6 lb s This determine s s tage 1 that is A to B F ig s 54 to 5 413

.
, , , . .
Then s tart with 1 2 6 lb s for the next stage and s o on . .
I f the s team i s re dried between the s tage s to x = 1 a n e w polar line must

-
,
be drawn for each pre s sure s tep -

.
I f not re dried between the s tage s the line s drawn from each con s ecutive
-
pres s u re head wi l l be parallel to the origin al ( 1 6 0 lb s ) polar l ine s ince the

-
.
,
wetne ss i s cumulative .
Thi s las t proce ss may be s hortened s ince the s cale of energy is of even ,
pitch To find therefore the terminal pre ss ure at each s tage it is only
.
, , ,
neces sary to intercept the di s tance representing 1 000 feet per s econd once , ,
twice three time s

,
between th e curved ordinate and the diagonal
,
line through 1 60 1b s Or the same proces s may be e ffected on the energy

.
,
scale the energy for each s tage being the same Thus the pressure s at the
,
.
beginning o f each s tage are (approximately ) 1 60 1 2 6 9 8 7 7 5 9 4 5 34 2 5 4 , , , , , , , ,
1 8 1 4 1 01 7 1 5 1 and 3 4 res p ectively

, , , , , .
The number of s tage s requ ired in thi s ca s e i s therefore 1 4 .
The number of stage s can be found immediate l y by d i vid i ng the total

energy available ft lb s ) by the energy corre s ponding to 1 000 ft . . .
per s ec . Thi s give s 1 3 5 s tage s for the l ast drop 3 4 lb s to 3 lbs , ,

. .
,
doe s not qui te give 1 000 ft per se e . .
I f at the end of e ach s tage the s team has a con s iderable residual velocity ,
that amount — either in velocity or energy— must be credited to the next

follow ing s tage and a few more s tages will be required to complete the
,
expan s ion .
F orm the broad outline of the method for as certai ning the cons titution
TH E T H E O RY OF TH E S E T AM T UR B I N E .
of the turb i ne ind i cated above the reader shou l d have l i ttle d iffi c u lty
,
in ap p lying t he method to the more

accurate determ i nations in volved in a
pract i cal ca s e where allowance has to
be made for e ffi c ie n c y of nozzles etc , .
The s e point s are discu ss ed in further

deta il i n Chapter VI .
T YP E 2 G RA D U AT E D .
V E L O C I T Y T U R B I N E — I n this .
method of compound i ng which is com ,
m o n ly termed c o m p o u n d ing for ‘
v e l o c it y the who l e head of pressure i s

’
,
converted into ve l ocity in the fi rst fi x e d

passage s or noz z l es a s i n the ca s e of the ,
s i m p l e impu l se turbine .
Th i s h i gh ve l ocity of the steam is

then exhausted in stage s by p ass i ng
through s everal s erie s of mov i ng and
fi x e d vane s in the manner indicated on
,
page 2 0 F igs 5 5 to 5 5 0 have s im i lar

. .
sign ifi c at io n s to those they bore in the
previou s case .
Fi gs 5 5 13 and 5 5 0 repre s ent a system

.
of van es in wh i ch the ex i t angles are of

con s tant inc li nat i on the increa s e of area ,
requ i red by the dimini s hi n g ve l ocity o f

the steam being provided for by an
i ncrease in the length of the vanes .
I f the vane l ength be con stant ( a case

which is not i l lu s trated here ) on l y two ,
stage s are even theoret i call y poss i ble

F1 0 55 13
. .
under the same conditions a s in the
prev i ou s ca s e and the e ffi cie n cy w il l be
,
very low .
I t i s a very s imple matter to fi n d the

a pp rox i mate number of stages that are
theoretically neces s ary The ve l oc i ty .
obta i n able by the ful l drop 1 6 0 lbs to , .
3 l bs abso l u te is 3 6 5 0 feet per secon d

’
.
,
.
D i v i de th i s i nto 1 000 ft p o rtions and .

,
we have the resu l t wh i ch i s remarkab l e ,
a s co mp ared w i th that of the previou s

type of requiring barel y four s tages or
,
w s of mov i ng vane s .
T Y P E 3 COM BI NE D .
G RA D U A T E D P RE S S U RE
F I G 550 A N D VE L O C I T Y T U R B I N E .
. .
Th i s type bears s ome s i m il ar i ty to the

compound or trip l e expansion eng i ne ,
Comp oun d I m pul se Turb i en Ty pe 2 the t urb i ne be i ng divided u p into two
. .
or more cy li nders in which the re ,
s e c t iv e pressur e — d rop i s performed i n one operation

‘
p .
T Y PE S T A M TU RB I N ES
OF S E . 61
F1 0 5 6 A
. .
Em 5 6 3 . .
10 .
FI G . 56 0 .
F1 1 1
. 5 6 11
-
.
Com p ou d Im pul se T urb ine

n . Ty pe 3 .
62 T HE T H E O RY OF T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
Figs .
to 5 611: are a diagram mati c represe n tation of this type of turbine
56
in the three cy li nder or tr i p l e ex p an si on form
- -
.
The re l at i ve cond i tions of the press u re and velocity wi ll be recogn i sed

from what has p rev i ousl y been sa i d .
Fi gs 5 6 13 an d 5 6 0 repre s ent systems of vane s in wh i ch the delivery angl es

.
of both fi x e d and moving vane s is constant .
Fi g s 5 6 D and 5 6 11: represent system s of vanes in which the length of

.
the va n e s in each cyli nder is constant Su pp os i n g that the power to be .
developed in each cyl i n der is the same the fi rst s tep i s to fi n d the receiver ,
pre ssures .
I i as before the tota l of energy p e r 1b of steam i s

, ,
ft lbs the . . .
,
energy ava il ab l e for each cy l inder wil l be ft lb s . .
A pply thi s meas ure

ment ( D iagram A) by
means of a pa i r of
dividers bet ween the
1 6 0 lb d i agonal line .
and the curved ordinate

Y Y and it wi ll be found ,
that it corresponds to
the 5 2 1h pressure line .
( g
fi .
I n a s imilar manner
the corre s pondence of
the length ft .
l bs wil l be found to .
occur at the 1 4} lb .
pres s ure l ine (ap p rox i

mately) The receiver .
pressure s are therefore

5 2 and I 4 } 1b s re sp e e .
M M “
t iv e ly without takin g ,
Fb /b p I b t am s ar s
mto account var i ou s
e
. . . .
FI G 5 7 losse s or re d ry i ng ap
paratu s I n any cas e .
they w i ll not be greatly d i fferent from the s e fi gu re s under the same

conditions of head .
The nozz l e ve l oc i ty in thi s examp l e i s gi ven by s caling o ff on the velocity

s cale I t will be found to meas ure 2 1 1 6 ft per second
. . .
Splitting thi s u p into 1 000 ft s tage s a s before w e have two wheels or .

,
row s of moving vane s in each cy l inder The total number o i s tage s i s .

“
therefore si x *
.
CO M P O U N D R E A C T I O N T U R B I N E S — P u 7 e reac tion tu rbin e .

°
.
— O ne form that this turbine can a ss ume is a s er i es of B arker m ill s each -
worki n g in a separate compartment at progre s sively d i minishing heads of

pre ss ure This arrangement ha s been patented by Parsons ( N O 88 5 4 of
. .
but has not been commercially worked nor does i t appear to be of ,
any practical importance The number of s tages for the same pres s ure con
.
d it io n s i s the same as for ty p e 1 of the compound impulse turb i ne s .
T Y P E 4 M I X E D I M P U L S E A N D R E AC T I O N T U R B I N E
—Th is i s the now well kno wn Parsons typ e of turb i ne and is common l y call ed
. .
As a c h eck on the w ork n o te th a t ,

T Y PE S OF S E T A M T U RB I N E S .
a reaction turb i ne
‘
I n a turb i ne of thi s type the expan s ion should take
.
’
place from end to end of the turbine in a regu lar and cont i nuou s manner .
R eferr i ng to page 1 3 it w i ll be s een that the vane velocity is about the

,
s ame as the absolute velocity of the s team at entry and ex i t .
F or the purpo s e of approx i mat i ng the number of s tages thes e velocit i e s ,
may be s uppo s ed to be the s ame and the vane s may be s uppo s ed to have a
,
right angled turn .
FI G . 58 .
FIG . 5 80 .
5 00 r!p e r se e .
FIG . 58 13
.
Le ngt hs
Com pou n d Reac t i on T urbi e n . Ty pe 4 .
quantitie s as before the velocity generated

E m p loying the same numerical ,
in t h e fi x e d pa ss age s wi ll be 5 00 ft
per s ec each and the velocity generated
. .
,
in the moving pas sages w i ll be also 5 00 ft per s ec The exact proces s of . .
ab sorption of the energy doe s not a ffect the problem .
N o w as has been pointed out previou s ly th i s i s not the same thing as

, ,
generat i ng 1 000 ft per s econd in one operation ; for

. There
are therefore 4 s tage s where there was on l y 1 s tage in typ e 1 an d the ,
total n umber with the same data is 5 6 .
I n thi s ca s e however as expansion take s place in both the fi x ed and the

, ,
64 T HE T H E O RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RBIN E .
rotating members the total number of pair s of stage s — a s compared with the
,
number s which are number s of pairs found for the other types — i s therefore
, ,
2 8 that i s twice as many a s in type 1

,
The number w ill in practice he more .
than twice s i nce the d i ameter of the drum s at the h i gh p ressure end i s as a
,
-
rule much l ess than the diameter of the high pressure whee l s of type 1 and -
s i n ce partial ad m i ss i on i s possible w i th ty p e 1 but not with type 4 Th is is .
not comp ulsory with e i ther of the other type s a l though i t i s somet i me s con ,
v e n ie n t to make a l i tt l e d i ff erence in the d i ameter s .
F igs 5 8 to 5 80 ty p i fy the actual arrangement

. .
MO D I F I E D P R I N C I P L E — The previou s exam pl e s deal with .
turb i nes hav i ng such a h i gh rat i o that max i mum s tage e fii c ie n cy is obtained -
.
Corre sp ond i ng example s wi l l now be given w i th a very l ow ratio .
The general p rincip l e underl y i ng the adoption of a low ratio was given on
page 1 6 As shown th e re the nett energy extracted from the steam for a
.
,
g i ven vane vel oc i ty increases with the ve l ocity of the steam be i ng rough l y ,
proport i onal to 0 1 and not constant w i th a given value of

2
,
By adop t i ng therefore a h i gher value of v1 than in the previous exam p le s

, ,
f
and keep i ng v the same the work done i n any one stage i s greater than ,
before The energy re j ected ( due to 11 4 in genera l ) w i l l certain l y be corre

.
sp o n d in gly greater with the re s u l t that u n l ess 0 can be effect i ve l y t rans

, 4
m it t e d from s tage t o s tage t he tota l e ffi c ie n cy wi l l be low W hen 0 4 can be
, .
transmitted the total e fii c ie n cy wi l l remain pract i cal ly the s ame a s found

,
with the h i gh ratio .
The character of the re s ult s will be best i l lu s trated by com parat i ve

exam pl es .
T yp e I —As before ( page. let 5 00 ft per sec . .
but let 0 1 2000 instead of 1 000 ft per s ec . .
Then t he energy s upp l ied to the 1 st stage i s 6 621 10
1 0002
rej ected = 1 5 52 0 wh i ch by suppos i ti on
29 ,
i s either a l together l ost or tran s mitted to the next s tage ,
where it contr i butes to the production of a further v1 2 000 .
2 0002 1 0002
I f tran s mitte d then , 6
2
4 6 590
S im il ar l y, 6
3
and (3
4
46 5 9 0
an d 4 6 5 90
This u s e s ft l b s of the 2 09 000 ava il ab l e

The 0 4 from stage 4 1 s 1 000 as before and th i s can be transm i tted
. .
.
,
to a 5 t h stage w i thout any further drop of pres s ure and thus becomes ,
ent i re l y usefu l 1 5 5 20
( Stage s 4 and 5 form a pa i r of type 2 stage s ) .
2 1 7 4 00
I t wi l l be noted that this estimate i s a little h i gh accord i ngl y a s li ghtl y

le s s back pressure s hou l d have been a s su m ed .
The n u m ber of stages i s therefore 5 on ly ( a s against 1 4) on the as s umpt i on

of perfect transmis si on of each 11 4 to the foll ow i ng stage .
The e ffi c ie n cy i s the same as before there being no nett lo ss ,

.
66 T HE T H E O RY OF THE S E T AM T U RBIN E .
Al ternat i vel y the re j ected energy 1 88 90 may be app rox i mate l y used up by
,
mea n s of an abnormal stage the character of wh i ch in p ract i ce wou l d depend

,
on the ma gn i tu d e of that e n ergy as compared with the poss i ble vane ve l ocity .
Thu s for a fu rt he 1 fi x e d s ta ge ( N o 1 7 ) .
put 0
1
:
J 1 8 8 9 0 x 29 :
1 1 02,
and then by add i ng a mov i n g row ( N o . 1 8) of type 1 formation , v

4
w i ll be 1 02 .
1 02 2
The rej ected energy T or 0 7 per cent of the energy suppli ed which .
,
9
i s qu i te negli gib l e .
The total number of movi n g rows is now 9 as again s t the original 28 and ,
the e ffi c ie n cy i s pract i cal l y un i mpaired .
The mod i fie d princ i p l e i s adopted almo s t u n i versall y i n the modern

Parson s turb i ne an d prominentl y s o in the case of mar i ne appl i cation s
, All .
the above examp l es as prev i ous l y p o i nted out are of gros s form and are
, , ,
p ri mar il y intended on l y a s an intro d uction to the more elaborate treatment

i n the subsequent chap ters .
G E N E RA L R E MA R K S — Pure reaction turbines ei t her si mple or . ,
compou n d have no commerc i al representat i ve at present nor i ndeed are th ey

, ,
li ke l y to have becau s e the probl em of intr oduc i ng s team into the rota t ing
,
member is a very d iffi cu lt one although j udging from t he Patent Offi c e record s
, , ,
i t does not s eem to troub l e the d i agrammati c inventor very much .
There is however no part i cul ar advantage attached to the t ype and a s

, , ,
in p ractice the p er i pheral vel oc i ty wou l d be about the s ame as the emergent
steam ve l o c i ty the advantage i s certa i n l y on the s i de of the i m p u l se turb i ne
, .
D e Lava l ap pear s to have p erfecte d t he steam B arker—m ill to a greater

extent than anyone e l se but he ha s 11 0 W aban d oned this ty p e ( page
,
I n ap p roximat i n g the number of s tage s in the var i ou s com p ound ty p es of

turbine the genera l m etho d of procedure has been i n di cate d and s i m pl e
,
assumptions ma d e I n pract i ce these as s u m pt i ons have to be m od ifi e d accord

.
,
i ng to t he superheating or drynes s of the steam the lo s ses and the re l ative ,
val ues in the ve l oc i ty d i agrams and there are in general a few more stage s , , ,
required i n each case The prev i ou s examp l e s are however a l l on the same
.
, ,
footing and are therefore l egit i mate l y com p arative

, , ,
.
Si nce in the fi rst set of examp l es type 2 has on l y 4 s tages whereas the
, , ,
others requ i re 1 4 8 and 2 8 respective l y it m ay be asked why th i s type i s

, , ,
not recogn i sed pre eminentl y as the be s t ? The an s wer to th i s que s t i on i s

-
that the h i gh ve l oc i ty of the steam is rather unmanageable eros i on of the

vanes is ser i ous esp ec i a l ly of those i n the fi rst row ; the steam is alway s very
,
w e t when work i n g ; an d S p ill in g and alli ed l osse s a1 e proh i bit i ve l y large .
A gain with the 5 4 and 9 stages respective l y of the l ower 1 at i o turbines

, , , ,
how is it that very low ratio s should not p revai l ? The reason s are s i m i lar ,
sp il l i ng and l eakage losses be i ng s erious an d unmana geab l e in fact beyond , ,
certain moderate ratio s ( usuall y from 2 5 to 3 5) rap i d l y beco m i n g proh ib i t i ve .
E ro s io n of turb i n e vanes may here be conven i entl y deal t w i th .
The com p ound turbine of typ e 2 suffers far more from ero s ion than the
s imp l e impu l se turb i ne work i ng with the s ame head I n the fi rst vane .
p assa ges the re l at i ve ve l ocity or the ve l oc i ty of the s team over the vane ,
surfaces is ( in the numer i ca l example ) about 3 1 5 0 feet per s econd again s t

, ,
1 9 7 0 feet p e r second in the s i mp l e turb i ne .
The immun i ty of t h e Pars o n s turb i ne from eros i on has u n d o ubtedly led

r
The Theo y f
o r
the S te am Tu bi n e .
] [To fac e p age 66 .
TY PES or S ET AM T U RBIN ES . 67
many to s up po s e that erosion did n o t occur in other turb i ne s and convers ely , ,
the experien ce wi t h some form s of turbine ha s led to a di s belief in s tatement s

a s to the compa rative absence of erosion i n the Parsons turbi n e The con .
d it io n s are however enormou sl y d i fferent

, ,
and i n turbines taking s team at
a high ve l ocity thi s factor is not l i ghtl y to be ignored
,
F igs 5 9 to 6 3 are m icr o—

.
.
p hoto graph s of a fe w example s of the erosion of
meta ls by wet s team ( abo u t 9 dryne ss fraction when i n contact ) moving at
'
about 26 00 feet per second over the s urface They are ty p ical exam p l es of .
an exten s ive serie s of te s t s made by the author The resu l t s obtained from .
the te s t s s uggest the following conclus i on s .
E ro s ion is as a rule great l y aggravated by the presence of wate r in the

, ,
s team a l though with s ome bronzes the contrary appears to be the ca s e a

, ,
certain amount of moi s ture act i ng a s a lubr i cant rather than as an ero s ive
agent The gene ra l condition for this occurrence is st i ll doubtfu l b u t probably
.
,
ha s a direct relation to a critical pecu li arity i n the m i crostru cture of t he m etal .
I n ord i nary cas es a rough notion of the re l ative ero s ive effect of s team
w i th different degrees of wetne ss can be conveyed a s follow s — G i ven the same
velocity of s te am —from 2 000 to 25 00 feet per s econd s ay — with in one cas e , , ,
about 98 p e r cent dry s team that i s before expans i on and in another ca s e

.
, , , , ,
steam i n it i a l ly s uperheated if on l y by 40 to 5 0 F the relative ero s ive

,
° °
.
,
e ffect i s abo ut a s 4 to 1 .
On the other hand many metal s — alloy s in particular— appear to erode

,
m ore rapidly a s their te mperature increases an d it frequently happens that ,
nearly dry or even s u p erheated ste am having a comparatively low velocity

sa
y 1 5 00 feet per second — occa si ons more eros ion than wet s team .
I t i s po ssi ble that the apparently arb i trary s egregation of water referred
to on page 5 0 considerably ati e c t s the re s u l t i ng action but to what extent ,
i s at pre s ent undete rm ined F igs 6 4 6 5 and 6 6 are three example s of the
. .
, ,
erosive action of high ve l ocity s team on a thin vane edge .
Fig 6 4
. . Fig 65 . . Fig 6 6 . .
Co pp er Va e M ild S t el e
(abou t
n
25
. “
Sp eci men after tes t—full

e i m press i n
s1 z o .
T h ick ess f ed ge
n o
A p p r xi mat d i ame ter

o e of Je t
Dur ti
a f tes t
on o
Weight b f re tes t e o
n 1 :
Lo ss o f me tal pe r h our
Ra ti o o f
68 T HE T H E O RY o r THE S E T AM T U RBIN E .
The u s ual al l oy for Pars ons vanes i s 6 3 Cu 3 7 Z n but a zinc a ll oy i s quite

’
,
unsu i tab l e for superheated steam or fo r h i gh veloc i t i es it bein g read il y p i t te d ,
and eroded somewhat a s i n Fi g 6 3 Commercia l cop per ( about 9 8 per cent )

. . .
ha s proved fairl y sat i sfact o ry with h i gh s uperheat but for h i gh velocities ,
ste e l appear s to be best Cupro—n i cke l (8 0 Cu 2 0 N i) is a better material

.
,
and has the advantage of be i ng non c o rrod ab le but even th i s d o e s not -
appear to have a l onger life than about three years i n the Parsons type
of turbine A fter working for s ome t i me the edge s of the vane s begin to
.
crumble away .
N ick e l s teel was cons i dered to give some p romise of a lasting character ,
but reports to hand at the t i me of wr i t i ng are extreme l y d i sap point i ng and ,
vanes of a ll oys that are normall y s u pposed to have pract i ca lly non rusting -
prop erties have been found corro d ed al most out of reco gn i t i on i n a short time .
The or i g i na l brass or very s li ght m od ifi c at io n s of it appears to be a s good

, , ,
i f not better than later product i on s i n actual serv i ce

, .
F or very high steam ve l ocities steel vanes of s ome k i nd are de s irable but
, ,
a vase lubr i cator s hou l d be fi t t e d to the turb i ne so that the vanes may be
o il ed before shutti n g down for l ong per i o d s p art i cu l arl y i f vapour i s li ke l y ,
to r i se into the turb i ne through the exhaust p i p e .
W e t n e ss — S ince a practicall y imposs i b l e degree of superheat i s n e c e s

.
sary ( 800 to 1 000 F accor d ing to circumstances) for the steam to be dry at
° 0
the end of its com p l ete expans i on it foll ows that i n any ty p e of turbine ,
w i th o ut spec i a l reheaters and i nevi tab l y so i n typ e 2 wet steam is pre s ent
, ,
at l east in the low pressure parts of the mach i ne

-
.
I n ty p es 1 and 4 the wetness is the m i ni mum pos s ibl e at any p oint since ,
ve l ocity i s generate d on l y as i t i s u s ed I n type 2 a ll the ve l oc i ty i s generated.
at the outset and therefore the steam at i ts fu ll wetness has to be dra gged
,
through the turbine from o n e e n d to the other not on l y increas i ng the ,
eros i on but mater i all y re d ucing the e ffi c ie n cy by an i n crease d surface fr i ct i on

, .
The wetness of the s team in type 3 i s i ntermed i ate between that i n ty p e 2

and in ty p e 1 or 4 I t obv i ousl y varies between the two extremes acc o r di ng
.
as the var i ety of the type approaches ty p e 1 or ty p e 2 .
I n type 3 neverthe l ess co n s i derabl e d iffi c u lty has been ex p erienced owing
, ,
to the erosion of the fi rst series of vanes and it appears that it can on l y be ,
combated by the u s e of very tough an d fi n e gra i ned materia l -

.
S p ill in g — A nother argument aga i n st ty p e 2 is that up to the prese n t

.
, ,
attempts to make the steam traverse a ser i es of more than three pa i rs of

vanes w i th good economy have not been very successfu l E ven w i th three .
sta ge s the e ffi c ie n cy is much l ower than that of the other types as w ill be ,
ex pl ained more fu ll y in Chaper V 1 1 1 .
I t ap pears that i f the passages are open so that spur i ous ex p ans i ons an d ,
’
contract i ons other than tho s e d ue to centr i fugal action and to the waves create d
,
by the nozzl es do n o t occur con s id erab l e l oss is occasioned toward s the end of
, ,
the ser i es by the stream breaking u p an d sp illi ng .
On the other han d i f the p assages are c l os e d choking i n ev i tab l y occurs

, ,
’
,
espec i all y if the vanes are too short as ap p ears to be the case in many des i gn s
,
.
I f there be an y chok i ng the full head is not avail ab l e at the nozz l es an d the
, ,
ve l oc i ty is s hort to start w i th There is thus intro duced into the process a

.
certa i n s i m il ar i ty to ty p e 4 w i th a consequent l eakage over the vane ti p s an d

,
other com pl i cations .
Under these circumstances the act i on i s far too com p li cated to adm i t of
,
even an approximately s tab l e analys i s T he fact rema i n s however that no .

, ,
CHAPTER V
P RACT I CA L T U R B I N E S .
CO NT E NT z—S m pl e I m pulse : Tu rb i ne s—The De

S i Laval T urbi e n —T he
Pel t W heel —Rateau on
Stea Pel t
m on —R
W heel iedler tu f Turbi e
S mp n — Com p o n
u d T urbi es Th Ratea
-
n -
e u
Turbi en —T he Fulla ar T urbi e
g n —Th e Turbi e
Z oe l ly ntum p f T urbi e —Th
— The S n e
a il t
H m o n H olywo rth Turbi e
-
n — Th err T urbi e
Ke n —T he
Terry Turbi e—Stumpf n
Variable s eed Turbi e n —T he C

urt is Turbi e n —T he
Pars s T urbi e—M d er Pars s
on n o n on
p
-
Tu n —
rbi e Oth r T urbi es D uble t i T urbi es ybrid Turbi es
e n o m o on n -
H -
n .
S I M P L E I M P U L S E T U R B I N E S — The fi rst turbine of this type to .
attain any commercial success w as the De L av al T u rb i n e .
The fundamental p atent feature of the D e Laval turb i n e is the expand ‘
ing nozzl e ( Patent N o 7 1 4 3 of

’
the function of which as has b e e n
.
,
expl ained is to obtain an approximate l y l i near j et of steam havin g a kinetic

,
energy corresp ond i ng to the comp l ete d rop of pressure As the D e Laval is .
sol ely a s i mp l e ( t e o n e —stage ) turb i ne the drop of pressure in the nozz l e i s

. .
,
the same a s the tota l avai l ab l e head .
I t fo ll ow s therefore that the wheel must have a very high p e ripheral

, ,
ve l oc i ty l n order to have any degree of e ffi c ie n cy an d un l ess wh e e l s of very

large d i ameter ( 1 0 feet or more ) be ad op ted gear i ng is nece s sary to reduce ,
the high speed of rotation to p racticable l i m i ts S i nce without gear i n g wheel s .

, ,
o f the same diameter would be neces sary for the sma ll est as for the l arge s t
units the cost of p l ain wheel turb i nes for sma l l units would be proh i b i t i ve
, .
W ith small wheels an d gear i ng however the contrary is the case w i th the , ,
D e Lava l turbine I t is for th is reason t hat great attention has been given
.
to t he gear i ng with the resu l t that the latter is the prom i nent feature of thi s
,
turbine As a s mall unit i t has earned a wel l mer i ted s uccess ow i ng to careful
.
-
design and workmansh i p but it ha s yet to be proved that this s ucce ss can be
,
extended to s i zes much l arger than those common at present .
The fol l ow i ng tab l e gives the approx i mate s peed s of turbine shaft and main
driving shaft for variou s sizes .
TAB L E 1 1 .
Sp eed of T urbi e W h eel

n .
M ea D ia meter
R evolut i ns o
Turb e f Drivi g
n
S1 Z 6 of Pe n p heral
f W h eel
in . o n
o .
Sp eed ee
,
f t S haft .
p e se c on d
r .
PRA C T I CA L T U RB I N ES .
FIG . 67 .
—2 0 H P . . De Laval Turbine .
A S team to p valv
s e N E xh a t utl t us o e
S te am c h t c r r f xha t c hamb r
. . . .
B es o ve 0 C o ve or e us e
S team i v P B all b ari g
. . .
.
C s e e e
G r r al
n
thr ttl l R E xh a t c h amb r
. . . .
D o ve n o v ve o r o e va ve us e
S t am ch t S Ti gh t i g b ari g
. . . .
E e es en n e n
Turb i wh l T G ar c a
.
. . .
F ne ee e se
S haft f b l t p ul l y U Si gh t f d l bri c at r
. . . .
G or e e ee u o s
Pi i
-
V D ai c c k f t am ch t
. . . .
H n on o
G ari g wh l
r n or s e es
X C t i f gal g
. .
r r
. .
J e n ee en r u o ve n o
Fl xi b l haft Y Z S f ty b ari g
. . .
L e e s
'
a e e n s
B l t p ll y l ati g p l at
. . .
A I
.
,
ll . e u e . . so n e .
72 TH E T HEO RY OF T HE STEA M TURB nna
.
F ig is a general sect i on of a 2 0 hors e power D e Laval turbine and

. 67 ,
Fig 6 8 of a larger si ze — 300 horse p o wer

.
-
.
The steam is s upp l i ed to a s er i e s of nozz l es arranged at interva l s around
F1 G . 68 .
— 300 H . P De
. Laval Turbi ne .
( Re fer li s t o n Fig .
the p eriphery of t he wheel and usuall y con trolled by se p arate s hut o ff valve s
, ,
regu l at i on be in g e ffected by op en i ng o r c l o sin g the valves by hand fo r l arge

p ermane n t var i at i ons of l oad and by thr o ttl i ng in the ord i n ary manner for
,
s mall fl u c t u at ion s of load .
FIG . 69 .
—Arran gemen t of N o zz l e an d Shu t o fi Valve -
'
F ig . i s a s ection throu gh a nozzle and shu t off valve and Fi gs 7 0A and

69 , .
7 013 are a l ternative s ect i o n s of the whee ls and vanes .
I t wi ll be observed that a l though the w hee l vane pa s sage s are app rox i
mately rectan gu l ar the end s of the no z z l es reta i n their c i rcu l ar form an d are
, ,
not s quared o ff as i n some other forms of i mpulse turbi n es The section of .
the nozz l es abreast of the wheel vanes i s therefore e l l i ptica l .

P RA CT I CAL T U RBIN ES . 73
F or a simple impul se turbine th i s con s truct i on involve s ve ry li ttl e los s of

energy probab l y much les s than the l o ss of nozzle effi c i ency occas i oned by
,
converting the round in to a square or rectan gular sect i on s i nce with the ,
convers i on it i s very d iffi c u lt to provide

s teady li nes of fl o w .
S ince the vane pa ssages in the D e Laval

turbi n e are clos ed a certain loss of e ffi c ie n c y ,
’
may res ult from the longer period of as p i ra

tion of the su rround ing dead s te am into those
pas sages that do not get a plenum of live
s team at fi rs t Thus in Fi g 7 1 the pas sages
. .
A B C D would on l y be part i ally fi lled with

, , ,
live ste am and a quant i ty o f the external

,
dead s team would be drawn ih inj ecto r ,
fashion .
The general re s ult i s a lowering of the

e ffective inlet velocity 121 A similar proce ss , .
will occur at both ends of the ellip s e .
On the other hand the partial covering ,
at the inlet end s of the orifi c e is of advantage

in start i ng the dead s team within the p as
sages more gradua ll y into motion so that ,
loss by s hock when t ho s e passages arrive

o pposite the full body of the j et i s lessened .
S i milarly at the other end of the o rifi c e the

,
shock of as p iration i s rendered less abrupt .
That loss arise s through this kind of

s hock when the nozzl e s are pl aced widely
a p art is unquestionable and it is probably
c hie fl y for thi s reas on that an e ffi c ie n c
y of
nearly 2 5 p e r cent more has been obta i ned .
in an exper i mental case with a ser i es o f ten

nozzle s merging one in to the other than was ,
given by a similar s erie s of isolated nozz le s

( D e l aporte ) .
Ou the whole however the total lo ss e s , ,
F1 0 8 7 0A
. and —De Laval
7 08 .
Turbi ne W h eels .
FI G 7 1. .
with the circu l ar is olate d nozzles which in the D e Laval t u rbine embrace a
, , ,
comparatively large port i on of the per i p hery are not great and an y lack of , ,
un i form i ty in the general cros s section of t he stream l eaving the wheel is of

-
little moment s ince there i s not r e quired to be any accu rate co ll ect i on of the
,
s tre am at the exit from the passag es in o rder to pa ss it on to another wheel ,
as in the cas e of s ome compound tu r bine s .
I t is n eces sary to mount a tu rbine wheel rotating at these ve ry high

.
THE TH EO RY OF T H E S E T AM T U RBIN E .
ve l ocitie s in a somewhat d i fferent manner than is the cus tom with ordinary
s l ow—movi n g wheels I t is pract i call y im p o ssi bl e to make a turb i ne whee l
.
disc so that its ma ss centre sha ll perfectl y co i nc i de w i th the ge o metrical

centre By an arduous p rocess of ad j ustment a fairl y g o od j ob can be m ade
.
of it but beyond a certain limit th i s becomes costl y

, .
I t is obv i ous that even when on l y minute l y unbal anced very h i gh

, ,
centrifugal forces wil l be set u p at the enormous speeds these whee ls have
to attain T wo remedie s are fortunate l y open : e i ther to make the shaft
.
, ,
and bearings rigid and amp l e in order to counteract these force s or to ,
make the w hee l and shaft sy s tem fl e x ib l e enough to ad j ust i ts e l f so

that the ma s s centre of the system coincides with the geometr i cal centre
of rotation .
I t has been discovered that u p to a certa i n cr i t i cal speed the v i brat i ons
, ,
of a fl e x ibl e sys tem i n crease beyond which s p eed they practically cease
, .
S econdary crit i ca l period s have a l s o been observed R ece n tl y Professor .
D unker l ey has made a s erie s of sp ec i al experiments w i th

a pparatu s of elementa ry fo rm an d ha s estab li shed a very ,
c l os e agreement between the observations and a s em i

emp i r i cal mathematical an al y sis he had a l so evol ved D r .
Chree , however ap p ears to con si der that Du n k e rle y s

,
’
anal ysi s may be very much sim pl ifi e d His formu l ae are .
g i ven in Chap ter X V I I I .
D e Lava l ha s preferred the fl e x ib le sy s tem of mount i ng

his wheels and it is found that vibrat i on is ab s ent prov i de d
, Em 7 2
that the cr i tica l velocitie s do not synchron i se with the
. .
intended s peed of rotation The D e Lava l wheels usua ll y .
rotate at a s p eed of about s even t i mes the pri n c i pal critica l

vel ocity The marg i n here is therefore ample and the r i sk
.
,
of h i tt i ng secon dary period s very smal l .
A s has been shown the D e Lava l van e p ass age s are

,
closed S evera l var i eties of op en vane i mpu l se tur

‘ ’ ‘ ’
.
bine s have however a l so been made

, , .
O p e n v an e t u rb i n e s may be e i ther single throw or -
doub l e—throw I n the former wh i ch corresponds to the

.
FI G 7 3
,
c l osed vane arrangement the j et of fl u id enters at one side

-
and emerges at the other in the usual way thu s F ig 7 2 I n the double ,
. .
throw arrangement the j et i s s p l it up into two streams th u s Fi g 7 3 , . .
The l atter arrangement ha s the great advan tage that sid e sp illi n g ow i ng ,
to a slightly i n accurate proj ection of the j et i s avo id ed ,

.
O pen buckets or vanes genera ll y have a comp l ete turn of degree s

in one plane I n any case however the entrance edge i s preferab l y in the
.
, ,
d irect i on of the j et i n that part i cu l ar plane which i s tangential to the

whee l .
The doub l e throw water turbine is known as the P e l t o n W h e e l

-
‘
,
’
and i s one of the most e ffi cie n t form s of i mpulse turbine The steam .
Pe l ton W hee l doe s not in any form yet constructe d ,

attain a s i mi l ar ,
e ffi c ie n c y the res p ect i ve maximu m va l ues being about 6 5 and 80 per cent
,
.
T H E R AT E A U S T E AM P E LT O N WH E E L which is to be ,
dist ingu i shed from the moder n Rateau turbine wa s i nvented by Professor ,
Rateau who was one of the fi rst to des i gn a steam Pe l ton wheel that went
,
beyond the toy stage .

P RA CT I CA L TU RBIN ES .
75
Fi gs il l ustrate the general features of thi s wheel The

7 4 , 7 4 A, 7 4 13
.
turbine wheel con s iste d of a s teel di s c having vane s cut from the s olid rim
.
The shaft was s uspended i n the D e Laval manner although di f

f ering
,
s ome
what i n de s ign .
76 THE T H EO RY o r T HE S ET A M TU RBIN E .
T his turbine d i d not atta i n an y great s uccess 5 and indeed it is fa i rl y

obv i ous that s pilling due to the s tream s pread i n g wh il e in contact with the
,
vanes mu s t have been exce s sive

, .
A very simple experi ment w i th a j et of steam i mpingi n g o n a curved

pla te w i de enough for the purp ose show s that for a s em i c i rcul ar vane t he , ,
j et may sp read from about four to ten times i ts w id th at entry The .
amount of spread natural l y depends on the velocity of the steam and the
rad i u s of curvature of it s path The above fi gu re s are ba s ed on the usual .
prop o rtions .
Thu s in F ig 7 5 if there be no retaining wa ll s and the vane s be of

.
,
ap proximately the same width as the e n ter i n g j et— as i n the Rateau wheel
the immed i ate was te of energy is re p rese n ted by A B C and D E F .
W i th proportions somewhat as re p resented in Fig 7 5 the exper i mentally .
determined loss of pressu re on the van e i s

about 2 4 per cent w i th on l y o n e reta i n i ng .
wall away and 4 2 per ce n t with none

, . .
R IEDL ER ST U M PF T UR
B I N 13 — An op en bucket turbin e that i s
.
at present be i ng manufactured by the

All gemeine Ele k t ricit at s G ese ll schaft of
B er li n i s known as the S tu m p f or
R i e d l e r S t u m p f T u rb in e
-
.
Th is turb i ne ha s atta i ned a fair measure

of s uccess .
Fi g 7 6 s hows portion s of the bucket

.
construct i on which may be e i ther single or ,
doub l e thro w .
The bo t tom or working face A of the

bucket s are semicircu l ar and are m ill ed ,
from the sol id r i m of s teel by a ste pp e d

m illi ng cutter B The portion s 0 betwee n .
the bucket s are then thinned d o wn by

another cutter s o that a comparat i ve l y
sharp divid i ng wall edge is pre s ented to
the steam j et The w i dth of the fl an ge D .
i s such as to fully reta i n the stream w i t hin F I G 75 . .
the bucket .
The maker s of thi s turbine have not followed D e Lava l in adop ting a
speed reducing gear
-
I n stea d of mak i ng sma ll whee ls to rotate at a very h i gh sp eed the ,
S t um p f wheel s are of cons i derab l e d i ameter and the a ll owable p er i phera l , ,
speed being the same a s in the D e Lava l a lower and more manageable ,
s p eed of revolut i on i s obta i ned The d iffi c u lty of construction i s however .

, ,
transferred from the gear i ng to the p ro d u ct i on of large wheel s of homogeneou s

composition and accurate ba l ance .
The d i scs requ i re mo s t careful workmansh i p from the stee l maker onwards ,
-
.
The factors of s afety common in or di n ary e n gi ne design ( from 8 upwards )

are however unnece s sar i ly h i gh an d a factor of 2 5 to 3 i s cons id ered
, , ,
am p l e es p ec i a ll y w hen the elast i c li m i t of the material i s above say 6 5 p e r

, , ,
ce n t of the u l timate ten s i l e stre n gth Th i s fac t somewhat sim plifi e s the
. .
prob l em .
F or wheels rotat i n g w i th per i p heral s p eeds o f 1 200 to 1 5 00 or more feet

78 T HE T H EO RY OF T HE S E T A M TU RBIN E .
one of the mo s t d iffi c u l t of metall urg i c a l p rob l ems whether the work be done
,
by hand or press Large forgi ngs are in th i s res p ect often li ttl e better than
.
cast i n gs althou gh cap ab l e of w i thstan ding a h i gher mean s tress

,
.
S i m p le one —
di sc S tumpf turb i nes have been ma d e as l arge a s a 2 000
I 5 OB UC k CI S
Em 7 8 . .
kil o watt si ze the turb i ne being direct coupled to an e l ectric generato r

,
-
.
Fi g 7 7 ill ustrates a 2 000 k il owatt turb i ne i nsta ll ed at M oab i t B erli n Th i s

.
,
.
mach i ne ha s a disc 6 5 feet d i ameter constructe d of 1 0 per cent n i cke l

,
.
s teel .The speed of revo l ution is 3 800 per m i nute an d the periphera l ,
FI G . 79 .
speed 1 2 90 Two bearings are provide d for the turbine shaft i n th i s

.
particu l ar i n stance but i n more recent exam p l es the whee l i s overhu n g an d

,
there are thus only two bearings for the turb i ne and generator— a much
,
better arrangeme n t .
Fi gs 7 8 and 7 9 i ll ustrate s ome of the deta il s of th is mach i ne

. .
The n o zzles are of n i ckel steel in order the better to w i thstan d rust i ng
, .
The nozzles prop er are of c i rcular s ection being bored out but have the i r , ,
end s drawn out square so that the s team i ssues i n more or l ess re ctangular
,
P RA CT I CA L TU RBIN ES .
79
j ets . I nserted in the nozz l e ring they form a continuou s nozzle o rifi c e around
,
the whee l .
The radial c l earance between the wheel and nozzle o rifi ce s i s 1 2 inch or ‘
tangenti ally t h e brid ging space for the s team j et s is 3 9 inch I t i s s tated ‘
.
that thi s c l earance may b e nearly doubled without affecting the economy .
S i ngle wheel t u rbines of th i s de s cription without gearing are more

p ro fi t ab ly made for large units than s mall one s i n fact di s c and vane friction ,
a ls o it of the common type i s s o large a s to render them prohibitive for s ma ll

, ,
Fric ti on p i ni on to govern or an d oil

um p s h aft
Oi u mp ec cen tric
.
Cen tri fugal e rn or

ov .
attac h men ts . G overnor va ve .
M vi g va es a d di sc s
o n n n . Fric t i n gear w h eel
o .
H i gh an d l w pressure en d s
o . I n le t c av i t i es to fi xe d van e passages .
H i gh pressure gl a d n . E x h aus t bran c h .
Flexibl e beari ngs . S h aft .
L on gi tudi nal adjus tme t n . H ubs o f ro tat i ng disc s .
Oil p i pes .
units They therefore begin at the point at which the D e Laval may be
.
said to leave o ff
C O M PO U N D T U R B I N E S T Y P E I — O ne o f the es s ential
.
. .
features that must be embod i ed in any de s ign of thi s type i s that the chances
of l eakage between each ce l l or it s equ i val ent s ha l l be reduced to a
minimum and that the form of the pas sages between the vanes shall be
,
80 THE T H EO R Y T AM TU RBIN E
o r T HE S E .
s uch that ex pans i on an d creat i on of ve l oc i ty in the steam s hal l on l y take

p l ace in the fi x e d p assages Th i s be i ng so it fo ll ow s that as there i s no
.
, ,
drop of pre s sure between the one end and the other of the moving
passage s i n any o n e ce ll the c l earance between the mov i ng vane s and the
,
casing is a matter of comparative l y small moment and may be of a comfort ,
able mag n i tude .
T he clearance between the fi x e d vanes and the rotor must however be , ,
reduc e d to a min i mum to prevent l eakage aris i ng from the di fference of pres
,
sure between the i n l et and outlet of those pas s ages .
I n m o st of the arrangement s of th is typ e the s e c l earance spaces

are brought down to the shaft wh i ch i s obv i ous l y the pos i t i on where ,
l eakage can best be reduced to a m i n i mum with the l e as t r i sk of dangerous

fou li n g On the other hand it leads to an obj ecti o nab l y fl im sy rotor
.
, .
A turbine of th i s type wa s des i g n ed and patented by Parson s in 1 8 90

( N o . The arra n gement i s somewhat unique i n be i ng rad i a l i nwar d
flow i n a parall e l s eries The construct i on of th i s turb i ne is shown i n

.
Fi g 8 0 E be i ng the fi x e d pas s ages or nozz l e s through w h ich the st eam

.
,
flows from the outer annu l us S The arrangement il lustrated has 1 3 ce ll s .

,
and it wi ll be observ ed that the on l y interce ll u l ar l eakage spaces are those

between the outsi de of the hubs r and the d i ap hragm p l ates .
There are many ob j ections to

th i s turb i ne the ch i ef being the
,
l arge contact surfaces for the li ve

fl o w and the com p arative costl i
ness I t was n ot further de
.
v e lo e d and has been aban d oned

p ,
in favour of the p resent ty p e of

Parson s turb i ne ( type M any
of t he deta i ls — bearings etc , .
however survive in a perfected

,
form to the p resent d ay .
T H E R AT E A U T U R
B I N E Professor Rateau has
.
-
arri ved at a very satisfactory

sol ut i on of type 1 i n the form of
a para ll e l fi o w turb i ne Fi g 8 1
-
. .
i l lustrates the e s se n t i a l mechan

ism of the Rateau turb i ne I n .
th i s form the on ly l eakage sp aces

from ce ll to ce ll are at the wheel
hub s as before .
The general co n struct i on and FIG 81 . .
arrangeme n t of parts is a l so i n di
cat e d in Fi g 8 2 wh i ch i ll ustrates a 3 7 5 k il o watt turb i n e (o n e of three )
.
,
i nstall e d at the Pe narroya m i n es in Sp a i n for e l ectr i c li ghti n g .
E ach ce ll d i a p hragm j i s made of th i n pl ates di shed s li ght l y c o nical , ,
and riveted to a hub an d r i m cast i n g wh i ch i s turned to fi t a reces s i n the ,
cas i ng Th e fi x e d vanes are i nserted i n o p en i ngs in the r i m these o pen i n gs

.
,
extend i ng p er i p heral ly as the p ressure becomes l ower The hubs are .
bu s hed with ant i fr i ct i on metal but have an easy c l eara n ce aroun d the ,
shaft Leakage from ce ll to cell can therefo re on l y occur through the

.
clearance at the hub .

82 THE T H E O RY OF T H E S E T AM T U RBIN E .
Some of the s tructural deta i ls above described have been m od ifi e d in more

recent des i gns T he th i n overhung flan ged rotor d i scs are not a l together
.
sat i sfactory being liabl e to d i stort an d v i brate l aterall y factors wh i ch l ead to

, ,
troub l e w i th the s ide c l earances and secur i ty of the vanes — the result be i ng
that s tr i pping or s hedd i ng of the vane s is unfortunate l y no t a l together
unknown .
The method of vane attachme n t and of d i s c construction adopted in

M essrs F razer dz Chal mers i m p rove d des i gn are shown i n Fi gs 83 and 2 1 4
’
. .
I t wi ll be observe d that each rotat i ng d i sc is fu ll y exposed to the

pressure i n its part i cular ce ll thus prese n t i ng a very l arge s urface for
,
‘
di s c fr i ct i on .
’
A cursory glance at the experi ment s with t h e D e Laval turbine (s ee

Chapter and at the genera l exper i ments on fl u id fr i ct i o n p rima facie , ,
i n duce d t he op i nion that the R ateau and k i ndred tur

b i n es m i ght suffer severe l y in economy by d i sc friction .
Th i s ap parentl y is not neces s ar il y the ca s e an d

, , ,
Pr o fessor R ateau states that i n turbine s of 1 000 to

2 000 H P th i s frict i on on l y amount s to about 2 or
. .
3 per cent of the maximum p ower . .
At the same t i me the contingency i s by no mean s ,
one to be ig n ored and i t is n ot d iffi c u l t to de si gn a ,
turb i ne that shall unsuspected l y demand a proh i bitive

degree of power to mere l y dr i ve it around There i s .
,
o r s hou l d b e li ttl e or no longitud i nal thrust i n this

,
ty p e of turb i ne s i nce the pressure i s the s ame on both

,
s id es of any one movi n g d i sc I n the case of the .
R ateau mar i ne turbine the l a s t four or fi ve row s of

vanes are not c o n fi n e d to se p arate cel l s but are mounted ,
on a common drum The two fl at s ides of thi s drum .
are therefore ex p osed to the pre ss ure at s ay the fourth , ,
row from the end and to the fi n al pre s sure re s p ectively ,
thu s produc i ng a certa i n longitud i n al thru st wh i ch i s ,
used to cou nterbalance the thru s t of the propeller .
FI G 83 Rat au Tu b m e e
A sma ll enr
d thrust must in any case occur i f there i s
( Frazer Chal m rs )
much l oss
e
of re
.
l at i ve ve l oc i ty through the vane pa ss age s ,
and it is a l so varied by the in l et and out l et vane

angles I n t he R ateau turb i ne these ang l es are usually the same
. .
The bear i ngs do not great l y differ from the ordinary con s truction of high
speed bear i ngs I n the earl y turb i nes both hearings were embod i ed in the
.
cas i ng covers and were them s e l ve s the gland s a s we l l L e akage of air

, .
through the l ow pre s sure bearing wa s p revented by mean s of an o il seal the

-
o il being forced in at a pressure of about 1 5 lbs per s quare inch Th i s . .
arrangement of bearing s ha s s ince been abandoned because leakage of oil ,
into the vacuum Sp ace and condenser became a s er i ous matter The bearings .
are now made ex t erna l to the cas i ng and the wel l known method of r i ng ,
-
l ubr i cat i on i s general l y adopted

T he F u ll ag ar T u rb in e —At the pre s ent moment thi s turbine i s not
.
being man uf actured but it i s c hie fl y intere s ting on account of its rad i ca l
,
di ff erence in constructional detai l from the R ateau and other turbines .
F ig 8 4 i ll u s trates the general arrangement of parts and F ig 1 9 7

.
,
.
,
page 207 s how s detai l s of the vanes E ach rotating and each fi x e d e l ement con
, .
s i s t s of a fl at p l ate l i ghtened out yet thick a s compared with the R ateau disc s
,
.
PR A CT I CA L TU RBIN ES . 83
The clearance between the fi x ed and moving plate s i s lar ge but at a con ,
v e n ie n t place near to the shaft the device illustrated in F ig 8 5 i s s ugge s ted

. .
.
d
A u
o e
c w
fl9 a?
n 5
d
s vE
d
m 5m d m8 s
a u a fi
t 8 w
a a o
n 2 fi
P a c
x 8 a o 8 o
m> m m0
o
E d o
P
i m a
2 .
5 x
.
. a
4
8
a
n
o
n
6
E S
m m 3
a $
w3
o
z d 2 5 e o
a u 2 m
fi
m 2 m
a
m m; 5 a m
v
y
m a o
a
fl 1 c
E
o 2 6
fi a
p
2
u
3 5 o
S
0 r 0 .
5 z m 5
é é é
P are thin s trip s of metal fi t t e d into ann u l ar groove s They have a .
m i n i mum clearance between their t i ps and the cont i guou s plate wh i ch move s
84 T HE T H E O RY o r T HE S E T AM T U RBIN E .
relatively to them A s wi ll be seen the arran gement is intended to bath e

.
,
the pas sage of steam and fur t her i t is c l a i med that in the event of any , ,
con si derabl e l ateral d i sp l acement of t he rotor i n the d i rection of fouling the ,
tip s of the th i n str i ps wou l d be immed i ate l y scored o ff w i thout do i ng any

damage to the turbine as a whol e .
E xper i ence shows ho w ever that at h i gh speed s such str i p b atfl e rs are
, ,
l i ab l e to s core astonishing l y d eep furrow s i n the abutment i n t he space of a

few minute s p art i cul arly if made of bras s and stee l respective l y .
—
,
T H E Z O E L LY T U R B I N E The deta il s of t h i s turbine are in .
ten d ed to differ from those j ust o utli ned The essent i al feature of the turb i ne .
as pate n ted ( Pat N o 1 8 9 7 9 of 1 89 9 ) cons i sts in the spoke l i ke co n s truction

. .
—
of the w heel s Th i s is ill ustrated in F ig 86
. . .
The vanes a are i n the form of s p okes th i ck at the hub an d taper i ng ,
to the proper vane shape at the p er i phery where the steam i mpinges By ,
.
S e c t io ns
FIG . 65 . FIG . 86 .
thi s method of construction the stresses due to centrifuga l force are it i s ,
c l a i med reduced to a m i nimum

, .
The vanes are al so stronger than those of un i fo rm se ction to resist the ,
bending moment due to the i m p u l se of the steam I t is cl a i med there .

,
fore that for a wheel of g i ve n diameter the work i ng d ep th of vane and

, , ,
the speed of rotat i on may safe l y be greater than for a turb i ne constructed for ,
examp l e on the R ateau p lan and the nu mber of stages may i n consequence
, ,
be l ess .
The patentee s however make no reference to the strength of the s i de d i sc s

, ,
wh i ch enshroud the whee l s u p to the i r work i ng zo n e W hatever may be the .
true theory of rotati n g d i scs the stresses set u p in these d i scs are meces
,
sarily high qu i te i n d epen d ent l y of the stresses due to exter n a l l o ad i n g ( that

,
is carry i ng the vane s and res i st i ng i m p u l se ) and wh i ch are i n most cases

, ,
comparat i ve l y smal l M oreover the stre ss e s wi ll certa i n l y not be reduced

.
,
by the i rregu l ar shape of the d i scs here i ll u s trated and m ay even be ,
ser i ousl y i ncreased .
Fig 86 has particu l ar reference to a s im pl e turbine but the con s truction

.
,
THE T H EO R Y T AM
OF T H E S E T U R BIN E
.
PR A CT I CA L T U RBIN ES . 87
rin gs l retain the complete s eries in place The outer ri ng f is retained .
rig i dly in it s prope r p l ace by the distance p iece s 1s which at the high pre ss ure -
,
-
end of the turbine extend over a considerable arc and gradual l y decrease to a ,
minimum width at the low pres s ure end -

.
The s team admission i s therefore partial as in the R ateau and F u llagar ,
turbines The d i aphragm s are in ha l ves the j oints being fl ush w ith the
.
,
cas ing j oin ts The top halve s are bolted to the ca si ng t0 p half and are
.
,
removable therewith .
All j oints are s craped t r ue s o that thick j ointing material i s unnece ssary
,
.
A s mall thrust bear i ng is fi t t ed to en s ure long i tudinal ad j us tment The .
bearings are external to the ca si ng and are ela s tic or r i g i d according as the
,
F1 0 8 9
. . Fl o 9 0 . .
a. Ste a1n pi pe . h . D is tan c e p ieces be tween vanes

-
.
val ve
l e gulati n g . Re ta i i g fl an g
n n n van es es o .
6 . Relay w rki regu la to r

for o ng .
j . Guid e o r n zz le va es o n .
d . W heel di sc s . 16 . D i sta n ce piec es be tw e groups f n ozzles

-
e n o .
e . D iaphragms . l . Guid e va e re tai i ng rings

n n .
f . out er ri n gs . 711 . Sl ots m w h ic h gu id e van e lugs are i nserted .
g . M ovi n g vanes . n. L ugs to fi t 1n t he sl o ts .
spe ed contemplated i s above or below the probable critical s pe ed of rotation .
Fc reed lubricati o n i s ap plied to the bearing s by mean s of a rotary pump .
The governor is of the throttle t ype and is described on p 2 7 0 , . .
F ig 9 1 is a s ection through the Z o e lly turbine gland The packing

. .
i ts elf i s s imilar in design to a we l l known p is to n rod pack i ng The packing

-
-
.
rings 6 are of special alloy and are a fl o at in g fi t in the carr i er r ings c The .
box i s water cooled an d the rings are l ubricated wi th cy l inder oil mo s t of

-
, ,
which i s s aid to pass away with the s ea li ng water admitted or di s charged

through d .
The divi s ion of a turbine of this typ e into two portion s a s s hown in F igs ,
.
8 2 and 8 8 i s not nece s sari l y a universal feature

, I n the cas e of the d is c .
bu ilt turb ine it depend s largely upon the number of s tages s pe ed and , ,
diamete rs and in general the length of the turb ine or an inte gral port i on of
, ,
it is determined by the que s tion s of fi abb in e ss and cri tical spe ed ( see
,
88 THE T H E O RY OF T H E S E T AM T U RBI NE .
Chapter A very l ow c riti

X V III )
cal s p eed of revo l ut i on desirable ,
in order to m i nim i se vibrat i on and

r i sk of damage by its violence ,
i nvol ve s a l arge i n i tial sag of the

shaft but at above the er i ti
cal s p eed the shaft p ract i ca ll y
stra i ghten s itsel f and there must
,
therefore be a l arge c l earance i n

the diaphragm bushes in or d er to
meet both con d i t i o s On the
n .
o ther ha d l arge bush c l earances

n ,
can l ead an d i n fact have l ed to

, ,
ser i ous wh i ppi g at the cr i t i cal

n
s p e ed .
The tende n cy i n modern design

is therefore to i ncrease the size o f
the shaft i n such a w ay as to
—
F I G 9 1 Z oelly T urbi e Gl a d m i n i m i se i f not who ll y avoid the
n n
, ,
troub l e with cr i t i ca l speeds The

. .
.
mechanical conditions of the mu l ti—s tage turb i ne are obv i ous l y qu i te di fferent
from those obta i ning in the
D e Laval turbine .
THE ST U MPF
T U R B I N E — ( Typ e
The S tumpf turbine p revi ,
o u sly referred to as a si mp l e
turb i ne ( p age has been

com p oun d e d i n the man n er
of ty p e 1 a l thou gh it ha s
,
fewer stages than the Rateau

and other ty p es h i gh p eri,
h e ral ve l oc i t i e s s t ill be i ng
p
reta i ned .
Fi g 9 2 i ll ustrates an ar
.
rangement w i th four s tages ,
comb i ne d w i th an e l ectr i cal

generator overhead an d a
centr i fu ga l j et condenser
below .
Leakage of steam b e
tween the s tage s wh i ch
have a much greater di ffer
ence of pressure than in t he
R ateau and other mu l t i
staged var i eties of ty p e 1
— i s re d uced to a min i mum
by fl oat in g s l eeves wh i ch fi t ,
the shaft a s a bearing but ,
are not true bear i ngs .
The main bear i n g is

the large one b etween the F I G 92 —Stum p f C mp oun d I mpul se Turbi e ( Ty pe
, . . o n
90 THE 1 11 a
1
11 o r T HE S E T AM T U RBIN E .
stage s ( not a l way s easy in the d i sc bui l t ty p e part i cu l arly in s mall s izes ) and
-
, ,
the greater s t i ffness of rotor .
T he l atter two factors to gether with the e lim 1 n at 1 o n of the greater part of
0
d i sc friction practicall y cou n terbalance the greater ce ll leakage l o ss e s

,
.
Up to the present a com p l ete drum built turbine of type 1 doe s not -
ap p ear to have been made but the feature ha s been embodied in some
,
hybri d turb i nes the M e lms—

,
Pfe n ni ge r— S ank ey turbine in one form of ,
which the h i gh —pressure stages are of the d rum bui l t im p ulse type and -
the l atter stages of the react i o n ty p e ( typ e and i n the turb i n es m ad e

by M essrs B e ll i s s dz M o rco m and d es i gned by the author where the fi rst
, ,
s tage is of ty p e 2 and the re

m ain d e r of type 1 drum— bui l t ,
.
S ome deta il s of construct i on of

the l atter are s hown in Fi g s .
early his T YPE 2 .

— The
tory of thi s type ha s been
out li ned in Chapter II The .
author i s not aware that it had

ever got beyond the stage of
suggest i on unt il quite recent l y .
The type has however received , ,
c l o s er attention of late although ,
with no great promise of s u cces s

compared with that of other
types ; and after a considera ,
t i on of the gen eral diagram e fii

c ie n c ie s g i ven further o n it w ill ,
be s een t hat there i s not much

chance of the type su rv1 v1 n g .
S angu i ne inventor s s ti ll ,
however continue to take out ,
patents on the same l ines

and possib l y with a more per ,
feet el i m i n at i on of the many

FI G ~
95A FI G 9 5B s ources of economy d e fi cie n c ie s
.
,
Detail s of Terry s T rbi e ’

u
the type may attain a ce rtai n
n .
degree of co mm e rc 1 al u t1 l1 ty ,
a l thou gh th i s i s very doubtfu l indeed for large s i zes * .
I n very s mall s i zes there appear s to be a certa i n fi e ld of util i ty for the

type where economy i s unimpor t ant where s pace i s l im i ted and w here the
, , ,
.
on l y practicable alternative is the D e Laval turbine which though far more , ,
economical is often not convenient

,
.
Oi the s e s mal l turbine s that of the T e rry Co Hart ford U S may be noted .
, ,
. .
, .
The character i stic feature s are i l lu s trated in F igs 9 5 9 5A 9 5 B I t has only .

, ,
.
one wheel the ste am being returned as many time s a s it can to the same row
,
of buckets The latter are of the 0pen type and the novelty main l y l i e s
.
‘ ’
,
in the method of con s tru ction .
The buckets b are made of s teel stampings packed together to the proper ,
angle and he l d in p l ace by the si de p l ate s The s ides of the buckets are .
Fo r d esc ri p t i on o f o th er small turb i n es on the mark e t se e Paper ,
G A Orrok , 1 9 09
. . .
PRA CT I CA L TU RBIN ES . 91
s l i ghtl y curved s o t hat the p a ss age for the steam is of con s tant width in
,
ste ad of tapering as for i n stance in the S tumpf turb i ne ( F ig

, , ,
The .
s te am fi n ally escapes by t h e ho l e h and thence to the exhaust p i pe

A few of the leading d i m ensions are a s follow s —W heel 2 feet diameter
, .
7 0 bucket s 2 4 inche s wide 1 inch pitch 3 0 hors e power with 1 45 lbs s team
, ,
-
.
,
non conden s ing 2 600 revo l ution s periphera l speed 2 6 0 feet per s econd con
-
, , ,
s umption s tated to be 32 l b s per B H P s peed condensing 3300 revolutions

. . . .
,
peripheral s peed 3 3 0 feet per second steam consump t i on not publ is hed , .
O ther s i ze s made have 1 2 1 8 36 and 4 8 inch whee l s and the number of

, , , ,
nozzles varie s from 2 on the 1 2 inch to 8 or 1 0 on the 48 inch wheel .
A ttention may conven i e n tl y be here drawn to another ob j ection to thi s

method of compou n d i ng when applied to the s ame wheel The greater the .
number of return s the

s team make s the lowe r,
is the peripheral velocity

possib l e and the l ower
the peripheral velocity ,
the les s opportunity the

s team ha s for re fl e c t ion
into an ad j oining bucket
to that from which it
i s sued .
F or in s tance ( see
F ig. for an in i tia l
s team velocity of 3000
and a bucket of peri
p he ral veloc i ty of 3 00
( giving theoretically fi ve
stages of four return s ) ,
the bucket cannot pro

c e e d further than a dis
tance equal to 1 7 4 of
its diameter during the
progres s of the steam
through the fi rst stage .
I n Other words the , F I G 96 E l ec tra T urbin e ( Ty pe . . .
pitch of the bucket s

s hould not exceed 1 7 4 time s the diameter of the bucket or 4 35 inch in
°
the Terry turbine i f mixing of the fi rst—

, s ta ge and s econd s tage s team i s to -
be avoided N either for the s ame reason s hou l d the nozzle width be greater
.
, ,
than the maximum al l owable p i tch .
I t may be u rged that it doe s not matter much if the two s tream s do mix .
I nform ation is certa i nly wanting on this point but it doe s not appear con ,
d uc iv e to be s t economy to deliberate l y cau s e s tream s moving with differen t

velocities to mix e s pecial l y when it i s practi cal l y impo ss ible to make adequate
,
provi s ion for the variation s in bulk eh rou te .
The above di ffi cu lt y ha s led to a development of the old W ilson de si gn ,
F ig 1 9 but natu rall y with a les s ambitiou s degree of compound i ng F ig 96

i s a s ection through a t wo—
. .
,
.
s tage E lectra turb i ne which is compounded for

‘ ’
velocity three time s in eac h s tage ( inc l uding the nozzle s tream ) Single s tage .
-
va riet i e s are made where the compound i ng for ve l oc i ty i s fourfol d .
The compounding of the S t u m p f turbine to type 2 ha s been the s ub j ect

92 T HE T H E O RY o r THE S E T AM TU RBIN E .
o f Seve ral pate n ts , p r i n c i pall y

d i rected towar d s the a t tai n men t of a variable
s p eed o f revo l ut i o n suitable for marine purposes The i dea of the variab l e .
s pe ed c om p ound turb i ne 18 a s fo ll ows :

N egl ecting foi the moment the a n gl e the buckets make with the tangent
to the wheel l n the plane of the whee l that 1 s assuming the ideal ca s e of the , ,
Pe l ton bucket it is obviou s that th e veloc i ty of the bucket re l ative to the

,
absol ute in l et and exit ve l ocit i es ( in d i rection ) of the steam may be of an y

magnitude and i n al l ca s e s entry wi l l be w i thout impact (o f theorem I and
,
.
without the i mmed i ate con s equent l os s by spi ll ing .
F or insta n ce s uppose the inlet or nozzle velocity to be 3000 and t he

,
bucket speed 5 00 the exit ve l ocity wou l d be 3 000 2 000 Or t he .
bucket Sp eed m ay b e say 1 000 the ex i t vel oc i ty i s then 3 000

, ,
1 000 and the ex i t stream ha s prec i se l y the same direction in either case
,
.
The maximum veloc i ty of whee l i s attained when there i s on l y one s tage

( theorem in which case the bucket speed v= and v4 0 for maximum
e fli c ie n cy N o w su pp o se gu i de buckets A .
, ,
Fi g 9 7 be added so that a second wheel 6 .

,
may be u s ed ; in thi s case for a ll the k i netic ,
energy to be used 1) wi ll be 1 111 and w e hav e , ,
u = 3 000
l ( s ay ) 3000 f
inlet
s peed to 0 .
I f v i s requ i red to be less still a third ,
F ix ed
whee l 0 and guide B may be a d ded thus we
may have 5 00 and 3 00 0 v to b 2 000
V a es n
11
1
01
.
; ,
Bucke ts 11 1 to c 1 000 and ex i t ve l oc i ty 0
. .
N e gle c t in g losse s in transit the e ffi c ie n cy ,
is 1 in each case and a variety of inter ,
me d iate bucket ve l ocit i e s might be adopted

without greatly impairing the economy and ,
the arrangement would be generall y more s uit

N o zzle ab l e for marine purp oses than other form s of
.
turb i n e for which at l ower s p e e d s than that

FI G 97 .
for which they are des i gned the co n sumption

.
,
is n otoriously bad .
The idea is ingeniou s and forms the basi s of several pat e nts by Stumpf
, ,
but unfortunate l y the practica l reali sation of the idea is h i ndered by s everal
, ,
d iffi c u l t ie s .
I n the place open buckets of the Stumpf form are even more d isap
fi rs t ,
po i nting for compound i ng for veloc i ty tha n c l osed vane passages on account of ,
the breaking up of th e s tream so that s p illi ng becomes exce s s i ve after the fi rst
,
stage an d more than n u llifi e s the b e n e fi t ar i s i ng from the addit i on al stages

, .
S econd l y entry and exit are not tan gential a s i n the idea l case and there
, , ,
fore nozz l es and gu i de buckets set t o de li ver and rece i ve the stream for one
s et of conditions are not s u i tab l e for another .
The diagram e ffi c ie n cy for this ty p e of b u cket is as a matter of fact les s , ,
than the e ffi c ie n cy for c l o s e d va n es ( parall e l flow ) under s i m il ar angu l ar

cond i tions and not greater as i s s o often a s sumed Thi s is s hown in further
, , .
detail on page 1 33 .
S tum p f ha s devoted considerab l e attention to the re uti li sat i on of the -
s team j et s on the s ame wheel Fi g s 9 8 and 9SA ill us trate the arrange . .
ment for single U buckets and Fi g s 9 9 and 99 A for doub l e U or Pe l ton

,
.
buckets .
94 T HE T H E O RY T AM T U R B I N E
OF T HE S E .
CB that of the wheel buckets and D A that of the exi t stream from t h e wheel
,
bucket and the inc li nat i on of the gu id e p assage entrance N e gl ect i ng l osses
set—
.
,
'
ofi Ba = D A Then a B i s the inclinat i on of the gui de p a ss age exit

.
neces sary to conduct the s tream moving with a ve l oc i ty a B into bucket s ,
inc li ned a s A C wh i ch move with a ve l oc i ty 0 B Se e also p age 1 3 2

,
. .
The resu l t therefore is that a rather awk ward twist is required in the
,
guide p assage s o that its incl i nat i on D A at one end may be changed to an
,
i nc l inat i on a B at the other The necessary twist become s s till more awkward
. .
for a s econd re fl e c t io n .
D ue regard ha s al so to be taken to the progress i on of the bucket during

the trans i t of the s tream through the moving buckets to wh i ch at t ention has ,
been drawn on page 9 1 for the ca s e of non twis ted buckets and guides
,
-
.
The ch i ef ob j ection s to any tw i sted arrangements are that very long

p assages are r e quired from step to step a feature that always involve s ,
l o ss of energy and furt her that t he steam s upp l y ha s necessarily to be

, ,
given from i solated nozz l e s of a very smal l per i phera l range ( a s compared
with the D e Lava l even ) in s tead of from a ser i es of nozzle s that a s it
, , ,
were d i scharge a contin u ous ,
s heet of s team t o the wheel .
W hate ver be the arrange

ment it i s neverthele ss a fact ,
that the l os s by sp illi ng i s in ,
any arrangement devi s ed u p

to the prese n t a far greater ,
evil than can be cured by

resorting to a geometrica ll y
accurate p rogress i on of angl e s
of the above ty p e .
The p rob l em of re ut il isa -
F I G 1 00 . tion of the steam on the same

.
wheel has however a con , ,

S i d e rable fasc m at i o n and there may yet be room for improvement in th i s
,
d i rect i on I t w i ll however be as we ll to e n sure that the device is not

.
, ,
thus rendered more cost l y than the preferab l e a l ter n at i ve arrangement of

hav i ng an extra whee l .
P
TY E 3 —. T H E C U RT I S T U R B I N E i s at present the chief
representat i ve of th i s type the bas i s p ate nt being N o 1 9 2 4 7 of 1 8 9 6 The
, . .
A merican manufacturers are the G eneral E l ectric Cc of S chenecta d y and in .

, ,
th i s country the B r i tish Thom s on Houston Co M any co n struct i onal detai ls .
have been recent l y patented and the patent matter general l y i s more volum i nous
,
than that of an y other turbine extant — certa i nly too much so for adequate
de s cript i on here The rea d er is referred to the l ist of p atent s pec i fi cations
.
be l ow shou l d he de si re to make himse l f further acqua i nted w i th the sub j ect *

, .
P RA CT I CAL TU RBIN ES . 95
The Curtis turb i ne i s — for l aud purposes — a l mo s t excl us ively of the vertical
type and the G eneral E lectric Co a p pear to be the pioneers in practica ll y
,
.
ad opting this form for the s te am turb i ne .
N o doubt habit ha s had m uch to do with the association and deve l opmen t
of the many inventions in the hori zontal form and the advantage s of the ,
ve rtical system have been somewhat o verlooked The i dea is of co u rs e n o t .

, ,
novel in itself and in the wate r turbine the vertical arrangement i s a s a

, ,
matter of fac t m ore com mon than the hor i zontal

,
.
The vertical arrangement i s natura l ly not ve ry suitable for turb i nes

of types 1 and 4 requiring a large nu mber of s tages but wi t h typ e s 2
, ,
and 3 the fe w add i tional advantages obtainable by its mean s have i nduced
the maker s of the Curti s turbine to adopt it in preference to the ho rizontal
arrangement The following advan tage s may be enumerated
.
.1 E li mination of s haft sag due to the weight of the turb i ne wheel s ;

,
.2 T here is only one heavily l oaded bearing — the footstep

.3 E l i mination of d i sto rtion of the ca si ng from the tendency to col l apse ,
under it s own weight

.4 G eneral compactnes s of de s ign
.5 Comparatively small fl oo r space occupied and con s equent s mall co st ,
of foundation s .
The advantage of greater access ibi li ty that is claimed is large l y a matter

of op i nion and al s o depends on the room and the tackle avai l able
, .
Am ong the d i sad vantages are

.1 F ind i ng a s imp l e s olution of t he foots tep bearing problem -
.2 The great tota l height involved with the generator direct l y coupled
.3 A greater danger zone in case of rac i ng
.4 Po s sib ili ty of damage to the dynamo i n case of the top s t u fiin g— box
blowing
.5 Po s s i b ili ty of o il fi n d in g its way in to the dynamo from the t 0 p
h earing .
I n smal l si zes particu l arly for direct current generator s t he horizontal

, ,
arrangement is now adopted the ve rt i cal be i ng rather top heavy and in

,
-
conven i ent .
The fo o t st e p b e aring F ig 1 01 i s one of the most in tere s ting feature s of

, .
,
the turbine To make a reliab l e footstep hearing has always been a d iffi c u lt
.
problem but the d iffi c u lty is much increa s ed by the h i gh speed of rotation
,
demanded for the s team turbine The surface foots te p bearing under the .
,
condit i on s i mpo s ed appears to be poss i b l e only with high pres s ure fo rc e d

,
-
lu b ric at io n I n the Curtis turbine the pres s ure of the lubricant ( water
.
or oil ) i s s uch that the whol e we i ght i s borne on a fi lm forced between

the t wo cast— iron foots tep bl ock s The pres s ure of the lubrica n t var i e s from
.
about 1 7 5 lbs per s quare inch for a 5 00 kilowatt turbine to about 9 00 lb s

. .
per square inch for a 5 000 kilowatt turbine The maker s also state that the .
q uantity of oi l — wh en oil is u s ed — varies from about 5 gal l on per m i nute to

4 gal l on s re s pectively A fte r escapi n g from the foots tep blocks the lubricant
.
,
p sse s t hro u gh the bearing i mm e diate l y above and e s capes by the channel at
tfie s i d 6
.
The midd l e and top bearing s above are fed at a lower pres s ure which in ,
one arrangement i s the gravitational head from a s mal l overhead tank

sup pl i ed from the ma i n s y s tem W hen oil i s u s ed for lubrication the
.
,
re s ervoir tank is fi t te d w i th a water cooling apparatu s -
A mixture of oil and wate r has been tried b u t troub l e ari s es from the ,
96 T HE T H EO RY o r T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
fo rmation of a pas ty emu l sion A heavy lubr i cating oil ha s proved the be s t
.
medium so far as l ubr i cation goes

,
.
Un l ess the g l and p ( ge n eral ly of carbon ) i s perfectly ti ght the

thrower t doe s not p revent a certa i n amount of oil be i n g sucked i nto the
turb i ne by the vacuum and it is for this rea s on that e fforts have been
,
d i rected to a s uccessfu l use of water or of oi l and water in pre ference

, ,
to o il alone.
An advocate has s tated that when the l ubricant supply h as fa il ed no ,
seriou s consequences to the footstep bearing have re s u l ted The surfaces .
have s imp l y s cored and ground away but in the fe w minute s that have, ,
F IG . 1 01 .
-
F oo ts tep Beari ng— Curti s Turbine .
u s ually elapsed before e i ther the turb i ne ha s been brou ght to rest or t h e
supp l y renewed the damage ha s not been such as to cause long i tud i nal
,
fou li ng between the vane s On renew i n g the l ubricat i o n the footste p

.
,
gets to work again w i thout troub l e Al though s uch circum s tance s natur
.
ally cause anx i ety this footstep h ear i ng ha s certa i n l y proved its e l f a
,
re li ab l e j ob
.
The oil or water pump i s separate l y driven either by steam or an electro

motor a s conve n ient and not from the turb i ne itself a s i s the common practice
, ,
for most other turb i ne s .
“
To p revent the turbine being run either by s team or throu gh the
generator acting a s a moto r before o il beg i n s to flow in the step hear i ng or ,
i n case the fl o w s hou l d cease whi l e the turbine is running an automat i c o il ,
fl o w s witch is placed in the high pres s ure oil —s upp l y pi pe T hi s s witch is

°
-
.
98 T HE T H E O RY OF T HE S E T A M T U RB I N E .
for about a quarter of an hour s su p l y i s so m e tim e sadd e d to the

’
su ffi c ie n t p ,
sy s tem in cas e of a breakdown of the pumps and a s pare pump i s often ,
i nsta l led as wel l .

”
The troub l e entailed by s o comp l icated an arrangement i s s er 1 ou s but ,
FI G . 1 03 — De tail of urti s 4 Stage T urbi n

C -
with greater ex p er i e n ce s ome degree of simp lifi c at io n wi ll it i s antic i pate d , ,
become poss i b l e .
Fi g 1 02 represents a general sect i on thr o u gh a 4 stage Curtis turbine

.
-
comb i ned w i th e l ectr i c generator Fi g 1 03 is an en l arged sect i on of t he

. .
turb i ne F ig 1 04 ill ustrates the general arrange m ent of a 2 000 ki l owatt

. .
turb i ne and accessor i es F ig 1 05 i s a d i agrammat i c sketch of the nozzle s

. .
E x trac t from a paper b y M r Samuel s on

PRA CT I CA L TU RBIN ES . 99
and vane s in the fi rst two s tages The identity of this arrangement with
.
that on page 6 1 will at once be recogni s ed S e e al s o F ig 1 66

. . .
.
2 —
F ig 1 07 is a s ection through a s mal l s tage non conden s ing turbine of
-
about 1 6 0 H P
. .
Fl o 1 04
.
— 2 000 Kwt . urt i s Turbine and Au xiliaries
C .
The in l e t n o z z l e s are cas t in s ections ( Fig and each nozz l e of the

.
fi rst stage i s under the contro l of a s e p arate va l ve wh i ch in turn i s operated

,
by the go ve m o r throu gh a relay F or s mal l un i ts the nozzle s are d rilled

.
and fi n ishe d from the so li d .

1 00 T HE T H EO RY o r T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
G o v e rn ing is e ffected by varying the number of nozz l e s in operation ,
and the steam thus always operates w i th approx i mately the s ame head . Thi s
St e am C he s t .
No z z fe
M vi g B l ad
o n es
S t ti y B l d
a o nar a es
M i g Bl d
ov n a es
z z le i
D ap h ragm
ld
M o v mg B a es
S i ry
tat o n a
Bl d a es
M i g Bl d
ov n a es
FIG . 1 05 .
system of governing gives with thi s type of turbine a better economy at light
l oa d s than can be effecte d by s imp l e throttli ng .
The ch i ef drawback to a mu l t i —contro l of the Curtis type is the great com

p l ication of mechan i sm an d the number of p arts al though i t must be adm i tted ,
FI G . 1 06 .
—N ozz l e s of C urti s T urbi ne .
that the whol e s ystem i s in gen i o usly designed and that it fu lfils it s dutie s w i th ,
prec i sion when a ll 1 8 i n good work i n g order .
The w h e e l s are of ca s t s tee l turn e d a ll over and mounted on the s haft

, ,
with taper ht s .
The v an é s for the s mall er s i zes are mi l led out from the s ol id for the
1 02 THE T H E O RY o r 1 11 1: T AM
S E RBIN E
TU .
history of the s team turb i ne a ,
brief outline of it s development

wi l l be of sp ecial interest .
The pre s ent Par s ons turbine ,
like most succe ss ful i nven ti ons ,
was not the production of a day ,
but the outcome of much patient

study exper i ment and enterpr is e
, ,
on the part of its inventor .
The turbine proper of the

orig i nal Parsons des i gn Fi gs 1 08 , .
and 1 09 was a very cr ude a ffair

,
i ndeed much more s o indeed

,
than many proposal s of earlier

inventors .
The moving vane s and blade s

were cut from the s olid and the ,
discs threaded on to the shaft and

in the ca s ing re spectively as illus
t rat e d
. Steam entered at the
middle by a di s tributing annu l u s ,
and proceeded in opposite d ire c

tion s to the exhaust ends the ,
double arrangement be i ng for the

p u r ose of el i minat i n g e n d thrust .
he import ance of thi s turb i ne

l ay not s o much i n the above
detai l s but in the several in
,
ge n io u s devices that l argely con

tr i buted to it s s ucce ss as a
workable mach i ne .
E l ast ic b e aring s were ap

p li ed for the fi rst t i me in the
hi s tory of the t u rbine as i t was ,
reali s ed that ab s ence of V ibrat i o n

could be better secured by a ll ow
i ng the rotor to revo l ve abou t it s
centre of grav i ty than about i ts
geometric centre ( which natura ll y , ,
hard l y ever co i nc i ded i n p ractice ) ,
than by r esort i ng to mass i ve an d

r i gid abu t ments etc ,
.
The orig i n a l device a s patented

i s s hown in Fi g 1 1 0 . .
The en d s of the shaft are

encased in bushe s i k k are
’
rings alternate l y fi tt in g the bush

and the casing an d pressed to ,
gether by the s p r i ng I and the

nut m The s mal l l ateral c l ear
.
ance thu s given allows the rotor

the necessary play but undue
.
,
PRA CTI CA L TU RBIN ES . 1 03
movement i s re s i s ted by the general

frict i on of the rings on one another
and by the viscosity of the lubricant .
The hearing s were al so fo rc e "
lu b ri c at e d by means of a s cre w
pump and the o i l was rai s ed up to th is
,
pum p by the vacuum created in the

s tand pipe by the fan t ( Fi g .
The fan was al s o used a s part of

the govern i ng apparatus the vacuum ,
being app li ed to one side of a piston

which acted on the throttle valve by a
rod and lever The degree of vacuum .
being dependent on the s peed of rota

tion wa s thu s made a governing
,
agent .
The fi rst turbine made in 1 88 4

was of about 1 0 hors e — power The .
diameter of t he drum was about

3 inche s and had a s peed of
,
revolut ion s per minute Thi s turbine .

,
aft e r working sati s factorily for severa l

years has fo und a re s t i ng place in the
,
-
South K ensington M useum .
E x p an s io n of the s team was

arran ged for by progre ss ive l y d e c re as
ing the angl e of the vane s to a l imited
extent and by the somewhat happy—
, go
lucky increa s e in the veloc i ty through
the passage s .
L e ak ag e over the tips of t he

vane s was reduced by the sy s te m of
bevelling as will be s een in the
,
s ection .
Leakage of s team ( the turbine

di s charging at
or about at
m osp he ric pre s
s ure ) to the
outs i de of the
ca s ing was prevented by the small
e j ector p fi t t e d in the drain pock et .
This turbine however did not , ,
adequately expand the s team con s i s t

ently with the s peed of the vanes ,
part i cularly if working condensing .
Pars on s next patent N o 5 3 1 2 of

’
, .
1 8 8 7 provided for a better exp ans ion

,
by increasing the d i amete r of the

drum s towards the exhau s t end a s at ,
C E G F ig 1 1 1
, , ,
The p ass ages F
. .
are for the purpo s e of ensuring end

1 04: T HE T H EO RY O F T HE S E T AM T U RB I N E .
balance F urther details accompany i ng th i s patent relate to

. s h aft p ac k ing
to prevent a i r l eakage into the vacuum sp aces Fi g 1 1 2 , . .
FI G . 1 10 .
S teamabove atmo s pheric p ress ure or water from the hotwell was supp l ied
, ,
to the annular chamber i s o that a water seal was i ntroduced between the
,
FIG . 111 .
atmosphere and the vacuum s p ace and any l eakage in e i ther direction through
,
the g l and w o u l d consi s t of water and not a i r

, .
FIG . 112 .
Thi s device in an im p roved form surv i ves to the pre s ent day but the ,
steam that is used for the p urpose is that wh i ch e s cap es from the governor
re l ay cyl i nder and which would otherwi s e be wasted
,
.
1 06 T HE T H EO RY 0 11 T HE S E T AM T U RBIN E .
Patents N os 1 4 9 94 of 1 8 9 0 5 07 4 and 1 09 40 of 1 8 9 1 revert to the

.
, ,
ordinary type ( 4) of Parson s turb i ne but w i th a radial fl ow var i ety , .
The turb i n e representat i ve of the latter patent is s hown i n F ig 1 1 5 B . .
are the r o tating discs carry i ng vanes arran ged a l ternate l y to vanes on the fi x e d
,
disc s C etc T he S paces f are for reheating the partiall y expanded s team by
, .
h i gh pressure s team E i s a b al an c e o r d u m my d ru m for balanc i ng end

-
.
pressure To prevent e s ca p e of s team past th i s d ru m an d at the same t i me to

.
,
avo i d a frictional contact which is very un d es i rable at the hi gh ve l oc i ty of a

turb i ne the per i phery of the drum ha s a serie s of coll ars a formed upon it
, ,
wh i ch are inter s paced between si m i lar collars on the i n terior of the bal ance
cy l inder » The faces b are serrated i n order to choke the p assage of steam .
An i m p roved govern i n g arra n gement i s de s cribed i n N 0 1 09 40 In . .
the s e i m p rovements the d i rect act i ng soleno i d core of N o 1 1 2 0 i s replaced .
by an e l ectr i cal re l ay system i n or d er to obtain a greater power and ,
s ensitivene ss fo r mov i ng the throttle val ve .
M any other p atents relat i ng to the Parson s turbine have s ince been granted ,
but they mo s tl y refer to arrangements and comb i nat i on s of turb i ne p l ant

general l y Thos e relating to con s truct i onal detai ls of vanes are ill u s trated in
.
Cha p ter X I .
T H E M O D E RN P A R SO N S T U R B I N E i s natural l y an e volu
tion from a l l the best p oint s of the variou s preced i n g typ es .
Al l rad i al ho w arrangement s have been d i scarded i n favour of the paral lel

fl ow typ e the origina l doub l e s elf ba l anced arra n gement has princ i pa l ly on
“
account of the unman ageab l e length i nvolved and the inferior economy of
s mal l turbi n e s ( the comp lete turb i ne being composed of two turb i ne s of one
hal f the fu l l capac i ty ) been d i sp l aced by the s i ngl e turbine t he unbalanced
, ,
pre ss ure bein g taken by balance drum s These drums however are troub l e .
, ,
s o me in e i ther l eaking excess i ve l y or else foul i ng and we arin g away the collar s
, ,
and a l though accurate workmansh i p m i tigates the trouble cons i derab l y there ,
i s undoubted ly room for a more sat is factory sol ut i on of the balanci n g problem .
The foll owing point s re l at i ng to the pre s ent manufacture of the Parson s
turbine may be noted
The general method of making the vane s and of holding them in place i s
as i l lustrated in Fi g 1 9 1 page 2 04
.
, .
F or the longer vanes toward s the exhaust end of the turbine the wired ,
o n s hroud i ng Fi g 2 00 is adopted to g i ve greater i nte gral s ecur i ty and not

, .
, ,
w i th the idea of restraining the s tream from sp read i ng over the t i ps a ,
condit i on that doe s not requ i re s pecia l con siderat i on s i nce the clearance mu s t ,
be a minimum
The vanes at the h i gh pre s sure end p articu l arly whe n s uperheated steam
-
i s used are of hard roll ed cop p er and are not usuall y shrouded ; the re
, ,
m ain d e r of the vanes are of bra ss the u s ual comp osit i on being 6 3 per cent
,
.
copper and 3 7 per cent zinc . .
The d i ametral clearance i s said to vary from about at the h p end .
t o T §— — inch at the l end and nat u ra ll y increa s es w i th the s ize of the

.
go p . .
,
turbine The axia l clearance s are of comparat i vely s ma l l import ance and are
.
,
u s uall y about inch but are as much a s 1 55 inch for vanes on l y g i nch w i de
,
in marine turb i nes where the long i tud i n al adj ustment i s li able to d i sturbance .
I n cases where the ant i cipated economy i s not reali sed at fi rst adj ust ,
ment i s somet i me s g i ven by tw i sting the vane s round a l i ttle by a han d

wrench This alters t he e ffective area and the ratio ‘ ’
A fter the ~
. .
vanes are in p l ace the com p l ete drum is p l aced in the lathe and
,
P RA CT I CA L T U RB I N ES .
1 07
THE T H EO RY O F T HE S E T AM T URB l N E .
the tips o f the vanes dre ss ed up true A ny s li ght distort i on given during .
th i s o p eration is aga i n corrected by the use of the wrench ment i oned above .
I n the l atest construct i ons with unshrouded vanes the tips are thinned down ,
as shown i n Fi g 2 09 a feature wh i ch cons iderab l y m i n i mise s the risk of

.
,
strip p i n g .
The col lar s on the balance pi s ton are cut from the solid but i n the ,
FI G 1 1 6
. .
— Parso n s Balan ce FI G 1 1 7. .
—Parson s E last ic Sleeve Beari ng .
P i st on Packi n
g .
cy l inders are of s heet bra ss m ade in segments and brazed into turned grooves .
The who l e is then turned up true Fi g 1 1 6 s how s a deta il of bal ance drums
. .
in common use .
G reat care i s exerc i sed in boring the casing and inter n al strains which ,
tend to create di s tort i on are eli m i nated as far as poss i ble by the we ll—known p ro
ce s s of preli m i nary break i ng d own distort i on under h e at is further reduced
-
by heat i ng the cas ing with s team between the machining operation s .
The j oints of the casing are scraped true and the j o i nt i ng material ,
genera ll y cons i sts of a th i n graph i t i c paint

or mast i c cement and varnish .
The el ast i c bearing sleeves Fi g 1 1 7 ar ,

.
,
of bronze and the c l earance between the

,
s leeve s i s about inch each F or large .
turbines that run at a lower speed of revo

l u t io n than about 1 2 00 per minute ela s t i c
b e aring s are unneces s ary and are rep l aced ,
by bearings of the ordinary construction ,
wh i te meta l li n ed and s omet i mes spher i cal ly

-
s eated .
The g l and s are cons tructed s i m il ar l y to FI G 1 1 8

the dummy p i s ton s ; collars are turned on
a s leeve fi t t e d on to the s haft and i n the cast iron bush are made of s heet
,
-
bra s s s tr i ps let into grooves The coll ars are generall y of a littl e heavier
.
s ection than those on the p i ston s Fig 1 1 8 shows a g l and of th is type . . .
M any other arrangements of l abyri nth packing for the gl ands have been
made F ig 1 1 9 ill u s trates one in which the fi x e d coll ars are rep l aced by
. .
Ram sbottom rings thus render i ng the packing indep en d ent of a more or less
,
un k nown re l at i ve long i tud i nal expansion of the roto r and casing The ma i n .
obj ection to thi s dev i ce is that i t i s onl y s uitable for a small difference of
pressure between ring and ring whereas it i s on l y when the total drop of ,
pre ss ure i s le ss than the critica l drop that there i s a gradual diminution of
110 1 11 11 T H E O RY T AM TU RBIN E
OF T HE S E .
6 5
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m
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s
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c
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8 5 a m fi fi
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9 c m c
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a
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e
.
P RAC TICA L TU RB I N ES . 111
Pars on s turbi n e is not made ad j us table (see page I t nevertheless has

given fair satisfaction i n worki n g especial l y W ith large diameters ( bei n g
,
sometime s u sed for balan ce pis tons as for example i n F 1 g 1 2 1 where an

, ,
auxil iary balan ce is sho wn ) and when the l ongitudina l motio n is u nce rtai n .
I t is also u s eful as a pre li minary to a s mal l s eries of R amsbotto m rings by

reli eving the rings of a portion of the f ull differenc e of pre s sure The leakage .
over the fi n coll ars i s trapped 0 11 at a suitable pressur e leaving the Rams ,
-
botto m rings which can be practically steam or air tight with only a s mall
, ,
and workable differen c e of pressure to deal with .
The thrust block ( for residua l o u t— o f—

balance ) is constructe d in a s im i lar
m ann e r The top half of the sleeve i s arra n ged to prevent the roto r from
.
s urging in the dire c tion op p osite to the preva il ing d i rection of t hrust and its ,
pos it i on to a few thousandths of an i n ch is not of mu c h importan ce .
The bottom half of the sleeve takes the prevailing res idu al thrust ( the
halves are therefore not exactly i n register ) an d is carefully ad justed so that ,
the coll ars o n the dummy piston s an d cylinders are from 7 576 to fi rgG i n ch 1
l -
clear The top half i s generally ad j usted by means of an exte rnal screw
.
engaging an ab u tment on the turbi n e

cas i ng .
F ig 1 2 2 s hows one method in which

.
the whole worm box an d apparatus move s

by means of the ad j ust i ng s c re w u .
F ig 1 23 sho w s an other method

. .
The ad j us t m e n t shoul d be made when

the turbine is hot .
The coupling is a special l y designed

c law coupling and is quite fl e x ib le .
Fi g 1 2 2 i ll us trates o n e arrangeme n t in
.
whi c h the ma i n idea is that while there ,

FI 1 23 G . .
shall be an ample c law the tu r bi n e ,
roto r or the dyn amo armature c an be rea d ily li fted without longitudinal
movement .
I t is fou n d ad v i sab l e to cool the lubricating oil as it otherwise gets u n duly ,
hot not o n ly from friction but from the heat con duc te d al ong the shaft
, .
An oil cooler 0 ( F ig 1 22 ) is therefore provi d ed

. “Tater may be c ir c ulated .
from the conden si ng apparatus or in any s uitable m ann e r Appare n tly a .
hea vy oil of the highest qual i ty s hou l d be us ed A s mall q uantity s hou l d .
be dra i ned o ff an d filt e red every day .
Fi g 1 22 ill u s trate s a general section of a Pars on s t u rbine and Fi g 1 2 1

.
, .
the low pre ss ure end of a marine turbine

-
.
N at u m lly the rapid developme n t of the Parson s type of t urbine by m an y

,
manufacturers has led to a great variety of design in the mechani c al detai ls .
M an y of these deta il s are however mere matters of arrangeme n t an d of

, ,
competition in ge n eral conve n ie n c e so that it wo u ld be invid i ou s to draw

,
comparisons M an y are also quite as appli cab l e to an y other type of turbi n e

. .
S o far as the turbine proper is c oncerned the b l ad i n g adopted by M e ss rs ,
Willans dz Robin s on is a notable variety an d is u nique i n havi n g an external

,
s hrouding The co nstructio n is shown i n Fi g 206 an d the blading is bu il t up

. .
,
into standard segm ents s uitable for ready inse rtion and replac eme n t en bloc .
The fi n e clea rances abut the edges of c han n el shroud ing an d pos s i bl y mi ni m is e ,
the ri sk of s tri p ping c hronic 1 n the or di nary blu n t e n d c on structio n I t m ay .
he remarked nevertheless that ri sk of s tripp i ng can in any case only be

, ,
112 THE T H E ORY OF T HE ST E AM TU RBIN E .
d
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8 a
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.
i
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$ a
85 2 2 mm
8
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.
N fl
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8 g
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3 mm0 n D fi
m0 5 m 2 > > m
a
d
d d 6 w
i
. . .
3 8
4 6 A A fi
6 d 6 6 » N
4
1
1 14 T HE T H EORY o r THE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
Although , in this turbi n e the leakage spaces are neatly transferred from ,
the rad i al to the l ong i tu di nal po si t i on it by n o mean s fo ll ows that the ,
d iffi c u lty with the fo r mer arran geme n t is elimi n ated A s a matter of fact .
,
an accurate longitud i na l ad j ustment in the naturally long turbines of type
4 is an exceedi n gly d iffi c u l t problem to cope with owi n g to expan sion for ,
although there may not be any tan gible reason why the casing should not .
expan d practically the same amount as the rotor it n evertheless doe s n ot ,
do s o in p racti c e an d the rotor invariably creeps a generally indeterminate

,
amou n t more than the ca s ing even with the heaviest of l agging On the , .
whole therefo re an arran geme n t for a s ma l l rad i al c learan c e instead of a

, ,
s ma ll long i tud i nal c leara n c e is rather the easier of the two to manipulate .
D O U B L E M OT I O N T U R B I N E S S everal i n ventors have .
devoted their atte n tion to produ c i n g a turbi n e that with the same degree of ,
c ompounding and e c onomy shall have a lower speed of revolution than the ,
ordi n ary types .
This can be a c c omplished ea sil y in theory by al lowing the casing or what ,
have previ ous l y been the fi x e d van es to rotate with an equal velo c ity in the ,
opp osite dire c tio n to the i n ter n al drums or wheels By coup l ing the separate .
shafts ( which both rotate at o n e half the u s ua l sp eed ) together by suitable -
gearing a c omm on shaft is obtai n ed that rotates at o n e half the speed of the
,
-
si ngle motion turbi n e .
An other s c heme probably the better of the two is to al low each shaft to
, ,
drive a se p arate electric ge n erator and c ouple the two systems together , .
The ge n erators of c ourse revolve in opposite dire c tion s

, , .
Y e t an other method that has been p r opos e d is to bri n g the two shafts out
at the same e n d of the turbi n e casing one shaft being sleeved over the other , ,
and to cause the fi e ld and armature of an electric ge n erator to be driven in

opposite dire c tion s Or the two shafts may be c oup led together as in the
.
, ,
fi rs t i n stan ce by suitable geari n g to convert the motio n to a common

, ,
d ire c tion .
The great ob j e c tio n to the former and to the latter methods is the
d iffi c u lt y of prov idi ng suitable gearing An y su c h me c han ism at the high
‘
.
,
rate of speed s ti ll remai n i n g c an on ly be rendered s ucce ss fu l by the most ,
perfect workman ship su ch for insta n c e a s is adop ted in the De Laval turbine
, , , .
I t may further be con te n ded that if geari n g is to be i n trodu c ed at all the , ,
speed reduction might be effe c te d directly by this means i n stead of b y adding ,
the complication of a rotati n g cas ing .
I n the other case vi z of o n e shaft Worki n g withi n the other the d iffi cu lty
, .
,
is to produce a satisfa c tory beari n g rotating within another beari n g so that

they s hall be true ad j us table an d ac c essible A s imi l ar problem is presen ted
, , .
with the gl ands .
F ig 1 2 6 illustrates a double motion de s ign by E S eger

.
-
. .
Parson s has pate n ted several varieties of the secon d and third methods
ate n t N o 6 1 4 2 of
( P .
The turbine Fi g 1 2 7 cons i st s of a simp l e impulse wheel resembli n g the

, .
,
De Laval an d the nozzles d are mou n ted i n the rotati n g eleme n t 0 steam
, ,
being s upplied through holes f i n the dummy e n d of the shaft As illustrate d .

,
the des i gn is stated to be suitable for mari n e prop ul sion the i n n er shaft
dr i ving right han ded propellers and the e n c irc li n g shaft d riv i ng lef t—
,
-
han ded
propellers or vice versa R eversi n g is e ffe c ted by the statio n ary nozzles
.
H Y B R I D T U R B I N E S —A c on sideration of the four pr i nci p a l typ es

, .
and their several m echanical interpretations for given c onditions le ads to the
P RAC TICA L T U RBIN ES . 115
FI G 1 2 6
. .
-
S e ge r s Doubl e
’
M ti o
o n Tur bi ne .
FI G . 1 27 .
— P a rs o n s Do ub l e M ti o on Tu rb i ne .
e, s S haft f n zzl wh ee l
or o e . k . Laby i th pa k ing
r n c .
h aft f va W h l F le xi ble b ari

.
r S or ne ee . 1. e n
t m inl t h l L gi tu di al j t m t
.
f S
. ea e o es. 171 . on n us en ,
h S
. t am bra h
e nc .
116 T HE T H E ORY OF T H E STE AM T U RB I NE .
suggestion that a combination of two or more of the types in one turbine

offers advantages over the homoge n e o us turbi n e .
For instan c e the d iffi c ulty with typ e 4 in providi n g a small en ough area
,
in the high pressure stages W ithout havi n g excessive leakage invites the
-
adoption of either type 1 ( dis c bui lt) or typ e 2 for the high pressure stages
- -
.
The adoption of typ e 2 for the fi rst stage shorten s the turbi n e c o n sider
ably an d helps to elimin ate the c r iti c al speed d iffi cu lty The van e e ffi c ie n cy .
is certainly less than in type 1 or 4 but stage leakage is eliminated s o that ,
in small sizes at any rate the resulta n t economy is not greatly different .
The r e is also the advantage that the high temperature of the steam an d its
atten dan t d iffi cu lt ie s are di sp osed of in a more robust apparatus than is the
c ase with type 4 .
The Westi n ghouse Co appear to have bee n the fi rst to produ c e a hybrid
.
turbine a considerable n umber havi n g been m ade The combination is of

,
.
FI G . 1 28 .
—W t i gh es n o u se Dou bl F l
e- ow Tu rb i ne .
n N zzl es
o . a Typ e 2 S t ag e. b Typ e 4 S tage s .
ty pe 2 and type 4 as i n di c ated above and the design mostly adopted in this ,
c o u n try is show n in Fig 1 2 8 The e c o n om y of these turbi n es ex c ept in very

. .
,
large si zes is ge n erally admitted to be i n ferior to that of more usua l desig n s

, ,
and is owing to the exc essive leakage in the i n termediate stages the drum ,
bei n g very large for the le n gth of the van es .
This turbine is of the double fl o w variety the ob j ects bei ng to avo i d a -
dummy drum an d to redu c e the len gth of the van es in the last few rows ,
where ste am is very atte n uated For further remarks on the double—fl o w .
arran gemen t see page 3 7 9 .
F ig 1 2 9 shows a se c tion of a turbi n e of the above c ombination ( type 2

.
an d type 4 ) made b y S ulzer B ros This turbi n e has the additional feature of
.
a reversed fl o w in order to avo i d a comp lete dummy system Se e als o page 3 8 2 . .
The M e l ms—Pfe n n ige r Co al so make a turbi n e of the same combi n ation

.
but of the si n gle fl ow variety The high pressure wheel is about t w i c e the
-
.
-
diameter of the rea c tio n drum the latter bei n g of on e diameter throughout
, .
The c on stru c tion is adop ted more particularly for s mall s ize s up to about
7 00 horse—p ower
'
.
118 THE T H E ORY or T H E STE AM T U RB I N E .
Fig 1 3 0 is a se c tio n through the turbi n e

. .
Westinghouse ( 1 5 9 6 8 of 1 905) has prop osed a combi n atio n of typ es 2 ,
1 an d 4 c onse c utively whi c h might have some adva n tages over other t ypes
, ,
an d c ombi n ations according to the detailed constru c tion adopted .
FI G . 1 30.
—M elm s -
Pfen n iger Tu rb i ne .
a: I m p l B ladi
u se n g, Type 1 . b = Re ac tio n B ladi ng , Typ e 4 .
0: D m m y B l ad i
u ng . i
d M a n S e am t I lt
n e .
ar Bye pass I l tf
n e or ov rle o ad .
N u m e rou s other arran geme n ts ombi n atio n s have naturally been

an d c
propo sed duri n g the last few years but there is al so mu c h repetition of idea
,
.
A c om p rehe n sive view is best obtai n ed by a perusal of the volumes of patent

abridgme n ts .
CH AP TE R VI .
T HE E FFI C I E N CY O F C O M P O U N D
T U R B I N E S T YP E 1 . .
C ON T EN TS —Diagram E ffi i y—Typ 1 E rgy Tra f rmati —L f Ki ti

E n rgy—E x m p l
c en c e ne ns o o ns osse s o ne c
—
,
e a f E ffi i esy I m o
p l T rb i w i th
c enc O p B k t — N mb r f
u se u nes en uc e s u e o
S tag —A r a f F ix ed N zzl e Passages E xamp l —E fl t f L akag —T h i kn
'
f
Va —Pi tc h f Va —M i ll a
es e o or o e ec o e e c e ss o
n es o
p i t
n es sce n e ou s o n s.
IF the fl ow of steam were tange n tial or parallel to the direction of motion

of the van es the est imation of sim p le an d comp ound e ffi c ie n c ie s an d of the
,
number of stages and other quantities wou l d be a very simple matter an d ,
woul d be carried out a s i n dicated roughly in C hapter I V .
As ho w ever the angle between the

, ,
inlet and outlet edges of the movi n g

vanes is almost i n variably mu c h less
than two right an gles the e ffi c ie n cy of ,
any one stage is less than in the idea l

DI A G R A M E F F I C I E N CY
—The e ffi c ie n cy pri n cipally referred to
.
in this chapter is the ratio of the e n ergy

absorbed in doi n g useful work to the
energy supplied to an y on e or a series
of moving van es a s the c ase may b e
, ,
that i s t he d iag ram e ffi c ie n cy a s

,
Fm 1 3 1 ,
. .
referred to in Chapter I .
The diagram e ffi c ie n c ie s dealt with in that c hapter are however those in , ,
which the van e losses — shock s pi l ling an d fri c tion — are n il I n the sequel
, ,
.
,
c oe ffi c ie n t s for lo ss es are i n troduced and graphic determination o f the e ffi c i

,
e n c ie s is resorte d to
—
.
T P Y E I E
. E
N RGY T A S R N F O R M AT I O N S Fig 1 3 1 is a . .
typ ical veloc ity diagram for both the simple an d compou n d varieties of
impul s e tu rbi n es The follo w in g notation applies ge n erally throughou t
.
A B is v1 the absolute stri king or inlet velocity of the steam

,
A C is v the van e velocity

,
C B is 122 the veloc ity of the steam at entra n ce relative to the van e
, ,
C D is 223 the velocity of the stea m relative to the van e at outlet

,
.
A D is v the absolute velocity of the steam at outlet from the vane passages
4,
A F is d l the inlet velo c ity of whi rl
,
’
A G is “ 2 the outlet velo c ity of whirl

, .
Co nsidering now the general ope ration in compo undi n g to type 1 let us ,
1 19
1 20 THE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
suppose in the fi rst instan c e that there is n o frictional or other los s within
, ,
the moving van e passages .
The i n itial head of pressure P w ill at the outlet from the fi rst fi x e d passages
or nozzles be c o n verted to
2 2
17 11
1 1
pa pa
2 ; 951
2 ,
where m is the nozzle energy c oe ffi c ie n t ( 90 per ce n t or other value as the .

, ,
case may b e ) an d 77 t h e i d eal n ozzle velo c ity

, 1
.
I t has bee n explai n ed in C hapter I that the w ork don e in the movi n g .
passages— here the fi rs t set— is

,
(113 bei n g
The exit head is therefore
For the secon d stage if is to be the same as ( vl ) as is usual for a

, a,
c o n siderable series of w heels if n o t for the whole turbi n e

,
the head at the ,
exit from the se c on d fi x e d passages or n ozzles is
( p
A ) or e throughout ex c ept
for the 1 st stage .
N o w if this value is perpetuated throughout the turbi ne the total e ffi c ie n cy

, ,
wi l l be pra c ti c ally the same for dis p osition of an gles an d an y number of

an y
wheels providin g that the fi n al

,
exit velocity and pressure are about the same
in each c ase .
The practi c al problem is therefore to arrange the velo c ities s o that given ,
c o n venie n t peripheral velo c ities of the wheels t he number of wheels an d the ,
fi n al waste head are a mi n imum .
2
1
The consideration of 3i requires special atten tion I f the turbi n e has a .
29
low rati low value of 2

v1 ) 11
4
wi ll have a n ot in sign ifi c an t
2
value and , in
order that the economy shall be good i t i s necessary that — shall be tran smi tted
'
v
4
2g
e ffe c tively to the follo w i n g stage an d thereby m in im ise ( ) The loss e .
m ay perhaps be afforded for the last stage but to re j ect v4? throughout ,
wou l d c ause the over all e ffi cie n cy to be u n derestimated I f on the other

-
.
,
han d the turbi n e has a high ratio 11 42 may be s o small that to n egle c t it in
, ,
c al c ulatio n s of ( ) at o n c e suggests itself

e .
As a fi rst general rule it is advi s ab l e when deali n g with b eads of velocity

,
1 22 THE T H E ORY OF T HE STE AM TU RBIN E .
either in superheati n g or in drying the steam The tran sformation s are .

,
however c reated comparatively l ocall y an d i n timately in c o n tact with the

,
surfa c es of the van es an d the c o n dition s are thus favourable to w ards the
,
absolute l os s of the energy i n volved b y c on du c tion as soon as the transfe r ,
mation s o c cur .
Further in the instan c e cited above 71 4 w i ll b e about k) that 1 s 0 4 3 3 111

,
2 2
,
i ,
1
,
?
g9 ( )
or 2 t is 2% p e r cent on l y of 2 ( e) or E S i n c e most of the other los s e s
gen erally far ex c eed 2 2 per c e n t we are ju st ifi e d in c onsideri n g that the
. .
,
.
2
?
residual energies i are negligible in high ratio turbines I n a low ratio .
29
turbine where for example 1 1 is about 3 times 11 4 will about 411 1 or 1142
, , ,
1
‘
about 1 6 per c e n t of vf — a quan tity that is hardly n egligible

. .
To tran smit 11 the van es fi x e d and movi n g must be about the same
4, , ,
le n gth thus n e c essitati n g a greater value of 8 — 2 5 to 3 0 instead of

, ,
° °
an d this in tur n lowers the diagram e ffi c ie n cy of the stage whi c h fa c tor is

, , ,
re fl e c t e d i n to the n umber of stages required an d size of turbi n e I n fa c t mu c h .

,
c loser atte n tion to the n ume r ous i n terdepende n t poi n ts is required for the low
than for the high ratio turbi n e .
L o ss o f k in e t ic e n e rgy in t h e v ane p as s ag e s ha s now to be taken

i n to a c cou n t .
The further practical problem is to reduce i n tern al van e losse s to a mi ni

mum stage b y stage an d not to trust too mu c h to lu c k in getti n g back lo ss e s
, ,
i n c urred by the p r a c tical limitation s an d approximations of c on struction .
I t is n evertheless a s wi ll be seen a very d iffi c u lt matter i n deed to m ake a

, ,
turbi n e of c orrect form even for o n e set of c on dition s an d experimental data

,
but experien ce appears to i n dicate that greater e c onomy i s effected the more
nearl y the ideal c o n formity i s approac hed rather than by systems of heavy ,
laggi ng reheati n g e t c
, , .
The l o s s i n an d ab o u t t h efi x e d p assag e s varies ac c ording to their

'
particular fun c tion .
I n high rati o tu rbi n e s the c o n tribution of 4 to the velo c ity head bei n g s o 12
c omparatively sma ll the fi x e d passages are in e ff e c t nozzles pure an d s imp l e

, ,
an d n eed not n e c essarily be c urved with the idea of re c eivi n g v ta n gentially

4
.
The e ffi c ie n cy wou l d then be that of a straight axi s nozzle if it were isolated

fro m its fe ll ows I n the case of lo w veloc ities— well under the c riti cal
.
velo c ity— it ha s been show n ( p 4 6 an d C hap ter XXI I ) that the n ozzle e ffi c ie n cy . .
is pra c ti c all y unity but for velo c ities above the c riti c al velo c ity where the ,
shap e requires to be con v e rgo d iv e rge n t the e n ergy e ffi cie n cy fall s to about ,
°
9 ( p 4 4) or l es s
,
c, . .
B ut whe n the n ozzles are adj a c e n t the effi c ie n c y of the con ve rgen t n ozzles ,
appears to fall to at least 9— in fact it freque n tl y does n o t ex c eed 8 — these ° ‘
values a p pl yi n g to the usual pitc hes of the blades formi n g the n ozzle wal ls
The methods of extractio n of these l osses are given in C hapters III an d .
XXII an d n e e d n o t be re peated here

.
, .
For most ordinary an d prelimin ary c al c ulation s it w ill n ot be far w ron g to

take m = 8 8 for reasonably well —formed n ozzles .
For more p recise values of m exp erimen t must be resorted to with the ,
actual shape of the n ozzle to be used .
I n l ow rati o tu rbi n s p art ic u l arly when the absolute velo c ities are high
e , ,
( it may here be noted that a low ratio does not necessarily a c compan y high
T HE E FF ICI E NCY 0 11 COM POUND TUBB IN ES . 1 23
velocities ) the velo c ity v4 from the previous stage has been see n to b e an im
,
portant ite m and spe c ial mea n s have to be provi ded for its proper trans miss ion
,
.
M o reover the passage s only req uire to be slightly c onvergent and acute
, ,
c entrifugal effe c t is introdu c ed with i n ter n al vibrations in the stream The .
result is that the n ozzle pas sages require to be of a shape very si milar to t hat
,
of the movin g passage s ( Fig .
Un der these circ umsta n c es the e ffi c ie n c y fall s to that of movi ng pa ssages

whi c h is in the vi c inity of 7 0 to 8 5 There is no ap p rox im am uniform
,
'
value for this coe ffi c ie n t for it varies much wit h variations in the velocities
,
an d the ge n eral circ umstances The estimatio n of the nozzle e ffi c ie n cy whe n

.
the transmitted velo c ity 4 is considerable becomes simi lar to that for
11
type 4 both moving an d fi x e d The methods given on pages 1 7 4 1 80 etc

.
, ,
.
,
are therefore al s o appli c able here .
The l o ss e s in an d ab o u t t h e mo v ing p ass ag e s are of a very com

p o s it e character and consi s t of ( ) ( ) () ( ) ( ) )
a b c d e (f and ( )
k and it wo
,
ul d , , , , , ,
be a waste of time to attempt to a n alyse them c om p letely S ome writers .
have attribu t ed the greater part of the total lo ss of e fii c ie n e y of the turbi n e

( whi ch ge n erall y c onsumes 30 to 6 0 per cent more steam than it shoul d .
theoreti c all y ) to (k) alo n e .
I t has al s o been assumed b y n early all authorities that thi s ki n d of

fri c tion al loss varies with the velo c ity squared an assumption based on the ,
fact that e n ergy kv2 .
A series of many hundreds of experimental observations on stationary

van es c o n fi rm s the usual assumptio n that lo ss of e n ergy b y friction either ,
alone or as the predomi n an t los s does vary as the square of the velocity o r , ,
in other word s that the fri c tional velocity los s is proportional to the velocity
,
of the ste am over the su rfaces or through the pas sages as the case may b e ,
.
B ut the average maximum velocity e ffi c ie n cy or co e ffi c ie n t for the best

form of closed vane passage is about 9 5 5 per ce n t that is whe n the
‘ ’
.
, ,
fri c tio n al and i n ternal losses are at an average minimum The average value .
for the bette r k n ow n turbines as constructe d appears to be 9 2 per cent This

-
.
covers i n te rnal los s on ly that is lo ss e s by ( b) an d ( k)

, , .
I n turbines of the best co n struction therefore it shoul d be safe to take , ,
v = 9 2v and the cause of the remainder of the lo s s should be sought for

'
3 2 ,
among the other items .
N o w the se p arate phenomena (a) ( b) (c) ( d) (e) (f ) (I ) may create a kind , , , , , ,

t
of colle c tive phen omenon practically equivalent to in c reased friction and ,
thus redu c e the relative exit velo c ity to as low as about 6 0 or 7 0 per cent .
of the inlet veloc ity Rateau considers that 123 7 511 2 is a fair average value
.
‘
Delaporte fi n d s the value of the c o e ffi c ie n t to be from about 7 06 to 7 4 9 °
the value rising with the velo c ity .
These three values are n evertheless rather low and hardl y leave roo m for ,
the various other l oss e s of the turbine in the face of many good steam con
sumption performances recorded .
The energy los s is of course proportional to the square of thi s co e ffi c ie n t .
When the design of the turbi n e pe rmits a simple way of fi n d in g the ,
7
value 3 is to ru n it w ith the c over o ff and with the steam dis c harging i n to ,
”
2
the atmosphere As fe w n o z z le s as possible should of course be u sed S team
.
, ,
.
shoul d be turn ed o n to a d e fi n ite press ure as qui c kly as possible and the ,
speed at which the dire c tio n of th e di scharge from the van es c ha n ges from
backwards to forwards note d by means of a tachometer Feeling with a .
1 24 THE T H E ORY OF T H E S TE AM T U RBIN E .
stick is a conve n ien t w ay of observing this as there is ge n erally too much ,
vapour about to see disti n c tly The velocity diagra m is then c o n structed
.
from the data obtai n ed The author has thu s been able to co n fi rm B ate au s
.
’
value 7 5 but has also with special vanes registered more tha n 8
,
°
, , ,
.
The value would c ertai n ly be greater with the turbi n e c losed si n ce the v4 ,
stream woul d suffer less obstru c tion .
This way of looki n g at the matter may answer very w ell for simple
turbi n es or for c ompound turbi n es of typ e l —to whi c h the Rateau belongs
but it wi l l not do for turbines c omp ounded for velo c ity that is for types , ,
2 and 3 For these typ es pure va n e losses alo n e should be taken

. .
H o w ever for type 1 the case is fairly well represe n ted by c onstructi n g
,
the velo c ity diagrams s o that 11 3 ( y)

sa 7 5 11
2
B ut when the disturban ces
‘
.
of all ki n ds ex c ept ( 6) and (7c) have been elimi n ated to as c ertain the true ,
diagram e fli c ie n cy it is p robably more correct to p u t v3 = 9 2v2 as an average °
value or with more perfect con ditio n s for ( b) an d ( k) that is with vanes of t h e , ,
best c urvature for the i n tri n sic c on dition s of the passi n g steam 113 m ay be as ,
high as 96v2 Both these val u es the latter espe c ially are at present ideal
°
.
, ,
.
FIG . 1 32 .
The variety of an gles of van e inlet an d of exit edges e t c are of Cours e , .

,
in fi n ite an d depe n d s o greatl y o n individual ideas that it is impossible to

,
lay down any particular distribution of velo c ities as a stan dard .
G ive n a 8 an d 11 1 c o n stant the diagra m e ffi c ie n cy ; w ill vary as some

, , , ,
7
fu n ction of the van e velocity v and the maximum value can be fou n d ,
mathemati c ally .
The expressions i n volved however are extremely c umbersome an d their

, , ,
use would dema n d an u n n e c essary amou n t of time .
The best way to fi n d nm is by a grap hi c con stru c tion whi c h c an be

.
,
effe cted in a few mi n utes .
E x amp les The fo ll owing typ ical examples are given for the p urpose o f
.
-
indicati n g the variation of e ffi cie n cy u n der differe n t c on ditions The three .

‘
cases are applicable to both simple and c ompou n d types ( type 1 o n l y) .
I s t c ase V ariab l e v —S uppose the outlet angle a of i n cli n ation of the

. .
nozzles (or fi x e d passages ) and 8 of the movi n g passages to be c onstan t say

, ,
this being an approximate practi c al mi n imum .
Let the n ozzle velo c ity 121 be con stant and let the vane velocity v vary , .
S u pp ose that the lo ss withi n the movi n g passages is su c h that 123 92 v2 '
By C hapter I the diagram e ffi c ie n cy

.
,
1 26 T HE T H EORY OF T H E S TE AM T U RB I N E .
I t m us t be parti c ularly born e in mi n d that the e ffi c i e n c ie s j ust obtained

are diagram e ffi c ie n c ie s o n ly , an d do not i n c lude further l os s by shock .
FIG . 1 33 .
FIG . 1 34
.
I f the movi n g vanes are set at the a n gle 7 1 Fig ,

. 1 3 1 , fo r the
maximum value
of 71
1,
it is evide n t that for an y less value of 121 the enteri n g stream will strike
T HE E FF ICI ENCY 0 1? CO M POUN D Tuas mss . 1 27
the backs of the va n es The relative static p o sitio n of the nozzl e and vane
.
passage at entry is in this case represe n te d by Fig 1 0A an te . .
TAB LE IV .
11 :
‘
4 or Ratio :
‘
4 .
a an d B
v :
‘
5 or Rati o :
'
5 .
v :
‘
6 or Rati o :
‘
6 .
v :
’
7 or Ra ti o :
“
7 .
I f the c ha n ge of dire c tion is effected without l o ss of ene rgy the retard ing
1 28 T HE T H E ORY OF T H E S TE AM TU RBIN E .
effect due to the impi n gemen t o n the ba c ks of the va n es is accounted for in

the ordi n ary velo c ity diagram I t is however o n ly reasonable to su pp ose
.
, ,
that the losses arisi n g from the oblique impa c t i n c rease with the a n gle o f
error or obliquity <1 ( C hapter ;
TA B L E V .
=
B 20
°
v = 52
‘
0
“ 2
3 2 30
°
(1 : 2 40
v = 52
'
'
Alternatively the van es might be set to deal ta n gentially with some

probable mi n imum value of 1 in whi c h case the maximum obliquity wou l d
11 ,
occur with vm but the impi n gemen t wou l d al ways be in a p ositive

ak ,
direc tion The diagram e ffi c ie n cy is the same as before but it is probable

.
,
that general spilli n g losses are less .
The losses that arise from oblique impac t may take a variety of forms
accordi n g to c ircumstan c es The p r imary effe c t is a s purious c ompression
.
,
an d this results in side s p reading climbi n g an d s p illi n g in the case of open

-
vanes an d c hoki n g in the case of c losed van es

,
.
W ith a perfe c tly closed passage ex p erime n t shows that a co n siderable

‘ ’
,
amou n t of obliquity may be to lerated with im p u n ity an d that up to about ,
40 degrees obliquity the loss of e fi e et iv e ki n etic e n ergy is very n ea r l y prop or

t io n al to 1 fi/c os qb .
W ith ope n passages and more or less equivale n t c o n struction s the l oss
‘ ’
,
by spilli n g arisi n g from the im p ac t m ay be c on siderable an d it follo w s that ,
in order to mi n imise this ki n d of loss the van es should be as lon g as possible a ,
c o n ditio n opposed to other desirable c o n ditio n s — mi n imum ven tilating e ii e ct ’

,
me chan ical rigidity e t c H owever in gene r al it m ay be c on c lud e d that in

,
.
, ,
o rder to keep the losses f r om oblique im a c t — w hatever form they m ay take

p
—as small as p o ssible with a c on siderable range of th r ottle governi n g the ,
an gles a an d ,8 should also be as small as p ossible .
The above exam p les should en able the reader to c on stru c t diagrams for
the man y other varieties that may oc c ur to him as for i n stan c e when a is , , ,
n o t equal to .
B
St a n d a rd C as e s W i t h n o L o ss e s — For the p urp ose of c ompari n g the
.
e ffi c ie n c
y of any particular arra n gement of an gles and velo c it ies an d losses
1 30 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RBIN E .
Thus for example

, ,
8 8 ( average max nozzle e ifi c ) x 9 2 4 ( case 5 fi g 1 3 2 ) 8 1 3

. .
' °
, . .
For lo w ra tio tu rbin es the stage e ffi c ie n cy is n ot the product of the two ,
be c ause 0 4 is n ot to be negle c ted .
To fi n d the stage e ffi cie n cy the relative head supplied and work done
must be fou n d in more direct terms .
Thus by ( 1 ) page 1 2 0
2
H ead supplied per stage
an d work don e 1
d i agram ) x 7
9
2 772 1; a a
The stage
,
e ffi c 1 e n c 1 s n ow
y f
v
l
2
mm,
For example take c ase ,
f
v =2 Table II I
,
.
m 8 8 as before .
1 5 72
22;
5
H ead supp lied 3
4 45 )
-
wor k don e 008 98
0 08 98
stage e ffi ol e n cy .
01 2 6 0
This e ffi c ie n cy is less than that of the high ratio example be c ause
the vane passages is much greater .
The above two exam p les illustrate the two extremes .
Take a further c ase of a moderate ratio as occ u r ri n g in practice

A c ertai n R ateau turbi n e gives at full load approximately
7’ ~
32 30
°
,
a
3
1
—3 ‘
8 ( see page 1 23 ‘
75 is rather too low )

”
2
m= ‘
88 5 .
1 8 85 x 3 3 22
6 44 8 85 x
3 2 11 13 x
322
Henc e ; 1
‘
699 .
Thus with an other 7 to 1 0% dedu c ted for heari n g friction oil pump , ,
govern or gear leakage loss by misdirec tion at the partial ad mission edges
, , ,
e tc .the overa ll e ffi c ie n cy actually observed in the turbi n e— about 6— is

,
°
approa ched .
1
I n sele ti g values of
c n m an d 1 3
the designer will of course have his ,
”
2
degree of perfe c tion in view As a gen eral rule —

2 ( f
)
f will be a little less than
.
m . R eferen ce to p age 1 99 will be c onve n ie n t he ie an d will save a certai n ,
amou n t of repetition .
Radiation an d c o n ductio n are n o t i n c luded here be c ause they are mostly

the agen ts b y w hi c h the other losses are tran smitte d to the water of
.
co n de n sation an d the metal .

T HE E FF ICI E NCY OF CO M P O U N D T U RBIN ES . 1 31
I m p u l se T u rb in e s W it h O p e n B u c k e t s —The. P elto n type ,

S t umpf
variety will be dis c ussed here
,
.
The appearan ce of the diagram of velo c ities differs somew hat from that of the
”
9 24
'
9 ‘'
b
Kauai ow a
ordinary type but it really amou n ts to precisely the same thing

,
se parate .
c o n si d eratio n is nevertheless usef ul The di ffere n c e betwee n this ki n d of

.
bu c ket and the ordinary ki n d is that in the former there is no c hoi c e in the
,
exit a n gle of the bu cket .

1 32 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
I t is obvious that with the other type we may make the exit an gle any
t hing we p lease indepe n de n tly of the inl et an gle but in this c ase the exit ,
an gle is n e c essarily the same as the i n let an gle at an y rate so far as is prac -
t icab l e with curre n t methods of manufa c ture .
I n Figs 1 3 8 1 3 8A and 1 3 88 let a b e d represent a sectional elevation of

.
, , ,
an open buc ket the li n e f a I) f bei n g a portion of the wheel periphery an d g h

,
the ta n ge n t at the mid dle or average position It .
Fig I 3SA is a plan of the bu cket in the plane of whi c h the en tran c e and
.
,
exit paths of the stream are parallel as show n N is the n ozzle dire c ti n g ,
.
the steam to the buckets at the an gle a as before .
Fig 1 3 8B is the diagram of velo c ities c on st r u c ted as follows

. ,
A AI is p arallel to the tan ge n t g / that is to the dire c tion of motio n z, ,
at the momen t under c onsideration ,
B A is the n ozzle velo c ity v1 ,
0 A is the bu c ket velo c ity v an d ,
B C is the velo c ity , of the stream relative to the bucket at en try

v .
FI G . 1 38 .
FI G . I S 8A . FIG . 1 3 8 13 .
I f prop erly c on stru c ted the in c li n ation lc l of the bucket will be the same
,
as the i n c li n ation of B C .
N o w the c han ge of dire c tio n of the stream withi n the bucket takes place
,
wholly in plan es parallel to k l ( neglectin g the slight displac eme n t due to the
circ ular movemen t of the bu cket a similar assumption has really bee n made
with the other type of bucket) at right an gles to the plan e of the paper ,
instead of in the p lane k m of the paper This c han ge of direction has .
obviously n othin g whatever to do with the triangle A B C .
The relative velo c ity v2 remain s constant through t h e bucket except when ,
changed by the resistan ces S uppose 11 2 constan t Then at the outlet the
. .
, ,
absolute velocity an d direction of the stream is a combi n ation of the relative

velo c ity at outlet that is CB ( whi ch we now call
,
and the bucket
veloc ity AI C = CA that is A1 13 or v4 the relative velocity having chan ged
, ,
its direction as show n in the plan Fig 1 38A

71 , . .
The an gle fi x ed by practical c o n sideration s c an n ot well be less than

a, ,
an d is a similar an gle t o the nozzle angle of the ordi n ary types The .
1 34 T HE T H EORY o r THE STE AM TU RBIN E .
ments of the turbi n e e tc an d to determi n e the van e an gles an d t he various

,
.
,
veloc ities from the velo c ity trian gles .
v
,
the nozzle or guide p assage outlet velo c ity bei n g k n o w n the fall in ,
pressure in creating a velo c ity may be fou n d b y cal c ulation or from

Diagram A making the usual e ffi c ie n c y allowan ce which as has bee n said
, , , ,
may be up to 9 5 p e r ce n t ( velo c ity e ffi cie n cy) . .
For the fi rst stage it will probably be preferable in the maj o rity of
,
c ases to calc ulate the drop P to p as the measuremen t is rather too small a, ,
as a rule for conven ien t man ipulation on the diagram A better method
, .
still is to set out a curve of pressure and stages derived from the e n ergy
disposal per stage as u n avoidable i n equalities in the calculated results
,
c an thus be equalised Fig 1 43 is an example. . .
o w rati o t u rbi n e — S uppose that havi n g allowed a certa in loss of

( )
a L .
,
relative velocity in the movin g van e passages the velocity v, is in ea c h case ,
transmitted to the n ext stage w ithout other loss than that embodied in the
usual n ozzle loss then the add i tion al velocity to be created in the se c ond
,
fi x e d passages ( an d all the followi n g fi x e d passages if of the same diameter) is

less than in the fi rst stage bec ause 2 4 is con tributed from the pre c edi n g stage
, .
3 ft lbs where ( Ap )b is the head disposed . .

,
of in each of the sec ond and following stages and m is the nozzle e ffi c ie n cy ,
( e n ergy, ) y
s a 88 per ce nt .
Th us ( Ap ) or e is k n own
, .
N o w from Diagram A fi n d the total foot pounds ( E ) equivalen t to the

,
c omplete drop p to p may be the c on den ser or exhaust pipe pressure

a ”
.
-
if the turbi n e is all in o n e an d of the same diameter throughout or the ,
re c eiver pressures if the machine is split up into two or more turbines or

c ylinders — e
g F ig 8 2
. . . .
The number of stages 1

This is obviousl y for a u n iform e ffi c ie n cy in eac h stage .
For a progressive variation of e ffi c ie n cy such as would be caused by

gradually i n creasi n g a and B for i n stan c e the problem is not mu c h more ,
c ompli c ated Draw the velocity diagrams for three or four stages betwee n
.
the fi rs t an d the last and thus having found out how 6 varies proceed to
, , ,
apportion E accordingly .
A similar process would be appli e d where the diameters of the wheel vary
progressively
u r bi n e —
.
( )
6 H igh ra t i o t S uppose the loss in eac h set of moving passages
.
to be equivale n t to a c ertain velocity loss as before and that the con st ru c ,
tion is such that 114 is probably not recovered from stage to stage
and the n umber of stages

where e n ergy disposed of per stage
e = ,
an d E total available energy .
A R EA O F F I X E D O R N O Z Z L E PA S S A G E S .
— I t has been
explain ed that for this type ( and for all impulse turbines ) the admission may
be partial that is to say the nozzle passages may be isolated or
‘
,
’
,
in grou p s ,
TH E E FF ICI ENCY or COM PO U N D TU R BIN ES . 1 35
an d need not extend all the way round — although it by n o means follows that
this is the best arrangeme n t to make if it c an possibly be avoided .
The area required is naturally depende n t on the proper quan tity of steam
required to pass through for the given maximum power .
P recedent must be called in to help here an d if the turbi n e is of similar

design to others from which reliable steam con sumption data have been
obtai n ed the matter is one of simple proportion and the nu mber of pounds
, ,
of steam required per second can be estimated .
The area of the passages at each stage is dependent on the pressure an d

density of the ste am correspon ding to that stage an d on the velocity of the ,
steam .
These pressures are readily obtai n ed by the use of Diagra m A but for ,
numerous stages the fi gu re s derived therefrom should be faired up by a curve .
Thus in Fig 1 41 draw a line 3 s at a distan c e w from the c u rved axis y y either
, .
, ,
parallel t o y y or at a dis tan ce from accordi n g to the variation of 1 0 .
Then starti n g at P draw , ,
the parallel polars al a -
bl b etc cutting 8 8 in ,
.
,
a, b 71 .
th ese parall el Al l
polars should be parallel to
the origi n al polar through
P because the dryness ,
fra c tion (or superheat)

progressively d e c r e a s e 8
unl ess reheaters be fi t t e d .
I t is perhaps u nn e ce s
sary to re mark that great
care shoul d be exercised
with the drawi n g if accu
racy is required but in
an y case if the app roxi ma ,
Fi e 1 41 . . tions m ade in other por

tions of the cal c ulations
are such that great accuracy is un n ecessary it is as well to keep rough estima ,
tion s withi n bo u n d s whe n an opport unity does more readily present its elf .
The use of the diagram for the above purpose wi ll be fou n d quite
accurate enough and far more rapid than ploddi n g through masses of calcula
,
tions Moreover the visual appearance of the diagrammatic work is generally

.
,
a check on itself and other fu n ction s as well .
The amount of the pressure drop p m to p m + for any stage will determ ine
-
1
whether the passages are to be wholly c onvergent parallel or divergent , ,
.
For type 1 with ma ny stages as in the Rateau turbi n e for in s tan ce

, ,
they will as a rule be wholly convergent that is p m + will ge n erally be

, , , , 1
greate r than 5 8p m °
.
The area of fi x e d passage at an y par t of the turbine where the veloc ity of
the steam is the sa m e is found by the simple form ul a
AP
x
,
where A is the area in square feet ,
p the density or weight of the steam per c ubic foot ,
cc the dryness fraction an d ,

1 36 T HE T H E ORY o r T H E STE AM TU RBIN E .
The area of se c tion at right an gles to the flo w withi n an y o n e fi xe d passage

is given by
where v is the velocity o f the s team in feet per seco n d an d Q is the quan tity
'
of steam passi n g per un it of time ( se c o n d ) in lbs .
I n the above an d similar exp ressions the relative volume of the e n trained
water ( represented by 1 x ) is c o n sidered to be n egligible .
N o w the width of the passage at right an gles to the fl o w varies as the sin e
of the a n gle of i n c lin ation to the directio n of motion of the wheels .
So that for a p assage starting axially ( taki n g the more ge n eral parallel
,
1
fl o w type ) the ratio of widths of i n let to outlet is
,
s 1n a
At a b Fig 1 4 2 the steam conditions are respectively
, , .
,
I t may happen that

” II I
r in co n ti n uous n otation
Pm ”1 23m
“
but it is highly im p robable in the maj ority of c ases .
I t therefore follo w s that the height of the fi x e d va n es should vary from

’
the sec tion at a to the section at b if proper expa n sion or con trac tio n is to be
p rovided for .
E x amp les .
—To take an example
Let v
1
1 000 feet p e r se c o n d ,
= 1 6 0 lbs per square i n c h ,
p' .
x 1 .
The n from Diagram A, Fig . 1 42 , an d the steam tables ,
p” 3 5 2, p lbs ( about)
.
,
p 2 81 , £0
2
: 9 3 5,
and v = 1 7 5 feet
per second supposed to be tran smitted
4 ,
from stage to stage .
Let h be the length of the van es and w the width of the passage , .
Then as above , ,
generally .
1 38 T HE T H E ORY o r THE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
w orki n g face of t he van e the very worst plac e it could be in for exerti n g a
,
drag o n the stream and this is one of the fac tors militati n g against the
,
adop tion of t oo low a ratio Fo r further remarks see page 1 9 4 . .
The le n gth of arc of admission whi ch may be only 2 0 to 40 degrees at ,
the fi rst stage follows from the sele c tion of a suitable len gth of vanes This
, .
are m ay be divided up i n to se c tio n s distributed at i n ter vals arou n d t h e ,
c ircumfere n c e but it is preferable for it to be all i n one

,
The arran gement .
i s nevertheless arbitrary to a certa in exte n t ,
an d will be contr o lled b y requirements .
L E A KA G E A ll o w an c e fo r an d
E ffe c t O f L e ak ag e — There is i n evitably a .
leakage of steam from c ell to cell between the

rotor an d the diaphragm hubs an d un less this
be allowed for in the progression of worki n g
areas the p rogression of the pressure may
,
dep art co n siderably from that i n te n ded .
For practi cal con ven ience the le n gths of ,
the guide or fi x e d van es w ould be settled before

determining the len gths of the p artial admission
arcs but all the areas would be roughly deter
,
mined at fi rst without re fi n e me n t s an d b y

n eglecting leakage The length of van es bo th
.
,
movi n g an d fi x e d the various diameters of the

,
shaft and discs an d the leakage clearan c es would

,
therefore be k n own before ad j ustmen t is made

for leakage .
With type 1 ( also type whether dis c or

drum built ad j ustme n t for leakage is most
-
sui tably m ade by varying the le n gths of the

partial admission ares .
S in c e Q the total q uan tity of steam an d water

,
passin g is c on stan t it follows that the gen eral

, ,
effe c t of leakage is to n arrow the arcs at the

hi gh pressure e n d from which they in c reas e
-
towards the low pressure e n d to what they

-
would be if there were n o leakage .
Let a be the leakage area which will Em 1 42 , . ,
probably be the same for a group of c el ls .
Then at an y fi x e d vane outlets the total area required

, ,
Q
”
1
where is the sp e c ifi c vol ume of the steam with allowan ce for superheat or
v ,
moisture as the c ase may b e

, .
The face area of the partial admission is
an d th e are 0 f ad m 1 ss1 on
0 0 F
length of fi x e d vanes x K
where K is t he to tal c oeffi c ie n t of obst r u c tio n (see page
T HE E FF ICI E NCY o r COM PO UN D T U RB IN ES . 1 39
Thus as the o nl y variable fo r a g r o up of c ells is v the c alculatio n s may be

, ,
easily made in tabular form .
S i n c e the drops of press ure are us uall y smal l it is always best to se t out ,
particular curves for the pres sure an d volume of the steam .
Th e followi n g example will illustrate the pr oc ed ure :

For a give n group of discs of the same diameter let ,
initial pressure 1 00 lbs absolute .
superheat 26 F
°
fi n al press u re 5 0 lbs .
dryness 9 82 ‘
number of stages 1 2 ( high ratio turbine )

quantity steam fl o w ing 3 lbs p e r se e . .
ea c h leakage area 7 5 square i n ches

len gth of fi x e d va n es (11 ) x K = 1 § i n c hes x 7 5 h,
From diagram A or otherwise it is fou n d that one third of the e n ergy is

disposed of whe n 7 9 lbs is reached and two—
-
. thirds at , lbs .
From the 4 points — more may be taken if desirable — we construct the

particul ar curve of pressure A R Fig 1 4 3 , . .
We also fin d that the steam is j us t dry at 7 0 lbs so t hat the sp e c ifi c .

,
vol u me is known for E .
44 1 4 t
The initial 59 2 .
4 7 ( l st approx ) ,
.
P
and the fi nal x 8 41 8 8 2 6
v = 98 2
'
Th u s curve C D m ay be dra wn .
N o w tabulate scaled from C D as below

v .
O ther numerical constants are

Q — 3
_
006 6 6
11
1
E li
a = 75
°
sq i n ches = 0052 1
°
1 40 T HE T H E ORY o r T H E STE AM T U R B IN E .
P r e ss .
'
006 6 6 x v
’
005 2 1
03 2 08
’
The j ect of leakage may be very approximately determ ined by the use of
e
mea n pressures .
As an example take the data from the exam p le on page 2 60

, .
The turbi n e is divided i n to three groups havi n g the initial an d fi n al pres l

,
sures 1 6 0 1 04 3 7 2 lbs absolute and p ower ratios of 1

, , , .
,
5 res p e c tively , .
The mean pressure for ea ch group that is the pressure at which o n e half
, ,
-
the assig n ed en erg y is disposed o i is 1 28 6 3 1 0 lbs

, , ,
.
Suppose the leakage spaces are 4 in c hes diameter by 3 1 i n c h c learan c e 1
1 9 6 sq i n c h
. .
S in c e the loss by leakage at an y one stage is propo r tion al to the qua n tity
of steam fl o w in g thro u gh the c learan c e the effect may be expressed in terms
,
o f the general formula
Q “p Di '
Thus we have
Wo r k lost by leakage proportional to
1
(
915
x '
29 x 372
1 44
1 96
(m x l 48 x 47
'
"
'
1 96
m x '
02 6 2 x 6 38
38 78
S upposethe total quan tity of steam fl o win g to be 23 lbs per secon d

.
then work don e is proporti o n al to

HP 1 2 (2 3 1
1 46 25 8 -
IP 1 7 (2 3 -
0 965 37 45 -
LP 21 (2 3 0 21 7 47 8
-
1 1 1 05
-
3 8 78
Loss by leakage
Co m pare ~
t his with the values for the other types .
1 42 T HE T H EORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RB IN E .
co n text ) that the pressure rises to n o rmal at outlet but that the ki n eti c ,
energy of the stream — the velo c ity in fac t— remains low er for a considerable
dista n c e eve n when the van es have lon g tails .
I n practice the s w eepi n g a c tion o n the n ext row of fi x e d passages would

,
te n d to deman d a uni form exit velo c ity from f d ( Fig O wi n g to the .
relative motion of the van es the moving va n es are swept b y the nozzle stream
, ,
an d the v4 stream s w eeps the n ext ro w of n ozzles The veloc ity of the stream .
as received must therefore be pra c ti c ally u n iform throughout apart from ,
eddies fo r i n stan c e if the on e side of the n ozzle passage dis charges at a

,
differen t velocity an d an gle from the other side ( see p these di fferen ces .
will be pra c ti c ally levelled u p at e n try to the next row be c ause the passages
are not in perman e n t register —freque n tly for con struction al reason s the
, , ,
fi x e d an d movi n g va n es have not even the same pitc h .
Thus ( Fig 1 45 ) the portion of the stream .
t is at on e mome n t supplied by the st r eams s

at the next momen t by s an d the next by s '
an d so o u .
The time o c cupied in traversing the mov

ing passage may therefore be taken as the
same for all particles of the working stream ,
w hatever path they may pursue That there .
m ay be internal whirls or backwate rs do e s ‘ ’
n ot affect the matter be cause the former ,
FI G 1 45 . ,
c an o n ly be created by some local ex c ess of
velo c ity and the latter m ay con sist of perma

uently situated masses of steam or more p robably be maintained by a ,
regular interchange of eleme n ts at a rate depen din g on ly on the violen ce

of the ad j acen t whirls .
The time for traversing c d ( Fig 1 44) will then be the same as for .
traversing e f and n o t a b .
I t must not be forgotten that the eleme n t of the stream on ly has the
form f d c e when relative motion is con sidered an d that it is a wrong ,
assum p tio n to c onsider the trian gular portion s e a c f 6 d as bei n g parts of ,
the ad j oi n i n g fi x ed passages .
The c omplete p assage through the t u i b in e as it really ex ists when the

turbi n e 1 s in motion can o n l y be viewed l n terms of the absolute velo c ities of
.
the stream and to do so it is n e c essary to fi n d the traj e c tory or true path

,
‘
of the stream .
The method of fi n din g this is show n in the next c hapter Th u s the true .
path or effective shape of the passages may be as shown in F igsl 1 4 6 1 4 7 , .
S e e also Fig 1 54. .
I t may reason abl y be inferred from these t w o fi gu re s that the fully

humped van e is not the most suitable for high ratio turbi n es on ac c ount of
the n egative turn at g .
The absolute paths of Figs 1 4613 1 47 3 must of course be viewed in .

,
relation to the absolute velo c ities whi c h in the movi n g passages b e gradually
, ,
dimi n ish from i n let to outlet The hu m ped van e is c ertai n ly n ot the best
.
when the dimi n ution of velo c ity is g r eat that is where 114 is c om p aratively , ,
small and it c an o n ly a c c ommodate the stream b y e n tirely disloc ati n g the

,
velo c ity con ditio n s as imposed b y the geometry of the c ase an d by the
c e n t r ifugal c o n ditio n .
The e ffect of ratio of the turbi n e is ho w ever n ot the on ly c onside r ation , ,

T HE E FF ICI E NCY or COM PO U N D T U RB I N E S . 1 43
affecting the qu e stion of humping the vanes The i n tens ity of the centri fugal .
c ondition is a factor and thi s depends u p on the velocity of the stream an d

,
the radi us of curvature of the vanes V ery small van es may give quite as .
intense a ce n trifugal con dition— that is rise and fall of pressure from the
m ean —with low velocity strea ms as large vanes with high velocity strea ms
,
at re s t
f ix e d
FI G . 1 46 ,
—Exampl e wi th h i gh r ati o .
The more intense the ce n trif ugal con ditio n the greater m ay be the hu m p ,
si n ce with the great reductio n of velocity o n the convex side of the vane
, ,
an d the great increase of velocity on the co n cave side to establish that

condition the longer is the path of the convex side streams With high
, .
Ac t u al s hap e of p as s age s a t re s t Ac t ual s h ap e in m o t i o n
FI G . 1 47 .
—E xam pl e w i th low ratio .
velo c ities however t he pitc h should be smaller with a given radius of

, ,
curvat u re in order to give opportunity for the e ffective ce n t r ifugal pressures

to attain a maximum so that the humpi n g be c omes less pro n ou n c ed an d the
vane approximates the u n iform section N e v e rt he le ss the me c han i c al problem
.
,
of the van e has to be considered an d as a r ule some thi c keni n g in the middle
,
is dema n ded for stre n gth

1 44 THE T H E ORY o r TH E S TE AM T U RB I N E .
The makers of the R ateau turbi n e for instance are con tent to use thick
, ,
sheet metal van es sharpe n ed at the i n let and outlet edges other makers use
a dra w n strip with a moderate humpi n g while others make an elaborate ,
busi n ess of humpi n g the vanes to an extreme form .
S tati c experimen ts prove that the r e is very little i n deed betwee n the
various forms of van es an d the records of turbi n es in practice certai n ly
,
appear to favour the thi n van e

P IT C H OF VAN E S —
.
I t is fairly evide n t that i n ter n al disturban ce

.
depen ds largely upon the ratio of the width of the passage and the curvature
-
in other words the p it c h of the vanes
, .
I f the pitch is very small the p assages are very lo n g for the thi c kness of
the stream C entrifugal c han ges of pressure will ge n erall y be small an d
.
resultan t eddies small also on the other ha n d surface fri c tion and loss by
impact on the edges will be ex c essive .
I f the pit c h is very large the stream is thi c k an d it is obvious that it ,
c an n ot be wholly d e fl e c t e d to the necessary angle to give up its e n ergy to the
van e .
E xperiment and ge n eral experience indicate that for best eco n omy
Pit c h 3 to 4 width of va n es
: .
The greater the velocity the narrower the pitch an d vi ce versa , .
Figs 3 7 5 3 7 6 show examples of the pressure variation s oc c urring in the

two extreme forms of van e passage —the one with ba c k an d fro n t radii stru c k
.
,
from the same centre the other with va n es of un iform thick n ess
, .
I t appears that with the comparatively slow movi n g stream of the e x p e ri

ments gross i n ternal eddies m ay not exist in the segme n tal passage
, .
Ou the other han d si n ce other experime n ts an d ex p erie n ce i n di c ate a

,
rather better e ffi c ie n cy for the u n iform van e it seems that eddies are here ,
at an y rate a lesser evil than surface fri c tion .
I ndeed the man y incide n tal results derived from various experime n ts
relati n g to the fl o w through van e passages all point overwhelmi n gly to the
impo r tant e ff e c t of surface fri c tio n For e xample it is frequen tly a mu c h
.
,
more e ffi c ie n t arran gement in the end to permit a large an gle of discharge

a and tha n to adopt small a n gles with the necessarily more elaborate
( B) ,
mea n s for effe c tively directi n g the str e am to those small angles .
The variation of vane length as deman ded b y the velo c ity and an gle
arran gements also affects the determi n ation of the p itch an d humpi n g .
I f the outlet a n gle of the movi n g van es is mu c h smaller than the i n let ,
the van es requi r e to be lo n ger at the outlet edge than at the i n let or else the ,
turbine is partly co n verted into one of type 4 M oreover the tru e or app ro i .
,
x
matel y true shap e len gth w ays would be of the typ e show n in Fig 1 4 2 an d .
,
would be d iffi c u lt in practi c e I n p ractice the shrouding woul d have to be

.
straight a c ross or nearly so in whi c h c ase p arti c ularly for lon g van es a
, , ,
co n siderable humping in the middle would be desirable both to compen sate for ,
the gross spuriou s expa n sion in the middle and to direct the flow in an
effic ie n t dire c tion at outlet .
The above remarks will make it ap pa r en t that the design of turbi n e va n es

o n a ratio n al basis is beset with d iffi c u lt ie s of a c o n fl ic t in g nature an d that ,
fo r an y set of con dition s the solutio n c an o n l y be a c ompromise at best .
M I S C E LLA N E O U S P O I N T S — 1 t will be app a r e n t from the fore .
goi n g an d from similar exam p les that the residual vel o c ities (v4) that requi r e
to be tra n smitte d from stage t o stage must in the n ature of thi n gs be of , ,
1 46 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM T U RBIN E .
The usual pra c ti cal arran gement is a combi n ation of the two methods of
incre asi n g the area that is the le n gth of the van es is increased as well as ,
the peripheral admissio n The relative amount by whi c h ea c h is increas ed

.
depe n ds e n tirely up on c irc umstan c es an d can follow no fi x e d rule , .
There is however n o d iffi c u lty whatever in the calculation s involved which

, , ,
are made pre c isel y as i n di c a t ed fo r a varyi n g len gth of van e solely the length ,
then bei n g reduced prop ortionately to the increase in total width of the
passages The error in the regular fl o w will be p r oportion al to the amoun t
.
of side spread arran ged for an d it is therefore desirable to keep it as small as

-
circumstan c es will permit .
A further error is ofte n i n trodu c ed by making the va n e ends square

i n stead of bevelled for i n sta n c e whe n B is less than a ( F ig
,
.
I f t he fi x e d van es are square —

‘
e n ded and of their grea t est required len gth

i( n let or o utlet edge as the case may b e ) an d if the movi n g van es are
, ,
squarely shrouded either b y an ordi n ary shroudi n g or by a close fi t to the

,
casi n g there will be a te n de n c y to the o c c urrence of spurious expan sions an d

,
con tractions of the steam an d as p iratio n of the surrou n di n g steam at entry

, .
” will co n seque n tly su ii e r or the nozzle e ffi c ie n c y will be redu c ed

'
3 , .
These losses will in fac t be mostly of the order , ,
pe c uliar to a sudden e n largemen t or c o n traction of

c losed p as sages an d c an only be alleviated by suitably ,
thi cken i n g the van es in the middle .
I t may be noted tha t in an y case B can only

equal a for that one particular load of the turbine
whe n the p ressure drop s give the correspo n di n g values
to the velocities I n ge n eral there is therefore little .
to be gai n ed by maki n g shaped shroudings either at

the roo t or tip of the van e .
There is n o such thi n g as a mathemati c ally accurate

Fm 1 48 . shape of van e in an y prac ti c al sense although some
.
,
times we see that the possession of this remarkable pro

perty is c laimed on behal f of certain va n es A very important feature .
that vitiates all attempts to fashion the van es for a given progression of
velocities an d dens ities is the almost un avoidable existen ce of waves created
by the n ozzles whi c h are aggravate d b y the n ecessarily re c tangular section s
,
foun d in con ve n ie n t practi c e I t is o n ly b y the merest chan ce that these .
waves do not oc c ur Whe n they do the slightest variation in pressure alters

.
,
their am plitude and p hase .
The shroudi n gs over the moving vane ends are sometimes omitted ( as for ,
i n sta n c e in the p r ese n t Z oe lly turbi n e ) I n su c h a c ase the peripheral c lear

, .
an c e must be small in spite of the fact that this type of turbi n e is spe c ially
,
directed agains t peri p heral leakage an d mi n ute clearances other w ise the ,
natural Spreading of the stream over the surfac es ( see Fig which b y the .
abse n c e of shroudi n g be c ome to a c ertain exte n t open buckets causes a ‘ ’

,
dire c t sp illi n g over the van e ti p s .
This sp illi n g will eve n whe n slight oc c asion eddies with a c o n seque n t loss
, , ,
of ap plicable e n ergy whi c h is on ly recoverable in p art b y bevelli n g the fi x e d

,
van e e n ds Fig 1 48 This bevelli n g although not c onve n ient with some
, . .
,
forms of c on st r uc tion is admittedly often useful in obtai n i n g the app roxi

,
mately c orre c t expansion withi n the passage .
L E A D — From a c onside r ation of the tra j ectory of the stream it

.
‘
be c omes necessary in cases of partial admission to plac e eac h se t of

, ,
TH E E FF ICI ENCY or COM PO U N D T U RBIN ES . 1 47
fix ed passages in advan c e of the preceding set . This advance is called

‘
l e ad .
’
Accurately dete rm ined lead is imperative with passages of constan t width

( Figs 5 4C an d 5 4s ) and is desirable in arra n gements that are a combination of
.
,
the two method s of progression as su c h a provision conduces to a steady

,
flow .
Th e amount of lead necessary will be seen from Fig 1 49 to vary accordi n g .
to the relative velocity through the passages and is found ac cording to the
,
instruc tion s given in C hapter VI I I n the particular arran geme n t depi c ted
.
in Figs 5 412 the lead will be cons tant for each stage beca u se the relative
.
, ,
velocity is constant throughout .
I n the co n stant length o f vane arrangement the provisio n of lead does n o t

- - -
matte r much if the spaces c are large enough to allow for the side spreadi n g -
which occurs before entry into the n ext fi x e d pas sages M oreover with this .
,
and the combined arrangeme n t the increase of area required fro m stage to
stage is itself gen erally greater than the lead and con dition s are sat isfi e d by
,
m aking the passages exte n d o n both sides of the mea n lead li n e but incli n i n g ,
to o n e side or other ac c ordi n g as the prearran ged exit velo c ities v, are
disposed .
CH APTE R V I I
T H E T R AJ E C T O R Y O F T H E S T E A M .
C ON T E N TS -
Ca se s 1 an d 2 I m pu l se Turb i ne w i th ou t L o ss —C ase 3 I mpul se Turb in e w i th
L o ss —C ase 4 t h e E ffe c t of the Va ne B ack —C ase 5 Reac t ion Turb i ne .
T H E T RU E P A T H O R T R AJ E C T O R Y O F T H E S T E A M .
The path ac tually pursued by the stream in the movi n g passages is not
to be c on fused with the shape of the vane bec au se the vane has moved an ,
ap pre c iable dista n ce in the time elapsin g between the entry and exit of
the steam .
C as e I Take the e ase of the semicircular vane A B C movi n g in the

.
,
direction of the arro w Fig 1 4 9 A bei n g the i n let an d C the exit e n d

, .
, .
S uppose the i n itial velocity of the steam to b e v1 an d the van e velocity .
The n the relative velo c ity at i n let that is the velo c ity of the steam over , ,
the van e surfa c e ( or mean path if A B C represe n t the mean static path ,
through the vane passage ) is vl —v = v2 .
I n the im p u ls e t u rb in e the relative velocity remai n s constan t when

,
there are no losses so that 11 2 v

3 (
usual
,
notatio n
) .
The ti me oc c upied by the stream in traversing the path is therefore

t _
where 7 is the radius of vane
’
°
.
v
2
The d istance moved by the van e in the direction A X duri n g the time t is
D= _
an d the distance moved by the van e w hen t he stream has traversed an y

distan ce A E is
measu red from the p oin t E , not from the diamete r A C .
I t follows that si n ce d is only dep e n den t on the size of the van e an d the
r atio of v to 1 2— an d not on the absolute values of v 11 2 v1 e tc — the t raje c
1
, , , .
tories for the same values of v/ v are s im il ar c u rve s

2 .
The c urves in the accompanying diagram Fig 1 4 9 are therefore sta n dard , .
,
traj ec tories for semi c ircular vanes of any size when there is not internal
friction al loss .
A ll i t a i f t a d nd un s re n ee n seco s.
1 48
1 50 THE T H E ORY o r T H E S TE AM TU RB I N E .
This diagram is co n stru c ted as follows

—2;
’
0
( 1) Let v=
l
; then 21
2
11
1
§
S e t—
o fi CF m
' '
the n d
Se t -
o ff BG —
2
AE
g ar then
S e t—
o fi HK
2 m:
'
An d similarly for other values .
( 2) Let 11 the n 11
2
=v
1
v
D m
? 3t ——
1
Se t off C L
I n Fig . 1 49 the six curves represe n t

the traj ectories for vane velocities
of 1 2
‘
3 , 4, 5 , an d 6, the i n let stream
veloc ity respe c tively
' ' ' ’ '
, , , .
C as e 2 I f the van e is not a complete semi c ircle but on ly exte n ds f r om a

. ,
poi n t F to a poi n t G which is the most u sual arrangemen t the process of

, ,
obtai n ing the traj e c tories is precisely the same as before .
e
The time occupied is — where 0 is the an gle subtendin g the are .
v
2
Therefore
I t follows therefore that the c urves are portio n s of the previ ous c u rves
, , ,
exc ep t that the starti n g—points are at F instead of A .
Fig 1 5 0 shows the traj e c tories for various val u es of v/

. v
l .
I t will be observed that from the nature of the c urves the tange n t to the
, ,
traj ectory at any point is parallel to the absolute velocity of the fl u id at that '
p oi n t also that the ta n gent to the vane ( or mea n li n e ) is parallel to the

relative velocity .
Thus Figs 1 5 1 an d 1 5 1 A illustrate the progression of the veloc ity c han ges
.
of the fl u id whi le passi n g from on e side to the other .
C ase 3 N ow let chan ge to some less value 113 o n a cc ou n t of a

.
, ,
frictional ( or equivalen t) loss .
At fi rst glan c e it might be c o n sidered reasonable to su p pose that the

reduction of relative velocity takes p lace at a u n iform rate S i n c e t he .
T RA J EC TORY or T HE STE AM . 1 51
1 52 TH E T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
traj ectory may however espe c ially with semi c irc ular van es have a very
, , ,
sharp turn at the outlet end and as the c urvature de c reases generally towards
,
that e n d there is more reason to supp ose that the rate of loss i n c reases as
,
the stream pro c eeds That this is so app ears to re ceive c o n fi rmat ion from
.
the resul ts of many experimen ts made i n dire c tly .
I n ordi n ary cases however where the va n e are is much less than a semi
, ,
c ircle , the sharp turn is c u t o ff the traj e c to ry and it will be su ffi cien tly ,
accurate to assume that the rate of loss is u n iform .
To fi n d the traj ectory fi rst draw the velo c ity diagram as in Fig 1 5 2 in
, .
,
which for example v3 = 7 5 212

, ,
.
The p rogression of the p oi n t B to the point D is re p resen ted by the dotted

li n e which is so c on stru c ted that the relative velocity decreases uniformly
,
FI G . 1 52 . FI G . 1 53 .
per degree of chan ge of di r e c tion Thus O2 bisectin g DCB is equal to .
DC + BC
and so ou .
2
S ele c t suitable division s su c h as 1 2 3 an d c omplete the tria n gles for each
, , , ,
poi n t .
0 is then known at several p ositions along the path .

2
v
As before d are x _ _
1
11
2
but in this case v21 is the average relati ve ve locity u p to the poi n t taken .
I n Fig 1 5 3 two traj e c tories are p lotted out in the above man n er
. .
For the complete semi c i r c ular van e where the fi n al sharp turn in the ,
traj e c tory probably occurs the form of the dotted locus of B m ay be va r ied
,
at disc retion to allow for an increasi n g rate of loss An y other locu s will .
necessarily lie bet w een the curve of u n iform rate as in Fig 1 5 2 an d the ,
.
,
circ ular are described when 112 is con stant The lo c us may be determi n ed .
by the eye wi thout materially alteri n g the result .

1 54 T HE T H EORY O F T HE STE AM T U R B IN E .
traj ectories of the stream are illustrated for vanes s o thicke n ed as to give an
app roximately an n ul ar passage .
I t will be see n tha t with the parti c ular velocity con ditions assumed the
fl at ta n ge n tial portion of the vane back at exit leads to a negative curvature
-
of some of the stream li n es an d that the traj ecto ries of the i nn er an d outer
,
stream li n es are very di fferent from one another although the disp lace ments ,
are of c ourse the same

, , .
I n prac ti c e the i nn er traj e c tory sh o uld be assumed an d the section of the

vane determi n ed from it W hen maki n g this assump tion care should be
.
,
take n to avoid sudden c han ges in the area of the stream which shoul d adapt ,
itself ge n erally to the c on ditions of fl ow .
The effe c t of os c illations of pressure c reated in the n ozzles can hardly e n ter
the problem so that we are forced t o c on clude in man y c ases that the determin a
,
tio n of best se c tion of vane is

mo r e of an experimen tal than
a mathemati c al p r oblem .
C as e 5 The case of the .
re ac t io n t u rb i n e in which
11
2
i n creases to 12
3
v
3
bei ng ,
about equal to v] in mag n i

tude is a little di fferen t from ,
the above cases for impulse

turbi n es I n the reac tion .
tu r bi n e the movi n g passage

is itself a n ozzle passage an d ,
the rate of fall of p r essure ,
with the simultan eous rise of

1
2
depen ds on the differen c e 1 ,
of p ressure an d the a cc uracy ,
of the passage areas havi n g

regard to that di ffe r en c e .
The rate of fall of pres

sure again depe n ds o n the , ,
FI
G 1 55
pit c h of the va n es as will ,
be seen in Figs 3 6 4A to D
. °
,
.
which illustrate the case for va n es of the ordi n ary Parson s typ e The lo c us .
of B is therefore largel y a matter of c o n j e c ture an d is not ne c essarily c on fi n e d ,
to the narrow limits of variation of sha p e as in c ase 3 above , .
A dete r mi n a tio n of the traj ectory is therefore highl y i n volved an d more ,
over in the us ual cons tru c tion s ado p ted in the Parson s systems is differe n t
, ,
for every stage throughout the turbi n e This is however of n o g r eat impo r t
.
, ,
an ce for this type of turbi n e be c ause the admission of steam is n e c essarily

,
total or all the way round an d the question of lead does n ot e n ter
, , .
An ap proximatio n to the traj e c tory m ay be as c ertai n ed by assumi n g that

the i n c rease in relative veloc ity takes p lace in some regular man n er as for , ,
instan c e in equal i n cremen ts of velo c ity in terms of the an gular turn of the
,
mea n p ath bet w een the van es .
This amou n ts to assuming the form of the locu s of B as indi cated for c ase
3. I t is more importan t to take the mean li n e E F Fig 1 55 than in the ,
.
,
previous cases for reason s that n eed no further explan ation The co nstru c tion
, .
of the diagram then proceeds exactly as in case 3 .
A typi c al example is given in Fig 1 5 5 . .

CH AP TE R V I I I .
E F F I C I E N CY OF TU RB I N ES . T YPE S 2 an d 3
.
C ON T N T S — Efii i y f Typ 2 —E am pl —R lat iv L gth f th V —A rra g m t

E c e nc o e x es e e en s o e an e s n e en
wi th ta t L gth f Va —Th i k P i t h a d Wi d th f V a —V a L
—E rr r i trod u d —L ad—Typ 3 —E fl t f L akag
c on s n en o n es c n e ss, c , n o n es ne osse s
'
o s n ce e e ec o e e .
T YP E 2 — I st arrang e —
m e nt Let the
from all nozzles
. ex it ang le s ,
fi x e d and movi n g passages be co n stan t ( e g The i n let angles will u
then vary accordi ng to the character of the triangles of velocity .
(l B
“
' ‘
20
FI G . 1 56 .
Th e aggregate loss in the va n es an d guide passages will in general be , ,
greate r tha n in the p revious type be cause the velo c ities dealt with are very
,
m uch greater parti c ularly in the fi rs t stage and appear to be less manageable
, , .
S uppose there are three stages then the loss by i n ter n al resista n c e ( items
d e k page 1 2 1 ) in the fi rst stage will be grea t er than in typ e 1 be c ause in
, , , ,
this case is much greater .
This cau se of loss will be less for the next two stages but tra n smi t ted ,
ed dies and cons eq uen t spilling will res ult in their not be ing fed with the full
qua n tity of steam Ac cordin gly the propo rtion of velocity head lost will
.
probably be greater than in the fi rst s t age .
Th is reason in g is c on fi rm ed by the ge n erally unsatisfacto ry results

obtained from turbi n es of this type with more than two stages .
I n the arrangeme n t now u n der consideration when the loss in the pas sages ,
1 55
1 56 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
is reason ably small progressive increase of van e le n gth is required for t wo

,
reaso n s V IZ
, .
( )
a The loss of relative velo c ity head withi n the van e passages .
( b) The re contrac tion of effe c tive e x it width of the p assages by reversion

-
to the origi n al a n gle a .
E x amp les — A few typical examples of e fli c ie n c ie s will n o w be given

. .
R eferring to Fig . 1 56, and the a c compan yin g Table V I .

, ”
3
is taken to
be ‘
75v an d a = =
B
Figis draw n for three arran gemen ts in which the v an e
1 56. v e lo e it y v = 1 ,
'
'
resp e c tively The e ffi c ie n c ie s work out (by seali n g the diagram )

1 5, an d 2 211 '
.
to the values given in the Table VI The fi gure is completed for v = 1 5 11 1

.
,
the fi rst stage trian gles o n ly bei n g dra w n for the othe r values I t will be .
observed that with eac h of these values of v the veloc ity head is usefully ,
exhausted in two stages .

1 58 T HE TH E ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E
.
E ffi ci e n c y
°
05
°
1 x 4 5 32 :
°
453
'
1 x 39 14 :
°
3 91
1 299
.
X
.
1 0 43
1 5 36
'
82 1
'
3 x2 573 :
'
7 72
3 7 07
° ‘
’
5 99
‘
4 x '
81 9
'
4 x l 44 9 = 5 8
' '
‘
4 x '
599 24 “
TA BLE V III .
( For Fig .
99 5 58 2 09
‘ ' ‘
H H
E FF ICI E NCY or T U RB I N E S . 1 59
I n Fig . are plotted the e ffi c ie n c ies of ea c h stage ( referred to the total

1 57
head ) separately an d of t wo or m ore — u p to the maximum n umber of stages
,
possible — o i stages c ombi n ed .
Oh exami n i n g these diagrams and tables the total e ffi c ie n cy will be seen

to depe n d n o t s o m uch on the individual e ffi c ie n cy of any o n e stage but ,
more upon whether the exit veloc ity from a certai n stage is su ffi c ie n t for
p ro fi table t ransmission to a further stage I t will be observed that the
.
per c entage of energy abstracted in the various stages rapidly decreases from
the fi rst stage and that eve n if the residual velocity from say stage 3 of , ,
Table V II be passed on to a fourth stage the extra work obtained only amounts
.
,
to about 3 1 per cen t .
I n general it will c ertai n ly n ot b e found p ro fi t able to add a stage— the

,
last stage is the most expensive stage too — that yields so little return .
FIG . 1 59 .
TH E R E L AT I V E L E N GT H S O F T H E V A N E S at the
various poi n ts are found as follows :
R eferri n g to Figs 1 5 9 and 1 5 6 but taking v3 = 9 2v2 etc
.
,
°
, .
Let the length of nozzle or l st fi x e d van es h

Then l st movi n g vane inlet h
outlet hxE x
sin 71 9
92 sin B
2nd fi xedvane inlet h1
o u t l e t = h1 x 1 1 x
1 9 s in 81
h2
92 sin a .
2n d movi n g van e in le t = h2
outlet h2 x 2 x 1 7 2
19 8 “
71 3
8 1 11
B
2
sin a sin
.
B
an d if
3
h and s o ou .
s1 n a
This c al c ulatio n is re n dered very simple by fi n d in g t he le n gths progressively .

1 60 THE T H EORY OF T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
A van e e ffi c ie n cy of 9 2 2 has been introd u ced above

, ,
b ut other values m ay
of c ourse be taken acco r di n g to c irc umstan ces .
Suppose for example that v 2 11 1

, , .
The n if a = 20
°
sin a
h2 = 1 2 2 5
°
h3 = 1 '
772 x
FI G . 1 60.
These dimen sion s are illustrated in Fig 1 5 9 which shows in a striki n g .

,
mann er the in c rease of area required in a short distan ce The general .
arran gemen t Fig 5 5 0 is also prop ortioned on similar lin es

, .
, .
2 n d arrang e m e n t — L e ng t h o f v an e s re m ain in g c o n st ant — The .
inlet an d outlet an gles of the vanes must now progressively i n crease in order
to p rovide the n ecessary i n c rease in area for the fl o w .
Fig 1 6 0 shows the con struction of the velocity diagram

. .
AB is v1 the nozzle outlet veloc ity The outlet velo c ity AD from the
.
moving passages be c omes more n early at right an gles to the van e velo c ity
AO as the stages progress u n til further resolution is p rac ti c ally impossible
, ,
.
The outlet velo c ity is th u s obviously determined mai n ly by the initial

angle a .
Fig 1 60 is drawn for a =

. and vg = 9 2112 .
Table IX gives the various e ffi cie n cies for different values of v/

. v
l
.
1 62 T HE TH E ORY or THE STE AM T U RB IN E .
The separate and combined e ffi cie n c ie s for Table IX are set out in .
Fig . 1 61 .
comparison of Fig 1 6 1 with Fig 1 5 7 will show that the practical limit
A . .
of the number of stages is rea ched more rapidly for the same values of v '
in the case of the c o n stant length arra n geme n t and that the maximum
-
,
possible e ffi c ie n cy is greater in the former arra n geme n t .
I t is obvious that the intermediate arran gements between the two j ust
may b e of in fi n it e variety For instance the len gth of the vanes
e x e mp l ifi e d .
,
may be made to increase in a man n er s ui table for certain prac tical methods of
manufacture an d the angles will vary a c cordi n gly
,
Or for certain other
.
,
methods of con struction it may be determined experimen tally that the losses in
,
the vanes progress in some manner accordi n g to the ge n eral intri n sic condi
tion s the diagrams will requ ire m od ifi cat io n accordi n gly .
The general trend of the results however will be very much the same
, , ,
an d to all i n tents and purposes somewhere between the two extremes above
described which do not thems elves give e ffi cie n cies th at differ greatly
,
.
E FF ICI E NCY or T U RB I N E S . 1 63
Reviewing the two arrangements it is important to notice that it is p ra

,
c
tically i mpossible to obtain anythi n g like the e ffi c ie n cy of type 1 with the

same individual percen tage of vane losses and this deduction — made on the ,
same basis for both — is u n doubtedly largely the reason why the type has not
been a comparative success hither to .
I ndeed if future improvements take pla c e to the same exte n t in both types
, ,
type 1 will always have the advantage .
The total e fli c ie n cy of the turbine will b e as before t he nozzle e ffi c ie n cy , ,
m ul tiplied by the diagram e ffi c ie n cy j ust obtai n ed and si n ce the raison d é tre ’
of the type is a low peripheral velocity with a m inimu m number of vanes an d ,
parts it follows that a maximum practical e ffi cie n cy of more than about 6 0

,
per c ent (as compared with the 8 1 7 per cent of type 1 ) can n ot very well be
. .
hoped for .
Since the attai n ment of an actual 6 5 to 7 0 per cent e ffi c ie n cy is considered .
good practice with either type 1 or 4 it follows that u nless the vanes of type
,
2 can be made to do something very much better than anythi n g that has yet
been accomplished type 2 m ust ever be a failure from the point of view of
,
economy .
I n ventors may p rofi tab ly accept the assurance that it is absolutely useless
to even attempt a greate r number of velocity stages tha n 3 and those in ve n
tions embodyi n g a dozen or more su c h stages and for which patents are taken ,
out with almost clocklike regularity are quite futile

T H I C K N E SS P I T C H A N D W I DT H O F VA N E S —Th e
.
,
.
, ,
observations on page 1 41 apply equally to this type of turbine those refer
ring to the low ratio turbi n e of type 1 apply to the early stages ( rows) and ,
those referring to the high ratio turbine apply to the later stages .
I n the fi rst rows at least the nozzle and relative velocities are nevertheless
very much higher than those of the lowest ratio likely to be adopted in type
1 and the centrifugal pressures are correspon dingly higher
, The vanes may .
then be humped S ince this type of turbin e will almost invariably require
.
only a very small arc of nozzles on account of the high velocity of the steam ,
the question will arise as to whether it is better to m ake the are long an d
narrow or short and wide The latter is in general the more e ffi c ie n t
, .
arrangeme n t although naturally there is a practical limit either way The

, , , .
disturban c es in the stream with this type of turbine are very violent and it ,
is obvi ous that if they produce spilli n g the spilling losses will b e a smal l er ,
fra c tion of the total fl ow when wide nozzles and long vanes are u sed .
Also with narrow nozzles and short vanes it is more d iffi c u l t in practice t o
,
get that perfect register of the various rows that is ab solute ly necessary for
e ffi cie n cy .
Ou the other hand with a and Bcon stant or nearly so Fig 1 5 9 will make
, , ,
.
it evident that the width of the vane must be roughly proportio n al to the
len gth if a straight fl o w is to be approximate d Wide van es i n volve great .
surfa c e friction— a thing to be avoided as mu c h as possible I n ge n eral the .
pitch should be narrow for the fi rst row may gradually increase to the ,
last an d may thus vary fro m 2 5 x width to 4 x width

, .
That these points are of some practi c al im porta n c e is to an exte n t sho w n , ,
by the fa c t that progression of angles len gths and pitches have all been the , ,
subj ect of various pate n ts by acknowle dged experts .
VA N E L O SS E S must in general be greater in this type of tu rbine

on account of the c entrifugal effect as the steam cannot have its density ,
alte rnately increased and de c reased without so me loss of e ffective energy of ,

1 64 THE T H E ORY o r T HE ST E AM T U RB I N E .
the n ature of ordinary nozzle losses The principal effect appears to be to .
break up the stream especially as there is the invariable accompa n iment of

,
nozzle waves so that it is rapidly rendere d useless for tran smissio n to further
,
stages I n these c irc umstances it leaks an d spills u n less the clearances (ax ial
.
,
not radial in the parallel fl ow turbi n e ) are very fi n e O ne of the features

,
-
.
that types 2 an d 3 should possess— that is an i n depe n den c e of hu e clearan c es ,
-
has therefore to be ignore d u n less the i n let edges of the vanes are lo n g
,
enough to catch the parts of the stream that woul d otherwise stray There .
is however j ust as mu c h trouble arisi n g from aspiration even then W hen

, , .
the van e len gths are in con ti n uous progression fi n e clearan ces have been ,
proved to be absolutely ne c essary in order to obtain a good economy .
I t should be clearly u n derstood that a steady fl o w of steam is n ot even

possible wi th this type of turbi n e an d that in order to mi n imise this , ,
disadvantage means have to be i n troduced which cause virtual departures

,
from the type .
I t is obvious that the velo c ity of the nozzle stream is in fl u e n ce d by the

amou n t of obstru c tion prese n ted by the several rows of vanes I n the c ase .
of closed passages the greater the width of the vanes an d the more numerous
,
the chan ges of direction of the fl o w the greate r will be the pressure head ,
required to m erely overc ome the general effects of friction and b afi lin g .
Fm 1 62 . . FI G . 1 63 .
I f the passages are perfectly clos ed and witho u t i n termediate clearances ,
there is no reason why the pressure drop shoul d be c ompleted in the nozzle ,
an d also no reason why there shoul d not be a progressive drop very sim ilar to
that in type 4 .
I n other words unless the fi rst c learan ce is very large the full drop of
, ,
pressure wi ll n ot take place in the nozzle bec ause there is n o inducement for
it to do so .
B ut if the clearan c e is large the outer port ion s of the nozzle stream will
,
ee i t ain ly tend to select the less obstructio n of o n e turn o n l y o n the way to
the exhau st i n stead of through the n u mero u s turn s of the various rows of
,
vanes an d guides ( u n less the guides extend all the way rou n d the wheel or
are e fficie n tly blan ked off ; features which approximate the perfectly closed
arran gement above ) .
When the clearan ces are large spillin g is i n evitable p artic ularly when the
, ,
lengths of vanes are pre c isely con c urrent as in Fig 1 6 2 . .
I f the leadi n g edges be made lo n ger as in F ig 1 6 3 with the idea of .

,
catc hi n g all the stream there will in general be a ten de n cy to aspiration of

, , ,
the surrounding dead steam which in turn helps to c ounteract an y leakage

,
as distin gui shed from spilli n g —through the c learan ces B ut as p iration reall y .
defeats the above idea 5 for the lo c al total mome n tum of the steam i n volved
,
can n ot alter ; the average velocity in the passage is therefore reduced an d ,
the total e ffi cie n cy r e duced also because the la t er stages are rendered more
,
obstructive by probably havi n g negative work to do .

1 66 THE T H E ORY o r THE STE AM T URB I N E .
Fig 1 6 6 shows an enlarged vi ew of an u p to —

. d ate C u rtis 3 stage vane - -
arran geme n t ( as applied to one of the principal stages of a type 3 turbine ) .
I t will be observed that spilling and leakage are sought to be minimised by

the use of fi n e longitudinal clearan c es and by overlappi n g various parts .
I n the C urtis Pate n t N 0 1 6 2 1 0 of 1 9 03 illustrated o n page 2 09 an attemp t

.
, ,
has it will be see n been made to redu c e the vari ation of den sity b y as it
, , ,
were draggi n g the steam away from the worki n g fac e of the va n e by means
,
of a spurious expan sion an d thereby decrease the vane losses

, .
As a matter of fa c t however the cure is worse than the evil

, , .
From actual performa n ces of the C urtis turbi n e it appears that the ,
"
i
equivale n t value of is from 8 1 to 85 say 8 3
a - '
,
'
”
2
The normal n ozzle velo c ity is about 2 1 00 feet per second ( ii all gen erated
in the nozzles ) and the ratio
1
”
is about 2 ‘
N ow the nozzle velo c ity

for a turbine of typ e 2 usin g ,
the ordinary ran ges of pres

sure would be about 4000 feet
,
p e r second maximum an d in ,
view of the vane losses it re

main s to fi n d the mi n imum
vane velo c ity that has any
commercial import an c e .
The minimum over all e ffi -
page 3 1 4 ) permissible would

he say 5 3 per c e n t A llowi n g , ,
.
1 2 per c ent for n ozzle loss an d .
4 per c ent for mis c ellaneous .
other losses the mi n imum dia ,
F o 1 66 r .
gram e ffi c ie n cy required wou ld
be about 6 9 per c ent

.
Prof C arl Thomas experi m ents ( S team Tu rbine pp 1 3 2—3) i n dicate that
.
’
, .
the limiti n g case where 3 0 ( that is w ith the turbine held at rest) the ,
”
1
whole o i the useful e n ergy is dissipated in p assi n g through about 9 rows of
'
smooth vane passages or what amou n ts to the same thi n g 9 rows in fron t ,
of the nozzle o ff er such an obstru c tion to the fl o w that either the nozzle
velo c ity is too small to be useful or that all the stream s p urts out at the
,
various clearan ces .
The ge n eral e fii c ie n cy of P rof Thomas apparatus was possibly rather low

.
’
,
since a si n gle c irc ular nozzle was app aren tly used in con j u n ctio n with passages
of about the same obliq u e pitch as the diameter of the nozzle
itself so that s pilli n g i nto the neighbou r i n g passages wo uld be a large
propo r tio n of the mai n fl o w N e ve rt he le ss sin ce this typ e of turbi n e would
.
, ,
ex c ept for very large powers o n ly require a com p aratively small n ozzle area
, ,
the general results are probably a fair i n di c ation of the truth in practice .
11 11 1 1 01 2 11 01! o r T U RB I N E S . 1 67
M oreover, if the value of as determi n ed from the C urt is

2
turbi n e is maintained through a series of 9 rows ( whi c h with the nozzle , ,
correspon ds to a turbi n e c ompounded for velocity fi ve times ) the residual value

of 11 1 2 whe n v = 0 is only 3 1; per cent of its i n itial value —a value too small to
,
be of much practical use .
Thus it may be co n c luded that the maxim u m possible n u mber of effective

stages is fi ve when the vane velocity is a mere crawl .
For higher values of v the n u mber will of course be less Figs 1 5 7 and '
. .
1 6 1 i n dicate the general m agnitude of the e ffi c ie n c ie s which are in the nat u re

of an ideal maximum .
I f then a diagram e ffi c ie n cy of about 69 per cent be necessary for a

, , .
turbine of any co m mercial value it seems that very low vane speeds are in ,
)
general ou t of the questio n and that a ratio 1 l is quite a m inim u m ,
‘
1)
l
( g
a . 400 0 x 1 400 feet per second a c on sid e rab l e sp e e d)
‘
, .
Lower vane speeds are then only to be obtained by adopting a smaller

head whi c h w ith the usual ranges of pressure at comma n d resu lts in
, , ,
com p oundi n g for pressure that is type 2 develops into type 3 , .
E R R O R S I N T R O D U C E D B Y P RA C T I C A L C O N S I D E R A
T I O N S are precisely of the same n ature as in type 1 with the exception ,
that for closed passages at least the to tal width of the stream cannot be
‘
, ,
i n creased .
I t will be obviou s that as there is no reconstru ction of the stream by ,
mean s of secondary nozzle like passages it must proceed in a regular manner -
, ,
an d therefore that a constant total width of passages — either partial or
complete admission —is the o n ly alternative arrange m ent I ncreas e of area .
can therefore be provided for only by one or both of the methods

above detailed .
A reco n struction of the width of the strea m is permissible withi n small

limits for the open buckets of the Stumpf variety but in general the arran ge ,
m ent is not even then practically convenient The development of type 2 .
is conseq u ently somewhat ha n dicapped by the elimination of an otherwise

u seful arrangement .
L EA D — I f the width of the second and following guides ( the nozzles

.
bei n g N o 1 ) is only j ust su ffi c ie n t to pass the quantity of steam fl o w in g

.
,
that is if they exten d over an equal are it is necess ary to provide

, ,
lead so that the e n try m ay be fair The amount of lead is determinable .
by the method given in C hapter V II and applies to either of the above .

,
arra n gements .
I t is not however necessary that the width of the gu ides shall be the same
, ,
as the nozzle width The y may be as mu c h wider as may be desired an d it

.
,
is desirable that they should exte n d two or three pitches of vanes both ways .
Thus 0 d Fig 5 6 13 m ay be wider than a b and d than a b The main fl o w

, .
, ,
c
’ ' ' '
.
cannot possibly e n ter the wi n g passages if the lead be correct but these ,
passages provide to a certain extent for the aspiration and a c tion of the
spurious side fi o w -
.
For i n stance consider a moving vane passage as it approa c hes the nozzle
,
passage The whole of the dead steam withi n the passage should not be set
.
in motion u n til the passage is nearly or quite un der the nozzle an d then o n ly ,
without shock .
B u t ins te ad of thi s bei n g so the nozzle stea m will beg in to set th e dead ,
1 68 THE T H EORY OF THE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
steam in motion before the passage is half way u n der the nozzle and a certain ,
amount of the surroundi n g stea m is thus su cked in as well Oi c ourse all .

,
this is done at the expense of the e n ergy of the main fl o w with the result that ,
the relative velocity within the passages as they come u n der the nozzle will be
lower than when in mid stream S imilar co n dition s oc cur as the van es leave
-
.
the nozzles .
There is then in e ff ect a side spreading in the total width of fl o w and it

, ,
-
,
has been proved that some of the work that would other w ise be lost can be
re c overed by adding a few extra guide van es The foregoing remarks apply .
to the followi n g stages .
T YP E 3 — The c onsideration of the velocity diagrams an d e ffi c ie n c ie s

.
shows them to be iden tical with those of typ e 2 and similar general conclusion s ,
ap ply but to a less marked degree for si n c e the diagram e ffi c ie n cy ( see F ig

, , , .
1 5 7 ) i n creas es as v/v i n creases the aggregate practical e ffi c ie n c

l
f
y
,
will i n crease
also.
Type 3 has the practi c al advan tage over type 2 which is further ac c e n tu ,
ated in type 1 in that the losses by spilling an d leakage are c olle c ted at the
,
e n d of the main stages ( that is in the re c eivers or their equivalent , ) and the ,
steam usefully expe n ded in the followi n g stages .
S in c e the number of rows of vanes in each m ain stage or cyli n der is for ,
the same peripheral velo c ity less than in type 2 the s p illi n g losses are less
, , ,
an d the actual e ffi c ie n c y of each cylinder therefore approa c hes more nearly

the ideal .
I n an y case as before stated the practi c al limit of the number of stages in

, ,
ea c h cyli n der for turbines on present day li n es appears to be three o r with -
, ,
advan tage two o n ly

, .
I n desig n i n g a turbi n e on this pri n ciple care must be taken to see that ,
the disc and ve n tilati n g friction is ke p t withi n bounds

T H E E F F E C T O F L E A KA G E —The leakage between stage an d
.
stage must also be allowed for as in typ e 1 The example given on page 1 3 9 .
will i n dicate the general pro c edure the only di ff eren c e arising from the fact ,
that there are fe wer stages .
The e ffect of leakage may however assume alarming proportions if t he , ,
clearan c es between the shaft (or wheel hub as in the C urtis turbine) are not ,
kept very small .
Take for example the data from Table X V p 2 5 8 which is for the
, , .
,
.
,
same size of turbi n e as in the example of type 1 an d assu m e th e leakage ,
c learan c e to be
3 the same as before that is 1 96 sq in We have then
1
7 , , ,
. .
p ressures of 1 6 0 65 2 3 an d 2 initial and fi n al as the case m ay b e

, , , ,
.
Work lost b y leakage is to am

'
?1
S tage 1 x 1 5 23 x 1 89 2 '
392
x ‘
05 7 2 x 1 892 : 1 47
x '
01 98 x 1 89 2 = 05 1 °
x '
005 7 8 x 1 89 2 0 1 49
'
604 9
CH AP TE R I X .
E FF I C I E N C Y O F T U R B I N E S —T Y P E 4 .
CONTE N T s z—Typ e 4 — Var i ti f Di am t r f Dr m —N m b r f Stag a giv

— tal N mb r f Stag t c C a e l —C a 2 —C a 3—A r thr ugh
a ons o f
e e s o u s u e o es or en
t r
S e pp ed D u m To u e o e s, e s se ea
A r a —Pi t h f V a —E fi ct f
.
, se o
V a Pa ag
ne ss a d Sh ap e of V a
es, n —E fi ti n es
'
ec ve e s c o nes
'
e o
L ak ag
e e.
T YP E 4 — .As previously explained there is in this type of turbine a ,
gen eration of velo c ity within the movi n g passages as well as within the nozzle
or guide passages .
The varieties of triangles of velo c ity that may be devi sed are even m ore
numerous than in the case of turbi n es of type 1 .
For maximum e ffi c ie n cy the same in fl ue n c e s prevail ; the pressure —head

should be mai n tained as long as possible that is the velo c ity should on ly be , ,
c reated for immediate use 3 the residual
velo c ity from ea c h stage should be as

low as possible an d the residual head ,
V2 as high as possible c onsistent with the ,
ge n eral velo c ity conditions .
The parti c ular co n sideration of the

FI G 1 6 7 . .
e ffi c ie n c y of the com p ou n d elastic fl u id
rea c tion turbine has little or n o analogy

with that for the h ydrauli c turbine with the exception of the general ,
resemblan c e of the velo c ity diagram .
T he attai n me n t of maximum e ffi cie n c y is also helped b y p roviding that

the expansion from one end of the turbi n e to the other shall take plac e in as
conti n uous a ma n n er as p ossible I n fa c t this may be take n as o n e of the
.
,
datum c on dition s of the type .
The ki n etic energy created in each passage fi x e d an d movi ng shoul d then , ,
be ap p rox imately equal 11 1 will therefore be equal to 11 3 an d si n c e the an gles

.
, ,
a and are naturally as small as possible n d in practice conve n ie n tly

.
B a ,
m ade equal to o n e another 112 wi ll equal 11 4 ( see Fig

,
.
Furt her as there is no great reaso n to suppose that the loss of e n ergy in
,
the fi x e d passages is greater or less than in the moving passages ( the same
size and se c tion of vane bei n g usually adop ted for both ) virtually the same ,
proportion of 71 2 will be carried through the moving passages as of 11 4 throu gh

the n ext fi x e d passage .
When the fi x e d an d moving van es are quite similar and at the same
distan c e apart it is obvious that it is immaterial which sets be regarded as
moving an d fi x e d or mice versa
, .
E FF ICI ENCY or T URB I N E S . 1 71
The remaining g e neral features of the velocity d iagram may be cons idered
as follows
R everting to the gen eral c ase ( page when there are no losses the ,
head given for eac h stage (i a o n e fi x e d one moving set of van es ) is h

. .
where h z
f
v
1
2 _
21
2
2
+ 11
3
2
29
~P
40 9 7 71 n +1 ) ( MAP)
S uppose h is constant ; also suppose a B c onstant .
and this expression requires to be a maxim u m for a m aximum stage e ffi c ie n cy
p er 33 .
I n the case of isolated stages as in the si mple water turbine the maximum , ,
diagram e ffi c ie n cy is required an d it follows from the above expressio n that

,
this maximum occurs when the ratio 3 is approximately u n ity l n the case , , .
2)
of the simple water t u rbine the best all—round e ffi c ie n c
y is obtained when
”
1
is very little less than u n ity .
I t does not follo w however that in the compound steam turbine such a
, ,
high ratio is the best A high ratio involves very large dime n sio n s for the
.
output and the larger the turbi n e is the more serious do the radiation an d
, ,
conduc tion losses become (in fac t in some i n stan ces a turbine of type 4 , ,
particularly might be styled a very good

, so that quite apart ,
from cost a moderately low ratio from 2 to 5 is the most e ffi cie n t in

,
' '
the end .
V A R I AT I O N O F D I A M E T E R S O F D R U M S — The followi n g .
re m arks apply more particularly to the usual parallel fi o w arran gemen t but -
for a radial fi o w turbi n e the only difference that exists is in the tran sposition
-
of so me of the quantities .
S ince w ith this type of turbine where there is expansion in the moving ,
passages and since with the constru c tions that at present alone appear to be
, ,
feasible it is necessary to supply steam initially all the way round the drum
, ,
it follows that with the retention of approximately similar angles to and B1

,
throughout a progressive increasing length of vanes is required

, .
For this to be e ff e c ted on wheels or a dru m of the same diameter from

end to end would result in ex c essively long vanes at the low pressure end of -
the turbine I n fact they would be so lo n g that a greatly differe n t set of

.
velocity conditions would exist betwee n the tips an d the roots an d an absurd ,
distribution of pressures would be required for econ omi c al working .
I t is therefore necessary to i n c rease the diameter of the wheels or dru ms

t o whi c h the va n es are fi x e d to w ards the low p ressure end as well as to -
increa se by a reasonable amount the le n gth of vanes .
I t has been shown in C hapter I V that the n umber of wheels or stages is .
comparatively large in this type of turbi n e Pra c ti c al consideratio n s there .
fore deman d that as many of the vanes shall be of the same size as possible .
The to tal number often runs into many thousands or even millions ,
.
N u mero us sche m es have been proposed for obtaini n g the progressive

1 72 THE T H E ORY or THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
increase of area by buildi n g up the van es on a c onical drum I t is not at

all a conven ient method — exc ept on pap er—as it i n volves the accurate boring
.
an d turning of a very large number of diameters o r what is nearl y as bad , ,
the bori n g an d turn i n g of coni c al members havi n g on ly a small worki n g

clearan c e between them .
The Parso n s turbi n e an d others on the same lin es compromise matters by , ,
maki n g a series of drums of progressively i n c reasi n g diameter each dru m ,
contai n ing several rows of van es of the same or approximately the same size , ,
and le n gth .
N ow supp ose there is on an y on e dru m ( 1 n um ber of rings of uames of the

,
r
sam i e that is a number of stages with va n e p assages of the same area

e s z , ,
through an d same vane an gles it is evident that si n c e the sp e c ifi c volume of , ,
the steam is c o n siderably greater at the last stage than at the fi rst of the
series the velo c ity of the steam at similar poi n ts must i n crease towards the
,
latter e n d .
I t is therefore ne c essary to know what errors if an y are introduced by , ,
the arran gement .
I f Q = quan tity of steam passing in lbs per sec . .
A = are a at an y poi n t in sq ft . .
V = the velocity of the steam at the same point in ft per sec . .
= de n sit in lbs per c ub ft

p y p e r sec . . . .
Then (n egle c ting the dryness fractio n )

Q ApV .
To take an example : Su p pose the total ran ge of pressure for the whole
turbi n e be divided i n to 7 p arts so that the e n erg y for disposal is equal in ,
each part Thus for the ran ge 1 7 0 lbs pressure to 3 1b s pressure (absolute)
.
,
. .
the total energy available is about ft lbs per 1h an d ea c h gro up . . .

,
of vanes will therefore have to dis p ose of ft lbs per lb For the . . .
fi rst gro up ( which m ay be c alled the high pressu r e drum ) this represents a -
fall of from 1 7 0 lbs to about 1 06 lbs pressure . . .
Let the m ean van e velo c ity be 2 00 feet per se c o nd and let the van e ,
angles b e -
an d in the fi rs t stage let 212 and be at right angles
to AO or 1) ( Fig .
200 200
Then in the fi rst stage °
21 3 f
v
a .
c os 20 9 4
At the outlet of the fi x e d passages of the fi rs t stage the sp e c ifi c volume

v
1
= cub ft per lh ( appr o ximatel
. .
y) . .
An d at the outlet of the fi x e d passages of the last stage of the group ,
vn = ab ou t c u b ft per 1b . . .
Therefore if the exit area from the fi rst stage is the same as that from
,
the n or last stage

th
,
v 2 4
n
U
’
l
27
R eferri n gFig 1 6 8 AB 1 1 to 1 5 5 AO = v an d remai n s constan t

.
, , ,
.
S imilarl y v = 15 5
3
11
1 3 , ”
f
.
Thus if the angle of the i n let edges of the van es fi x e d an d movi n g

, , ,
remains constant the want of in c rease of area c an be compe n sated fo r b y

,
increasing t he velo c ities ( the areas after the fi rst group t seq bei n g such ,
e .
,
1 74 THE T H E ORY o r THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
I ntermediate umber of stages can be similarly calculated and easily

n
checked from diagram A .
The questio n of diagram e ffi c ie n cy itself does n ot enter so largely i n to the

problem as in the case of the previous types mainly for the reason that the ,
whole of the passages of this type of tu r bi n e are practi c ally equivale n t to a

big nozzle from which the e n ergy of the steam is extra c ted during the
expansion or at any rate duri n g half of it while if leakage and the e ffect of
, ,
splitting the stream up i n to n umerous divisio n s did not play such an importan t
part the e ffi c ie n cy would be very much the sam e as that of an ordinary
,
nozzle of like capac ity .
S in c e the fi x e d an d movi n g va n es are of similar shape in c onvenient

practice the loss in creating ul will be about equal to the loss in creat i n g 11 3
,
f
,
so that if v, is required to have an y particular value the area through the

'
,
7
passages must allow of the creation of a theoreti c al 1 1 where ) i s the nozzle , 1
7
7
e ffi c ie n c y 9 5 per cent or less ( velocity)
,
. .
I f the 112 is tra smitted through the moving passages so that 213 1 2
n n 2 — 2 1
approa c hes its theoreti c al value an d if 0 4 is transmitted thro ugh the fi x e d

,
passages so that 11 2 71 42 approaches its theoretical value e t c it follows

10
-
, .
,
that without leakage the e ffi c ie n cy of the turbine will be the e ffi c ie n cy of

, ,
the individual n ozzle— like passages an d may therefore attain a higher value ,
than in an y of the other types .
T O T A L N U M B E R O F S TA G E S E T C C A S E I — Let the , .
, .
expansio n be properly continuous b y i n creasing the len gth of each row of

vanes the c orrect amou n t .
Suppose that the energy o f is n o t lost and that the total van e losses are ,
2 by a given per c entage
equivalent to reducing 53 a 2
n d 5 1 ,
2
so that =m
Then we have as before , ,
2 2
e =
29 271 .
Now from diagram A or by calculation the total energy E ( ft lbs )

fi nd . .
for the full drop o f pressure with or without superheat as the c ase may b e
, .
E
The n the number of single stages
e
or the number of rows of moving vanes equals the number of rows of fi x e d vanes
A direct application of these exp ression s at once shows that a uniform size
of drum from e n d to e n d is impracticable unless the ran ge of pressure he very
limited The i n crease of area would have to be obtai n ed by le n gthe n in g the
.
vanes so that not o n ly would impossibl y lo n g van es be required at the tail end
,
of the turbine but we obtain complications so obvious that it is unnecessary

,
to detail them .
This case is the simplest an d hardly needs further elaboration The ,

.
various pract ical fun ction s ( area c oe ffi c ie n t s eddies etc e t c ) will be in c l uded
, , ,
.
, .
in the next cases and ih the followi n g chapter ‘
.
112 11101 1111 0? or T U RB IN E S . 1 75
C AS E 2 ,
—P R O P E R T I E S , N U M B E R O F S T A G E S , E tc .
The rows of vanes are arranged in groups of fro m 4 to 40 according to their

positio n in the turbine .
A11 v an e s in any one group are of the s am e l e n g t h p it c h an d s e t o r , ,
an g le .
Let I be the length of vane

d mean diameter of the row of van es
a area of the an n ulus
A e ffective area of the annulus
a s in a x total obstructio n c oe ffi c ie n t ( K
.
)
Q quan tity ( lbs ) of steam fl o w in g per second .
21 number of stages —fi x e d + movi n g

.
E total energy supplied to a group .
Followin g the explan ation given on p 1 7 2 the detail discussion may .

,
proceed without fu rther prelimi n ary .
The method of huding the n u mber of stages is preferably based 0 11 the
F1 13 . 1 69 . FI G . 1 70 .
assign ment of a maximu m variation of 0 1 that may be allowed having regard

'
U ’
to the maximum ratio an d the co n sequent amount of oblique impact
involved .
C omparing Fig 1 6 9 with Fig 1 70 it is obvious that for a given angle of

. .
,
error <1; a high ratio system ( Fig 1 69 ) admits of a much smaller ratio of .
0 max than does a lo w ratio sys t em Fig 1 7

(
, .
m in .
I t is inad visable to assign primarily a certa in amount of energy to on e
1m
2
”
group letting the ratio ake its chance involvi ng very likely an
1
“
, t ,
u n necessary amou nt of distortion in the fi o w—o r as it is sometimes called , ,

‘
departure from synchron ism .
’
1) max
S mee Q and A are c on sta n t 3 i s the a
pp rox 1 m ate rat 1 o of expan s i on
.
0
,
mm ,
.
( the true ratio m ust include the expa n sion in the l st stage ) .
As a fi rst approximation the e n erg y used in the group ,
E = p log
max y
.
m in .
mn"
roughly 6 1 6 00 10 g i
U 111 1 11
( ft
’
.
l
.
Let c
l
be the energy of the steam supplied to the fi rs t fi x ed row or stage ,
e
'
1
1 76 THE T H EORY or THE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
that supplied to the fi rst moving row e that to the last fi xe d row and e that '
‘
, n ,
to the last m o vi n g row —and similarly throughout the group

n
We have n o w to fi n d the value of the mean value of 9 between e 0 (the

e
“,
1
'
assumed value of e at the stage before the fi rst) an d e i n c lusive so that '
n ,
E
e
'
“
The notation ad op te d as co n venient is shown in Fig . 1 71 . N ow havi n g

,
FI G . 1 71 .
F1 G . 1 72 .
regard to the fact that the val ue of m is o n ly with great d iffi cu lty estimated
c orre c tly withi n 1 or 2 per ce n t an d that the number of stages is as a rule
.
,
large an d fu rthe r that some more or less arbitrary assumptions are inevitable
, , ,
there c an be no appreciable error in p utti n g

V
v 1
2
1
2
771 2
1 2
2
( 2)
that is for geometrical reasons which will become apparent the
, , m agn itude
1 78 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM TU RB I N E .
o r,more precisely E may be fou n d from the heat diagrams ( A or B) for an

,
assig n ed range of p r essure volume an d veloc ity c on ditio n s an d from the n ce

, ,
the value of 3 for that spe c ifi c volume correspo n di n g to F may be found

“
21
'
.
The complete ratio of expan sion is of c ourse ,
I t is usually best to start detailed c al c ulations at the exhaust end of the

turbine rather than at the i n let for amo n g man y other reaso n s an extra , , ,
stage or two to accommodat e a sp e c ifi e d i n itial pressure is mu c h more easily

provided than extra stages at the exhaust end .
The ge n eral s c heme of c al c ulation is the n as fo llo wS ‘
First determi n e by a few prelimi n ary fi gure s suitable values of v 0

s 1 , " ,
for the last group in particular .
We are thus given

71
71
3:
V7» Q Q from the expe c ted steam con
H e n ce we k n ow sumption
A, l , e from Q
e
'
n
from
l fro m k n ow n c o e ffi c ie n t s of ob st ru c
tion an d c learance leakage (pp 3 94 .
,
Then havi n g
,
1) A, '
v, Q
we know
V
an d from
”
V 8 6
1 , p 1
V
I
the ratio of expan sio n for the group
less the l st stage .
By c on sulti n g D iagram A ( assum

ing the equivale n t of adiabati c ex
p an sion throughout ) or the e n tro p y
chart B we k n ow E = E —e 1 for the
,
'
n 1 stages .
From this i n termediate ratio of

expansion we have in order , ,
V , 21 , 0
“ ” 3 “ 4
from the A .
and the n ce eh .
C alculations will be facilitated by usi n g F ig 1 7 4 whi c h gives values of e .

,
U ’
for vari ous rat 1 os of an d for v ar1 o u s values of m .
E x amp le s
L ow rati o twrbin e f
.
'
v 1 00, 1
71
1
4 00, ”
71
3
8 00, m '
( Fig
'
e
1
1 2 86 . e n
3 2 80
p
'
n
= 15 abs .
,
x
’
n
= 8 8,
°
he n ce '
v n
= 2 28 4 .
Then v
,
1 1 4 2, an d hen c e 20 1
E FFI CI E NC Y or TU RB I N E S . 1 79
4 2000 ( by Diag ram A), and since about

' '
E (p l t o p n ) 3
0
= 1 1 80
E 43 1 8 0 .
9
will be fo un d to o c cur at p “ 22 2
“
v
s
800 x
Altern atively by
n
’
or by ( 4a) ,
4 3 1 80 43 1 8 0
n
1 1 80 206 0 2 06 0 3 2 80
1 3 35 8 1 21 4 5 .
Taking the fi rs t approximation for E,

' '
E 6 l 600 10 g r 6 1 6 00 10 g 2
42650
E 43 83 0
whi c h is practically the same as before .
From the above it will be seen that the true line C D Fig 1 7 3 is very , .
,
nearly straight .
The nearest even number of stages woul d be selected preferably the ,
greater t e 2 2 in the above example

,
'
. . .
H igh ra tio tu rbi n e abri dge d cal cu l a ti o n
v = 1 00,
1
11
1
1 50, ”
v
s
: 3 00, m = 9 ‘
c = 32l 5 °
875
l
'
a
o
abo u t 31 5
E 4 2 6 50 31 5 4 29 6 5
4 2 96 5
6 98 r = 9 01
'
6 1 6 00
J 1 49 x 3 00 = 2 1 1
535
42 96 5
8 03 °r 80 .
5 35
I f we put ' '
a e
o ,
em
2
n = 71 2 ,
a similar di ffere n c e to that in the fi rs t example .
1 80 T H E TH E ORY o r T HE S T E AM T U RB I N E .
Dis c retion must of course be used as to whether the almost certain

, ,
remai n der from an even quotien t E s too great to be allo w ed to pass I f

'
e “
c o nsidered ne c essary a corre c tion may be made in a variety of ways either
,
by startin g afresh with a slightly differe n t value of E or preferably by
2 000
3 00 4 00
V, Fa r v /00
FI G . 1 74 .
0
or d e c e asm g e the re q u 1 s1 t e amount i n
1 n c re as1 n g r case wh 1 c h
” 8 r m am
e s
“
v
o 3
,
u n changed but 2) will be altered in proportion to the change in 0 3

, “ .
As a rule it is quite u n n e c essary to make an y correctio n

,
I i i n stead of .
,
2 1 4 stages for i n sta n ce 2 2 be fi tt e d for tho prearran ged ratio of e x p an

, ,
it simpl y mean s that the ratio of the turbi n e is left to ad j ust itself
0 3
i n side the t u rbine itself instead of on p aper The ad j ustme n t is so very .
mi n u te that the variatio n in average stage e ffi c ie n cy is imperceptibly altered .

1 82 THE T H E ORY o r T HE S TEAM . T URB IN E .
Then in Fig . 1 75 the trian gles are su c h that

2
m i) ? 2
e consta n t .
20772
6may therefore be obtained from an y trian gle .
I n order to fi n d 11 3 in terms of 1 0 1 it is n e c essary to k n ow the locus of

”
B or D *
.
This locus is a circ le with its cen tre at P distan t — from A remo t e
1 m
from 0 Thus whe n m = 1 B1 D is a straight line at right an gles to
.
, ”
v .
The pro c edure is the n as follows

From preliminary data we are
1ven
g
“
v
3
1
H e n ce we k n ow
e, ”
11
3
. e from the fi rst A A O B, ”
11
3
from
B ”
an d the loc u s of B .
The ratio of expa n sion is
where 00 1 sin 0 are the magnitude

,
(1
an d directio n of c in the imagi n ary

l
0 row
th
.
Then
to be found from the heat diagrams .
or as a fi rst app r oximation

E = 6 1 600 10g
B ut since e c onstant
or 6 1 600 log r
'
+ e . r
'
= rat io of expa n sion from “
1
to B ”
.
The n n E (fi x e d movi n g) .
W i th xi
t he a s o f X i n t h e d i re c t i o n o f 'v an d th at of Y at right a gl n es , an d w t ihA as
o ri gi n, l e t B1 he t he p o n x , y i t .
T h e n sin ce AB2 = CA2 CE2 + 2 AC( AE AO)

—v)2 + 2 vac —v2
f
2 —
11 1 v
"
’ --
y i
— m y
g
:Jc
2
m( 2:
from ( 1 )
1 m
mv
or th e l ocus of x , y is ac i rc l e w i th ce ntre fr om t he o r igin on t he a xi s o f x , an d rad iu s
me2 2gme
R
1 m
I t i s, h ow e vr e , u n n ecessa ry t l l t
o ca cu a e R, b e cause po i n t B1 or Dn is g iv en .
E F F ICI ENCY 0 11 T U RB IN ES . 1 83
C alculations may be facilitated by the us e of Fig . 1 7 6, whi c h is extensive

e n ough to deal with very low ratio turbi n es .
A
AA u
q ui e y
This fi gu re gives the val ue of v

arm .
in te rm s of 11
1 m m, being
and v =l .
1 84 THE T H E ORY o r THE S TE AM T U RB I NE
.
1 86 T HE T H E ORY o r TH E S TE AM T U RB I N E .
small and generall y well below the amount required to produce the c ritical
,
veloc ity ( about 1 3 5 0 feet per seco n d ) c al c ulatio n s for determining the proper
,
progression of area from point to poi n t through an y on e passage are highly

abstruse Such c al c ulations —even supp osing a steady fl o w and tran sforma
.
tion of en ergy — would require more exact values ( to several places of de c imals )
of the various physical c on stants of steam than we at present
possess or indeed are likely to possess
, .
The bes t shape of va n e is really a matter for exp eriment ,
and not c al c ulation .
The fac t that the passages are n e c essarily more or less

curved so distorts the stream li n es even whe n they are pre ,
disposed to be steady that it is d iffi c ul t if not e n tirely im ,
po ssible to correlate the geometri c al properties of the passage

with the pressure velo c ity c on ditio n s The angle or set of
-
.
the van es is very rarely the same as the actu al an gle of dis
c harge u n less the va n es are extremel y thi n and have long
tails — rather lo n ger than show n in Fig 1 7 7 for example .
,
.
An approximate es timation of the relative areas of an y

stage at inlet and outlet can be made by ascertaini n g the
e n ergy disposed of in that stage The passages require to be .
wholl y c on verge n t in an y c ase an d this c on dition is at once ,
fulfilled by em ployi n g van es of uniform thickness havi n g the ,
ge n eral c on formation of Fig 1 7 7 . .
This amou n t of co n verge n ce will however ge n erally be , ,
ex c essive where the vanes are of the same length at their

i n let and outlet edges .
For example take a stage somewhere in the middle of the turbine

, .
S uppo se p at i n let or 1 9 1 5 0 lbs absolute .
x
l
9 4 ( dry n ess fractio n
)
‘
'
v 37 5
”
1
1 70
at one of the d 1 sto rted pos 1 t i ons
2
°
a 20
m '
88
From the steam tables we have

,0 1 1 2 0, r
,
7 40, L I 91 7 4
We now require to know 1 92 ,

2
2,
7
2.
By 1 1 1 .
from which 7
2
737 approximately .
So that p2 = ab o u t 46 lbs absolute

.
11
'
P2
and x
2
'
933 about .
is now required .
1111 2 1 01 2 12 01! o r T U RB I N E S . 1 87
As before ,
At 6, Q 4 4 211 ,
-
whe n ce if h = 1 h = 1 4 3
, a , b .
A similar calculation for an y other stage will give similar results For .
instance if p 1 = 1 0 lbs vl = 5 25 v4 2 40
,
8 5 we have e = 4 8 2
.
, ,
:
,
'
,
°
and h = l 4 6h ( Fig
b
'
a
.
The lower the ratio of the turbine or the more nearly ,
= v the more excessive w ill be the co n verge n c e

,
.
,
I t will thus be found that in ge n eral the exit area for

square e n ded vanes is much too small {f x x be the true i n let
-
area ( Fig .
N o w since a variation to the above extent in the le n gth

,
of one van e is out of the question in pra c ti c e it follo ws that ,
either the contraction must be co n sidered to be n ear the

outlet or a contracted sectio n must be prov ided somewhere
,
well within the passage all portions in fron t of this se c tion ,
bei n g in effect an open bu c ket of whi c h the surfac e g/ ‘

,
’
x
receives the impulse of the stream an d the space 2 is merely a ,
a collecti n g space for stray currents This fu n ction of the FI G 1 7 8 .

. .
space z follows n aturally in the maj ority of the p assages in

the usual Parsons co n struction because the relative velocity at the i n let is ,
oblique .
A thi c ke n i n g of the van e at the part a Fig 1 7 9 therefore suggests itself ,

.
,
.
I t does n o t however follo w that it is best to thus con vert the shape
, ,
show n in F ig 1 7 7 i n to that show n in Fig 1 7 9 3 for it appears that an y

. .
,
appre c iable len gth of t ail o n the vanes introduc es a marked frictional loss .
The various van e loss e s depend greatly on the pit c h as wi ll be seen in ,
FI G . 1 79 .
C hapter XXII Parsons states that by thi c kening h is vanes as sho wn in

.
Figs 1 7 9 etc he obtained a b e n e fi t of at least 1 0 per c ent ( refer to Pate nt

.
,
.
, .
N o 86 9 7 of 1 8 9 6 ) over the previous form of van es of uniform thi c k n ess

. .
A new va n e sha p e requi res some rather elaborate c alibratio n before intro
d u c ing in a design of tu rbi n e The best calibration is neverthele ss in a .
turbi n e itself for it is ma n ifestly i mp os sible in an y experime n ts on sam ples to

,
provide for the host of phenomena occurring in a c tual service .
T H E E F F E C T I V E A R E A through the passages depends u pon the

pitch and shape as well as upon the obstruction by the m losses I t is .
in fac t rather diffi c ult to arrive at the e ff ective area except from the actual
t u rbi n e itsel f So far as can be as c ertai n ed the lower the ratio of the turbine
.
,
1 88 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
the le ss is the obstruction caused by the thi ck n ess of the va n e The higher .
the ratio the more nearly does the obstru c tio n approxi m ate that obtain ed b y
,
static experimen ts B ut in an y case there does not appear to be mu c h

.
departure from the latter .
The total o b tru c tion or area coefi icien t is then

s
K= ,
Jm x thi ck n ess c o e ffi c ie n t ( see F igs . 34 6 ,
or practically
clashi n g c oe ffi c ie n t x fri c tion c o e ffi c ie n t x thickness c oe ffi c ie n t ,
the other items bei n g in sign ifi c an t .
For example refer Figs 3 40 3 46 3 pitch

, .
, , ,
K 9 4 x 6 9 5 6 53 ' ' '
A = Ka sin a ( p age 1 7 5 )
°
'
653 a sin 2 45
27 a .
P IT C H OF T H E VA N E S
should obviousl y be as la r ge
as possible c o n sistent with effe c tivel y di r e c t
,
in g the stream to the p roper i n cli n atio n In .
the Parso n s turbine the pit c h is ab o ut 6 5 '
times the w idth of the vane when a about

that is
p about 6 5 10 ( Fig .
T HE E F F E CT OF L E A KA G E
may approximatel y be as c ertai n ed in t he
same way as indi c ated for typ e 1 There .
are in type 4 ac c ording to the parti c ular ,
c o n stru c tion adopted a few additio n al p oi n ts ,
to observe .
C o n sider fi rst the usual u n shrouded van es

of t he Parso n s type F ig 1 80 , . .
S u p pose that the c leara n ces are large

e n ough for the leakage to blo w st r aight
Fro 1 8 0
.
th r ough without distortio n from the shap e
.
of the van e e n ds or from the relative motion

of the parts The n the positive w ork don e by stream 6 is n il be c ause it
.
'
sim ply emerges from an d imp i n ges on the fi x e d van es ; an d the work don e
by s tream 6 is at fi rst n egative while bei n g d e fl e c t e d b y the bac ks of the
"
van es an d the n positive as it issues with i n creased velo c ity from the p assages
,
at the relative an gle B .
S ince 95 is generally large for c umulative reasons the positive work do n e ,
by the reactio n will ge n erally outbalan c e the n egative wo r k and the o n e ,
leakage stream 6 in the p rese n t case will not be wholly i n operative Oi

"
.
course the wh o le series of operation s are c on vertible in the sense that the
fi e d and movi n g eleme n ts may be regarded as i n ter c han ged but in either
x ,
view it will be seen that so far as useful work is con ce rned the two leakage
, ,
streams have not the same effe c t When the clearan c es are small the leakage
.
,
stream is more or less distorted from the axial dire c tion .
Let Q be the total quantity of steam passi n g and c the mean c irc umfere n c e ,
of the row of vanes which is large compared with the len gth of the van es
,
.
1 90 THE T H EORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
raised above the level of the d rum or casi n g as shown in Figs 1 9 5 2 00 206 , .
, , ,
e tc .the remedy is worse than the evil u n less those co n stru c tio n s allow of
, ,
the worki n g c learance bei n g less than one—half the clearan c e in the c ommon
con stru c tion .
The loss by leakage over the vanes is n o t as a ru le so great as is usually , ,
supposed and varies from about 1 3 to 07 per ce n t per n lm, inch average
,
' '
c leara n ce in small an d large turbi n es respectivel y .
The en ergy loss is also n o t quite pro p ortio n al to the clearance for the ,
reason that the diagram e fli cie n cy of the leakage stream is less than that of
the mai n fl o w exc e p t at below the c riti c al clearan c e where A sin a B ut .
appa r e n tly the criti c al cleara n c e is rather too small for safe practi c e .
The relative diagram e fi c ie n cy agai n depe nds o n the ratio of the turbi n e ,
which in turn varies from o n e end of a group of van es to the other The .
FI G . 1 81 .
n ett leakage e ffect can therefore at best on ly be approximated The ge n eral .
c ase is app r oximately as follows
Let A B C D be the mean n ormal velo c ity diagram —Fig 1 8 1 . .
C E be the i n let set of the van es .
A F be the absolute direction of the leakage stream 6 at entry to the

movi n g passages .
Then A F A B app roximately .
At e n try the leakage stream has to be d e fl e c t e d to the directio n A E

1
parallel to C E an d the negative work don e thereby is prop ortio n al to the
,
c orrespo n ding velo c ity of whirl G G At outlet we have CH 2=

CE 1 + CD
2 2
l
.
,
an d the positive work don e by the leakage stream is propo r tion al to G K
1
.
On an average the loss of e ffi c ie n cy is about one third of the n ormal

,
-
e ffi c ie n c y
.
To sum u p we have
all e n ergy lost—proportion al to Ah (e
,
Through b ( Fig 1 80) —

'
.
'
fi x ed emom
)
g
.
Through 6 "
energy lost is proportional to ( e m i fi emom

g ) .
The l akag loss ej c t is therefore approximately equal to

e e e
3
K l sin a
E FFI CI E N CY or
'
T U RB I N E S . 1 91
if to
For example
Let lm inches
3
bm = 0 2 4 i n ches hot ,
diago n al width of vanes

O
L e ak ag e p as t l ab yrin t h b al an c e p is t o n s an d g 1an d s — Leakage .
past balan c e or dummy pisto n s may be a serious item if the c leara n c es are
not kept very small i n deed or if the number of rings or slits in the labyri n th
,
is small.
The problem of labyri n thal leakage is discussed at le n gth in Chapter XX .

,
parti c ularly however in regard to static conditio n s

, , .
The relative motion of the p arts may i n directly help to retard the fl o w .
An empiri c al formula for the c o e ffi c ie n t of leakage referred to the maxi

mum fl o w through a c on vergent n ozzle of the same area is
62
_
°
044 2r
Jn
The value of A given by this equation c an be used with N apier s simple ’
formula for n ozzles to give the weight of steam fl owin g per secon d thus
A a;n l
Q _
70
where a= area of slit in sq inches .
n n umber of slits
P1 i n itial press u re lbs per , . sq . i n ch abs .
2 ratio of expansion 13 !
,
19 2
( r a in ( 4) has
maximum value of 6 2 — see Fig °
.
Th e total e fi e c t of leakage is not necessarily proportional to the qua n tity

'
passi n g through an y one dummy but depen d s upon the available e n ergy
,
.
Take an exam p le
S uppose the c leara n c e is inch and that the diamete rs of the dummy
,
pisto n s are 1 2 5 1 9 an d 2 6 1; i n ches

, ,
.
Let the stage pressures be 1 60 1 04 3 7 an d 2 lbs absolute givi n g , , ,

.
,
available energy head s of 1 2 4 5 Let n 1 6 1 0 6 respectively .

, , ,
.
Then the leakage areas are

l ) 01 x
°
x sq in c h .
2 ) 01 x 1 9 x 596
‘ '
3) x 8 32 .
1 92 THE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
The maximum discharges per square inch per hour are in round
7 600 lbs .
5 000
1 81 0
and the quan tities leaking along A B an d C ( Fig , , . 1 8 2) are
7 6 00 x 392 x 2 2 3 6 6 5 lbs per h r
'
. .
5 000 x 5 9 6 x 3 2 95 4
' '
1 8 1 0 x 8 32 x 5 2 7 7 90
' '
The ratios of expansio n are

1 60
1 54
“
1 04
104
37
37
1 85 ; but an ythi n g above 62 may be ig n ored .
FIG . 1 82 .
The coe ffi c ie n t s of leakage are

(1) 2 23
2
”
2
31 6
+ o442 x 2 82 _
32
62
5 27 .
2 45'
N ow a quantity
,
9 54 6 65 = 3 09 lbs has to pass alon g the

. pipe D from the t u rb m e
to supply the 2md dummy , and a quantity
954 7 9 0 1 6 4 passes alo n g E to do work
:
in the low p ressure part
-
of the turbi n e .
Thus the leakage effect 1 x 6 65 66 5

2i x 954 2 1 45
5 x 7 90 = 3 9 5 0
6 7 60
For a turbi n e of this size the total quan tity of steam used per hour will
be about lbs .
CHAP TE R X .
'
M I S CE L L A N E O U S P O I N T S .
CON T E NT S —Se l ec ti on of Rati o —S l ti

e ec on of -
Val ue o f m —Ex p i L i
an s on n e.
THE following sections have particular refere n ce to type 4 turbi n e j ust

discussed at the same time they apply ge n erally to the other types of
turbine so far as the phenome n a are i n volved
—
.
S E L E C T I O N O F R A T I O A consideration of C ase 1 in parti c ular

.
should make it clear that if the total losses were the same in turbi n es of an y
ratio it would not matter in the least ho w many stages were provided in
,
each group the m in imum of course bei n g two

, .
I f any ratio of expan sion be assi gned to a group ( n o t necessaril y the same
for every group ) it is evident that the number of stages provided with a
,
given va n e speed is simpl y a measure of the turbine ratio The ratio will in .
fact au tomati c ally ad j ust itself to the ratio of exp an sio n provided whi ch ex ,
p an sion is determined by the pressure conditio n s in the groups before and

behind the on e under con sidera t ion .
Practicall y of course there are com p aratively narrow limits for beyond
, ,
a certai n value depen di n g on the size of turbi n e an d ge n eral co n dition s the ,
rat io can n ot be de c reased W ithout largel y i n c reasi n g the van e an d residual

losses and above a certain val u e radiation and co n du c tio n losses i n c rease
,
prohibitively .
N e ve rt he le ss it will be seen that there is no need to be very parti c ular

about the number of stages provided that the ge n eral mag n itude of the
,
various qua n tities is n o t lost sight o f I n pra c tice it is ge n erally kn o wn that

.
the turbine is not highly effi c ie n t at speeds lower than the n ormal to the
same degree that the recipro c ating e n gi n e is At the same time the turbi n e
.
,
will ru n at very nearly the same over all e ffi c ie n cy for a c o n siderable ra n ge in

-
the vi c i n ity of the best ratio such an e ffi c ie n cy curve bei n g rather fl at t e r

,
topped than those for diagram e ffi c ien c y in Fig 1 33 for example . .
I t may be mentioned that o n e of the best ways to co n duct variable s p eed

trials is by means of a separately excited alternator coupled to the turbi n e .
The to tal steam co n sumption can be kept steady for a su ffi c ie n tly long period
— say half an hour — the governor valve bei n g thro w n ou t of ac tion an d the ,
turbine controlled b y the st0 p valve o n ly The load havi n g bee n ad j usted
.
on the resista n ce tanks the s p eed is varied by simply alteri n g the fi eld of the
,
alternator either by the ex c iter shunt resista n ce or b y the alternator fi eld

resistan c e ac c ordi n g to c ircumstan c es
, .
On e setti n g of the load resistan ce will cover a large range of speed and
load and a series of readings can be taken in a very short time C urves of the
, .
1 94
MI SC E LL AN EO U S P O I N T S . 1 95
alternator e ffi c ie n cy u nder these varying conditions are required and mu st be ,
very carefully obtained The tests should be run with the alte rnator fully
.
warmed u p .
The res u lts of experi m ent show that in actual practice the over—all
e ffi c ie n cy of the turbine is not very sensitive in the region of its proper
speed and it therefore follows that a corresponding latitude in the ratio

,
is allowable .
The practical problem therefore lies in arranging m atters so that the total
losses shall be withi n certain limits .
I f in a competitive market an overa ll e ffi c ie n cy ratio

’
, ,
6 0 per ce n t is
actual co n sumpt i o n
.
imperative it is obviously a great speculation to put forward a design that

,
can n ot with the most liberal estimates give more than 5 0 per cen t B ut such
, , .
a risk has been taken u nder competitive conditions with more or less success ,
depen ding u po n the stringency of the con tract and tests .
H aving determined the val u e of m either by estimate or experiment it is ,
necessary to see how it afi e c t s the e fii c ie n cy of the turbi n e I t should be

'
clearly understood that although m is the e ffi c ie n cy of the vane passages as

nozzles it is by no means proportional to the diagram or the nett stage
,
e fii c ie n c
y as the case may b e
, .
x coe ffi c ie n ts for shock
e n ergy supplied 11
1
2
mi) 2
Take two extreme examples
= 1 00
°
'
v a = 20 . a
l
l
For two rows ( 1 fi xe d + 1 moving )

work done = 1 3 6 4 ft lbs per lb . . . 2 1 90 ft . lbs per lh
. .
S uppose m 10 .
Then of c ourse
, ,
energy supplied work don e

1 36 4 . 2 1 90 .
N ow suppose m= 8 '
then
2
11
energy supplied 1
That is in the one case of a very high ratio turbi n e the e n ergy req u ired
, ,
is about 3 0 per cent more tha n the work done ; but in the other case
.
of a very low ratio turbine the energy required is more than double the
,
work done .
I n the above examples the maximum e fii c ic n cy o i the turbine proper

then is
“
77 an d 4 9
1 96 T HE T H E ORY o r THE STE AM TU RB I N E .
N o w as a prelimi n ary approximation it

,
be taken that as an average may
me c han i c al losses (j ourn als gear pump etc ) 4 % , , ,

.
leakage losses van e an d dummy ,
O bviously then if an overa ll e ffi c ie n cy of 60 per c ent is wan ted it is of

, ,
.
,
’
no use making the turbi n e of a lower ratio than will give 60 + 3 per
cent The se c o n d example above would therefore be very wide of the mark
. .
The lowest possible ratio is at the same time to be adopted in order to keep ,
dimensions small .
Suppose for example the probable value of m is 8 8 ; it is then required

, ,
—
to fi n d the value of that will give
Z
L l ‘
when m = 1 e,
e when m = 8 8 ,
This is easily found from Fig 1 7 4 to be .
e 4)
L I 44 or
e
I f m = 9, °
1
57 or
The difference between 22 7 and 1 7 5 arisi n g from an apparently t rifl in g

“ ‘
difference in m is imme n se in its e ff ects for a turbine built to the latter

, ,
ratio would be roughly about t wo thirds the size of o n e built to the former -
,
the van e velocities bei n g the same C onversely for a given value of m there .
,
is a limit to the permissible error in the number of stages .
Thus i t i s of the u tmost imp or tan ce tha t m shal l be a max imum I mprove .
fn e n t in eco n omy and reduction in cost hangs m u ch m ore on this factor than
on improved devices for reducing leakage .
A r eduction in the ratio of the turbine m ay itself lead to a reduced

leakage loss I f the vane speeds remain the same as in a turbine 0 1 higher
.
ratio the leakage loss is i n creased because the le n gth of vane decreases ,
with the i n crease of 71 1 the leakage loss being roughly proportional to

,
clearance
length of vane x s1 n 0.
B ut a reduction in the ratio may be employed in red u cing the diameters

and vane speeds I f the number of stages remai n unaltered then
. also is ,
the same as before .
If d l d 2 be the old and new diameters

, ,
an d r
l
f
,
turbine ratios
l l 12 ,
length of va n e
,
Therefore (leakage loss ), ( leakage loss )1 x 42 .
d 1
1 98 THE T H E ORY or THE STE AM T U R B I N E .
( )
5 Find the approximate length of vane at the centre of turbine where
the total energy is half consumed assuming a probable diameter , .
Practi cal experie n ce will give the c learance for su c h a diameter ,
and thus the leakage loss curve c an be set out For preliminary .
purposes this loss may be taken as constant over the probable

range of ratios Thus curve B is drawn at distance a h (loss
.
per cent ) from A

. .
()c The diameter assumed in ( 6) leads to an approximate knowledge of
the size of dummies an d the loss by leakage Thus we have .
curve C .
( )
d J o u rn al and other mechanical losses vary from 5 to 2 per cent fro m
small to very large sizes —say from 5 00 H P to 5 000 H P Thus

.
. .
, . .
curve D is draw n .
( ) Radiation an d con duction losses are not satisfactorily calculable and

e ,
must be estimated from experience R easo n s have been given on .
pages 2 01 2 02 for concluding that in normal designs these two losses

,
are pra c tically equivalent to the heat of wiredrawing comprised in

m — that they are merely the agents by whi c h that part of the
heat whic h does not pass out with the exhaust steam is carried
away There will then be no f urther dedu c tion to make on the
.
series of curves .
(f ) I f n o w the mi n imum allowable e fii c ie n c y is 6 0 per ce n t draw F F .

,
accordi n gly Thus R is the o n e limit of the ratio The curve D

. .
is obtai n ed by starti n g with t he other value of m and gives the ,
other limit ratio R 1 .
I t is un n ecessary to elaborate the above scheme here The m odifi cation s .
to suit special cases methods ,

Ca 2
se Case 3 of trial and error etc will , .
,
readily oc c ur in the progress

of an y design .
S E L E C T I O N O F qt .
I t ap p ears from the e x p e ri

m ents detailed on page 4 02
that the obstruction to the
fl o w by n on —tange n tial recep
FI G 1 84 .
tion is about 1 per ce n t for
.
.
an angle of error 4 of 2 0 ;
°
and abo ut 7 per cent for . Up to about 40 the loss of ki n eti c energy
°
appears to be very nearly proportio n al to 1 é/ cos qt Fig 1 8 4 For small , . . ,
an gles the loss is even hardly as much as this .
A disturban c e loss of about 1 per cent of 41 or 41 which admits )

4 ( 1 <
.
2
is permissible from what has been said in regard to other assumptions and ,
this loss should if possible be covered in the value of m which con veniently
, , , , ,
is r equired to be a co n stan t .
1 8 to 2 0 is therefore s u ggested as a suitable maximum value of

° °
For low ratio turbines of the C ase 2 type this will pe rmit a very large
21
value of 3 in fact much larger than is required for other reasons but for
”
—may
a high ratio turbine the value of
Z on ly be about 1 2 The prelimi n ary
L s
’
.
1 1
fi gu re s of a design will quickly determine the range of the turbine ratio the
,
MI SC E LL ANE O U S P O I NT S . 1 99
m ean value having been selected fro m considerations discussed in the previous
article .
The percentage losses given above are in term s of the relative or actu al
striki n g velocities ; the nett loss will thus vary with the ratio for a given
value of 41 .
T H E V A L U E O F m — I n the case of the actual turbine 712 co m

.
,
.
prises several energy losses and is therefore rather smaller tha n in the c ase
,
of the nozzle passages ch ie fly referred to in C hapter III ( e g on

,
. .
page 46i)solated
With the complex m otion of the stream throu gh passages of the type
un der c on sideration the experime n ts detailed on pages 3 8 9 to 39 8 elicit
,
co e ffi c ie n t s which cover
(a ) E ffect of vane thickness (n ot contributory to m ) .
( )
b I nterfere nc e arising from the tenden c y of t h e several stream s
to spread .
( c) E ffect of curvatu re .
( d) S urface friction .
Oi these ,
(d ) is prac tically nil for pure straight axis and wholly convergent
nozzles ( Bateau s experiments page 4 6 and author s experimen t s
’
, ,
’
,
page
FIG . 1 85 .
raises the coe ffi c ie n t of discharge to greater than u nity ( page

is appare n tly the principal item of loss
is merely the geometrical interpretation of the pec u liarities of the
shape .
W ith curved guide blades or vanes of the m ore or less bent lozenge
-
shape ge n erally used it is by no means easy to correctly estimate the

,
effe c tive thi c k n ess fro m its geometri c al properties The effe c tive thi c k ~ .
ness or conversely t he effe c tive area of the passage depends o n the

, ,
shape itself the pitch the set and to some extent on the velocity of
, , ,
the steam .
The interfere n ce or c lashi n g c oe ffi c ie n t is the m ain contributor to m

when the blades have no tails or extensio n s a a F ig 1 85 but when they , .
,
have tails friction is i n troduced and the co e ffi c ie n t therefrom may

, ,
predomi n ate .
I f the tails are both t hi c k and long there will most likely be a large loss , ,
both by c lashi n g an d fri c tio n .
Detailed examples are given in C hapter XX II .
I m pact on the more or less blu n t edges decreases the value of m ,
for although it does not red uce the velo c ity e ffi c ie n cy of the pas sages
as nozzles the impact involves a red u c tion of v, or
,
at e n try to the
passages to some value 11 0 2 the ki n etic e n ergy bei n g co n ver t ed into
1 1
4 , ,
heat The average practical ratio of area of vane edge to total area
.
is about 6 per c ent By page 3 the direct impac t gives a pressure loss
.
2 00 THE T H E ORY o r THE STE AM TU RB I N E .
of about 1 8 per ce n t The loss by impac t on vane edges will therefore

.
be about
1 8x 6 per c en t of the relative velocity at e n try—say 1 per cent
. .
Therefore 71 41 an d 11 21 9 95 2 '
This represents roughly from 1 per cent to 3 per ce n t of the nozzle ‘
.
'
.
energy ac c ordi n g to t he ratio of the turbi n e A usual value w ould be

, .
about 2 5 per ce n t
'
There is also a loss by the oblique impact and the ac company

ing spurious expan sio n and there is also the effect of the further
,
spurious expan sion due to the vanes probably bei n g too lo n g on the
entran ce edge .
The latter phenomenon has not been the subj ect of special experiments
so far as the author is aware but from the fact that in a perfe c tl y closed
system the former spurious expansion d oes not appear to be a serious item ,
the effe c t of the latter is probably not great .
E xperime n ts relati n g to have already bee n referred to an d appare n tly ,
no ap pre c iable contribution to m is given for values of <1; up to

B ased on the curves trac ed on p age 405 the oblique impac t woul d c on ,
tribute about 5 per ce n t to m for a high ratio turbine where 1) is about

'
. <
an d about the same amount for a low ratio turbi n e where is about
these values of gt bei n g fair maximum practical values .
The only other phenomen on which may possibly reduce the value of m is
‘
sweepi n g arisi n g from the relative motion of the vanes I f the shape of
,
’
.
the van es is such that all parts of the stream emerge with the same velocity ,
the effect of sweeping is nil ; but ii for i n stance at outlet the streams , ,
ad j acent to the con c ave side of the vanes have a higher velo c ity or gre ater
de n sity than those ad j a c en t to the con vex side there may result an additio n ,
to the violen c e of the eddies created b y the other phenome n a There seems .
to be no direct method of measuri n g this effe c t an d in the ac tual turbi n e it ,
would be prac tically impossible to extract its value from the host of other
loses .
I t is however j ust possible that it does not make bad worse be c ause the
, , ,
eddies crea t ed by sweeping occur in the same place as those created b y

c l ashing I t has been poi n ted out before ( type 1 ) that sweepi n g may really
.
help to level u p the pressure an d velocity con dition s at e n try and in view
of this and the fac t that the known performan ces of good turbines do n ot
,
admit a value of m belo w 8 or 85 it is not unreasonable to c on c lude that if

' '
the f ull value of the cl ashing loss be taken there is no additional loss by ,
sweepi n g .
I n any c ase however redu c tion of clashi n g mean s a more homoge n eous
, ,
energy discharge from the p assages so that as has been said before i mprove , , ,
ment should be sought in this direction .
To sum u p we now have ,
c lashi n g coef 2 x friction x blunt edge coef

( ) ( . .
x oblique impa c t c oef x sweeping coef . .
For example refer Fig 346 3 pitch, .

'
x 1 x 99 7 5 x 9 9 5 x l " '
'
87 6 .
2 02 THE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
This wou ld of course app ly to a well designed turbine of m oderate ratio

, ,
-
.
There are numerous examples to be fou n d in actual servi c e— parti c ularly

in small sizes — where the temperature readings c ertai n ly i n di cate that the
expa n sion is follo w i n g some li n e a h The reaso n for this lies in the fa c t that
.
in small sized turbi n es c onsideratio n s of c ost an d ge n eral pro p ortion lead to

-
the u n avoidable adoption of a rather low ratio the result being that the m
,
losses and the residual velo c ity losses or a b h greatly outweigh rad iation
, ,
an d conduction .
On the whole the n in normal c ases the assum p tion of an adiabatic

, ,
progression appears to be n ot far from the truth an d it may be said that ,
in general the better the turbi n e the more nearly will the normal adiabatic
,
li n e be app roximated For small low ratio turbi n es where the i n ternal losses
.
-
frittered into heat are clearly mu c h greater than can be dispos e d of by

radiation and con duction the expan sion li n e on an assu med nett loss is found
,
by mean s of the formul ae given o n pages 3 4 3 5 , .

CH APTE R X I .
T U R B I N E VA N E S .
—M th d
CO N TE NT S z e o s of M aki ng an d F itting Turb i ne V an es—F rom 1 89 1 t o 1 9 08 .
M E T H O DS O F M A K I N G A N D F I TT I N G T U R B I N E VA N E S .
-
N um erou s methods have been devised with the obj ect of red u cing the
cost of manufacture of the many thou sands of vanes requ ired for the steam
tu rbin e .
The followi n g devices are collected and abstracted from the pate n t records .
I nventors do n ot appear to have devoted their attention to these details before

the appearance of the Parsons t u rbine .
All inve n tions relating to this sub j ect are therefore of quite recent date ,
and thos e of Mr Parsons hi mself are amon g the most notable .
[E D
Em 1 87
. .
—Parsons , 1 09 40, 1 89 1 . FI G . 1 88 .
—De Laval , 1 377 0, 1 892 .
The following is a fairly complete record up to date an d the sketches ,
are m ostly self—

explan atory and do not require le n gthy description .
P ars o n s, Fig 1 8 7
1 0940 o f 1 89 1 , . .
The van es are of be n t strip set up at bottom end a i nserted m a

,
‘
,
groove cut in the rotor and easing A slotted retai n i n g ring b is then .
slipped over the van es in the groove and the whole fullered u p .
De L av al 1 3770 o f 1 892 Fig 1 8 8

, ,
. .
The van es are s t am ped or machined gripped between the wheel d i scs ,
and held by the not ches on the sides .
S e e r 46 1 1 o f 1 894 Fig 1 8 9
nie lugs on the wines made of sheet metal are inserted in the slots in
. .
, ,
the wheel rim and bent over

2 04 THE THE ORY o r T HE S T E AM T U RB I N E .
S e g e r, 2 2 842 Fig 1 90
o f 1 897 , . .
Shows o n e of the ma n y varieties of the same method of holdi n g vanes

included in this paten t .
Em 1 89
. .
—S e ge r ,
4 6 1 1 , 1 8 94 . Em 1 90 —S e
. . g e r, 22 842 , 1 8 9 7 .
P ars o n s , 86 98 Fig 1 9 1
o f 1 89 6 , . .
This app ears to be the fi rs t pate n t sp e cifi c at ion relati n g to fi tt ing

van es of a variable cross se c tion -
.
1 The van es a are c u t from strip metal

. .
The pa cki n g pieces I) are also c u t from strip metal a The vanes and .
p a c ki n g pie c es are the n packed altern ately into slightly underc ut

grooves in the rotor or casi n g and are then fullered u p as at d
'
, ,
an d 8 . Thi s method is in c ommon use at prese n t .
2 An altern ative method in which the van es are stamped with a fo ot f

. .
FI G 1 91
. .
-
Pa s o s
r n ,
86 98 , 1 89 6 .
These vanes are then inserted an d fullered u p in the grooves as before ,

n o packi n g pie c es bei n g n ecessary .
3 g is a tie or shroudi n g ring soldered or brazed i n to the vanes

.
71 is . .
a wire threaded thr ough the vanes to hold them together more
rigidly .
S c hm id t 1 748 : o f 1 896 Fig 1 9 2

, ,
. .
The van es are stamped to shap e fi tt e d in drilled an d slotted holes in ,
the Wheel disc an d fullered u p The li p s a form a c on tinuous

, .
shroudi n g .
2 06 T HE T H E ORY OF THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
3 A variety of t ip shroudings is desc ribed that shown in the fi gu re

.
,
being typical The principle of these pecu liar shroudings has been
.
FI G 1 9 4
. .
—P arson s , 706 5, 1 9 01 . FI G . 1 95
.
— F ull agar 7 1 8 4,
, 1 9 01 .
FI G . 1 96 .
— Fu ll aga r
, 893 4 , 1 9 01 .
described on page 1 1 3 and has been designed to preven t leakage

, ,
parti c ularly for typ e 4 t urbine .

T U RBIN E VA N ES .
2 07
F u llag ar 8934 o f 1 90 1 Fig 196

, ,
. .
A method of formi n g the guide or nozzle passages for turb ines of

type 1 The pri n ciple of the method is very sim ilar to that of the
.
previous pate n t and the segmen tal blocks a ( partial admission ) are
,
fi tt ed into recess es in the diaphragm plates 6 .
FI G 1 9 7
. .
—F ull agar ,
1 4 59 4, 1 9 01 . FI G . 1 98 .
-
Rate au ,
1 1 7 01 , 1 9 01 .
F u ll ag ar 1 4594 o f 1 90 1 F ig 1 9 7
, ,
. .
The wheel van es c are inserted through the perfora t ed shroudi n g d

and in the slots 8 .
Th e wheel rims are slotted by the spe c ial milli n g

cutter to t he approxi mate circular form of the van es ,
which are then inserted an d fullered u p .
R at e au 1 1 701 o f 1 90 1 F ig 1 9 8
, ,
. .
The vanes are of sheet metal pressed i n to shape and ,
riveted on the wheel rim .
P ars o n s , 1 2 347 o f 1 90 1 .
F ig 1 9 9 Three special forms of headed vanes are

1 . . .
des c ribed on e of which is here shown The vanes

, .
are c u t from strip and pressed into shape .
2 F ig 2 00
. A developmen t of 1 6 2 8 4 of 1 8 8 9 The
. . .
lips c of the slotted shroudings are su ffi cie nt ly long to

overlap one another whe n pressed over The cor n ers .
are then machi n ed 0 11 level as at a b The c arrier .
shrouding proj e c ts beyond its groove an d fa c es the

tip shrouding of the neighbouri n g van e M i n imum Fm 1 9 9 — Pa .
r
clearances are given lon gitudinally ( parallel fi ow o 1 23 47 -
s ns
’
turbine ) an d are more or less ad j ustable by the

,
exte rn al thrust block .
3 The perforated tip shrouding d is fi t ted over the not ch e d vanes

.
,
and rivete d or soldered u p .
4 A bi n ding shroud e is secur ed to the notched van es by the wire and

.
,
soldered or braz ed up inte grally This method is in prese n t use by .
M essrs Parsons and others I t is applied particul arly to the longer

.
van es at the low pressure e n d of the turbi n e

-
.
T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
5 . F ig . 201 . S imilar
meth ods of holdi n g van es are des c ribe d in 7 1 84
of 1 901 excep t that the segme n tal blo c ks f are of dovetailed fo rm
,
.
The slots 9 in the altern ative method are made diagon ally in both
blocks .
FI G . 2 01 .
—
F ai s on s ,
1 2 3 4 7, 1 9 01 .
FI G . 2 00 —
. Pa s o
r ns, 1 2 3 47 , 1 901 . FIG . 2 02 -
F ul l aga r
, 1 4 59 3 , 1 9 01 .
Fu llag ar, Fig 2 02

1 4593 o f 1 90 1 , . .
A method of makin g n ozzle or guide van es suitable for impulse

turbi n es The vanes are cut from stri p of se ction a the back
.
,
si de 6 is then milled o ff in a spe c ial ma c hine and the en ds slotted ,
as at c .
21 0 T HE T H EORY OF T HE S T E AM T U RB I N E .
F u l lag ar , No . F i g 2 06
2 1 9 32 o f 1 903 , . .
1 . The vanes are se c ured by means of the slotted blocks 75

, the slots
FI G 2 06
. ,
—Fu ll aga r, 2 1 9 32 , 1 903 .
bei n g clos e d up after inserting the van es The blocks are secured to .
the rotor in the same way as in

2 C han n el or a n gle bar shrouding is riveted to the vanes in the
.
Em 2 07
. .
—J u d e, 2 039 4, 1 9 05 .
common man ner The c han n el fo rm gives great rigidity to t he as

.
sembled van es and in the even t of the shrouding fouling the casi n g
,
( or ro to r ) the vanes are less likely to be stri p ped .
Messrs Willan s Ro bi n son are at present buildi n g turbines on this

T U RBIN E VA N ES . 21 1
p lan ,
the va n es are assembled in semicircular segm ents before
an d
i n sertio n in the ri n g grooves of the drums and c asing .
J u d e an d B e ll is s M o rc o m L t d 2 0394 o f 1 905 F ig 2 07 .
, ,
. .
V anes are cut fro m strip the fang being bent over B i furcated
, .
FI G . 2 08 .
—J ud e, 2 03 9 4 , 1 9 05 .
dri ven in so as to be spread by the root of the fan g

fi llin g pieces are .
Also guides or nozzle blades F i g 208 Panels of blades a are , . .
rivete d up to angle shroudi n gs b The panels are fi t ted i n to pu n c hed .
plates 0 which serve as cell diaphragms ( for d m m built impulse

,
-
turbines in parti c ular ) The i n n er an gle shroud is riveted to the

.
plate and the outer shrou d is clipped The arran geme n t permits .
FI G . 2 09 —P a rs on s ,
22 1 2 7 , 1 905
. F IG . 21 0
.
—
J ud e ,
2 3 400, 1 9 05 ; M orc o m , 1 1 5 80, 1 9 07 ,
a r e ady re m oval an d repl aceme n t of the blade panels Un der .
some circumsta n ces a leakage ad j u sti n g strip is fi t te d as at d .
P ars o n s 2 2 1 2 7 o f 1 905 F i g 2 09
, ,
. .
Thi n ning the e n ds of vanes in order to mm i m ise I l Sk of str i pping '

.
J u d e ( B e ll iss 8c M o rc o m 2 3400 o f 1 90 5 F i g 2 1 0 ,
. .
V anes are cut fro m strip an d the fang is bifu rc ated so as to spre ad
,
212 THE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
over a wi re when driven i n to the groove I n method a the spac es .
between the vanes are fi lle d with similarly bif u r c ated distan ce
piec es an d in method 6 the vanes are spac ed by mean s of a per
fo rate d shroudi n g n o dista n ce pieces bei n g fi t te d
0, .
Various other m o d ifi c at io n s are also claimed .
FI G . 21 1 .
—
Chil t o n ,
2 3 9 22 , 1 9 05 . F IG . 21 2 .
—
Doug l a s ,
3 1 1 2 , 1 9 06 .
C hilt o n ,
Fig 2 1 1
2 3 92 2 o f 1 905, . .
The van es are stam p ed from thin sheet m etal su c h as p e n steel ,

.
The y are insert e d in grooves an d caulked up in the usual Ways but ,
are p rovided with substan tial shroudings of various design s .
Do u g l as 3 1 1 2 o f 1 906 F i g 2 1 2
, ,
. .
T he vanes ( reaction type ) are inserted in frames a the outer strip ,
FI G 2 1 3
.
—W a rwick M ach . Cc .
,
1 9 009 , 1 906 .
being notc hed as sho w n in order to space the vanes The i n n er strip .
together with a porti o n of the de p th of the van e is i n se r ted in the

drum or casi n g groove an d fi llin g p iec es are c aulked in between the
,
van es .
Warw ic k M ac h Co ( C u rt is ) 1 9009 o f 1 906 F i g 2 1 3

. .
, ,
. .
V a n es of extruded or rolled strip are formed with dovetail fan gs a ,
whi c h are a d r ivi n g fi t i n to the groove of the segme n t 6 The va n es .

21 4 THE T H E ORY O F T H E S TE AM T U RB I N E .
I m le , Fig 21 8
1 66 57 o f 1 907 , . .
The stalks of the van es are welded to a suitable autoge n ous weldi n g
m aterial inserted in the transverse groove
FI G . 21 5, A an d B .
—M orcom an d J ud e , 22 6 36 , 1 9 06 .
G re e n 2 1 649 o f 1 907 F i g 2 1 9
, ,
. .
A coated or sheathed va n e strip produ c ed by weldi n g a sheath on
Em 2 1 6
. .
— De L aval C
c. , 1 906 . F1 0 2 1 7
. .
—Wa rwi ck Ma h
c . Co .
,
1 5 6 04, 1 907
.
to the billet from which the strip is to be drawn With a suitable .
combin ation of materials it is foun d that the sheath an d the core

draw down equally an d without dislocation The core is preferably .
T U RBIN E V AN ES 21 5
m ade of m ild steel or iron and the sheath of brass or other non
,
corrodible metal .
W e st in g ho u se 1 8660 o f 1 908 F i g 22 0
, ,
. .
This is a c onstru c tion i n te n ded to overcome the d iffi cu lty arising in

reaction t u rbines fro m the distortion of the casing u nder heat The .
FI G 2 1 8
. .
—I ml e, 1 665 7 , 1 9 07 . FI G . 21 9 .
—G ree n ,
21 6 49 , 1 907
.
FIG . 2 20.
—We sti n gh ouse , 1 866 0, 1 9 08 .
FI G 2 2 1
. .
-
Rate au , 6 07 , 1 9 09 .
blades are inserted in fl oat in g rings or segmen ts which are pressed ,
against the c ollars c by the wave springs b The small drilled holes .
d practically equalise the steam pressure on the ri n gs .
R at e au 607 o f 1 909 F ig 2 2 1
, ,
. .
M ill e d or stamped va n es of a substan tial construction ride astride

the wheel rim an d are secured by rivets .
CH APTE R XI I .
DI S C A N D V A N E F R I CT I O N I N T U R B I N E S .
C O N N TS TE z — Di scF r i c ti on—C ri ti cal S pee d —Vane R esi stanc e
Fo rmul ae f A i r and Ste am—E ampl es

or x .
D I S C F R I C T I O N — For those c lasses of t urbines in whi c h the rotor

.
c o n sists of o n e or more w heels havi n g a ve ry high pe r ipheral velocity the ,
resistan c e b y fri c tion with the su r roun ding steam is n o t always a n egligible
fac tor i n deed it is this alo n e which im p oses a limit to the e co n omi c al s pe ed
,
of sim p le turbi n es beyon d w hi c h alth o ugh the van e or diagram e ffi cie n cy

, ,
may i n crease the i n c rease o f dis c friction en tirely n eutralises the b e n e fi t

,
.
For c ompou n d turbi n es of type 1 for i n stan c e the , ,
dis c f r i c tio n per dis c is mu c h smaller ; but as there is

usuall y a large n umber of wheels it is advisable to ,
exami n e whether an y serious loss of power is likel y to

a c crue from the adoption of give n velo c ities .
The fri c tion al resista n ce of these parts of a turbi n e

may be derived f r om three sour c es : (a) pure surface
fri c tion of the dis c w hich is more or less of a p ump ,
in g a c ti o n c om p ressio n of the steam u n der the r im

( )
b
of the wheel w hen the latter exists (c) the resistan c e
,
give n b y the van es c ommo n ly c alled ve n tilator fri c tion

,
.
’
1F 0 2 22
. .
Sp ecial ex p erime n ts o n the sub j e c t are n o t very
n umerous but those of O dell with pap er dis c s in air
, ,
of Le w i c ki with a De Laval wheel in air an d steam of Stodola with a ,
series of tu r bi n e wheels in air an d more re c e n tl y, of H olzwo r th with a

, ,
series of tu r bi n e wheels in steam e n able an approximate estimate of these

,
losses to be m ad e with the exc eption of ( b)

, .
I t is a c ommon supposition that at very low speeds fl u id fric t io n is

'
proportion al to the a n gular velo c ity or to the mean surfac e vel o c ity This
,
.
app ears from expe r ime n ts to be true up to a certain c ritical limit at whi c h ,
limit the dis c as it were g r ips the fl u id an d behaves as a c e n trifugal pump

, ,
.
The ki n d o f actio n whe n the dis c is in a free space will be somewhat as

i n di c ated in F i g 222 . .
I f su c h a pumpi n g action is takin g pla c e then the quan tity of steam ,
pumped will be roughly p roportion al to the area of the dis c and to the
velo c ity with whi c h the steam is thro w n off at the outer edge that is ,
Q is proportio n al to 07 2
The work don e is prop ortio n al to the ki n etic energy given to the steam ,
that is to 0 o r 7
,
2 9 2
01 .
21 8 THE T H E ORY AM T U RB I N E
'
0 1? TH E S TE .
The above data relate to the po wer expe n ded in air of the same de n sity
throughout .
I n n umerable experime n ts on the resista n ce to flow of gases have shown

th at it is directly p rop ortion al to the de n sity of the gas .
This law has bee n con fi rm e d in the c ase of rotating turbi n e discs by
S todola and Le w i c ki the former with air an d the latter with satwra ted st am
, , e .
The followi n g are some of Le wick i s results obtained with the 2 2 5 mm De ’

.
Laval wheel the relative values of c an d 01 being obtai n ed from the sequel
,
Total H P ( di sc va ) . . n es
Lb p r sur . f t am ab l
e ss e o s e ,
s o u te
c for d i sc o n ly ( n ot i nclud i ng vane s) x 10 -

7
3 46 x 1 04 x 10 -
7
3 85
‘
x 10
-
3 —3 —3
H P +p
. .
HP
The coi n c ide n c e of in the three experimen ts con fi rms the law that the
. .
p
resista n ce varies with the density p bei n g the density , .
We may therefore write

a5
HP . . em 7
'
p .
I n the two above tables 0 has been c alculated from this formula the density ,
in the fi rst series bei n g take n at 07 6 The u n its are in fe e t an d s e c o n d s '
. .
S todola used a series of fl at wheels of about 2 85 3 7

an d 4 9 ? diameter respe c tively of whi c h the fi rst me n tio n ed was plain , ,
without van es The remai n der had van es of various len gths
.
*
.
The c o e ffi c ie n t of the plai n wheel determined as above is 3 9 7 x which

agrees very well with O dell s c o e ffi c ie n t s ’
.
Taki n g a mean with those c o e ffi c ie n t s we may put for air ,
—
Dis c re s is t an c e in H o rs e p o w e r 3 3 5 x 1 0 p w r
= 3 5
(1) -
7
VA N E R E S I S T A N C E — At fi rst sight it would ap pear probable .
that the vane resistance (or ve n tilati n g effec t would be dire c tly proportional
to the len gths of the vanes an d to the cube of the velo c ity Vanes w hich for
the mome n t are d o ing no live work —for instan c e in a marine astern—goi n g
.
turbine revolving idly ; or van es faci n g t h e partial admission blan ks in

partial admission turbines—might be su p posed to be playi n g the p art of a
,
turbo—compressor the velo c ity diagrams for which are nearly the c on verse of
,
those for the turbi n e This appears to be the case for very u n symmetri c al vanes
.
as in typ e 4 but not so for symmetrical van es si n ce these are i n capable of

, ,
acti n g as a compressor except u n der pra c tically prohibitive c o n ditions .
Q uestion s as to the vane resistan c e almost i n variably arise for turbines

of types 1 2 an d 3 in which the vanes are approximately symmetrical
, ,
.
E xperime n tal research has therefore bee n mostly with this class of vane .
The van e resistan ce of a mari n e turbi n e reversed is an in sign ifi can t

‘
consideration as a rule si n ce the turbi n e usually revolves in a high vacuum

For vanes of symmetri c al se c tion —to which all the followi n g remarks
.
,
apply — it does not appear that the resistance is either proportion al to the
Stod l a S t am T bi o ,
e ur ne .
D I SC AN E F RIC TION IN T U RB I N E S 219
'
A ND V .
vane length or to the c ube of the velo c ity I t will be show n that the various .
experime n ts indicate an expressio n of the form rather than

H P
.
3
c lv p
l
Working out the power for disc re sistance for S t od ol a s fi v e
’
cases we ,
have from ( 1 )
i h
nc es 2 1 1}
'
1 78 1 0 44
and from the experimental results this leaves for va n e resista n c e as follows
h r pwr
I
3 57
I I
Va 1 0 36 1 2 59 1 8 34
°
ne o se -
o e .
S todola evolves fro m these experiments the formula as

the nearest co n venient approxi mation .
Unfortunately this does not lead to a satisfa c tory agreement with the
other experi me n ters results and it is therefore desirable to c onsider them
’
,
con j ointly S uch cons ideration involves a mass of t rial an d error with the
.
,
bulk of which it is u n n ecessary to encumber these pages .
Applying the formula to the above table the mean

value of 01 works out to x ( for air ) .
L e w icki s principal experi m e n ts were not o n ly made with air and satu
’
rated steam b u t with steam highly superheated as well The followi n g table
,
.
gives the results of these experiments made with a 2 2 5 mm De Laval wheel .
( p 7 3 ) r un n i n g at revolutions per minute L e wicki s origi n al ’

. .
fi gu re s ( Z . 1 9 01 ) gave the total horse powers of resistance but in the -
followi n g table they are split into the separate items of disc an d vane
resistance .
TA BLE XII .
L e w icki s E sp
’
i
e r n wn ts w i th D e L a val Whe el ro ta ting i n Ai r an d S team .
Atm ri Pr r 53 lb s Ab l t Pr
so u e e ssu er
o sp h e
t 20 I
.
c e ssu e
( ab o u n ch e s V ac uu m)
.
;wr
‘
I o t al
P O W GI '
1 o e
T e mp .
to d ve ri V an e D sc i t d ri
o ve V an e
i
D sc an d Re Re D i sc Di a dsc n Re
V an e s s s it s s it Co e ffi c i e n t Vane s s s it
( no t an c e an c e ( no t an c e
Be ari ngs ,
H P . . H P . . Be ar i ngs, H P .
e tc .
) e tc .
)
HP . . H P . .
45 3 3 45 1 08 2 42 x 1 0 7
‘
- -
32 8 78 3 82 x 10 7 4 72 x 1 0 7
-
1 1 25 3 55
-
‘ - -
2 53 4 2 81 2 1 35 x 10 7 9 36 3 16 x 10 7
-
67 6 35 712
-
2 24
- ' ' ° “
22 15 1 6 84 5 31 7
3 2
-
-
48 5 8 32 x 1 0 7
‘
' ‘
'
444 3 37 x 10 7
-
-
'
1 42 2 7 2 4-
—
10 7
These results are plotted in Fig . 22 3 , to gether with those give n on page 21 8 .
T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RBI N E .
I t w ill be observed in this that the resistan c e i n c reases rapidly as

fi gu re
the steam a pp roac hes saturatio n an d that for superheats above about 1 5 0 F
,
°
.
the c o e ffi c ie n t s are p racti c all y c o n stant an d ide n ti c al for both pressures the ,
resistan c e simply decreasing because the density de c reases with the in c rease
of superheat .
Hol wo rth s results were published ( P ower J an 1 9 07 ) in the form of a

’
z , .
n umber of diagrams of three co ordi n ates of resistance va n e le n gt h an d wheel

-
diameter coveri n g a ran ge of vane le n gths from 5 i n c h to 2 5 inches an d

,
wheel diameters from 1 0 inches to 5 0 inches The author has take n about .
6 0 poi n ts from these data an d b y a p rocess of trial an d error fi n d s that the

,
nearest c on veni e n t formula whi c h will express them and at the same time ,
give reaso n able a cc ordan ce with the previous results is of the form stated ,
above On this basis we then have the followi n g colle c tion of average values
.
of the coe ffi c ie n t s c and c1

TA B LE XIII .
S t e am .
O d ll
e . L wi ki
e c . L wi ki
e c . H ol z w o rth .
x —
10 7
Ta bl e XI I .
x x x —
10 3
}Tabl
3 13111
m .
.
bl
Ta e XI I .
38 4 e, p 21 8
. .
at m
}
36 8
Sup .
v ac .
.
Fa bl e XI I .
It n ow remai n s to dis c uss the c om p aratively small dive rge n ce of these co

e ffi c ie n t s an d to adopt values for ge n eral use .
I n air
O dell and S todola agree fairly closely an d both used fi at discs Their , .
average value of c is as before 3 3 5 x , L e w ic k i s De Laval disc

,
° ’
co e ffi c ie n t c is 7 2 times the mea n value of c for S todola and O dell s fi at disc

’
but his van e c oe ffi cie n t c 1 agrees exactly with St od ola s cl a result that might ’
,
be expected if it be assumed that the vane resistance is i n depende n t of the

shape of the disc .
N o w in steam
Le w ic k i s disc 0 for superheated steam is again 7 6 times Hol z worth s c
’ ° ’
for fl at discs The respe c tive ratios 7 2 and 7 6 for air an d steam are in as
.
'
close ac c ord as c an reasonably be expected .
An d further Hol wort h s van e 01 agrees exactly with L e wic ki s average

, ,
z
’ ’
for thoroughly dry steam .

2 22 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S TE AM TU RB I N E .
Unfortunately , at presen t it is not known how much water is repres ented

by a given increme n t to the c oe ffi c ie n t an d on ly a very te n tative estimate of
,
the fri c tion in wet steam c an be made I f the effe c t of water is so noti c eable
.
in nomi n ally superheated steam it may be i n ferred that small variations in

,
wet n ess in wet steam will have a like effect the resistance increasi n g to that ,
in water itself This will also explain the divergen c e of L e wicki s two sets of
.
’
saturated steam results .
E xperime n ts with wet steam would be extremely d iffi c u l t to gauge

correctly The measureme n t of dryn ess fractio n in the case of steady flow
.
through pipes is d iffi c ult an d generally the results are Open to much
,
suspicion The accurate measuremen t in the case of a wheel chamber can n ot

.
b e easier as it is con ceivable from what occurs with a n omi n al superheat that
, , ,
the water cli n ging to the wheel surface is a poten t but i n accessible factor .
FI G . 22 4 .
—Coe ffi c ie n t s fo r D i sc ( fl at ) an d V ane R esi stan c e in S t e am .
H o w ever it will probably suflice to assume that for a small intrusion i n to

,
the w e t con dition say down to x = 7 5 the c o e ffi c ie n t i n creases accordi n g to

,
°
the prolongatio n of the Lewi cki curves beyond the dry saturated poi n t the ,
abs c issa bei n g pro p ortio n al to total heat .

’
This is embodied in F i g 2 2 4 which may be u sed to ascertain the

.
,
approximate c oe ffi c ie n t for an y c ondition of the steam .
For wet steam p must be i n c reased in p roportio n to the wetn ess

, .
V ane resistan c e is a c cordi n g to S t o d o l a s experime n ts much redu c ed by

’
, ,
maki n g the c asi n g to closely embra c e the van es so as to preve n t free ac c ess
of the surrou n di n g medium For large w heels 01 is appare n tly redu ced to
.
,
about i of the above values an d to about 4 for small wheels .
R otati n g backwards the van e resistan c e is i n c reased about 1 4 times

E x am p l e s —The followi n g examples will give an idea of the resistan ce
, .
u n der differen t con ditio n s

1 G iven a fl at t ish wheel 4 feet diameter with van es 2 inches long an d
.
,
of symmetrical form steam pressure surrou n di n g the wheel 80 lbs .

D I SC AN D V AN E F RIC TION IN T U RB I N E S . 223
absolute temperature of steam 3 5 0 F 2 5 00 revolutions per minute partial °

.
admission so that a great portion of the vanes are free

The n from Fig
, . 2 24 c = 4 25
°
x 107 -
and c
l
= x 1 04 3 .
From the data w3 = x 1 07

32
1 2 7 80
I“ 2 825 .
Then
11 1 = 4 2 5
)
. x 10 p -5
4 25
°
x 10 7 x 3
17 1 2 780 x 2 8 25
°
°
x x
- °
Take a wheel 2 feet i n diame ter with

2 .
,
2—
i n ch vanes and a peripheral
speed (0 ) the same as before
Then 3
01 x 1 08
HP . .
-
7 x °
17 x x
8
1 0 + sam e as before
22 9
I f the vane velocity be one half the above that is 2 7 3 the powers -
, , ,
absorbed are 4 and ,} of the disc and va n e resistan c es respectively .
Therefore for the two cases correspon di n g to ( 1 ) an d ( 2) above the total

, ,
HP. absorbed would be 2 7 3 and 1 1 7 respectively

.
°
Thus although 1 n the maj ority of cases the power lost by simply driving
the wheels around at their proper speed may perhaps be comparatively small ,
it is very easy to design a turbine m which this fa c tor becomes prohibitive .
For the example ( 1 ) above 6 4 horse power seems a large amount b u t it is

,
-
o n e nevertheless which would be q u ite permissible in a u n it of 3 000 or 4 000

, ,
hors e power provided there were only three or four wheels as the data tacitly
-
, ,
imply .
I n cases of full admissio n the tru e vane resista n ce naturally disappears .
A proportionate reduction will also take place a c cordi n g to the degree of

admission where this is partial on ly .
I t is legitimate to co n sider this to be the case for altho u gh there is pre ,
su m ab l
y always a certain amount of true va ne resista n ce due to the ,
necessarily longer movi n g vanes than guides this is really i n c luded in the ,
vane passage losses 0 3 2

previously discussed
,
20 , .
I n turbi n es of type 1 the van e resista n c e may rise to a prohibitive amount

it due care is n o t exercised 1 11 sele c ti n g the various dime n sio n s .
F u rt he r examples invol vi n g the estimation of these i n t er n al resistan c es are

given in C hapter XV on governing . .
”
CH AP TE R XI II .
S PE C I FI C H E AT O F S U P E R H E AT E D S T EAM .
C ONT E N T8 : —Specifi c H e at of Su p e rh at d S t am —Av rag Val u

e e e e e e of t h e S p ec i fi c H e at
S p ec i fi c V l m f S p rh at d S t am
o u e o u e e e e .
THE SPE CI FIC H E AT O F S U P E R H E AT E D S T EAM .
Sin ce the establishme n t by R egnaul t of the well k n o w n empirical formul ae for -
the total heat of steam ,

’
dry saturated steam H 1 09 1 7 ,

305 ( t 3 2) °
or H 1 08 2 3 05 t '
and for superheated steam H I H O ( ) , P

T, 7
where C is the sp e c ifi c heat of the superheated steam at constan t pressure

,
.
C has hitherto bee n c o n sidered to be a c on stan t for all practi c al p urposes

p
.
R eg n ault s value 48 05 which w as obtai n ed from only four experiments at

’
,
°
atmospheri c pressure has bee n adhered to , .
On e reason for this m ay be fou n d in the fa c t that for a lo n g period the , ,
superheater fell i n to disu se owin g to me c han i c al troubles an d therefore ,
occasion s for the use of formul ae i n volvi n g the properties of superheated steam
we r e few an d far between .
Duri n g the last few years the superheater with improved c on stru c tion , ,
helped b y imp roved engi n e c onst r u c tion has come to the fro n t again an d the , ,
great advan tages in stea m econ omy derived by its use apply in n early the
same degree to the steam turbi n e as to the recip ro cati n g e n gi n e .
O ther exp erime n ters have shown from time to time that the R eg n ault
value 4805 did not satisfy all c on dition s but as u n til quite re c e n tly n on e
,
°
, , , ,
of them were able to s ubstitute more reliable fi gu re s for i t this value has ,
be come rather d iffi cu lt to dislodge from its con ve n tion al position .
G ri n dley in 1 9 00 c arried o u t a series of expe r ime n ts at a

, ,
tmosp heric
pressure the results of which have been recalculated b y R eeve They
,
.
exten ded over a ra n ge of superh e at of about 33 0 F above saturation tempera °

.
ture S ince the n G re issm ann has made fu rt h u r determi n ation s with a more
.
perfect app aratus exten di n g over a comp aratively small ran ge of temperature
,
.
The regular sequence of the 1 2 2 readin gs he obtai n ed seems to confer upon

them a fair degree of reliability— at any rate for an ave r age value .
M an y authorities con sider it reason able to suppose that the value of C P

is a simple functio n of the temperature on ly an d n ot of the p r essure This ,
.
,
ho w ever does n ot seem to be quite borne out by Lorenz s still more rec e n t
,
’
determi n ation s whi c h are referred to belo w

,
.
Both G ri ndley and G re issman s fi gu re s i n di cate a simple straight li n e law

’
-
.
22 6 T HE T H EORY OF T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
These c urves are based as stri c tly as possible on the experimental results ,
an d it seems reasonable to suppose that although the ge n eral tre n d of the

law may thus be fairly ac c urately represe n ted the errors that c reep i n all ,
experiments w ould accou n t for the distorted shape of curves 6 5 and 7 °
arti c ularl y in relatio n to the saturated steam li n e A B

p
.
This li n e is the lo c us of the saturation temperatures .
Professor S mith poi n ts out that as the saturated c o n dition is approac hed
, ,
the spe c ifi c heat should merge i n to the sp e cifi c heat of boili n g water at the
same tem p erat u re an d pressu r e an d that as the sp e c ifi c heat rises with the
,
te mperature it must be con siderably above u n ity near the criti c al p om t

,
.
Thus the contour should rise to at least un ity on the saturated steam li n e ,
and it therefore appears reason able to suppose that the con tour li n es must
app roach this li n e in shape for
their fl at portion s rather than ,
p rese n t the c o n c ave loops of 6 5

and 7 c urves °
N o w taki n g the very n umerous ,
results given in F ig 2 2 5 there does .

,
n o t appear to be an y harm o ny wha t
ever between them an d Professor

Smith s deduction s from Lorenz s
’ ’
experimen ts .
The on ly possible altern atives are

therefore to accept these resul ts with
reserve or to take an average ( for ,
atmospheric pressure) from all the

results in Fig 225 . .
Thus an average readi n g appears ,
to sho w that at atmospheric pres

sure an d at a temperature of about
,
1 5 0 0 ( 302 the sp e c ifi c heat is

°
.
°
about 55 °
.
This certainly agrees with the

atmospheri c poi n t on the 5 5 contour
of Fig 2 2 6 and may therefore be .
,
FIG 2 26 — S p ifi H at f S p rh ated S te am
ec c e o u e
taken as c on fi rm ato ry Of the p oint
e
.
—
. .
( Lo r
enz R H Sm i th )
. . F u rt he r E mmett s fi gu re s g1 ve a
. ,
’
rough value of 7 for 268 C an d °

°
.
1 0 atmospheres pressure and this is not very far from the 7 co n tour
,
°
co n sidering its steep slope .
I n his fi rst edition the author took the liberty of goi n g a step further an d
'
presenti n g Fig 2 2 7 as an a pp roximate guide for cal c ulatio n s involved in

.
steam engi n e and turbi n e c o n stru c tion an d tests .
F i g 2 2 7 does n o t greatly differ f r om F ig 2 2 6 but the c on tours are

. .
,
smoothed up generally so that calculatio n s based on sp e c ifi c heats taken

,
therefrom will have a greater c urrent con siste n cy .
The diagram is admittedly te n tati ve for the reasons given above also hear
, ,
ing in mi n d that Professor Lo r e n z s expe r ime n ts ap pear to be the most reliable

’
we so far possess an y error involved by its use for pressures such as in p rac tice
, , ,
would be ac companied with superheat will n ot be very great an d will certai n ly

, ,
be very mu c h n earer the mark than the u n iversal ap pli c ati on of R eg n ault s 4 8 ’ °
The e ffi c ien cie s of turbines and e n gi n es based o n the steam heat calculated
SPE CI F IC H E A T or S U PER H E A TE D S TE AM 227
fro m the Lorenz data are certainly more con siste n t with one an other than
when 4 8 is used
°
The te mperature entropy c hart derived therefrom leads to t he suspi c ion

that the true sp e c ifi c heats are n o t so high as in Figs 22 7 2 28 more .
, ,
parti c ularly at high pressures an d temperatures the c onsta n t total heat lines ,
-
havi n g a rather u n a c c ou n table form an d a different charac t eristic from those

at lower temperatures .
FI G . 227 .
—Spe ci fic H eat o f Su pe rh eate d S team .
M ore recent researches at S ibley C ollege an d of K noblauch and J acob

at M u n ich , with more satisfa c tory apparatus than had hitherto been used ,
probably have brou ght the k n owledge of the spe c ifi c heat of superheated
steam withi n measurable di sta n ce of the truth The experime n ts at S ibley .
College are particul arly valuable for the reason that the y were sub j ect to an
,
ext e n sive evolutio n The fi nal method adopted at S ibley and by K noblau ch was
.
that of directly heating the steam by ele c trical res istan c es immersed therein *
.
A mp r h i a nt f th m r i m p rta t Si b l y x p ri m ts i gi
co e e n s ve ccou o e o e o i a pape r
n e e e en s ve n n
b y P o f C arl Th ma
r . o s l a d th by K bl a h a d J a ob are p b
vo . n ose no uc n c u .
2 28 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM TU RB I N E .
The su b je ct mat t e r has n o w becom e so voluminous that only the fi nal

res ults c an be give n here Figs 22 9 2 30 give the sp e cifi c heat as arrived
. .
,
at b y S ibley an d K n oblau c h respe c tivel y .
The t w o fi gu re s do n o t agree very well in the vi c inity of saturation

tem p eratures — so that there yet remai n s some wo r k for the future .
The local diverge n ce of the results does not however greatly affect the , ,
derived fun c tions the temperature e n tropy char t bei n g practically coincident
, ,
FI G . 228 .
—Ave rage Sp ec ifi c H e at of Supe rh eated S te am ( O p in vari ou s f rm l a )
o u e .
a fact attributable to the rap id fall of the sp e c ifi c heats of Fig . 22 9 from the
satu ration li n e for a very small rise of temperature .
l i sh ed i n Z . v ol il A b tr t
. s ac s are gi v e n i n E ngin eeri ng,
.
p il 1 2 , 1 9 07 , an d A r
M rh a c Po
2 7 , 1 9 08 , an d a d i sc ussi o n b y r f R H Sm i . E n gi ne er ,
. . th
ugu s 2 3 , 1 9 07 ,
, A t
h
s ou l d al so b e c o n sul e d t Po
.r f H T E dd y,
. . i n neso a ( pape on the su je c ,
. M t r b t
rr v r r
a i es at a si m il a d i ag am t o Fig 2 3 1 , b u t .a e r th r r brt
m o e e l a o a e d b y t he i n se i o n o f rt
‘
t t h t v
o al ea ,
’
o lu m e an d o th r r
e c u ve s ; h e al so g e s t he c o rr
e s o n d i n g d i ag am
piv ased o n r b
b r t
t h e S i l ey esu l s .
230 THE TH E ORY OF THE S TE AM TURB I N E .
straight lines instead of the elegant curves derived from K n oblau c h and
J acob .
I nstead of e n cumbering that fi gu re with an other set of li n es they may be ,
stated as follows
TA B LE XI V .
Table XI V or Fig 23 1 m ay be used for gen eral calculations

E ither . .
.
Thu s ( Fig 23 1 ) at 1 45 lbs absolute pressure and temperatu re

. .
400 F O
°
.
, and this value may be used in the expression
p
FI G . 230 .
—Sp ecifi c H eat o f Supe rh eated S te am ( Kn obl auc h an d J acob )
.
Cp ( 7 , -
r
, ) and
other similar expressions The corresponding val u e by Fig . .
2 2 8 is 7 7 5 whi c h n o doubt is too high

°
, , ,
.
The velo c ity etc derived from superheated steam with u n resisted fl ow
, .
may be ascertained approximate ly from Diagram A in a similar man n er to

the wet an d dry determi n ations The diagram is obviously n ot applicable .
srsom c H E AT OF S U PE R H EA TE D STE AM 231
for very small drops of pressure (giving velo c ities of o n ly a fe w h u ndred fee t) ,
to N 63
8
a a 5
but is approximate enough for most ordi n ary purposes ,

e specially in vi ew
of the te n tative characte r of the spe c ifi c heat values .
23 2 T HE T H EORY o r T H E STE AM T U RB I N E .
On A are drawn lines for 50 1 00 1 50 an d 2 00 de grees

Diagram , , ,
( F ) of superheat respe c tively

. I n termediate degrees can easily be
.
i n terp olated .
The temperature e n tropy Diagram B is n evertheless more ge n erally useful

-
for small drops of pressure for determini n g the various fu n c tions of the steam
at the lower pressure The sp e c ifi c heats adop te d in the c onstruction of
.
Diagram B have bee n obtained from Fig 2 3 1 . .
The ma n ner of usi n g this diagram is des c ribed on pages 3 2 and 35 .
T H E S P E C I F I C V O L U M E O F S U P E R H E AT E D S T EAM .
S c hmidt s fo rmula for the sp e c ifi c volume of superheated stea m based on

’
H irn s experiments is as follows

’
4 4” +t
v = 5 93 in E n glish units
P
2 63 H
v = 0 04 6 8 in C G S . . . units
P
where v volume in cub ft per lh
sp e c ifi c o r in c u b metres per k g
. . .
, , . .
t = t e m p e rat u re in degree Fahr o r in degree C e n tigrade .

, , .
= pressure in lbs per s

p q in c h o r in kgs per sq c m
. .
, , . . .
The abov e may be used as a fi rst approximation observing that ,
results obtained are a little too high .
A more precise expressio n is

5 931
’ ‘
= in E n glish units
T
v
in CG S. . . u n its
p
where is the absolute temperature
1
°
.
This is very ap p roximately solved by adopting the fi rst approximation for

the value of under the root if .
S ee E ngi neeri n g, Fe b 2 2 , 1 907 . .

2 34 THE TH E ORY OF THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
structure so that these local stresses may be c ome as small as possible it is

, ,
very diffi cult to elimi n ate lo c al i n tern al stresses and these may be greater ,
evils than the othe r s .
I t would appear that the best compromise is to re an n eal quickl y after -
the dis c is fi n ish turn ed taki n g care to avoid the formation of scale and a
-
too vi gorous after polishi n g if su c h should be necessary at all

-
,
.
Oi course such con ditio n s as the above apply equally to other engi n eer
,
in g stru c tures of everyday o c c urre n c e but in the prese n t c ase we are ,
attempti n g to deal with a pe c uliarly deli c ate system of stresses of a special

distributio n and it is therefore advisable to re examine the data
,
-
.
P O I S S O N S R AT I O — The n ext fa c tor which i n volves a certai n

’
amou n t of assum p tio n an d faith is P o is s o n s rat io ’

.
The determi n ation of this ratio has been the sub j ect of an imme n se
amoun t of c on troversy and it is still doubtful whether the values which
,
have been given for it are at all corre c t .
S t Ve n a n t proved that it could not ex c eed 5 an d that this is its value ,
for in d iaru b b e r an d p erhap s for j elly

,
.
is a c ommon ly a c c epted value for steel although some authorities ,
favour W ertheim s determi n ation 2 6 86

’
,
°
For the high—ten sion steels such as are ge n erally used for high sp eed ,
-
dis c s this lower value is probably the more correct 2 68 6 will therefore be
,
.
°
used in the followi n g calculation s .
G E N E RA L P R E L I M I N A R Y E Q U AT I O N S The general .
-
asp ect of the problem will p erhaps be better realised b y a comparative con ~
sideration of some of the the o ries that have been e volved an d the reader will ,
then be better able to j udge in w hi c h to place the greatest faith .
There are two mai n c on ditions to satisfy : i n tern al an d surface conditions

of stress an d st r ai n .
For any solution to be c orre c t both must be sat isfi e d I t is nevertheless .
extremel y d iffi cu lt if n ot im p ossible to devise a man ageable solution for

, ,
a r bitrary forms of disc or for given arran gements of stresses — as for example , ,
where the rim stresses are greater than the c en tral stresses .
On the other han d it is n o t so d iffi c u l t to arrive at a more or less manageable

,
formula to satisfy either a portion of the intern al c on dition s or of the surface

c o n ditio n s se aratel
p y but we are liable to be led i n to an e n tirely erroneous idea
,
of the value of the real stresses if the probable degree of error is n ot d e t e rm in

able I t is un fortu n ate that the degree of error is n ot al w ays determinable
. .
There are in gen eral four kin ds of stress i n duced in a rotating dis c
F or Tan gential stress or H oop ten sion
P or Radial stress
Z or Axial stress and
S or R adial shear .
Le t Fig 2 32 represent an eleme n tary thread an d eleme n tary ri n g of the

.
dis c at a radius
Let 2 be the thi ck n ess of the disc at radius r .
u radial displa c emen t due to the st r ess .
P oisson s ratio
’
You n g s m odulus for direct stress lbs p e r square foo t

’
, .
an gular velo c ity .
de n sity in lbs per c ubic foot . .

R N G TH
ST E OF ROTATIN G DI S C S .
Q ua n tities in fee t ,
secon d s, and p ound s .
da
the radial strain
the hoop strain ( 00)

dw
the an al stram ( zz )
A
dz
the shear ( rz )
Ax i s
F1 01 2 3 2
. .
An d for the stresses we have

P 1
)(F Z) E
o r, w h r th er
e e e is no ax i al tr
s ess,
P 1; F E
01 ,
w h re th r
e e e is no a x ial tr
s e ss,
F -
nP =E E
’
7
z
236 T HE T H E ORY o r THE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
Further consideri n g the elementary thread of section

, d rd z of a length
rd O we have by resolving along the radius
, , ,
8
§
2
w
p rX7
°
d s
( d r)d 0d z d z md 0d r Prd ed rd z ( Fd 0)d 7 dz
°
7 f °
32 9
Simpl ifi e d , this is
d ( Pr) 618 W
2 2
7
F T +
dr 7
6 2 g
l ti ng sh ear
o r, n e g e c ,
2 ‘2
d ( Pr) p¢10 7
F =0 .
dr -
g
Also, resolving axially we have ,
d r)d 9 d Srd eaz

’
r r Z rd fid r
an d this sim p lifi e d is

d ( sr)
dr dz
The above equations are b o dy e q u at io n s an d must hold for an y se c tion

of dis c whatever and it therefore remai n s to apply them to parti c ular c ases
, .
From a similar poi n t of view con sider as a whole the elemen tary ring a b , , .
I n order to be able to do so we must assume that F is the same at every

part of the ri n g an d n o t uniform alon g some curved zon e o n ly such as a c b
, .
The n correspon di n g to ( 6a) an d n egle c ti n g shear an d axial stress we have

, , ,
W X ” dad?
m
”
Prd ( Ed a .
that is 0 (8)
,
g
This equation ( a s u rfac e e q u at io n) has b e e n given by several writers
as the fu n damen tal equation for the more or less arbitrary and c omplicated
forms of dis c— the De Laval type for instan c e —and equation ( 6 ) or ( 6a) has ,
not onl y been ignored altogether but the possible presen ce of not in sign ifi can t
,
shears have been n egle c ted also .
The latter may be ju st ifi ab le in many cases but c ertai n ly not the negle c t ,
of the former whi c h must hold true for every thread of the dis c Dedu c tion s
, .
made from (8 ) alon e in the case of dis c s thickened in the middle are fou n d
to be at varian c e with those made from
E quatio n ( 8) is only applicable to a v e ry t h in fi at d isc and may be
' '
radi cally wron g for an y othe r form .
T H I N F L AT D I S C S — I t is obvious that for a very thin flat disc z is

.
negligible in an d with this c o n dition on l y ( 8) beco m es ide n ti c al with ( 6 a) ,

.
We n o w require to fi n d 84 and f in terms of r in order to obtai n p art ic u

r ?
Iar e x p e ssio n s fo r F an d P
‘
r .
From ( 1 a) and ( 2a)

E 4
)
4
2 dr
1 7
7
238 T HE T HE ORY 0 11 T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
The i n accuracy arises from neglecting the shears and axial stress and from ,
th e fa c t that even w he n the y are i n trodu c ed an exa c t solution at and c lose to

, , ,
the rim c an not be obtai n ed fo r we require that ( for a free u n loaded dis c ) the
, ,
radial stress shall be zero all alon g the cyli n dri c al outer surfa c e The .
expression fo r does n ot ho w ever give this the reason bei n g that the stresses
74 , , ,
are n o t of cyli n dri c al disp ositi o n .
The followi n g se c tio n will make this more eviden t .
G E N E RA L S O L U T I O N O F A F O R M O F F R E E S U R FA C E
T O S AT I S F Y T H E F U N DA M E N T A L E Q U AT I O N S .
The equatio n s ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6) must all be sat isfi e d by an y exa c t

*
solution for the form of surfa c e .
Let u s now assu me s m c on venien t an d reason able form f 07 the stresses

o e
°
.
M an y forms might be assumed whi c h would qui ckly be show n to give

impossible c on ditio n s .
For i n stan c e suppose we assume that the stress is a li n ear fu n ctio n

,
of r su c h as F = A0 + A1 r We shall fi n d that it is n ot o n l y impossible to

,
f
.
satisfy the fu n damen tal equations to even an ap proximate de gree but that ,
we obtain manifestly absurd results — some of which are i n di c a t ed in the

sequel .
An i n spe c tio n of ( 1 3 ) an d w hi c h are pra c ticall y a c curate for the fl at

form shows that the mai n con tributo r to the stresses is probably some
,
fun c tion of the square of the radius .
Assume the r efo r e that

R adial st r ess P A O
A l
2
,
A 2
4
2 r
H oop stress F B0 B I 7 B ,
?
Axial stress Z C ,
02 2 2 0
Radial shear S 2e ,
.
where AO B0 00 L e t c are co n stan ts

, , , ,
. .
By a rathe r le n gthy algeb r ai c al p rocess the followi n g relatio n s m ay be ,
e stablished betwee n the consta n ts
A0 = B0
A2 = B2
2L —C2
2
“ 2 77 — 29 P ‘D 7
7
4
g (1
_
A A
9 (1
97
A2
“
7
onl y remai n s i n determi n ate f r om the p r e c edi n g equations an d

00 ,
this poi n t body c o n ditions alon e have bee n taken i n to accou n t .
A consideration of the con dition s that must obtain at the surfa c e of the
disc will e n able C0 to be fou n d .
Th e au th r i i
o s n de bt ed
t o P o e sso rf r Fi tzg ral d fe or muc h o f th e f ll wi
o o ng mat te r r l ati
e ng
to e llipsoi ds . E n gin eer, M ay 1 3 , 1 9 04 .

ST ER N GT H or ROTA TIN G DI S C S . 2 39
At the su rfa c e all the three transverse stresses must van ish or el se they ,
must be in mutual equilibrium This may be shown as follows .
Let A B 0 represent an ele me n tary thread at the surfa c e Fig 2 33 ,

. .
Let N be the stress n ormal to the surfa c e ,
T shear along the surfa c e ,
1 <) an gle N makes with the axis .
N = ( P sin 5) sin
< co s qt) cos s in ( 5) co s qS
+ (S cos ct
) sin
T= (S sin qt ) sin 1) ( S cos ( -
008 sin gb) cos 4)
—( Z cos sin
that is ,
N=P sin I + Z cos ¢

2
<>
2
+ 2S sin 5
< c os < > I = 0
T=S ( sin 2
qt cos - —Z ) sin cos
By eliminating 1
<) we have
( PZ S ?
) { (P Z) 2
4S2 }= 0
Therefore either ( PZ Z ) or { ( P Z ) 2 2
4 8 2 } must
Firstly
I f PZ S 0 the n from ( 25 ) and ( 2 6 )
2 =
,
S
t an,
4)
P
S econdly
l f (P Z )2 48 2 = 0, the n ( P Z ) an d S must : 0, that is ,

P : Z .
B ut if P Z , then by ( 2 5 ) P = 0 .
Thus P=Z = S= O
Therefore at the free surface either the s tresses must be in equili b rium
accordi n g to ( 28 ) or they must va n ish .
dz
B ut _
dr '
S Z dz
Therefore
F S dr
An d from ( )
1 8 we have
dz 2e C0 01 7 2
(1 7 AO A1 7 2
A22 2 2e
Taki n g the seco n d expression and putti n g

2L 02 by we have
2 0017 1 r 2 Cl r3 d 7 °
C21? 0
By integrati o n we get
Similarly, the fi rs t exp r ession gives

A A.
A0 + A 1 °2
where a and B are constan ts .
24 0 TH E T H EORY O F T H E S TE AM T U RB I N E .
For all possible values o f 7 the c oe ffi c ie n t s of an d 8 are of the same

7 ,
2
sign The form of a body that sat isfi e s all the required condition s an d has
.
the assumed form for the s t resses is the r efore an ellip soi d of revolution .
By assig n i n g various c o n ditio n s to the c o n stants these two e q uati o n s may ,
be made to represen t the same figure .
The relation that exists betwee n the constants in ( 3 1 ) an d ( 3 2) may be

found as follows
E quatio n ( 3 1 ) correspon ds to the ordinary equation of the ellipse .
02 is therefore proportio n al to the maj or axis squared that is R 2

771 0
2 , , .
By ( 1 5 ) we have
P AO A1 7 2 A22 2
put 7. then 0, 7
2
R2 772 0 , an d
2
P 0 at R .
Therefo re 0 AO mA 0
mA C
FI G . 2 33 .
FIG . 2 34 .
01
Agai n put = the 2 — an d w e have
,
in ( 32) r O n 2 771
2
AA 0
A1 O2 +
A1 + C2 2
whe n c e -
A, o, -
0
2
We a r e n ow a p ositio n to calculate the stresses in an y given ellipsoid

in .
A p a r ticularly i n te r esting c ase arises when we make the axial stress an d

radial shear zero Ap pl yi n g the expressions for AI A2 etc the ellipsoid will
.
, ,
.
,
be found to have axes of the ratio

1 2 58 1 ( Fig . 2 3 4)
when /
2 7 t he maj or axis bei n g the axis of revol ution .
24 2 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
I n this equation state terms of 01 Then from ( 2 3 ) and ( 2 4) and

02 in .
the above equation fi n d AI and A2 in the usual

The values of the other con stan ts immediately follow an d from the n ce ,
the stresses .
Ah exam p le ( see page 244 ) will best illustrate these cal c ulati on s .
S O L UT I O N A S S U M I N G U N I F O R M S T RE S S — The follow .
ing a n alysis has been given by several writers but it is ope n to g rav e ,
s u s p ic io n
. Shears an d axial stress are n eglected but worse still the body , , ,
equation ( 6 ) c annot be satisfied .
H owever it is reprodu c ed here to show more partic ul arly to what it leads

, .
FI G 2 3 5 . . FI G 2 3 6
. .
We have the f
su r ace equation
)
2 2
d( Pz r p w 7 2:
’
Fz
dr 9
By i n tegrati n g this equ ation and putti n g F P a c o n stan t we obtain

°r2
p w
Z =Z 8
O
where Z0 is the thi ck n ess at the cen tre .
To apply this formula fi rs t determi n e the rim thi ck n ess 2 suitable for
, ,
the vanes an d ce n trifugal load theref r om The n fi n d 20 from ( 3 6) an d the

.
values of z for various values of The gene r al form is as in Fig 2 3 6 Se e . .
example on page 2 47 .
ST E R N GT H or RO TA TIN G D I S C S . 24 3
E x amp les : — The foregoing considerations will be recapitul ated by a n ow
series of examples in which certain conve n ient dime n sions are selecte d in
,
order that a direct comparison may be possible between the examples

‘
The m ain fu nction of the dis c is to carry the vanes The rim thickness .
is therefore fi rst to be determined from that local con dition that is from , ,
the weight of the vanes per u nit length of periphery an d the angular velocity .
I n the case of a fl at d is c the stress at the edge due to this external

c e n t rifu g al l o ad is s u p e rp o s ab l e by simple addition on to the stresses of
rotation in the disc itself .
Thus if p be the radial stress at d a ( Fig 2 3 7 ) due to .
the van es then the stresses an ywhere in the disc are

,
and F l p = F1 - -
This is not quite so true of other forms of disc ,
although for the usual fi at t ish section s it is n ear enough

for practical p u rposes so lon g as it c an be conceded that
P and F are n ot far wron g that is that they do not vary , ,
in some e n tirely contrary manner .
F l at DiS C Let the thickness of the disc be O23 5 feet

.
- _
°
Em 23 7
. thick ( this thi ckness was origin ally taken fro m one of the
subsequent examples ) .
( 1 ) Let the radial tra c tion be

p 1 2 x 1 06 lbs per
sq foot . .
to n s per sq i n ch ) .
1 000 per se c on d
01
p 5 00 lbs per cubic foot .
2686
°
7;
R 1 foot
7
°
= R, then P= 0 .
89
5 00 x 1 06
and AO ( 3 + 2 686 )
.
8 x 322
6 3 45 x 1 06 lbs per . sq . ft .
Therefore ( 6 3 45
7 5 45 x 1 06 lbs per . sq .
—
;
p Q
AO
8
(l
5 00 x 1 06
Therefore Fl mm , 7 5 45 x 10 6
8 x 32 2
40 39 x 1 06 lbs .
p e r sq ft . .
Fl wen tre ) P1 (ce ntre
C alculating other values at variou s radu the stresses as shown , in Fig . 2 39

by the lines 1 2 are obtai n ed
, .
244 T HE T H E ORY or T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
( 2) N ow take a little thi c ker dis c , 0 528 feet thick having an external ,
radial tra c tion of

p or Pu m , 0 4 8 x 1 06
ri lbs per sq ft . . .
The on ly differe n ce between the stresses here an d i n the previous example

is in the superposed tractio n .
The stress cur ves 3 4 Fig 2 39 are therefore parallel to

, , .
,
respec tively .
T h in F l at E ll ipso id — Take an ellipsoid where the

.
maj or axis of the elli p se is such that the m i n or axis is

05 2 8 feet thi ck an d the thi c kness at R = I is 02 3 5 feet
, ,
these two dimension s correspon ding to those of the thi c k an d

thi n fi at disc respe c tively .
We should ex p e c t the stresses in this ellipsoid (o r i n deed , ,
in an y other fi gu re that is n owhere thi n n er than O2 S5 ) °
to lie between those of the two fl at dis c s if we have the

same extern al tractio n s .
We m ay su p pose without i n trodu c i n g an y great erro r that

, ,
the ellipsoid is c omplete that its diameter is somewhat

,
greater than 2B and that the radial stress at the section

,
R = I is the same as an exter n ally applied rad ial tra c tion to

the elli p soid cut dow n to that diameter as in F ig 23 8 , . .
To fi n d the maj or axis we have in the gen eral equation to an ellipse

,
fl
e t e >
b = 0264, b2=
0006 9 7, = 01 1 7 5
° ° °
y
H e n ce 2
a = 1 2 46
°
an d a
We proceed to fi n d the constants for the stress fu n ctions

n ow .
The equation to the ellipse is also

2
200 01 7 0
2 02
Th f0 1 °
01 0 0069 7
02
89 5
61
We have
2
3 1
) p oo 3 1]
9 (1
2 544A1
° °
9 25A2 x 1 06
by subtrac tion , Cl 02
8 9 401 5 41 4 A1
°
1 O7 7 A2
°
x 10 6
Also 2
2A1 C2 202 A2 01 0
+ 1 60205 001 A, = O
2 46 TH E T H E ORY o r THE S TE AM TU R B I N E .
Al l the constan ts have now been fou n d and we , m ay proceed to fi nd the

stresses .
At
P AO A1 7 2 small qua n tity varying with 7:
x 10 6 x 106
x 1 06 lbs per sq i t
. . .
At '
7 5
P= x 1 06 lbs per sq
. . ft .
At the ce n tre
P AO small quan tity varying with z
x 1 06 .
At
F B0 B1 7
° 2
small quantity varyi n g w ith 2
x 1 06 x 1 246
°
x 1 06
2 7 4 x 1 06
°
At 7
°
=1 °
F= 3 4 °
x 1 06
At
F = 5 46 °
x 1 06
At centre
F = P = 6 07 °
x 10 6
At
Z 00 022 2
3 393 5 44 0 x 1 06 x 0 1 1 7 52
2 7 1 7 lbs . per sq ft . .
1 88 lbs . per sq i n c h .
At c entre and middle plane

,
3393
3 3 9 3 lbs . per f
q t
s . . compression
x 10 x 6 °
01 1 7 5
3 97 lbs per . sq . in c h
Thus in thi n ellipsoids Z and S are quite n egligible an d t he terms in z are ,
also always very small .
The values of P an d F are set out in Fig 2 3 9 b y the lin es 5 an d 6 . .
As befo r e assumed we m ay without materially affe c ting these stresses

, , ,
turn the disc do wn to 1 foot radius and replac e by an equal extern al

tra c tion load an d we thus have a case to c ompare directly with the fl at disc
,
-
with the 1 2 x 1 06 lbs per sq ft radial action

. . . .
R
S T EN GT H or RO TA TIN G D I S C S . 24 7
( 4) N ow take an ellipsoid hav i n g an axial thi c k n ess of 2 5 9 5 feet and a '
thi c kn ess at 1 the same as before as sho wn in Fig 2 40 . .
Then a = 1 0 05 an d the stresses work out to the values plotted in

,
Fig 2 4 1
. .
H ere 0 48 x 1 06 .
Disc s o f u n ifo rm s t re ss accordin g to form u la

( )
5 Let the rim thi ck n ess b e O2 3 5 feet as before and the axi al thic k nes s
°
,
°
052 8 feet as in the thinner ellipsoid We have .
O2 35 05 28
° °
log 5 00 x 1 06
644 F
F P = 9 58 °
x 10 6
lbs per . sq . ft .
x 10 ‘ Lb s p e r s q. .
FIG . 2 40. Fro 2 4 1 . .
( 6 ) P ut as before and O2 3 5
°
2
0
as in the thicker elli p soid
2 595 .
Then F P 3 2 3 x 1 0 lbs per sq ft

6 -
. . .
The intermediate thic knesses can now be foun d For example .
r= 5
°
25 x 500 x 1 06
°
z = 2 595 e
"
2 59 5 e
feet ‘
1 46
These two discs and their stresses are draw n in Fig 2 42 . .
N ow suppose we attempt to make the stress equal to 1 2 x 1 0“ which is ,
the rim radi al stress in the th in ellipsoid that is in the ellipsoid havi n g the , ,
same axi al and rim thicknesses as in example Then

500 x 1 00
64 4 X 1 2 X 1 06
° '
zo = 02 3 5
.
0 235
fee t— ah ab surd thi c kness .
T HE T H EORY OF THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
For a ri m stress of 0 48 x 1 0 as in the other examples the result is still

6
, ,
more absurd .
This amounts to saying ( accordi n g to that it is impossible for a disc

6—
of this shape to have as low a stress as eve 1 x
n 2 1 0 for the given condi
tion s Therefore ii by addi n g the metal of c ase 6 to that of c ase 5 we c a n not
.
, ,
2 09 5
'
3 4 5 6
K 10 3 L b s p e r s q . . f oo t
Fi e . 2 42 .
reduce the stress to some suc h distribution as in F ig 2 3 9 ( observing that ,
wit h the ex c e p tion of a very small p art near the rim the form ( 6 ) lies ,
wholly outside the small ellipsoid ) still less can we entirely reverse the order
,
of the stresses to some su c h li n e as k Ir Fig 2 42 , . .
By the adop tion of this co n cav o con vex for m it has bee n frequently asserted
-
that the stress distribution is as k k .
4 5
1 10 3 l bs p e r . e ga Fo o t:
FI G . 2 43 .
Whatever be the p arti c ular form of a c o n c avo c o n vex dis c it must after
-
, ,
all c oi n c ide ve r y n earl y if n ot exa c tly with the fo rm require d for some
, , ,
parti c ular value of a u n iform stress ac c ordi n g to formula ( 3 6)— at any rate ,
for forms as ac tually made .
F u rther c on sider the c ases of the two fl at discs the th in ellipsoid and
the thi n con cayo—
, ,
c o n vex disc .
We have the followi n g result Fig 2 43 , .

2 50 T HE T H EORY OF THE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
S uppose the hole is very small —a mere pi n hole then we may put
r =0
,
.
5
(1
H en c e F0 6 ))
7 R 2
1
1
F0 is therefore twice that for the solid dis c .
We thus see that a small flaw in the c e n tre of a solid disc may seriously
affe c t the magn it u de of the stresses .
E x amp le — Flat p erforate d d isc .
Let (0 1 000 per se co n d

p 5 00 lbs per cubic
. foot
°
26 8 6
R 1 foot
2 foot
3 10 11 12 13
‘
1 1 06 Lb s p e r sq . ft .
F IG . 2 44 .
applyi n g formulae ( 3 7) an d ( 38 ) we have

F . At = R , F = 1 0 34
r x
6
1 0 1b s p e r sq ft
. . .
At r = 7 , F =
At 7 = 6 , F=
° '
At r = 5 , F =
At r = 3 , F =
At r = 2 , F = 1 3 07
°
P
At °
7 = 7 , P = 2 98 1 06 lbs per sq ft
~
. . .
At 7 = 5 P = 4 00
°
At r = 3 , P = 3 23
°
At 7 = 2 , P= 0
°
These stresses are plotted in Fig 2 44 . .
For arbitrary se c tion s of dis c s i n cludin g thi n ellipsoids with a hole in the
, ,
middle we mus t still have the same con ditions for P

, .
From the c omparative examples given of solid disc s it m ay therefore be

“
in ferred that for all practic al purp oses we may refer for the app roximate ,
stresses in an y perforated fl at tish disc of arbit r ary form to those obtain i n g ,
withi n a fl at dis c itself worki n g und er similar con dition s

, .
For thi ck perforated dis c s of the De Laval shape t he exac t solution appears ,
ST ER N G TH OF ROT A TIN G D I S C S . 2 51
to be i n de term i n ate b u t we may be fairly c e rtai n that the ge n eral trend of

,
the maxim u m stresses is not greatly differe n t from those of the fl at and
ell ipsoidal discs .
Theo ries for thi c k sectio ns ( both solid and perforated ) have been advan c ed
that are based on me an stresses The res ults from such however m u st be
.
, ,
c onsidered delusive and u n less it be borne in mi n d th at the maxim u m stresses

, ,
may be t w ice the mea n stresses they may le ad to great da n ger

, .
I n an y cas e the salie n t feat u re is that the hoo p stress es around the hole
,
are much greater than in the solid disc .
For discs running at extreme velocities it is highl y desirable on account ,
of the uncertain factors pres e n t to make the dis c solid and to secure the shaft
, ,
to it by a fl an ge with bolts as far from the c en tre as possible

,
.
The bosses of perforated discs should never have stud holes e t c in them , .
if these can possibly be avoided There is sometimes a temptation to put a

.
number of holes in the boss for forci n g o fi p u rposes Any removal of metal -
”
that may be required for balancing the

disc should be made near the rim and ,
although it is often done it is not des irable ,
to drill holes through the disc at all I f .
the dis c is n o t su ffi c ie n t ly true for the

ad j ustmen t to be m ad e by interbalanci n g
FI G 2 45 . . several discs or by scrap ing a little off the ,
s u rface it is on ly worth condem n ing , .
S T R E S S I N A T H I N R I N G —The solution of this cas e proceeds .
immediately from the ge n eral body equatio n ( 6 )

d ( Pr) dS pw r
2 2
F+7 .
dr de 9
the ring is thi n P = 0 With a thi c k ri n g
S ince ,
. S and Z are ve ry small ,
so that with a thi n ri n g S an d Z are 0 .
2 2
”
Therefore F P
g 9
This formula is suitable for overhan gi n g rims an d shroudi n gs and for ,
drums such as are u sed in the Parsons turbi n e .
I t must not be u sed ( because of its simpli c ity) for a disc as it conveys ,
no i n formation whatever of the stresses therein .
P E R F O RAT I O N S I N S H R O U D I N G S give rise to a bendi n g

moment and shear at the sections A B and C D Fig 24 5 o n ac c o u n t of the ,
.
,
centrif ugal effe c t of the mass A B C D .
I n gen eral the shear is small and only amounts to about 2 00 to 400 lbs
, , .
per square in c h .
L O C AT I O N O F F RA C T U R E — H avi n g in vie w the highly prob .
able con dition that whatever he the form of the disc— the fo rm bein g regular
,
— the cen tre stresses are higher than the peri p heral stresses the ques tio n ,
aris es whether there is an y way of ensuri n g that the wheel shall break near
the rim i n stead of at the boss in case of u n due rac ing For the co n seque n c es .
are l iable to b e very serious w hen the whole wheel fl ie s to pie c es but n o t so ,
serious if a piece of the rim breaks o ff .
Th is des irable feature has apparently been obtai n ed with the De Laval
wheel by groovi n g down the disc j ust u n der the rim which carries the vanes .
Se e Fig 70
. .
252 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE STE AM TU RB I N E .
I n some designs a series of holes have bee n drilled all the way rou n d .
I t is stated that b y testin g to destruction an u n grooved wheel broke up

, ,
entirely perforati n g the c as t steel wheel case of 2 i n c hes thi c kness

,
.
I n the eve n t of the rim strip p i n g n o external damage is don e an d the ,
wheel is soon brought to rest b y rubbi n g agai n st the casi n g owi n g to the ,
disturbance in the balan c e .
The part played by the metal between the grooves has bee n shown to be
almost e n tirely t o c arry the trac tion load from the vanes an d in determining ,
its strength this fa c tor is su ffi c ie n t to c o n sider .
I t is therefo r e simply a matter of maki n g some lo c al se c tion at as large ,
a radius as p ossible of a thi ck n ess necessary to take the c entrifugal load from
,
the van es with an assign ed stress .
I f a factor of safety of 4 be allowed the breaking speed of the wheel is

,
twice the normal speed but the yield p oi n t will o n ly be at about 1 4 times the
,
normal speed .
I t is stated that the factor in the De Laval wheels is about 5 .
Discs that are required to rotate at extreme velo c ities should n o t be

made of rolled p late All rolled plates—steel and iron— have a streaky
.
structure an d the risk of havi n g dan gerous segmen tal plan es of weak n ess is
,
too great to afford a sen se of security I t is on the other hand most

.
, ,
importan t that the ingots from whi c h the dis c s are to be f orged shall not
have the least t race of bei n g piped For dis c s runni n g at peripheral
.
velocities n o t exceeding about 5 00 feet per min ute the use of rolled plate is ,
permissible .
2 54 THE T H E ORY o r THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
supply to impulse turbi n es has a material advan tage u n der c ertain conditions ,
but u n der others is no better than throttlin g .
S U P E R H E AT BY T H R O T T L I N G — I f no heat be lost dur ing .
the process of throttling and if the total c o n ten ts of the steam be u n altered
,
( for i n stance if n o water is art ifi c iall

, y thrown out duri n g throttli n g from
i n itially wet steam ) the i n itial total heat head H remains u naltered B ut the
, .
available head is in fact very little differen t from that available from ordin ary
steam at the thro ttled dow n pressure -
For example supp ose the steam to be throttled down from 1 6 0 lbs dry
,
.
to about 3 0 lbs an d let the exhaust or ba c k press u re be 2 lbs absolute I f

.
, . .
the steam is normally dry the maximum su perheat attainable by throttling

,
this amoun t will be 6 2 F °

.
Then we have
Available head from 1 6 0 to 2 lbs BTU . . . .
30 to 2 lbs the total heat of the 30 1b s steam bei n g .

, .
equal to that of the 1 6 0 lbs steam = 1 8 5 4 B T U .

°
. . .
an d the available head ( ii the 3 0 lbs steam is o n ly j ust dry ) 1 77 B T U . . . .
The extra heat available by

the superheat of throttli n g is
therefore o n ly or
per ce n t .
Agai n st this we have a n ozzle

or no zzles suitable for expan din g
from 1 60 to 2 lb s worki n g with .
on ly 30 lbs and the loss of n ozzle

.
,
e ffi c ie n c y is undoubtedly greate r
tha n per cent So that when .

,
throttling problems are being

con sidered the b e n e fi c ial effe c t
, ,
so far as available head goes of ,
an y superheating or dryi n g that

takes place may be ig n ored .
The above must not be c on

fused with a comparison of per
form an c e with an d without a
substantial degree of superheat
under n ormal condition s for
which the nozzles are designed .
C U R VE O F T OT A L
S T E A M CO N S U M P
T I O N — The curve given by
. Fro 246 . .
the correspondi n g loads an d total

steam consumption as absciss ae an d ordinates respecti vely is common ly kn ow n
as the Willan s line ( made familiar b y the late Peter Willan s) I t has the .
p ec uliarity of bei n g very nearly a straight line both for turbi n es an d re c ip ro

cati n g en gines whe n governed in any way and especially by throttling ,
.
There is so metimes a ten dency for the curve to be c ome less steep as it
approaches t h e n o load c on dition s but as a rule the line is practi cally
-
, , ,
straight For the p resen t discussion it will be assumed to be quite straight

.
.
Fig 2 46 is a typical diagram in which the line A B represents the to tal

consumption o f steam from n o—
.
,
load to full load -
.
I f the total con sumption be divided by the load the consumption per ,
G OVERNIN G STE AM T U RB I N E S . 2 55
indi c ated horse power brake horse power electrical horse power or per kilowatt
-
,
-
,
-
, ,
as the case may b e is obtained as show n by C D

, .
The Willan s line being straight it follows that the c ons umption at an y
,
load is determ inable solely from that at no load an d an y other o n e condition -
say full load

,
-
.
G e n erally therefore the merit of any method of gover n i n g that is of a

, ,
similar character over the whole range of loading depe n ds upon the relative
values of the full and no load con sumptions
-
.
We will now as c e rtai n the approximate no load con sumptions for the -
various types of turbines governed in a few d ifl e re n t ways '
I f the various resistan c es an d e ffi cie n c ie s were con stant from full load to -
11 0 lo ad
-
,
the total consumption per brake horse power would be given by -
a line B E ( Fig and .
the total c onsum ption per

indicated horse power ( sup -
posing it could be measured

directly ) would be A O the ,
differen ce AB = O E be ing
constant over the range .
This is pra c tically what

happens with the re c ipro
c ating engi n e and the simple
impulse turbi n e governed by

a variable admission B ut .
with the maj ority of turbines

the resistances an d diagram
e fii c ie n c
y decrease with the
load an d as they do not
necessarily c ompe n sate one
Fro 2 4 7
. . another the actual c o n su m p ,
tion line is as B F .
To fi nd 0 F in terms of X B we require to know

the disc an d van e resistance ( Z ) at full load -
the sa me at no— load ( Z ) '
0
) the diagram e ffi cie n cy at full load ( 7) -
7
( d ) the same at n o lo ad -
( e) the j ournal and other friction that is pra c tically constant ( Z 1 ) °
Also
( )
7 the q ua n tity of steam
( Q ) that can pass unit area with the full head
of pressure
( g) t he same at the conditions for no—load ( Q ) '
( h) the theoretical power ( R horse power hou rs ) available per u n it

,
- -
quantity of steam at the full head .
the same under the no load head -
From these data 0 F can be found although not by direct calculation , ,
interp olation bei n g n ecessary .
G OV E R N I N G B Y T H R O TT L I N G — G e n e ral c as e — The to tal . .
indicated horse power t hat c an be obtained with the given full load con dition is
- -
Q nR x con stant ( e)
W Z Z1
where W is the brake horse p o wer -

.
25 6 T HE T H E ORY OF THE S TE AM T U RB I N E .
At no —
load Q
'
v
'
lR
'
c Z
'
Z1
Z is practi cally co n stan t over a c on siderable range in the vi c i n ity of no

'
load an d it may therefore be found by assumi n g an i n itial p r essu r e at about

,
the expe c ted n o load pressure .
Z 1 is c on stan t an d is usuall y about 3 p e r c ent of the brake horse —

,
power . .
For a given turbine we thus k now the ratio
and we therefore kn ow the val u e of the p rodu c t Q and R are how

' '
ever interdependen t 7 is also depe n de n t on the velocity head To obtai n

, 7
'
.
the particular pressure at whi c h their product is that required select t wo or

three pressures in the vici n ity of the n o—
,
load pressure and c o n struct a c urve ,
of pressure and from whi c h the required spot may be loc ated Q .
’
is thus obtained an d the problem solved .
S im p l e I m p u l s e T u rb in e —I n this as in other cases Z is di fferent

'
,
.
,
from Z I t would be the same here if the back pressure remai n ed constan t
. .
B ut u n less the condenser be ove r whelmingly large the vacu u m improves

, ,
as the quan tity of steam passin g decreases G e n erally t he improvemen t is .
from 1 to 1 4 i n ches between full an d n o— load and Z an d Z will acc ordin gly ,
'
be differen t I n the following examples we shall assu me that the vacuum is

.
1 i n ch better at n o load than at full load - -

.
E x amp le — Take the standard De Laval wheel for 3 00 H P but at a

. . .
,
speed correspon di n g to maximum diagram e fli cie n cy when the vane losses are ,
2 0 per cent ( 778 .
Let P, be 1 60 15 4 . absolute ,
pb 77
2 at full load -
,
'
p b l at an d about n o load -
.
Then 92 an d e
l
= 3560 at 94 per c e n t nozzle . e ffi c ie n cy . H en ce
v 1 81 5 .
The mean diameter is 30 in c hes and the length of van es 1 1; in c hes .
Then ( by C hapter XII ) t he disc an d van e frictio n horse power at full load
.
- -
30 8 Z .
At no load
-
Z = 17 3
'
'
Zl 03 W 9 .
Therefore
+9
26 3
’
Z + Z, 26 3 -
W + Z + Z, 33 1
Q nR 7 8 00 x 8 5 6 x 7 5 2 50
0 794 x 7 5 2 50 5 9 75 .
2 58 TH E T H EORY OF T HE ST E AM T U RB I N E .
T A B LE XV .
Rat i o of po w e s r
Ma e n e ri p he ral v l oc i ty
A t aP
e .
c u n o z z le e v l i ty 9 4 x oc
Pr r
e ssu es
D i ty
en s ll 1 11 c e
L gth f va
en o ne s ( ave r age )
Di ta t
sc c on s n .
Va ta t
n e c on s n .
ma
Pa rti al admi i ss o n
Di sc va fri t i ne c on H P (Z )
. . .
Di ag am r e ffi c i e n cy
Also at 20 lbs pressure whi c h is in the vi c ini ty of the

.
,
no —
load pressure ,
we have
Pr essu e r
Di sc va fr i t i
ne c on H P (Z )
. .
’
The drop of pressure in each stage is greater than the c ritical drop .
The quan tity of steam that c an pass is therefore depe n den t on the
areas and i n itial p ressures .
At full —load Q 7 800 R ,
The total e ffi c ie n cy of the four stages m ay be rep resented by

7 4 x 7 6 5 = 3 06 1 :
°
.
Therefore Qc 7 8 00 x
,
x 2 6 9 3 000
W Z Z1 .
As before put Z 1 03 x W 1 5
,
°
Then 2 6 93000 5 00 2 1 5 15
,
536 5 .
At no— load must equal Z Z 1 '

15
1 8 84
°
—— — X 2 6 9 3 006 9 4 806
53 6 5
.
At 1 5 lb s the total vel o c ity head is 2 86 0 yieldi n g 1 89 2

p re s s u re ,
r 0 —1 7 7 8
. ,
( o
1 ) for the l st stage ( assumi ng p = c on stan t
) 1 900 fo r the v ,
2 n d stage an d nothing for the 3 rd and 4t h sta ges s i n c e 1 900 is p1 ac t ic ally

, ,
t he sa me as 1 8 9 2 .
G O V E RN I N G S TE AM T U RB I N E S . 2 59
The total e ffi c ie n cy 7 is therefore 2 x and this is its best

'
1
possible comparative value .
I t m ust ac tually be somewhat less than this beca u se the steam has to be ,
dragged through the 3rd an d 4t h stages .
H ence = 7 80 x 1 5 3 x 5 6 5 6 8 1 7 5
' '
Qq,
R c 0
This is lower than the required value .
At 2 5 lb s p re s s u re it is easily found that

.
,
= about 7 6 5 7 6 5 7 1 4 2 2 44
' ° °
7
7
and 1 3 00 x 2 2 4 4 x 7 0 2 04 000
C o n stru c ting a curve from these values we fi n d that the pressure at which ,
'
Qn
'
R
'
1 04 7 0 is about 1 6 4 lbs .
At 1 6 4 lbs 8 30 . .
22 2
’
Th u s Q 1 063 -
Q 7 800
T yp e I —Sin c e type 1 usually contains a large number of stages the
. ,
velocities generated are less

than the critical an d co n se ,
qu ently Q is meas u red by the

upper an d lower pressures of
any o n e stage I t will b e .
,
as before su ffi cie n tly a c curate ,
for our purpose to put p v
constant that is to assume , ,
that equal proportionate in

creases of volum e produce
equal velocities .
I t follows therefore that , ,
whatever be the i n itial pres

sure the velocities ge n erated ,
in ea c h stage will be the same ,
ex c ept that the back press ure

E 2 48 1 14 .
will be r e ached in a stage
.
more remo te from the ex

ha u st end of the turbine as the pressure decreases .
Practically there is al ways a slight d rop in these dead stages o w i n g to t h e

,
de c reasing resistance to the fl o w but it is too in sign ifi can t to materially affect ,
the problem .
The total e ffi cie n cy of the turbi n e therefore depends on the number o f

stages in effective Operatio n .
The number of stages in Operation for a low press u re p may be foun d as '
follows :
Plot a curve of progre ssion of area through the fi x e d gui des or n ozzles as ,
in Fig 2 48 . .
Le t p be the back pressure when an initial pressure p is bei n g us ed

'
, .
v’
Then the ratio of sp e c ifi c volumes is f . -
.
From the c u rve of areas fi nd where an d then c e count the

V
nu m b er of stages in use .
260 T HE T H E ORY or THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
Or the n umber may be c alculated without the assistan ce of the c urve

Let , be the sp e cifi c volume of the full i n itial pressure
v .
°
Then , x f$= 17 p the sp e c ifi c volume of the full—load steam after it has
v
V
Vb
expan ded times S up pose this o cc urs some w here in the last ( say third)
.
grou p of stages in which an e n ergy 6 3 is disposed of at full load

The energy disposed of at full or n o—load m the l st an d 2 n d groups is 91 e
— g
the en ergy equivalent to the n o load expan sion is .
leavi n g an e n ergy to be disposed of i n the 3 rd grou p o i —(e 1 .
The effe c tive number of stages i n use with the lower pressure p i s '
therefore
e ( 6 1 e2 ) x 77
3
3
3
where 773 is the n umber of stages in group 3 I f the head is less than will .
c a r ry to the 3 rd group as the case may b e the procedure is sim ilar , , .
E x am p le — Take the case of a 5 00 H P un it as before

. . . .
Let there be 3 groups of stages or c ylinders R evolution s 2 000 per .
mi n ute Then at full load we have the follow ing tabulated data
.
-
TABLE XV I .
Rati o of r
p ow e s
Ma e n p e ri h ral v l oc i ty
e
ti aqn
e
Th eore l 5c oz z e 1
A t al zzl
c u no e 77,
N m b r f tag
u e o s es
Eq u ival t m b r f tag
en nu e o s es, all
d iam t r I e e . .
E rgy pe tag ft l b
ne rs e, . s .
Pr re ssu es
S p ifi v l u m
ec c o es
R l ativ d iam t r f wh l
e e e e o ee s
A tual
c
L gt h f va
en o n es
Av rag p r r i gr up
e e e ssu e n o s
d i ty en s
d i fri t i ta t
‘
sc c on c o n s n
va ne
l adm
3
(0
Av rag parti a i i h
.
e e ss o
Di va fri ti H P ( Z )
sc ne c on . .
the vici n ity of no load the dis c an d vane fri c tion will be practically
In -
constan t over a co n siderable ran ge of pressure .

26 2 THE TH E ORY OF THE ST E AM T U RB I N E .
n
'
( equivale nt
) 1 2 3 8 2 45 9 5 2 stages .
2 84 x ( 9 5 2 x 8 5 7 ) x 6 4 20 °
1 4 90000
a value a little too large .
At 15 lb s p re s s u re ,
.
21 4 x (902 x °
85 7 ) x 5 6 50
93 200a
FI G . 2 49 .
' '
Fro m these two values it is fou n d that a pre ssure of about 1 48 lbs gives .
'
Q nR 9 1 2 00 .
With 1 48 lbs . x 7 60 2 09
I t does not follow that these various ratios of Q are invariable .
Q
I t will be observed that a very great deal depe n ds up on the wheel friction .
A given speed an d power may be very favourable to one typ e

of turbi n e an d unfavourable to an other type in this respe c t ,
an d vice versa N e v e rt he l ess the relative values of the

.
,
rat ios are generally about the same except in extreme

circumstan ces .
T yp e 4 as usually made presents a too greatly compli

, ,
c at e d p rogressio n of areas an d velocities for the problem to
ad mit of re ady arithmeti c al solution The general result is .
very mu c h the same as in type 1 and a close approximation ,
may be made by assumin g a regular progression of areas to

follo w over the stepped p rogression as ind icated in Fig 2 49 , . .
The cal c ulation m ay the n be made as i n di c ated above ,
and the value of Z will depend on the number of idle stages

'
.
Z is zero .
G O V E RN I N G B Y V A R I A B L E A D M I SS I O N .
S imp l e I m p u l se T u rb in e — For this type of turbi n e .

,
govern i n g b y varyi n g the n umber of nozzles in use is the

most p erfe c t i n dividual system it is possible to employ Fr 2 50 . o . ,
The i n itial pressure bei n g mai n t ai n ed at an y openi n g the ,
diagram e ffi c ie n cy remai n s c on sta n t at all loads an d the c o n sum p tion is ,
therefore the mi n imum possible .
W hen t he admission is con trolled by a slide valve arran gemen t as in ,
Fig 2 5 0 a slight disturban c e in the c on sum p tion variation is oc casion ed by

.
,
G OV E RNIN G STE AM T U RB I N E S . 26 3
throttli n g the nozzles as they are s u ccessively ope n ed or c losed but the mean ,
tre n d of the c ons umption remai n s unaltered .
R eg ularity is sometimes aimed at by providi n g a se pa rate valve for each

passage or series of passages whi ch is opened or c losed sudde n ly by the
govern ing apparatus but this demands abrupt—although perhaps small
,
c hanges of load which in the case of electric lighti n g often man ifest them
,
selves by a fli ck e r in the lights every time a valve opens or closes .
E x am p l e — Take the same data as in the throttlin g example

. .
At fu ll load we have
-
( 3c 3 00 22 7 9
and at n o load Q nR c 1 7 3 9
' ' '
but 7 ) an d R R 1
'
1
'
Therefore Q
Q W
as agai n st °
1 49 when throttling .
Z is stri c tly a little greater than 1 7 3 be c ause the partial admission

'
decreases with the load Bu t as the disc friction is over w helmingly grea t er
.
than the vane friction as a ge n eral rule the corre c tion may be omitted
, .
At the De Laval speed 0 = 1 37 8 ,

'
Q 0 497
Q
which agrees very well with F ig . 2 86 .
C o m p ou nd by variable admis sion

T u rb in e s, T yp e 2 .
— G'overning
is also the best method for this type of turbi n e ; and if it were able to
compete with other types at full load it w ould show an eco n omy at all -
loads superior to that of an y other compou n d type and of the reciproc ating ,
engin e as well Unfortunately the former c onditio n is far from be ing

.
reali sed .
T yp e 3 Variab l e A d m iss io n t o I st S t ag e o n ly —The d ist rib u

. .
tion of pressure on which the estim ation of the diagra m e ffi cie n cy depe n ds
, ,
may be i n vestigated approximately in two di ff eren t ways .
( a) The expan sion of the steam in the l st stage depends on the relation
between the general area of the 2 n d stage n ozzles and the l st stage n ozzles .
I f A be the n eck area of the fi rst nozzle and A be closed up to aA the ,
quantity of steam that wi ll pass in the latter condition must be aQ be cause ,
the drop of pressure is i n variably to below 5 BP °
o .
Let the sp e cifi c volumes in the stages at full load be -
2» 3,
" V V V
11 4
and v0the i n itial sp e c ifi c volume .
"
The n the ge n eral expan sio n for the l st an d 2nd stage is 1
whi c h is ,
n early though
, not quite the same as
,
K 13?
1
an d
V
4
V V
1 2
I f only aQ is passi n g , v
,
c hanges to 51
a
from whi c h we fi nd the pressure p '
,
and so on .
( b) W e have Q ApV .
2 64 T HE T H E ORY T HE S TE AM T U RB I N E
°
01 .
N ow with a , given
back pressure the maximum velo c ity that aQ can ,
Q
generate in the last ( say 4th) stage is
Zp where A4 is the outlet area of the
4 ,
’
last nozzl es Th is requires the use of a di fference of pressure

.
—
1 s a s
9
'
con sequen tly p 3 is k n own '

.
S imilarly the maxim um veloci ty that can be generated in the 3 rd stage

,
a
18 '
and so o n .
Aps3
This leaves for the 1 st stage a difference of press u re P0 where P0 is
the c on stan t initial pressure .
S trictly the shape of the nozzles only allows of an expansion equivalent to

,
P0 p , p , bei n g the full load l st stage pressure

,
-
.
The ratio of the velocities generated by Po —p , and P0 p , should be -

’
roughly equ al to the nozzle e ffi c ie n cy .
I f we assume this to be so we then take the l st stage velocity to be the

,
same as at full load Or we may assume that the whole velocity head
-
.
P0 p , is effectively generated and fi n d the correspo n di n g diagram e ffi c ie n cy

'
, ,
which will be low in c onsequence of P0 —p , being large : there is little to '
( hoose betwee n either assum ption the result being about the same , .
We have now the required data for fi n d ing the no load consumption -
.
E x am p le — Take the same ge n eral data as for the throttling e xa m ple

.
( page
Then
53 6 5-
15
1 88 4 .
Take method ( 5)
R is constan t in the expressions
an d may therefore be omitted .
At full load -
,
for stag e 4
for stage 3
an d for stage 2
26 6 T HE T H E ORY 0 8 THE STE AM T U RB I N E .
The diagram e ffi c ie n c y is now about
Q 7 8 00
” x
E 20
43 9 .
From these t wo values we fi nd that

Q "
835
16
that is the no—

,
loa d co n sumption is or 0 607 the full load consumption -
as agai n st 0 9 7 whe n throttli n g .
By method (a) the results obtained are practi c ally the same .
1
For i n stan c e put ,
10
V, 10 x
whi c h gives p 2 about 5 5 lbs i n stead of 64 lbs a difference that does not
'
. .
,
materially affe c t the total e ffi c ie n c y .
T yp e 3 V ariab l e A d miss io n t o all

.
S t ag e s — I f in addition to the fi rst nozzles the

.
, ,
2 n d 3 rd 4 t h etc stage nozzles be simulta n eously

, , , .
and p roportion ately co n trolled the light—load c on ,
sumptio n is re n dered worse and not better as is ,
often supp osed .
The dis c and vane friction remain practi c ally

c onstan t at all loads and are o n l y imp r oved a
,
little by virtue of the better va c uum obtained

when a small qua n ti ty of s t eam is passi n g Th is FI G 2 51 .
,
however o n ly ap pre ci ably affects the re mst an c e i n

. .
t he last two stages whi c h c on tribute least to the total resistance

,
.
Taking the same examp le we may p u t

W Z Z 1 5 00 2 1 5 + 1 5 53 6 5 as before
an d
At f ull load -
Qc 536 5 and
at no load -
Qc
'
35 .
Thus 9 fl 0 65 3
,
Q 5365
i n stead of 0 607 when the 1 st stage o n l y is c ontrolled .
T yp e 1 V ariab l e A d m iss io n t o I s t S t ag e — When there are

. .
man y stages as must b e the ge n eral rule a variable admission to the l st stage
, ,
c an give very little better results than throttli n g After the l st stage is .
passed the process is the same as if throttli n g had taken pla c e thereat I t is .
therefore a question as to how man y extra stages over that of complet e

‘
throttling are in use in the low pressure series -

.
G O VERN I N G STE A M TU RBIN E S . 2 67
This is ve ry approximately the ratio of the value of a l p stage to that . .
of the fi rst h p s tage I f the value is

. . as in the example on page 2 60
.
,
we thus put in only 7; of a l p stage by c on trolli n g the admission by a 1

;
cut—
.
o fi arrangeme n t I n effe c t the b e n e fi t is nil

'
.
, .
This of course only applies w hen the stages are numerou s as in the
, , ,
example Whe n there are o n ly half a doze n or so the effe c t is comparable

.
with that of type 3 ; but on the other han d u n less the turbi n e is i n tended , ,
to work under a specially low head of pressure ( as in the Rateau low

pressure turbi n es ) dis c an d vane friction re n der su ch machines almost
,
useless for ful l load economy alone — although they are proposed over and
-
ove r again .
An improvement is effected by varying the admission to all the stages in

the fi rst group This however leads to c omplicated me c hanism whi ch if
.
, , , ,
automatic will necessitate the use of a powerful relay an d may with a con
, , ,
st an tly varying load waste m ore stea m than it saves by improving the
,
economy of the turbine itself .
An improvement is also e ffected by controlling the last group when that

group co n tribute s the largest proportion of the total power as in the previous ,
example an d throttlin g the high—pressure e n d On the w hole however

, .
, ,
there is very little to be gained over throttlin g by an y arrangement of the

sort.
G O V E R N I N G BY P E R I O D I C A D M I S S I O N This method .
-
of governi n g was i n vented by Pars ons an d has bee n applied to most if n o t all , , ,
typ es of turbine that bear his name I n its ideal form it c on sists of altern ate .
periods of worki n g under the full head of pressure an d with n o steam passi n g
at all The no—
. steam intervals are zero at maximum load an d in c rease up ,
to a certai n fraction of the total period at no load the periodicity remain ing -
co n stant .
This ideal action is however very greatly mod ifi e d by pra c tical con , ,
siderations
There must of n ecessity be an appre c iable volume between the shut—
.
, ,
ofi
valve an d the fi rst row of van es and the greater this volume in proportion
to the area through the vanes the greater will be the time the pressure takes ,
to fall to the exhaust pressure For satisfactory governing the periodicity ,
of the blasts must not be too low and moreover the shut—
.
o if valve c a n not , , ,
operate suddenly The c onsequen c e is that the process is aki n to that give n
by a variable cut—
.
o ff with a simulta n eous throttling in the re c ipro c ati n g

e n gm e .
N o w unless the periodicity be very low

, ondition s at no— load p rac ti ,
t he c
cally differ but little from those obtained by plain throttli n g That this is .
so c an be shown as follows
Let the steam at full pressure be shut o ff comparatively suddenly from
the turbi n e We require to k n ow how lon g the quan tity of steam that is
.
entra p ped in the turbi n e takes to es c ap e .
O bviously the time de p e n ds o n the quan tity e n trapp ed an d the ge n eral

,
area through the turbi n e o r spe c ifi cally the fi rst ro w of vanes because the , , , ,
velo c ity generated in a stage is ap p roximately the same for any head .
Let Q l be the lbs of steam fl o win g per secon d at full load that is at the
.
-
, ,
mome n t before the valve is shut .
Let Sl be the quan tity of steam e n trapped at full press ure and let S be ,
the quantity left in the same spac e after a t ime t .
Let p , be the i n itial pressure and the pressure after a time t .

26 8 THE T H E ORY 0 8 THE STEAM TU RBI N E .
I f, for simpli c ity we assume p

, v = 0,
Then Q px c on stant
Q1 P1 x G
Then in a time dt
Therefore
an d d t
S l vl i
G
l ?
di
H ence t1 t2
but ply, 0 and C

171
SI 71
Therefore _ _
log ,
?
To take an example of the same size of turbi n e as before

Q 1 w ill be about 2 2 2 lbs per se c ond an d SI about 1h
. .
The n with p l 1 6 0 the time o c cupied when the steam

,
:
,
d r opped to 1 2 0 lbs is .
3 1 60
3 38 x 28 7 7 se c on ds
4 x 2 22
°
1 20
Also, when it has dropped to 80 lbs t = 2 34

an d 40 t = 4 68
10 t = 9 37
°
Setti n g these values out on a curve of pressure and time we have Fig .
T HE T H E ORY OF T HE STE AM T U RB I N E .
differen c e of 1 0 per c en t of the full outp ut in the resistan c es whereas the

.
,
b e n e fi t per in c h of va c uum beyo n d 2 7 in c hes does not exceed ~

5 or 6 per c ent .
The sele c tion of dime n sion s an d speeds that o ffer the best c ompromise are
purely a matter of t r ial an d error in the cal c ulati on s fo r the various details .
FI G .
—
D L aval G v r r
e o e no .
G OV E RN I N G D E V I C E S ; T H R O T T L I N G — There is p ract i .
cally no difference between the mechanism of throttli n g as applied to a turbi n e

and to the reciprocati n g en gine The varieties are of cou r se very numerous
.
, , ,
an d the throttle valve may either be co n trolled dire c tly b y a gover n or or by
FI G . 2 55 — Z o el ly
. Gove rn o r an d Val ve .
mean s of a relay A relay system is gen erally considered to be the best

.
,
parti c ularl y for large u n its .
Fig 2 5 4 illustrates the De Laval governor in whi ch the fly weights are

.
,
opposed by the spri n g .
The throttle valve is sho wn in Fig 6 7 . .
Fig 2 5 5 shows a relay arrangemen t whi c h is u sed for the Z oe lly turbine
. .
G O V ERN I N G S TEAM T U RB I N E S . 27 1
The motive fl u id for the relay pisto n 7 is a liquid ( o il or water) sup plied
°
,
and retu rned by the pipes a and b respectively The liquid is supplied
, .
from a reservoir u n der pressure created by a rotary pump driven from the
,
turbine through geari n g .
v is the relay valve an d is controlled by the w ell know n dog lever arrange
,
- -
ment show n in the fi gure Thus when the govern or speed rises the relay
.
, ,
valve lifts an d allows the relay p iston to be forc ed dow n an d the thro ttle valve
FI G .
2 56 .
FI G . 2 56 4 . Em 2 56 8
. .
T closed by a correspo n di n g amount This actio n bri n gs the relay valve to

.
mid position agai n ready for a further movement of the govern or

-
, .
For the C urtis turbine to which the cu t off method is parti c ularly useful
, ,
many elaborate devices have bee n patented i n cludi n g steam hydraulic and , , ,
ele c trical ly operated relays .
Figs 2 5 6 25 64 an d 25 68 i ll us trate the general mechan is m of an e le c t ri

.
, ,
cally c ontrolled relay system This parti c ular system must be disti n guished
.
from that system where the govern i n g i s e ffected by a variatio n of the current
of the generator driven by the tu rbine I n the present case the electrical .
27 2 T HE T H E ORY O F THE STE AM TU RBIN E .
contrivan ce is simply a mean s of c ommuni c ati n g the movement of the

pendulum govern or to the nozzle valves .
The commutator C is rotate d b y the govern or levers an d the c irc ui ts for

,
the electro magnets

-
c onsequently c losed or opened by the wipe co n tac ts
FI G 2 5 7A
. .
FIG . 2 57 B .
FI G . 25 7 .
b. When the c urrent is broken the nozzle valves

,
1) are closed . The action is
as follo w s
When the circuit of the magn et is energised it raises the secon dary or
relay valv e r an d c uts o ff the supp ly of live steam to the cylinder a At t he .
same time the exhaust port 6 is u n covered an d the steam remaining in t he

,
2 74 T HE T H E ORY OF THE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
E ach ozzle valve has a separate shield plate and each plate is set a litt l e
n ,
in advan c e of its n eighbour on the shaft so that the valves are Opened or ,
shut in seq u ence .
The crosshead of the valve is lifted or depressed by the pawls p l 192 , ,
suspended to a common shaft 3 which receives a ro c ki n g motion by means of

,
the worm gear w e cc e n tric e an d level I Then ac cordi n g to the positio n of

,
.
,
the shield p late so does either the top or the bottom p awl push its valve
,
ope n or closed For a steady p osition of the governor rod o ver several
.
recipro c ation s of the lever the steam pressure on the valve will keep it in
,
either extreme position as the case may b e , .
A h ydraulic relay system is also in c ommo n use for the C urtis turbi n e .
The prin c iple of the hydraulic cylinder and gear is much the same as
FI G 2 58A . . FIG . 2 59.
usual Fig .The piston rod rotates a ste pped c am similar to

that shown in Fig 2 5 7 and the valve stems are operated directly from
.
,
the c am .
The most elementary method and one that naturally suggests itself of , ,
effecti n g variable admission is by mean s of a slide valve on the pri n ci p le of

,
Fig 25 0 Pra c tically this is an ob j e c tionable method u n less the valve be

. .
,
kept con tinually movi n g so as to avoid stati c friction E ven then the force
, .
required to move it necessitates a very powerful relay .
tion of the same idea has been ap p lied to a large number of stages —
R ateau has pate n ted the arrangeme n t shown in Fig 25 9 and an elabora .
,
all the
fi rst group — o i an ex p erimental type 1 turbi n e built by S chultz I n the .
latte r instan c e the arran geme n t was wo r ked by a hand lever an d n ot ,
au tomati c ally .
P A R SO N S P E R I O D I C CU T O F F G E A R — There are man y -

.
varieties of this me c hanism but the general principle of all is shown in

,
Fig 2 6 0
. .
The cam lever C L is ce n tred about a beari n g X the roller at the e n d ,

G OV E RNIN G STE AM TU RBIN ES . 27 5
resting in con tact with the cam C which is arran ged to give the lever two
,
reciprocations per revolution of the oil pump shaft .
The govern or lever G L is c e n tred about a

lever and is provided with a weight W a dash pot
, ,
G D P, which is
27 6 T HE T H EORY O F T HE S TE A M T U RBIN E .
usually fi ll e d with paraffi n oil an d a spri n g G S for adj usti n g the speed of
,
the turbi n e .
The relay p iston valve is Op erated by the govern or lever as show n an d ,
receives a reciprocating motion in accorda n ce with the motion of the cam

roller .
The n e ck glan d N is allowed to leak at a su itable rate so that whe n the ,
levers are as sh o w n steam leaki n g i n to the r elay c yli n der is taken away ( this
,
steam is used in the shaft glan ds to preve n t air getting i n to the turbi n e)
through the exha ust pipe P an d does n ot drive the pisto n The double—beat,
.
valve D B V is therefore held shut by the forc e of the spri n g above the
_
relay pisto n .
Whe n the relay valve is dow n the bottom port is shut an d the leakage ,
steam drives the piston up agai n st the force of the sp r ing an d open s the
double beat valve This valve is thus ope n ed and n early if n ot quite shut
-
.
, ,
o n c e for every re c ip roc ation of the cam lever .
The govern or G operates the lever G L through the point Z an d determines ,
the position of the are through whi c h G L oscillates The relay valve there .
fore allows the bottom port to the relay cylin der to be op e n a longer or
shorter period .
The further the governor balls fl y out the longer the D B V remains ,
closed .
The relay piston sprin g is ad j ustable so as to ensure that the valve will ,
shut prop erly .
By ad j usti n g the spring G S the position of the oscillation arc is m od ifi e d

,
an d the speed of the turbine set This is of course on ly do n e when load is .

, ,
u t on for the fi rs t time or whe n o c casio n for read j ustme n t arises

p , .
The are of os c illation necessary to w ork the relay valve depe n ds upon the
size an d arran gemen t of the me c han ism I n the fi gu re the disp lacemen t of .
the levers e t c is a little e xaggerated for the sake of clearn ess

,
.
, .
G O VE R N I N G M I XE D F LOW T U R B I N E S — The
‘ ’
.
characteris t ics of these turbines are described in C hapter X VII .
FIG . 26 1 .
—Spe e d G ove rn or arr angeme n t for M i xe d fi ow -
Tu rb i n e.
( ) The low an d high p r essu r e gover n or valves are operated

Arrangeme n t a .
- -
in sequen c e and are co n trolled e n tirel y b y a variatio n of speed of the turbi n e .
F ig 2 6 1 represe n ts the arra n geme n t diagrammati c ally

. .
L is the low— p r essure gove r nor valve with a n ormal openi n g 3 02 duri n g ,
whi c h movemen t the h igh pressure governor valve H remains shut For th e
-
.
27 8 THE TH E OR Y OF TH E S TE A M R IN E
TU B
Agai n ,
suppose the supply of low pressure steam fails the piston is -
the n farthest in an d the ful c ru m is at h ; and for the same moveme n t

a s of the gover n or the high pressure valve H moves 0 1 3 1 while the low -
pressure valve is retai n ed o n its seat b y the spri n g li n k K 2 I ntermediate .
positi o n s of the pisto n result in an approp r iate mixture of the two supplies
of steam .
The pressure in A is thus not allowed to fall below about 1 3 or 1 4 lbs .
absolute assumi n g of c o u rse that there is j ust su ffi c ie n t steam maintained

,
in the pipes to c ompe n sate for conde n sation and other losses The arran ge .
ment is however o n ly i n tended to deal with short—

, ,
period fl u ct u at ion s in the
supply — in other c ases the on e or the other supply woul d be shut off at the
,
st0 p valve .
The above two illustrations are diagrammatic on ly The m echanical .
details embodyi n g the pri n c i p les may assume a variety of forms the valves ,
for instan c e would be balan c ed E x c e p t in very small sizes of turbi n e the

,
.
governor should operate the valves through a relay system — preferably by

oil p ressure —si n ce the low —pressure valves are rather large and cumbersome .
The details are matters of ordi n ary e n gi n eeri n g design

F U RT H E R P O I N T S I N G O V E RN I N G — The foregoing
.
sections deal with the various methods by which the steam supply may be
ad j usted to suit the load .
The me c han ical requirements of the govern or itself are identical with
those for the re c i p rocati n g e n gine and do not c all for special discussio n , .
The simp le spring loaded fl y ball govern or is quite satisfactory although the -
balls m ay assume various shapes — to suit special requirements — as in the

De Laval governor .
I n the generation o f electri c ity the permane n t speed variation between

full and no load should n o t exceed 4 p e r ce n t for good governi n g an d the .
,
mome n tary variation due to the full load bei n g either thrown out or in
should n ot exceed 1 0 per c ent from the n ormal I n the c ase of ge n erators . .
c ou led in parallel espe c ially alternators these amou n ts are often i n ad

p , ,
missible and 2 per c ent and about 5 per c ent respe c tively are frequently
, . .
demanded The permanent variation depe nds u pon the governor movement
.
and the lever systems whi c h must be proportion ed ac cordi n gl y The momen
, .
tary variation is more dependent upon the provision of an adequate flywhe e l

'
efi ect of the rotor system .
The governor should not be too sensitive an d as a rule far better , , ,
governi n g is effected for slight fl u ct uat ion s of load by making the fi ywhe e l ‘
'
e fi e ct of the rotor as high as p ossible

’
.
E xperien c e proves that the turbi n e is rather more se n sitive to change s -
of load than the reciprocating e n gi n e with the co n sequent te n den cy to ,
see sawi n g or hu n ti n g u n less the governor is c om paratively sluggish and

-
,
’
the fl ywhe e l e fi e c t large -

'
C onsiderable d iffi c ul ty is ofte n experie n ced in indu c i n g turbo alternators -
to run in parallel an d with the Pa r sons periodic cu t off gear and m ulti
'
, ,
valve arran geme n ts where the throttli n g between the openi n g an d shutti n g
of eac h valve is not perfectly graduated the con ditions are not the best to ,
overc ome the d iffi cu lty .
Plain throttli n g gives a more ideal c ontrol .
There ap pears to be an idea c urre n t that because the speed of the

turbine is very high the fl ywhe e l effect is necessarily very large too
,
-
.
As a general rule this is wro n g espe c ially so with c o m p aratively low speed ,
-
G OV ERN IN G S T E AM T U RBI N ES . 27 9
turbi n es where the increase of t he moment of inertia does not u sually

,
compe n sate for the reduction in speed .
The t o t i l flywhe e l effect of course includes that of the dynamo or

-
, ,
altern ator rotor .
The periodic cut o fi gear introdu c es a condition very similar to that in

-
'
the reciprocating engine but it requires quite a heavy co n struc t ion of turbine
,
rotor to give a fl yw he e l effect to meet the co n dition of su c cess ful parallel

-
ru n n ing o r in the case of isolated units of undue fl ick e r in the curre n t

, , , .
F L YW H E E L E F F E CT — Two d i fferent co n ditions require to be

-
.
met for direct current and for alternating curre n t generators respectively
- -
.
FI G 2 6 3
. .
For direct current generatio n the fl ywhe e l e ffect has to be su ffi c ie n t to

- -
keep the v loci ty variati on withi n prescribed limits for alte rnating curre n t
’
e ,
the effect has to be su ffi c ie n t to keep the d isp lacem en t of the roto r from its
proper position at any m oment within certain limits ,
.
I t is important to disti n g u ish between these two cases because the ,
velocity variation is often mistakenly applied to the latter c ase .
P e rio d ic c u t o fi arran g e m e n t or variable pressure with co n stant

‘
load —Let curve A ( F ig 2 6 3 ) represe n t the pressure oscillations at a given

,
. .
load ( as in Fig .
Without an y appreciable error this curve may be con sidered to be

proportion al to the curve of twisting moment at that load A is therefore the .
ac c e l e rat io n curve of t he rotor The v e lo c i t y variation of the roto r may

.
then be represented by curve B .
The d is p lac e me n t of the rotor fro m its m ean position will then be
represented by curve C .
2 80 THE T H E ORY OF THE S TE AM TU RBI N E .
For simpli c i ty we may con sider the form of the curves to be harmoni c since ,
the i n dicator diagram su c h as Fig 2 5 3 approximates this form very closely

,
.
, .
Let N rev o lutio n s per m in ute .
L number of p ulsatio n s per min ute .
”
0
mea n velo c ity of rotor degrees per se c o n d , .
11
1
max 1 m u m
2
22 minimum
D to tal disp laceme n t of rotor that is twi c e the dis p la c eme n t on each , ,
side of the mean position in deg rees , .
Then with a two pole alte r n ator the n umber of electri c al degrees per
-
revolution is 3 60 .
With 2p poles the n umber of ele c tri c al degrees per revol u tion is 3 6 0p .
We have now the fo llowi n g relatio n s

2”
Average veloci ty vari ati on ( for harm om c urve )
o o o
, ou c .
71
Time of one p ulsation secon ds .
D=% x g degrees when the ele c tri c al degrees per revolutio n

)
, 3 60 .
71
'
L
For 2p p oles
x p ele c tri c al degrees .
H ence
1 w DL 60
x
k 3 60N
7r DL
3 6 0N p
( )
2 must be used for direct—c urren t ma chi n es in which case the velo c ity ,
variation is sp e cifi e d ( bei n g a fu n c tion of the variation of voltage allowed ) .
l
A value for of fro m .l to L gives satisfa c tory results in practice
.
.
It 25 0 3 50
m ust be used for altern ators as may have a very di ffere n t value ,
%
than for dire c t c urre n t machines I n the c ase of alte r nators the dis placem ent
-
.
must be sp e c ifi e d (bei n g a fun c tion of the out o i—p hase allo wable ) The greater -
.
the n umbe r of poles the less must be the a c tual displac ement
, .
The maximum displacement on either side of the mean as recomme n ded

”
by the Stan dards C ommittee is 3 ele c tri c al degrees that is D should n ot

, , ,
exc eed 6 .
1 1
Thus for a 1 2 pole turbo alternator the value ot may be less than -
'
7c 1 000
,
Let E be the surplus or d e fi cit energy i n volved in any ( o r the maximum )

, ,
half pulsation ,
282 THE T H E ORY OF THE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
The kinetic e n ergy of the rotor or ,

‘
Flywheel
‘
-
e fi ec t ,
’
is an d it is
e asily shown that
11 1:
The app lication of the above inves tigation will be best followed by an
example .
B mmp le .
G ive n Nrevs per m in

2 000 . .
Lulsations per min

2 00 p .
2p 4 poles to altern ator .
M ax lo ad initial pressure 1 6 0 lbs absolute

.
,
an d the n o —
.
lo ad i n itial pressure 2 0 lbs absolute . .
S uppose the average working load to be 8 of the maxim um ( without using °
bye pass steam ) Then the mean initial pressure for this load is equal to
-
.
about 1 3 2 lbs absolute . .
60
The t ime of one pulsation 3 seconds and from the typical indicator
W)
'
diagram F ig 2 5 3 it is seen that whatever the load may b e about one half th is
, .
, ,
time is spen t in the pressure falling an d the other half in the pressure rising .
R eferring to Fig 2 6 4 an interval of l 5 secon ds allows the pressure to fall

.
,
°
from 1 60 to 1 02 lbs with the particular proportion of steam spac e s etc

.
,
.
assumed in the previous e xample I f however we allow for the c orn ers of .
, ,
the indicator diagram to be rou n ded o ff the pressure oscillation for a mean of ,
1 3 2 lbs will be about from 1 5 0 to 1 1 4 lbs as shown by d ef

. .
, .
From the line C D

1 5 0 lbs steady pres s u re will give a load of about 9 2 5 H m
. and 1 1 4 ,
lbs steady pressure will give a load of about 6 7 HP

.
N (M M , ) 2 000 x 2 5 5 m
E 2 55 inch lbs
200
m .
w DL 3 14
-
x6x 2 00
per sec .
2 000 3 6°
3 per sec
°
1 2 000 .
6
1 20 1
k v
0
12 000 3 50
He m "
wv 2
Ek 25 5 m 35o
01 66 M f0°t to“3
29 2 2x 12 x 2 24 0
HP
Si n c e M : 63 02 4 ——
N
M 3 1 5 HP for a speed of 2000 revs .
WV 2
Therefore 01 66 x 31 5
29
foot to n s p e r HPm 5 23 .
For a c onstant load with the give n con dition s the foregoin g example gives ,
the mi n imum fl ywh e e l e fi e c t necessary to e n sure ste ady run ning in parallel
-
with other un its .

0017 11 3 11 1 11 0 S T EA M T URB I N ES . 28 3
A variat io n Of lo ad has nevertheless to be provided for as it is su ch ,
variatio n s often s mall that easily throw altern ators o ut of step E specially
, , .
has this condi tion to be met in the ca se of tractio n an d similar rapidly

fl u c t u at in g loads .
The problem is practi c ally the same whether the turbine be fi t t ed with
ordinary throttle valve or w ith the periodi c gear .
Satisfactory ru nn ing is u sually obtained b y the adoption of a fl ywh e e l

e fi e c t adequate for half the load being throw n o ff or o u
’
E xa mp le Take the same data as in the previous example

-
S uppo se one—
. .
half the load to be thrown off sudden ly .
The drop of initial press ure should simultaneously fall from 1 60 to about
9 0 lbs .
I n the former example we had a constan t load with a variable in itial

pressure H ere we have the load chan ged but with the pressure practically
.
,
stationary at an d j us t after the mome n t of chan ge because in the fi rst

, , , ,
place a c han ge of speed is necess ary to m ove the governor throttle ( or

,
equivalent) an d in the second place the governor is nec e ssarily a little

, ,
s luggish in action if hunting is to be avoided

, Th us the pressure does not .
re all
y d rop from 1 60 to 90 lbs simulta n eous ly with the change of load but .
,
lags behind .
We therefore have practically speaki n g the convers e of the previ ous case
, ,
of variable pressure and co n st ant load and we can c onsequently employ the ,
same process for determi n ing the proper fi ywhe e l e fi e c t -

‘
The time required for a drop of pressu re from 1 6 0 to 90 lbs when the .
valve is shut suddenly is 2 secon ds The equivalent number of pulsations .
( ii the process were perpetuated ) is therefore
i
7
x 60 = 1 50 per m in .
H ence x 5 11 m 68 6 m ,
in c h lbs .
31 4 x6x 1 50
1 1 75
1 20 x 2
1 23 5 1
la 1 2 000 510
W ” E"
0 63 2 11 rm
217
foot tons per
-
H R H“ ,
The determination of the approximate amount of fl ywh ee l e fi e c t of the -

'
rotor system is not a matter to be ignored and there is little doubt that ,
in man y cases where ref usal to keep in parallel has given a lot of trouble
, ,
the masses have been sti n ted Although a part of the req uired fl ywhe e l~
.
e fi ec t is of c ourse included in the ge n era t or itse lf it requires a comparatively ,
heavy co n stru c tion of turbi n e rotor to provide more than about 7 5 foot tons “
-
per H P in spite of the high speed at which it rotates .
The proper place for the heavy rotatin g masses sho uld neve rtheless in , ,
the ideal case n ot be split up into two sections but should either be all in ,
the ge n erator or all in the turbine I n pra c ti c e therefore the mass whi ch .
, ,
te nds to predomi n ate should if possible be m ade to pred omi n ate still more .
2 84 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
There does not appear to be an y fi x e d rul e although it is generally c o n ceded ,
that it is more satisfa c tory for the gen era tor to contribu t e the greater
portion of the flywhe e l effect -
.
An eleme n tary roto r c on sisting of t wo large masses attac hed at some

d istan c e apart o n a small shaft is more or less easily set into torsional
osci llation by suitable disturbi n g fo r c es I f those disturbi n g forc es are .
periodi c an d by c han c e c oi n c ide in frequen c y with the n atural frequency or

,
periodi c ity of t he rotor what is k n own as a reson an t e ff e c t will take place

, ,
with a p ossible fracture of the shaft .
T O R S I O N A L O S C I LL AT I O N S O F S H A F T I N G — S uppose a .
shaft to be rigidly fi x e d at one end an d to have a heavy mass attached to

the free end .
I f we n o w twist the shaft withi n its elastic l imi t an d then sudde n ly ,
release it a torsion al os c illation will be imparted to the shaft the periodicity

, ,
of whi c h depen ds on the dimension s of the shaft an d the momen t of inertia

of the mass This is the simplest c ase
. .
N o w sup p ose we have a shaft suppo rted on beari n gs (n ot ne c essaril y at

the e n ds) whi c h has two masses atta c hed to it at some distan ce ap art The n .
if the shaft between the masses be twisted an d released torsion al oscillation s ,
will be set u p the masses bei n g in op posite p hase

,
.
We are more parti c ula r ly i n terested in the latte r case .
The os c illations j ust des c ribed are the natural or free o scillation s of the
system an d they may be i n duced in a variety of ways On e parti c ular way
, .
is to superpose an art ifi c ial or for c ed os c illation upon the system by some

suitable means—as for insta nc e the variati on of twisti n g momen t in the
, ,
re c ipro cating e n gi n e or the periodically govern ed turb ine 5 also the rapid
alternations in the load o cc asion ed by the produ c tion of an alternatin g
curren t in screw prop eller shafts the os c illation s may be readily induc e d by
the peri odi c action of the propeller blades .
I f the periodicity of the applied force differs from that of the n atural
oscillation s the system will os c illate with the forc ed periodi c ity but no harm
, ,
c an usually result ex c ept in the vi c inity of sy n c hro n ism N orm ally there .
,
fore the maxim um stress is that d u e to the maximum twisti n g mome n t

, .
I f on the other ha n d the two periodi c ities syn c hronise the am p litude of
, , ,
the os c illation will i n c r e ase u n til the shaft breaks or until equal to the ,
damp i n g e ff e c t of in tern al friction of the metal .
The dan ger still exists although in a decreasi n g degree if the art ifi cial
, ,
pe r iodicity is any aliquot p art of the n atural periodi c ity of the rotor .
The problem is therefore so to arran ge the masses and the dime n sions of
the shaft that u n der the required c on dition s of worki n g there shall be no
,
.
s c n h ro n ism betwee n the impa r ted an d the n atural oscillation s

y .
Let I be the momen t of i n ertia of the shaft se c tion about its axis .
Il W1 .
1, W.
G be the torsion al modulus of elasticity x 1 44 lbs per .
sq . ft .
)
radius of shaft
r =
l le n gth of shaft bet w een the masses
0 an gle of twist after an y time t in c ircular measure
:
f torsional stress
=
M twisti n g mome n t
all q uan tities in feet lbs se c on ds , .
,
.
28 6 T HE T H E O RY OF T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
To i n tegrate this we have

2
“
2 2 K ad a 0
?
lt
a
Ka 2
0
Whe n a c c ?
K0 ? .
2
)
H en ce
t JK (3
1
H e n ce 2 71
Although the above expression is simple it is often very d iffi c ult to gauge
,
properly the data from which to solve any particular problem The best .
way as a rule is to take two extreme con ditions that ap pear possible from
, ,
the given dimen sions of the system and it is also best when possible to fi n d
, , ,
the moments of i n ertia I 1 an d I 2 by experimen t the facilities for whi c h should ,
be at han d for balan c i n g p u rposes ( see belo w ) .
We may thus determine the p robable limits of the periodicities betwee n

which the actual periodicity will lie .
A perfectly rigid coupling in t h e shafti n g wil l not ma terially affe ct the

torsional stiffn ess of the shaft provided that it o n ly occupies a s mall po rtion
,
of the total length of the shaft A fl e x ib le coupli n g without any cushioni n g

.
arrangement also will n ot affect the problem greatly I f the oscillation s of .
the strain pass through a zero value the c oupling w ill probably c hatte r in ,
which c ase the clearan c es in the coupli n g claw or its equivalent must be a
minimum con siste n t with the fl e x ib il ity deman ded by other me c hanical
considerations .
With c ushioning arrangeme n ts — either springs or as is more common an , ,
oil fi lm— most of the forced oscillation s occurri n g in either half oi the rotor
'
system are ge n erally successfully damped out and not transmit t ed to the other
half A cushion ed fl e xib le coup li n g is apparently a satisfactory safeguard
.
agai n st fracture of the shaft by syn c hron ism although in an y case it is very
, , ,
desirable to avoid risk of this occurrence The total length of the shaft .
between the masses would of cou rse be taken as before

, ,
.
I n rigid systems to which the foregoi n g a n alysis more particularly applies

, ,
it does n ot ne c essarily follow that if the c al c ulation s i n dicat e a risk of syn

c hro n ism that the shaft should be made stiffer I f the size of the shaft .
requires to be mod ifi e d for this purpose it should be m ade smaller or larger ,
acco rdi n g to w hether the departure from the critical co n dition is greater
or less .
G OVE RNIN G S T E AM TU RBIN E S . 28 7
Provided that the shaft is amply stron g for its ordi n ary functions the ris k ,
of synchro n ism can often be qui te as easily an d safely avoided by re duci n g its
size as by increasi n g it .
The oscillation s of a shaft are undoubtedly resisted to a great de gree b y

i n ter nal friction of the metal whi c h te n ds to damp them down an d prevent ,
their amplitude i n creasin g indefi nitely if n o t dangero usly in the eve n t of , ,
syn chronis m Unfortun ate ly w e are not yet in possession of adequate

.
,
information of the laws and experimental data of this phenomen on an ,
extensive fi e ld still existing for both mathemati cal an d experimental researc h .
I n the abse n ce of this special i n formation it is advisable to arrange matte rs

so that a liberal danger zon e for synchro nism as determined above is avoided , , .
I t may be observed that the existence of intern al fri c tion lowers the period
ic ity without frictio n also t hat the natural desire to i n crease the size of a
,
shaft in order to be out of da n ger rather than to decre as e it although it m ay ,
be quite feasible certainly will increase the total of t h e internal friction and
,
the damping effect on the forced oscillations still remai n ing .
G iven I l = 7 00 foo t lbs .
I 2 6 00
r= 3
°
feet
I fro m 7 0
' ”
to 5
'
the e fTe c t iv e length bei n g u n cer tain .
GI 11 x 1 44 x 0 1 27 1
2 875 x 1 06
T( N 7 00 x 6 00
) 2
seconds 0 7 66
If n the number of natural period s per second
1
—B 05
W
C ritical forced periods may also be
2 3 4
( )
b put 1 : 5
’
0563 seconds and ,
Thus if the t u rbine drives an alternator having 50 alternations per secon d

there is little c han ce of syn c hronism oc c u rring .
S uppose on the other hand the turbi n e is fi tt e d with the Parsons periodic
, ,
governor havin g 3 pe riods per se c ond There is agai n li ttle risk of synchronism .
occ urri n g on this accou n t the nearest b ein g 8% per cent removed
, . .
The above example may therefore be co sidered safe

n
1
.
1
F tr atm t f prop l l r h afti g
or e en o E ngim i g l 7 5 f H mann t
e e m
s n ,
se e r n ,
vo .
, or er
’
s
i v tigati
n es on s .
2 88 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM T U R B IN E .
M O M E N T O F I N E R T I A O F R O T O R —The moment of inertia

.
of a turb ine or dynamo rotor may be e asily determined fro m experiment by

us i n g the pri n c iple of t h e c om p ou n d pe n dulum .
Sup p o rt the ends of the shaft o n suitable rails so that it lies ho r izo n tally ,
Fig 2 6 6 The n attach to the rotor a k n own w eight at a given distan ce from
. .
the ce n tre of the shaft the bra cket bei n g as li ght as possible so that its
, ,
weight is n egligible .
O sc illate the c ombi n ation through a small arc an d n ote the time of
oscillation .
W1 weight of r otor shaft

W2 w eight of added mass
kl radius of gyration of ro tor shaft
It ?
added mass
71: c ombi n atio n
h = distan ce f r om c e n tre to CG of combinatio n

.
T = time o f a c om p lete os c illatio n ,
an d ( W1 Wzk22
W2k2
WI W2
2
‘l
Thus kl is fou n d and then c e
,
l
the required momen t of i n ertia .
9
Variation s of the experime n t to suit other conditions will readily oc c u r to
the reader .
2 90 THE T H E ORY o r T HE S T E AM T U RB I N E .
the effective chan ge of vacuum is therefore on ly about in ch instead of an

in c h The turbi n e is n ot subj e c t to this con dition of thin gs u n less the exha u st
.
FI G . 2 67 .
—Rate of Ben e fi t p er in ch of Va
cu um (30
pipe be unduly s mall a c irc umstan ce as a rule much more easily avoid ed
, , ,
than with the engine .
FI G . 2 68 .
—To tal E fle ct of Vacuum ( 30
'
b ar.
)
In the sequel when referen c e is made to the vac uum or back pressure of
,
the reci p ro c ati n g e n gine it is to be u n derstood that the vacuu m in the e xhaus t
,
n ch is mea n t —the same as for th e turbi n e ,

S T E AM CON SU M PT ION or T U RBIN ES . 29 1
The theoretical b e n e fi t per i n ch ( say ) of vacuum obviously depe n ds u pon

the initial pressure but the differe n ce is very little for a con siderable
,
variation of initial pressure 1 0 or 1 5 lbs on either side of 1 5 0 lbs

, . .
pressure .
Figs 2 6 7 and 2 68 have been prepared from a c t ual tests of the turbi n e and
.
of the re c iprocating e n gine .
The c u rve A B gives the theoretical rate of b e n e fi t per i n ch when 1 6 0 lbs .
abs olute is the i n itial pressure .
The curve E D gives the theoretical total b e n e fi t to be obtai n ed starti n g ,
w ith a non c ondensi n g ( atmospheric back pressure ) condition

-
.
As the load decreases by throttling or by similar meth ods of govern i n g , ,
the b e n e fi t of the decrease of ba c k pressure should increase in proportion ,
beca us e the theoreti c al consumption per horse— power increases as the initial
pressure decreases Fig 269 gives . .
an example .
I t must not however be , ,
ge n erally c o n cl uded that the

highest vacuum possible is n e ce s
sarily the most eco n omical in the
long run .
The con densing apparatus is P .
notoriously most troublesome to

keep in e ffi cie n t order and for ,
r
e
the co n tinued maintenance of a p
m
2 8 or 28 § i n ch vacuu m some a
c
syste m of duplication is ad v is t
able if not absolutely necessary

,
.
b
s
The nett val u e an d cost of an

l
extremely high vacuum depe n ds

on many fac to rs z— the te mpera
ture of cooli n g w ate r and the ,
quantity required ; the c ost an d wh a m " ee v c uu .
sourc e O the cooli g water the

i n F I G 26 9 —E ff t f V u m at di li t l ad . ec o ac u
'
ere n o s,
type o f boiler ; the feed water W ti gh Pa T u bi ( B ib b i ) es n o u se rso n s r ne ns .
apparatus ; the cost of coal the

size cost an d depre c iation of the plan t ; the nature of the load e tc
, , , .
There is therefore no fi x e d rule an d each c ase must stand on its own merits , .
The ge n eral problem of most e c onomi c al vacuum is dealt with on page 3 20 .
Ac c ording to statistics compiled by M r B ibbi n s there appea rs to be an ,
average tendency for a 2 7 5 inc h va c uum to prevail With cooling towers .

,
2 7 i n ches is the pra c ti c al maximum .
The importance of mi n ute air leaks i n to the condenser and pipi n g ca n not -
be overestimat ed .
Fortu n ately the turbine has on ly two glands — sometimes onl y one — to be
,
kept va c uum tight -

.
I n the Parsons turbine it has al ready been observed that air leakage is
,
largely pre vente d by feed i n g a little steam into the glands which takes the ,
place of air that wo uld other w ise leak in This steam is co n de n sed either in .
the gland or with the exhaust steam so that little harm resul ts , .
The air that is present— m ost of it c omes over with the steam — is most
effectively pumped from the c onde n ser by a dry air pump a separate pump ,
be i n g used for the condens e d water .

2 92 THE T H E O RY 01
°
T HE S T E A M TU RBIN E .
An i n ge n ious arrangement called the v acu u m au g me nt o r has been

, ,
i n ve n ted by Parsons and is sho wn in Fig 2 70

,
. .
The air pump is placed about 3 feet below the c ondenser which is p re ,
fe rab ly tilted to an an gle as sho w n A is a small steam ej ector arranged to

.
suck nearly all the air an d residual vapour from the main conden ser and
dis c harge it to the au xiliary conde n ser C C may be quite small — about .
of the surface of the main con denser— as it only has to deal with a small
quantity of steam From the auxiliary co n denser the air an d water passes to
.
the air pump The main con densed water pipe D is bent so as to form a
.
water seal to preven t the air return ing to the con denser The difference in .
level of the pump and conde n ser allows of a difference of about 1 1 to 2 i n c hes
between the vacuum at the air pump and in the co n de n ser to the great ,
adva n tage of the p u mp he rapid elimi n ation of air from a condenser is

.
FI O . 2 70
.
—Parson s Vac u um A ugmen tor .
ve r y b e n e fi cial as it increases the e ffi c ie n cy of the cooli n g surfaces Air bei n g

, .
a bad condu c tor of heat materially retards the condensation of steam with
,
which it is mixed .
With the above device the attainment of a 2 8 inch vacu u m has been -
greatly facilitated without the great i n crease in cooli n g surface and size of
,
air pumps demanded by the ordi n ary arrangement The quan tity of live .
steam required to work the ej ector is very materially less than that required
to drive a larger air p u mp however indirectly it may be applied to that
,
purpose .
At a given temperature there is a m inimum quantity of water that will

con dense a given quantity of steam Accordi n gly the amoun t of cooli n g.
,
water is a domi n ant factor to be con sidered in lan d installations .
Fig 2 7 1 shows the average and possible minimum quan tities of water
.
required at two differen t temperatures Thus with water at 85 it will be .

°
practically i mpossible to obtain a 28 inch vacuum -

.
W ith special devi c es su c h as the vacuum augme n tor the quan tity
, ,
2 94 T HE T H EORY OF T H E S T E AM TU RBIN E .
requi red may approa c h the m i n imu m but u n der ordin ary c irc umstances the ,
average li n es give n in the fi gu re w ill be n earer the mark .
Fig 2 7 2 prepared by M r B ibbins gives the approximate relative c ost of

.
, ,
c o n densing apparatus for various degrees of vacuum I f the fi gu re errs at

*
.
all it is on the low side

,
.
30 100 NO i 20 ’3 0 14 0 50
' ( 60 170 18 0 {9 0 2 00
Pe r c e n t . of C t f A pparat f
os o us or 26 Va c uu m .
FI G . 2 72 .
—
R elati ve Co t f H igh Va um C
s o cu o nd en s n i g Pl an t ( Bibb i ns ) .
Figs 2 7 3 and 2 74 give examples of t he power expended in driving the

.
vario u s auxiliaries .
H itherto va c uum has bee n almost ex c lusively referred to in i nches

‘ ’
[5 00 L o ad K W T . 2 000 2 5 00
F1 01 2 73. .
—Pow e r C on sum pti on A iliari
of ux es . 2 000 Kwt Tu . rbin e.
La p urc -
ha se e xp i ti ( B i bb i
os on ns )
.
belo w atmosp heri c p ressu re, an d a 30 in c h

-
barometer has been the basis of
comp arison .
The reason for this is that a habit of thought has been es tablished by the
standard use of vacuum gauges readi n g from an assumed atmospheri c p ressure
o f 30 i n c hes This habit produ c es mu ch c onfusion in i n terpreti n g results of
.
°
Pap r S t am Tu rb i P w r Pl a t
e b y J R B i bb i
on e ne o e n s, . ns .
S T E AM CON S U M PT ION or T U RBIN ES . 295
trials as in so many cases the height of the baromete r which nat urally is n ot
, ,
al ways 30 inches is n o t rec orded , .
V ac u um gauges co n stan tl v in use c ann ot be relied on to half an inch either
4 00
L o ad E M P.
—R l ati
.
F1 G 2 7 4 . . e o n of Pow e rC
o nsum
p i on t of A x iliari
u es t t
to S a i on O tpu t
u .
J ohn st ow u Pa ( . Bi bb i ns )
.
way and half an inch in the vicinity of 2 8 inches ( 30 bar ) makes a lot of
, .
differen c e when comparisons are in question .
When a vac u u m of 2 4 or 2 5 in c hes whi c h is still common at sea is spoken , ,
o i it is q u ite im material to half an in c h what

,
the baromete r is or whether the gauge is ,
precisel y correct I t is tru e that corrections

.
and calibrations can be made b u t this is a ,
poor way out of the d iffi c ul ty I n t u rbine .
practice espe c iall y where a vacuum is de ,
m an d ed that approaches so c losely to a

perfect vacu um it is highly desirable that
,
the back press u re be spoken of as an absolu te

p ressu r e .
N ow there is no di ffi cul ty whatever in

,
measurin g the absolute pressure in the ex

ha us t pi p e or condenser The very simple .
barometer as ill ustrated in Fig 2 7 5 is all

,
.
,
that is required and by it the ab solute ,
pressure is measured in i n c hes of m ercury

by the d ifference of level q u ite i n dependently ,
of the press u re of the atmosphere .
The readings of this barometer are also

indepe n dent of the altitude ( exce p t in as far
as this may ca us e the for c e of gravi t atio n to Fm 2 7 5 —A b l t Pr ur so u e es s e
vary — a prac ti cally n egligible quantity)
. .
Bar m t r . o e e .
The absolute pressure baromete r is therefore

st rongly recommended in all cases I t saves much tro uble and only cos ts a . ,
few sh ill ings .
C are however mus t be take n not violently to disturb the c ol um n o f

, ,
29 6 T HE T H E ORY OF THE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
merc ury by openi n g and sh u tti n g c o cks suddenly as in this case the column ,
is liable to break an d to allow a bubble of air or water vapour to get into the
vacuum side when it becomes n e c essary to boil it clean again
,
.
I t is not n ecessary as a ru le for the colum n to be the full 3 0 inches lon g 8 or

, , ,
1 0 in c hes bei n g quite lo n g enough for ordin ary purposes

°
For u se parti c ularly .
,
at high altitudes u n der n on co n densing con ditions a lon ger barometer is n e c e s

,
-
sary I t is perhaps unnecessary to remark that a non condensing condition

.
-
at a high altitude differs vastly from a n on co n de n si n g con dition at sea—level -

.
The i n creased use of this apparatus in steam trials of both turbi n es an d

re c iprocati n g engi n es is much to be desire d as with it would come the proper ,
habit of thi n king of a back press ure as su c h without referen c e to di fferential

readings from a variable base the atmospheric pressure ,
.
To speak of a so and so per c ent vacuum a c ommo n method on the

‘ - -
.
,
’
co n tin e n t an d copied to an exten t in this cou n try is even more misleadi n g

, ,
than va c uum in i n ches (or A 907 va c uum with a 2 8 i n ch barometer

’
)
is quite diff ere n t from a 9 02 vacuum with a 30 i n ch barometer M oreover

3
.
,
a per c en tage of an invisible c olumn of mercury demands an u n n ecessary

men tal c al c ulation as to its sign ifi can ce .
Further i n formation on the effe c t of vacuum will be given u n der the

headi n g Therm o— d yn amic e fii cie n cy page 3 1 4 ,
’
.
T H E E FF E C T O F S U P E R H E AT I N G —The value of super .
heated steam in i n c reasi n g the econ omy of the turbi n e is the same as in the
case of the re c ipro c ati n g engine There appears n evertheless as has been .
, ,
previ ously stated to be a te n den cy for the rate of b e n e fi t to fall ofi more

,
‘
rapidly than is the case with the engine .
The evide n c e on whi c h this statemen t is based is somewhat scanty and ,
applies pri n c i p ally to the Parson s turbine I t does n ot therefore n e c essarily .

, ,
follow that with other types that exist or may be arran ged the effect will be
pre c isely the same .
The b e n e fi cial a c tion of superheat has been gen erally supposed to be

m ainly due to me c han i c al rather than thermal c onsideration s .
E n trained moisture in the steam has been proved to give rise to co n sider
able friction and therefore the longer the steam takes to arrive at the dry
,
saturated conditio n duri n g its ex p an sion the better .
I f we re c ogn ise that the sp e c ifi c heat of superheated steam is much greater

than the formerly adopted val u e 4 8 it will be fou n d that unless the normal ,
‘
, ,
c o n sum p tion be very high the b e n e fi t arisi n g from superheating approximates

,
very closely to that obtai n able theoretically .
A glan c e at F ig 2 7 6 will make this appare n t

. .
The two theoretical c urves have been based on the sp e cifi c h eat data of
C hapter XIII A little variation from the sp e c ifi c heats thus obtained will not
.
alter the in cli n ation of the curves very much but if 48 be take n a compara ,
°
t iv e ly flat curve ( see dotted line ) is obtained ( S e e Preface to se c o n d editio n ) . .
I t is mu c h to be regretted that there is not a greater con sisten cy betwee n

t h e various turbine results plotted in the fi gu re The fact of the vac uum not .
being the same throughout has of co u rse somethi n g to do with it ; but , ,
ac c ep ti n g the ge n eral results en m asse the te n dency appears to be for them ,
to follow the theoretical i n c lination .
( I n Fig
. 2 7 6 the a c tual steam co n sum ptio n s are re c orded without a n
y
c orrectio n s b
( y the author) for the various vacua I n the compan ion fi gs .
,
2 7 7 an d 2 7 8 th e steam con sumption s are corre c ted to 1 an d to 2 lbs ba c k

,
.
pressure respe c tively in a c corda n c e with F ig

, .
298 T HE T H EORY 01
°
T HE S l EAM 1 0 11 13111 11
‘
.
reheating the steam at vario us i n termediate parts of the t u rbine I n ge n eral .
they are however too com p li c ated for e ffi c ie n t and regul ar service an d the
, , ,
b e n e fi t in eco n omy derived from their us e is chi e fly apparent whe n new .
S upe rh e at d e gre e s F
FI G 2 71
.
—Effec t o f Su pe rh eat . 2 8 in c h Va
es c uu m . S t
e am C o n su mp ti on c o rrect d
e
ac co r i
d ng to C rv 0
u e ,
Fig 2 6 7
. .
Un lesssu perheaters an d reheaters are of the simplest possible c hara c ter they ,
are apt to become a n uisan ce .
As in the case of a high vacuum it does not n e c essarily follow that

, ,
because the steam c onsumption m ay c on ti n ue to im p rove with as mu c h

superheat as can be given to adopt a very high superheat is the m ost
,
S T E AM CON SU M PT ION 01
°
1 0 1 13111 1 3 . 29 9
eco n omical arra n ge me n t The coal co n sumptio n an d upkeep of the apparat us

.
are the determ ining fa c tors .
G e n erally the most econo mical arra n gement is for the superheaters to be
,
FI G . 278 —Eff t ec of S upe rh at e . C on su m p ti on s c o rrec t d t

e o 2 6 in c h Vac uum ( 30
es
"
bar
.
)
acc o rdi ng t o Cur v e 0, Fig 2 6 7
. .
se lf co n ta ined with the bo iler and not to be separately fi re d The ability to

-
,
.
do this depe n ds prin c ip ally upo n the size of the pl ant an d the ki n d of coal
available For small install ations the re is little question that separately fi red
.
°
superheaters do not pay exce pt u nder very skilful manageme n t of labo ur and
,
plan t .
3 00 T HE T H E ORY OF THE S TE AM TU R B IN E
M essrs B abcock dz Wilcox state that the evapo r ative e ffi cie n cie s of their
boilers are approximately as follows
Boiler with inte gral superheater 75
B oiler together with separately fi re d superhe a ter 5 0 to 60
Boiler without superheate r 73
This gives a maximum e ffi cie n cy for the sep arately fi re d superheater of

about 2 5 7 only (assuming that the boilers make dry saturated steam and
, ,
superheaters on ly do superheating G enerally the superheaters will have to .
do a little dryi n g as well ) .
I n tegral superheaters limit the superheat to about 300 F as a maximum °

.
,
the average bei n g about 1 00 to whi c h a c cordi n g to statistics app e ars to °
, ,
be the most prevalent range of superheati n g The separately fi red super .
heater is c ap able of givi n g 5 00 or more degrees ( F ) of superheat . .
The e ffi c ie n cie s given above are p ri ma facie agai n st the adoption of the , ,
separately fired superheater N e v e rthe le ss as a much higher superheat is at .

,
com mand and as slack an d refuse c oal c an apparently be more readily u sed
,
for the superheater than for the boilers the coal costs for separating fi rin g ,
may be made to app roac h those when the inte gral superhea ter is used and ,
under ex c e p tion ally favourable circ umsta n c es may be lower .
The followi n g example will give a rough idea of how the c oal costs may be
varied .
For a 3 000 Kwt unit m ai n tained at or about fu ll load for fairly long .
,
periods the followi n g table may be dra wn up

,
T AB LE XVI ] .
Supe rh at d Steam
e e .
Sa t rated
u
S t am
e ,
2OO F
0 0
4 00 F
w i th tou 2 00 F
°
,
r at l y
Sep arat ely Se p a
.
e
Su p e rheate r In t g a1
.
Sup e
e
e
r
F i r d F i r d
rh at r Su erh ate r Su e rh ater
e s
.
e e
e s
p p e s. .
A pp r x t am o mp ti
. s e
p c on su on er
h r ( lb p kwt
ou s . er .
T tal team p h u r ( 1b )
o s er o s.
Th r ti al vap rativ val

eo e c f e o e ue o
co a1 lb f w at r p
, 1b sf . o e er . o
al fr m a d at 2 1 2
°
co o n
E ffi i n y f b il r
c e c t o o e s er c e n .
E ffi ic e nc
y f p r ate r p o su e e s e1
c en t .
Lbs f w at r vap rat d p 1h

. o e e o e er .
o f al co
d p r
.
Lb s f t am
. o p rh ate s e su e e e
lb f al . o co
C al p h r b il r
o er ou ,
o e s
p rh ate r su e e
C t f al b il r
os o co o e s . £3 5 5 5 £3 3 7 2
p rh at r h ) su e e e s rs .
T tal o £3 555 £3 3 7 2 £3 7 8 4 £43 7 8

T HE T H E ORY OF ST E AM TU RBIN E .
or t om
Cos c lo t h
e t er
T h rm
e om e e t r F i tti n
gs .
FI G 2 7 9
. .
—A Righ t Way . FI G . 2 80 —Th e Wr on g Way .
Fig 2 80
. r pr t a v ry mm n m th d f appl yi g a th rm m t r t
e e se n s e co o e o o n e o e e t
o a s e am
pi pe or v l I t m y easil y giv a rr r f 5 0 d gr
esse . a e m r l w r
n e o o e ee s o r o e o i
e ad n .
g
S T E A M CON SU MPTI ON 01 TU RB I NE S . 3 03
Figs 2 7 9 and 2 80 illus trate a right an d a wrong way of fi t t ing a

.
therm o meter to a steam pipe or chamber .
There are two other ki n ds o f thermome ter tha t are ap p licable to the every
day measureme n t of superheat — the merc u ry thermometer in whi ch the bul b ,
is of metal an d the ex p ansive forc e of the mercury is ca us ed to operate a

pointer and the electric resistance thermomete r Both these instrumen ts
,
.
have been greatly improv e d during the last few years and they can n ow be ,
relied upon if n o t abused ,

.
They are as a rule m u ch more conveni ent than the glass mercury ther
, ,
-
m o m e t e r as the dial or recorder can be placed a long way from the source of
,
heat.
The Steinle steel mercury thermometer for i n stance c an operate its dial
-
, ,
poi n ter a c curately at d istan c es up to 5 0 yards and the ele c tric resistan ce ,
thermomete r with the Whipple or C allender re cording apparatus ( made by

,
the Cambridge Sc ie n tifi c I n strument can register ac c u rately a mile away

from the sour c e of heat The remarks as to fi tt in g the ordinary thermometers
.
to the steam pipes etc apply with equal force to these more elaborate in st ru
, .
ments I t is qui te an easy matter to m ake the m register anything but the
.
corre c t temperature of the steam .
H avi n g arra n ged the thermometer fi t t in gs to give reliable readin gs it ,
app e ars very desirable that wherever possible s t eam cons umption trials , ,
shoul d be made with superheated steam and not with dry saturated steam or
with dry steam
‘
.
’
A very great di ff ere n ce is made with a few fractions of wetness so that it ,
is reason able to take dry steam tests with some dryer ( not separator in u se ,
but to prevent the abuse of this conve n tion a thermometer fi t tin g standard ised
on the above li n es is a desideratum As no such stan dard is in general use .
,
the maj ority of dry steam results p ublished are to be suspected ’

.
I t is therefore mu c h better to have a thorough superheat condition ,
instead of attempti n g to be exactly on the borderland between the two

con dition s one of whi c h the thermometer is i n capable of meas u ring at all
,
.
Four or fi ve degrees are not en ough to allow for oscillations of appare n tly
steady load vacuum pressure an d superheat The saturation te mperature
, , ,
.
should not be approached withi n 1 5 degrees F at least if the trial is to be of .

,
any c omparative value 25 degrees F is a s u itable starting —

. poi n t for a .
series of trials .
The dry steam consumptio n can be estimated far more ac curately from
t w o or three careful su p erheat trials by simply prolongi n g the c o n sumption
curve set out on a superheat bas is ( as Fig 2 7 6) than it can be by direct .
measuremen t
[TAB L ES .
TH E T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
THE T H E ORY OF THE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
S T E AM CON SU M PT ION OF T U RBIN ES . 3 07
.
D U H
3 08 TH E T H E ORY 01
°
T HE S T E AM T U RB I N E .
G E N E R A L S T EA M C O N S U M P T I O N S —I n Figs 2 8 1 to 28 7 . .
are plotted various steam consumptions of turbi n es that have be en p ublished
FI G 2 81
. .
—
S te am C on sump t i o n s
. Pa r
rb i wi th 2 7 in h Vac um 0 p rh at
so n s Tu n es -
c u .
°
su e e .
fro m time to time Tables X V I I I X IX give the full load consumptions of

. .
, .
tu rbi n es an d recipro c ating engines of variou s sizes The fi gu re s h ave be en .

31 0 THE T H E ORY 01 T HE S T EAM T U RB I N E .
of even similar size but it must be borne in mi n d that it is exceedi n gly di th

,
ult to run an y t wo series of trials o n di fferen t ma c hines and in differen t
Laa d
FI G 2 83
. .
—Steam C o n sump ti on s . Par s on s T ui bin es w i th 28 -
i nch Vacuum
an d
°
7 0 to 9 0
°
su
pe rh at
e .
places u n der p r ec isely the same c on dition s S o tha t —

e x c ludi n g the perso n al
.
elemen t — w he n various allowan c es an d c orre c tion s have been made for a

S TEA M CON S U M PT ION OF T U RBIN ES .
31 2 THE T H E ORY OF THE S T E AM T U R B I N E
.
di fferent vacuum 0 1 ba c k pressure superheat i n itial p ressure i n conve n ient

°
, , ,
e e d the w a
3
the water is m easured e ffi cie n c of e n e rator and a fe w other
2 ,
F1 0 . 2 85 C.
—S te am
mp t i Rat a a d Z lly T rb i
o n su on s. e u n oe u n e s.
minor items it is probable that the results would sho w a c loser harmony A
,
.
similar chaoti c condition obtains for reciprocati n g en gine trials M at t ers are .
,
314 THE TH E ORY 01 1 11 1: S T E AM T U R B I N E .
nevertheless showi n g sig n s of improvement —mostl y as the result of com

,
m e rc ial competition .
I n the p rese n t diagrams ( ex c ept Figs 2 7 7 and 2 7 8) no c orre c tion s of an y .
kind have been made b y the author I n some c ases where a nomi n al over .
,
20 25 30
Brake Hors e Po we r
FI G 2 8 7
. .
—Steam C on su m p t i on of 50 H P De . . Laval Turb i ne .
( M or l ey E ngi n ee ri ng
, , De c 29 ,.
The t ot a l t am l i
s e n es h av b e e e n ad d e d b y t he au th r i rd r t i d i at th appr ximate
o n o e o n c e e o
r l ati f t h
e on o e c o n su mp ti on s at n o ~
l oad an d f ll l ad a i th th r d i agram
u -
o s n e o e s .
load has been performed without the use of any bye pass arran gemen ts this -
has bee n plotted as the f ull or maximum load the lighter loads bei n g pro ,
portion ed accordin gly— otherwise it would te n d to give a false i n di c ation of

the relative no—load con sumption when that is obtai n ed b y extrap olation .
A pe rusal of tabulated results of trials and of

individual curves of c onsumption does n o t c onvey
very mu c h i n formation as to the relative perfor m
an oes of the machi n es on accou n t of the number of
va r iables present the most importan t bei n g initial ,
pressure back p ressure and quality of steam M uch, , .
more information is con veyed by c omparing the

thermo— dynamic e ffi cie n c ie s for by this mean s arbi ,
t rary c orre c tions are n o t required .
T H E R M O DY N A M I C E F F I C I E N C Y -
A N D E FF I C I E N C Y R AT I O — The term -
thermo—
.
FI G 2 88
. . d yn ami c e ffi c ie n cy m ay be used for several
e ffi c ie n c ie s depe n di n g u o n what is co n sidered to be
p
the datum I n the c ase of the steam e n gine t he absolute datum generally
.
adopted is the total heat of the steam mi n us the heat of the water of
‘ ’
c o n de n satio n —a datum that

p ossesses an eleme n t of arbitrari n ess .
R eferri n g to the tem p erature e n trop y diagram Fig 2 8 8 the heat supplied
-
, .
,
A B C D The therm o dy n amic e ffi c ie n cy is then

.
-
Work do n e
S T E AM CON S U M PTIO N 01
°
T U RB I N ES . 31 5
The work done by an ideal engi n e or t urbine with steam expanding

adiabati c ally between t wo lim its of temperature is A + B ( the Rankine
C la usius c yc le ) .
The thermo dyna m ic e ffi c ie nc y of the ideal engine referred to the accepted

-
datu m is then
The e ffi c ie n c
y of the act ual engine referred to the ideal engine is
and this is equal to
Work do n e
When the work done is that corresponding to the this ratio of

e ffi c ie n c ie s is at the instance of the known as the e tfi c ie n cy ‘
,
ratio I t is after all the true thermo dynamic e ffi c ie n cy of an engi n e

.
’
, ,
-
referred to the total available heat prescribed for it The quantity of heat .
available by adiabatic expansion from the pres c ribed upper and lower limits
of te m perature and pressure is with rare exceptions the only practical datum , ,
for co mparati ve purposes since intermediate reheaters and isothermal ,
expansion devices are of rare application to the tu rbine *

.
The e fli c ie n cy—ratio is then

W ork done per of steam lb .
Work available per 1b . from complete adiabatic expansion

Theoretical consumption per I H P ( o r equivale n t ) . . .
Actual consumption per I H P . . .
The sym bol u sed will be T ] 7 .
The theoreti c al c on sumption is obtained from the pressure and temperature

conditions and may be found by the thermod ynamic formul ae
, etc .
,
C hapter II I or by Diagram A
.
, .
The turbine however is at a disadvantage in that the equivale n t I H P

, , ,
. . .
can only be very indirectly esti mated from a knowledge of the general
internal resistan c es .
The power of a t u rbine can only be ascertained practically by the brake

( sometimes indirectly by a torsion meter ) or ele c tric generator as the c ase ’
,
may b e
The electrical horse power is less than the brake horse—
.
power by the
-
amount of the generator e ffi c ie n cy an d it is therefore ne c essary to disti n guish ,
between the two cases .
rti l arl y a th r a v ral ki d

Pa cu s e e re se e n s o f e ffi c i e n c y an d p rati
e c u li a t o u
os i n e ma e s,r t rb tt r
t h au th r m h p r f r t h t r m th rm o d yn ami c e tii c ie n c y, as se d in th e fi rs t ed i i o n ,
u t
’
e o uc e e s e e e -
i t d f fli i y rati
ns e a o e b t i d f r
c enc -
o u n e e e n ce to t h e sourc e o f t he l a e e m an d t he tt r t r
ac f t
th at d uri g t h la t f w ar i r m ta hv
a e l ed t o a m o e r fr
eq ue n use o f t he q an i y, t u tt
i tan r vi d Th
n e s e e s c cu s n c es
t h te x t h a b e sec o nd w o d r r t b
h as e e n om i e d i n pl ac es tt
‘ ’
e s ee n su e se . a io
w h e r t he c
e tex t ad mi t no mi s d rsta
on s un e n din g .
316 1 11 11 T H E ORY 01 1 11 11 S T E AM T U RB I N E .
The ter m B rak e —

e ffi c ie n cy -
rat io may be used for
Theoretical consum p tion per I H P . . .
Ac tual consumptio n per B H P . . .
or the equivalent inversion as in ,
The symbol used will be ET 7 1 .
The term E le c t ric e ffi c ie n cy - -

rat io may be used for
Theoretical c on sum ption per I H P . . .
Actual co n sumptio n per E H F . . .
( ele c trical horse power ) -
(1 ele c trical horse power kilowatts) = 7 46 °
Th e symbol used will E Tq .
The T and of the various examples are give n in Tables X V III

E T e ffi cie n c ie s .
an d XIX and plotted in Figs 2 89 and 2 90

.
, . .
The T e ffi c ie n cie s of the turbines themselves have bee n obtained by

assuming the mechanical e ffi c ie n cy and the ge n erator e ffi c ie n cy
T he assumed combi n ed e ffi c ie n cy given in the table is on the

liberal side but probabl y not far wrong
, .
For comparative purposes in the ge n eration of electri city it is best to

refer to the E T e ffi c ie n cy si n ce the over all e ffi c ie n cy at dy n amo termi n als
,
-
is the feature of c hief commercial importan c e .
From the table and Fig 2 89 it will be seen that an ET e ffi c ie n cy of more

.
than 5 8 per cent is a rarity at present except for large u n its I t is on ly in

. .
moderately large un its from about 1 5 00 kilowatts upwards that the e ffi c ie n cy

, ,
approximate s that of the recipro c ati n g engin e .
There are o n e or two isolated cases in whi c h the e ffi c ie n cy appears to be

conspi c uously high but in the face of at least an equal n u mber of all types
,
that are j ust as c onspicuousl y low we should be guided rather by the average ,
thus dis c oun ti n g very abnormal cases whe n determi n ing the relative positions
of the turbi n e an d re c iprocati n g e n gine .
N ow these e ffi c ie n cie s ( Fig 289 ) are for the most part attai n ed in the
.
turbine by the u se of an absolute back pressure of 1 to 1 lh lower than .
that us ed by the recipro c ati n g engi n e We therefore require to know .
t h what bac k pressure the turbi n e gives the same average e ffi c ie n cy

as the recipro cati n g engine but without having to make more or less
,
arbitrary c orre c tion s .

’
Fig 2 90 has been plotted with this ob j e c t in view

. .
The average e fli c ie n cy ratio of the n on c o n de n sing engi n e is k n own to

'
- -
be about 1 5 to 20 per cent higher than of the co n den sing engi n e and this is
.
,
attributed mainly to the relatively more comple te expansion effe c ted in the
former case .
The turbi n e does not present this marked differen ce in e ffi c ie n cy as might ,
be expe c ted although there is n aturally a falli n g o ff in the fe w s p ecial cases

,
where serial readi n gs have been taken on ac c ount of the progression of areas ,
being u n suitable for a variety of p ressure differe n ces A further falli n g o ff .

31 8 1 11 1: T H E ORY 01 T HE S T E AM T U RB I N E .
FI G . 29 0 —Effi c ie n c
y o f Tu rb i n e s an d E ngin e s
.
S T EA M CON S U M PTION 01 T U RB I N E S . 31 9
is to be expected with turbines havi n g the Parsons periodic govern or since ,
with the same i n itial pressure the duration of the puffs becomes less as the
ba c k pressure decreases thus allowing temperature os c illations and c onsequ en t
,
initial con de n satio n to i n crease .
Fig 2 90 exhibits the variation of E T e ffi c ie n cy of the turbine and

.
of the re c iprocating engine for the range 1 to 1 5 lbs absolute back .
pressure .
The method adopted is that of co n stru c ti n g an average curve from as

many published results as can be obtained an d thus avoiding any discussion ,
as to why some are exception al in either direction .
I t will be seen that the reciprocating engine zone lies e n tirely above the
turbi n e zon e in the non condensing vicinity and the average curves only j ust
-
i n tersect at about 1 1 to 1 1h pressure ( 2 7 to 2 8 inches va c uum ) . .
S ince then the e ffi c ie n cy of the turbi n e remains very nearly the same
, ,
( refer also to low pressure turbines N o 8 9 etc ) whate ver be the pressure
-
,
.
, .
range and that with full expansion the reciprocating engi n e is superior to
,
the extent of 1 5 to 20 per cent it follows that on .

,
the whole t he t u rbin e is at p re se n t an in fe rio r

h e at e ng in e .
Furthermore we m ay co n clude that were it not

,
for the fact that the e ffi c ie n cy of the re c iprocating .
engi n e degen erates with a decrease in the back pres

sure owi n g to a practical (but not essen tial ) disability ,
t he turbine wo ul d have had a far greater struggle to

fi n d a place in e n gin e e rin g which like ma n y other h
thi n gs is somewhat sub j ect to the dictates of fashion

, .
The struggle has been m o d ifi e d by the concessio n of

an extra expe n sive co n densi n g equ ipment and by an
appeal to the market with a comparatively low i n itial
outlay for the turbo— plant The former requires .
favourable condition s for it to pay for itself the lf m 2 9 1 , ,
nett fi n an cial result of the latter depe n ds on that of

the former and man y other items s u ch as repairs maintenance of plant , , ,
economy etc , .
H o wever the fact that the e ffi c ie n cy of an e n gine is better than that of

,
a t u r bine with an y other tha n the lowest back pressure and that the turbine ,
e ffi c ie n c
y should be higher with the lower ranges of pressure enables the ,
e ffi c ie n c y of the engi n e an d turbine combi n ation ( F ig 2 9 1 ) to be higher t han .
that of either unit worki n g with the complete pressure range The combina .
tion arrangement is discussed further in C hapter X V II The an tagonistic .
position of the engine and turbi n e in practi c e is therefore greatly m ollifi e d ,
and both prime movers are within limits necessary to one a n other to produce, ,
the highest e c onomy .
The probability of the e ffi cie n c y of a turbi n e attai n i n g that in the high
pressure cyli n der of an e n gi n e particularly u n der a moderate superheat ( say , ,
1 00 to 200 degrees is extremely remote For i n stance the average T ; of .

, 1
a number of examples is as follows

H P c ylinder . .
I P
. .
L P .
the e n gines worki n g with atmospheric back pressu re .

3 20 THE 1 11 1 01 1 01 1 11 1: S T E AM T U RB I N E .
With engines suitably desig n ed for assigned ratio of expansion the best an ,
i n termediate pressure between engi n e and turbi n e might appear to be con

sid e rab ly above atmospheric On the other han d the e fii c ie n cy ratio of a
.
,
-
turbine desig n ed with adequate areas in its latter stages should increase ,
withi n limits w ith a de c rease in initial pressure be c ause the various

, ,
pri n cipal losses ( ex c epti n g the fri c tion of e n trai n ed water ) decrease with
the pressure There are comparatively very few pre c ise tests of low
.
pressure turbi n es extan t probably o n a c c ount of the great d iffi c ulty in ,
providi n g large quan tities of low pressure steam of a k n own an d appro -
p riat e quality ; so that it is rather d iffi c u l t to arrive at a general concl u sio n
from practice .
I n an y c ase the best i n termediate pressure depends very mu c h on the

,
relative e ffi c ie n cie s and structural peculiarities of the u n its to be c ombi n ed ,
but the best pressure will as a rule lie between 1 5 an d 3 0 lbs absolute , , . .
Atmospheri c p ressure has many co n ve n iences in the a c tual worki n g of com

b in ed plan t an d there is therefore a strong te n de n cy to adopt it as a matter
,
of c ourse .
E ven in the turbine it is d iffi c u lt if not impossible to provide ade , ,
quate area in the last two or three stages when the back pressure is
lower than about 1 1 1b absolute the resul t bei n g that the e fiic ien cy—ratio
.
,
of the low p ressure turbine falls as the back pressure decreases below
-
this value .
The over all e ffi cie n c ie s of the c ombination data tabulated on page 3 30 are
'
plotted in Fig 29 0 on the li n e C C . .
T H E E C O N O M I C S O F C O N D E N S I N G — On e of the most .
important factors in the fi n an cial problem about to be outlined is the load ‘
fa c to r .
’
T he L o ad F ac t o r of a power plant or an y u n it of it is the ratio of the , ,
average output to the maximum .
Thus if in an electrical i n stallation

,
M maximum kilowatt output and ,
K = to t al output in 71 hours ,
t h e load factor for that period is

K
M?
This is commonly expressed as a percentage .
Thus the load fa c tor K x 1 00

Mn
The period usually take n is a year and the load factor ,
Total u n its generated x 1 00
The load factor must not be confused with a partial load condition of
worki n g at an y momen t su c h as load which is known as the W o rk i ng
, ,
‘
l o ad Where as in a lighting station the daily cycle is a regu lar rise an d

.
’
, ,
fall of load it m ay be possible to arrange a set of ge n erating u n its so that

,
each unit may for the tim e it is runn ing work nearly fully loaded and at
, ,
highest econ omy .
On the other han d where there are large fl u ct u at io n s in the load , ,

32 2 T HE T H E ORY 01 1 11 1 . S T E AM T U RBIN E .
B3 0 k I no h es
Co n d e n sm g Pl an t Rate O f I n c r ease
P V
2
0
C tlC t Di tt o at
30 811 ?
1
api a os
pe r 2 1b ( or 1
(
. '
25
26
27
2 7 1.
28
2 81
Let the expected steam co n sum p tion of the tur bi n e at worki n g load be
2 1 2 lbs p e r k w t at 1 1b ba c k p r essure
. The consumption at other ba ck
. . .
pressures are fou n d from the mean curve C Fig 2 6 7 and are give n in c olum n .
, .
,
A of the follo w i n g table .
The steam co n sum p tion of the condenser auxil iaries will be about 1 stimes
greater per H P than for the turbin e Let the estimated steam con sumptions
. . .
of these au xiliaries be as given in column B in the follo w i n g table ; then the

effe tive c on s umption per k wt will be as shown in colum n C
c . .
A. B . 0 .
S t e am Ce n su m p t ion S t
e am C o n su m
p ti on tiv S t am
E ff e c e e
o f Tu rb
i ne, of Au X I Iiaries, C mp ti
o n su f on o
lb s p e r k wt
. . of A . T rb i u ne .
The yearly coal c ost

Kw t c apac ity of u n it x load factor for the un it x effective con sumptio n
.
per k w t x pri c e of c oal (shilli n gs ) x c on stan t overall evaporative power

.
of boilers .
8 7 6 0 hours
The con stan t 2 2 40 x 20 1 9 55 °
.
The overall evaporative p ower of the boilers will be about 7 l b s of water .
per lh coal. .
The yearly c oal cost then works out to

B a k Pr
c e ssu e r C al C
o os t
lb s ab s.
.
1 400 x ~
l3 x 24 3
-
x 9 x
'
— 1 03 5
S T E AM CON S U M PT ION 01 TU RBIN ES .
fl
5 23
By plotti n g curves ( 1 a b b ( Fig 2 9 2 ) for the rate of in c rease of cha rges an d

,
.
rate of de c rease of coal costs res pectively we fi n d that the m ost e c o n omi c al ,
back p ressure for the given c onditions is about l a } lbs or 2 6 5 i n c hes va c uum .
,
with a 3 0 i n c h barometer .
Take another case in whi c h the pri c e of coal is 5 8 per to n the over all .
,
-
evaporative power 7 lbs and the load factor 1 1 per c e n t .

, .
Then we have as follows

B a k Pr
c ess u e r C al C to os
lb s abs .
.
1 400 x 1 1 x 24 3 x 5 x
These rate s of de c rease are plott ed on curve a c Fig 2 9 2 This curve does , . .
n o t inte rsect the c u rve a a at all but lies co n siderably below it for the ran ge ,
of back pressures considered Possibly an intersection occurs at 6 or 8 l bs .

.
back press ure .
I n either case we see that with condi tio n s that are both withi n the ran ge,
of c ommon possibility a demand for a very lo w back pressure in order merely

,
to provide for a low steam consumption would not be fi nan c ially sound I n .
fact it is not at all easy to obtai n legitimate c onditions under whi c h a back
,
pressure of about 1 lh ( so freque n tly and i n dis c ri m inate ly demanded ) c an be

.
made to pay adequately The sharp rise in the coal economy at about 1 lb
.
.
pressure comes too late to be of any use ex c ept under decidedly u n us u al ,
conditions The as ce nding portion of the coal curve requires to be above

.
‘ ’
the charges curve in order that the bac k pressure may be reduced to the
‘
,
lowest possible limi ts and be of material service thereby .
I t sometimes happens that the c urves cross twi c e in which cas e there are ,
two e c on omi c al ba c k pressures The adoption of the higher one will usually .
be the better course .
I n the course of the above examples t he following observatio n s and

ded u ctions will be made
1 The less the pri c e of c oal the less profitable is a low back pressure
.
, .
2 The less the load factor of the u n it the less is the n eed for a lo w back
.
,
press ure .
3 The higher the steam consumption generally the more p rofi tab le is a
.
,
low back pressure .
4 The higher the ca p ital c harges the less p ro fi table is a low back pressure
.
, .
5 I n the event of a co n de nsi n g pla n t not ap p eari n g to be a p ro fi tab le

.
investmen t the relative e c o n omies for n on c o n de n si n g an d co n de n si n g

,
-
co nditions require care ful co n sideration The differe n c e in the size of turb ine .
neces sary to perform the same servi c e now e n ters the problem I n theory it .
might also e n te r to a degree in a c o n siderati o n of the relative e c on omies at

various low ba c k pressures but in c ommerc ial schemes this is hardly poss ible
,
on ac c oun t of various emerge n c y co n ditio n s the u n it must fu lfil— such as

partial failure of the vacuum e tc , .
3 24 T HE T H EORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
The ge n erally higher therm o dyn amic e ffi cie n cy of the re c i p rocating engi n e
d isc u ssed in the p revious se c tio n also e n ters into the problem so that i t ,
be comes n ec essary to con sider the relative econ omies of the t wo ty p es of p la n t

before arrivin g at a de c ision as to whi c h is the more suitable for adoption .
Th e above may be suppleme n ted by the further poi n ts which may i nfl u e n c e
the decision The steam c o n sumption of a turbine cannot possibly im p rove

.
with the working although w ith some typ es it may n o t deteriorate much
,
.
FI G . 292 .
With turbines having dummy pistons it has been shown that a few
thousa n dths difference in the clearances m akes an enormous differen c e in
the s t eam c ons um ption .
The turbi n e conden ser and low press ure turbines are also sub j e c t to the
-
risk that in the event of the high pressure vanes strippi n g which has
-
happened with u n fortunate frequency in typ e 4 the c on denser and other ,
low pressure parts are likely to be subj ected to the ful l steam pressure result
-
,
i g
n in considerable danger u nless provision is mad e fo r such an emergen cy
1
.
1
S al eea
p p r
so b y M
e N ilr O
e t 1 9 09
son , c . .
3 26 T HE T H E ORY 01 T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
The followi n g tabulated examples will illustrate the relative points of

speed an d strength :
E xh a t
us or L ow P -
r e ssu er
Tu rb i n e.
R e fe re nc e N um br
e
S pe e d , 3000 3 000 1 500 1 500

Va n e sp ee d , ft p er
. se c . 3 00 450 3 00 25 0
H orse p ow e r 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000
Lbs p e r sec
. t
s eam . 8 8
B k r
ac p e ss , lb s ab s . .
~
11 11
~
11 11
t t t
Ra io i n l as s age s 35
°
35 35
860 1 29 0 8 60 715
M a d ia ft
e n .
, . 1 91
-
i l a t tag
° ° °
30
°
a n s s es 30 30 30
L gt h va i l a t tag i
en nes n s s es , ns . 1 1 -44
R l ativ tri f gal f r u 2 42
-
1 -5 4 63
~
e e ce n o ce
‘
.
R l ativ f t r af ty
e tri f
e ac o s e ,
ce n u
gal 41 65
Thus eve n taki n g the large value of a = 3 0 for the last stage or two the
,
°
vane speed an d speed of revolution of the ordi n ary turbine would be quite
impracticable for the exhaust turbi n e N o 2 The vane le n gth c an only be . .
redu c ed to the former value by i n creasi n g the vane speed 5 0 per cent b u t .
,
the fac to r of safety c an n ot be i n c reased to that in the ordi n ary turbine .
So far as facto r of safety in the van es is co n c ern ed the lower speed ,
evidently has a great advantage The factor in low pressure turbi n es is .

-
rarely very high even for the c e n trifugal loadi n g o n ly but if the ben ding ,
stress be i n c luded there is very little margin of safety left particularly in ,
reac tion turbi n es of the usual c o n struction s .
Adopti n g suitable sized vanes ( say Parsons type g— in c h wide weighing

-
, , ,
°
1 2 7 lbs per f o ot approximate mean se c tion 2 x
.
, the above table may
be exte n ded
Tu rb i ne .
R e fe re n ce N um br
e
N um b e r o f row s ( m ovi n g)
N um b e r o f van e s in row
P r h va l b
essu e o n e ac r ne , s.
B d i g mt at r o t i lb
en n . o ,
h . s.
B d i g tr f at r t lb
en n s ess oo ,
s. sq . in .
W i ght f va
e lb o ne, s.
W“ 2 r
,
lbs .
g
Ce n t ri f . t i
e n s on stress f] ,
lb s . sq . in .
E XHAUS T S TE AM T U RBIN ES . 3 27
The centrifugal load s ( s r ) above are by no means light for many t pes of
y
9
vane const ruction and for those that depe n d entirely o n the tight packi n g of
,
vane and distance piece there is very little margin left for the v agaries of
the workm an .
The thi c kness and section of the vane of course do not a ffect the centri
fugal stress per square inch but for the grip at t he ro ot light van es are safer
'
, ,
than heavy va n es because c aul king depressions bear a larger proportion to

,
the section of the vane .
Presumi n g an e ffi c ie n t grip at the root it is still not safe to load ,
brass vanes much above 5 000 lbs per square in c h H ard drawn brass . .
has a fairly high el astic limit ( though rather variable in diff ere n t samples )
but as all brasses deteriorate it is n o t advisable to place too much relia n ce ,
on abnormal i n itial properties of the metal Very tough metal should .
therefore be used when the stresses are at all heavy I n the above table .
,
N o 2 turbine wo uld be quite impracticable N o 3 would be da n gerous in

. .
man y construction s an d w ould surely strip afte r a time ( a little extra wet
,
steam might effect it and most likely the blame would be placed in the
,
wro n g quar t er) .
Of the fi ve examples N o 4 is certainly the best , . .
I t may be ob j ected that the slow s peed turbi n e is mu c h larger and more -
c os tl y and that radiation co n d uction an d leakage losses are higher than in

, , ,
the high speed turbi n e

-
.
The former obj ection is only partly true in the present case because the ,
cos t both material and labour does not vary directly as the diameter or as
, ,
the number of stages The valves steam chest an d exhaust passages of

.
, ,
exhau st turbi n es are ex c e e d ingly large — the former i tems about 1 0 times an d
the latter from 2 5 to 3 times the c apac ity of those of ordinary turbines of the
same output An d it is only with d iffi c u lt y that they are made adequate in
.
the high speed turbi n e or indeed in either case These parts the necessary
-
,
.
,
provisions for them and the atte ndan t me c hanism c ost from 5 0 to 7 0 per
, ,
cent of the cost of the whole turbine and are pra c tically independent of the
.
,
speed so that the variation in cost of the turbi n e proper is of comparatively

small moment .
Radiation and conduction although small will certainly be greater from , ,
the larger turbi n e but these are quite o u tweighed by the extra mecha n ical
,
fri c tion of the high speed machi n e direct evidence being obtai n ed from no
-
load steam c on sumption tests at various speeds Leakage losses are not .
necessarily more in fact it will be fou n d for example that the leakage losses , ,
in N o 4 may in prac tice be less than in N o 3 owi n g to the possibility of

. .
,
adopti n g smaller clearan c es I n extreme cas es leakage losses o n ly amount to

.
2 or 3 per c e n t of the available e n ergy

. .
The only way in whi c h N o 2 t u rbi n e could be made to approximate N o 1 . .
would be by adopting a do uble fl o w arran geme n t thus halvi n g the le n gths of

the vanes—an d this is in fact w hat freq ue n tly has to be done to meet the
-
, ,
dema n d for high speeds B ut this arrangement does m ore tha n double the
.
length of the turbi n e proper either the steam chest or the exhaust passages
have to be dupli c ated an d in the smaller sizes the troubles w ith criti cal
S peeds avoided with the short single fl o w turbine are again e n c ounte red an d -
the barrel or middle casi n g of the turbi n e ca n not be freely s us pe nded .
Al together the co n str u ction is comparatively ob j e c tio n able .
Double— fi o w ma c hines are n evertheless un avoidable in ve ry large lo w

3 28 T H E 1 11 110 1 1 01 1 11 1 . S T E AM 1 0 11 1 1 111 .
pressure turbi n es for ele c tri cal purposes it being qui te impossible strictly to
decrease the speed of turb o—
,
generators inversely as the size .
An endeavour has been made to show by the above remarks that generally
the high spe e d exh au st turbi n e is not to be reco m mended
-
.
I t is n o t the provi n ce here to deal with the relative merits of high and
low spe e d ge n erators The makers were set a very d iffi cu lt p roblem in the
-
.
fi rst i n stan ce whi c h has bee n s o lved with a comme n dable degree of sat isfac
,
tion ; but although very high—speed ge n erators are running quite well there ,
is on the whole n o doubt that the lower the spe e d the less is the risk of worry
, ,
and trouble all roun d for those who have to work the ma chi n es .
The great maj ority of alternators has a periodicity of 5 0 per se co n d an d ,
for this value the o n l y speeds available within the usual ran ge are 7 5 0 1 000 , ,
1 5 00 an d 3 000 revolution s per minute

, For 2 5 periods whi c h is beco mi n g .
,
frequent o n ly 7 5 0 an d 1 5 00 revolutions are available

,
.
For small sizes of si n gle—fl o w exhaust turbi n es from 1 5 0 to about 400 H P . .

,
3 000 is a feasible spe e d for 5 00 H P to 1 000 H P 3 000 r p m is not to be . . . .

, . . .
recommended although examples have been produced 1 5 00 r p m is perhaps

,
. . .
a little low for the lo wer part of this ran ge but it is better tha n 3000 For 1 000 ,
.
to 1 5 00 H P 1 500 r p m is j u st ma n ageable but for above this power either

. .
, . . .
,
1 000 r p m must be adopted or else the double fi o w is practically imperative

. . .
-
.
For dire c t curre n t ge n erators there is n o restri c tio n to certain spe eds as
-
for alternators but the d iffi c ult ie s of the c ommutator problem are less acute
,
t he lower the s p e e d .
T H E M I X E D F L O W T U R B I N E — The adoption of exhaust steam -

.
turbi n es in man y p l ac es where the supply of exhaust steam is not regular or

varies differently from the load on the turbi n e has led to the de man d for a
s p ecial type of turbi n e adap ted n ormall y to use low— pressure steam and also pro ,
v id ed with a more or less e ffi c ie n t high pressure section adapted to re c eive boiler -
or live steam whe n the supply of exhaust steam fails wholly or partly
’
.
The n ame mixed—fi o w turbi n e h as n o w be c ome at ta c hed to this variety .
From man y en quiries issued for su c h t u rbines it appears that some of the
i n herent peculiarities are n ot appre c iated For instance it has been demanded .
,
that the normal full l o ad ( as represe n ted b y the genera tor ratin g) shall be
the most e ffi c ie n t for both c o n ditions of supply either live or exhaust steam ,
.
I t is n ot possible to fulfi l such a requireme n t u n less two comp l te turbines e
be fi t te d to a common shaft Adopti n g round fi gu re s the following is an .

,
explanatio n .
As previou sly stated the exhau st turbi n e may be regarded as the low ,
pressure section of a high pressure turbi n e of about 2 1 times the ca p a c ity -
a 1 000 H P exha u st turbi n e is the lo w pressure e n d of a 25 00 H P

. .
-
. .
o r dinary turbi n e I f therefore a high p ressure se ction be added to the 1 000

.
, ,
-
H P exhaust turbi n e havi n g areas c o n current with the lo w—

. . pressure areas ,
the n ormal load of the mixed fi o w turbi n e is n ot 1 000 H P but 2 5 00 H P -

. . . .
,
the total quan tity of steam per u n it of time bei n g the same for either The .
e ffi c ie n c
y of such a turbi n e at 1 000 H P will the n be that correspo n di n g to . .
l/ 2 5 th lo ad
'
I i altern ativel y the high pressure sectio n be prop ortioned to p ass j u st

, ,
-
su ffi c ie n t steam for the p roper n ormal load the low —

pressure
( 1 00 0
section is then from 2 to 2 5 times too large .
W ith live s t eam the mixed fl ow turbine wi ll therefore still be less e ffi cie n t
,
-
than a p rope r comp lete turbi n e .
As a ru le t he re is no o c casio n to provide for more than a 5 0 per c ent over

,. .
33 0 1 11 1: 1 11 1 0 111 01 1 11 1 S T E AM 1 0 11 131 11 13 .
where the low pressure and high pressu re governor valves open in sequen c e
- -
bei n g co n trolled e n ti r ely by a speed variatio n ( b) where the op e n i n g of both

valves is speed co n trolled as regards load but pressure controlled as regards
-
,
-
the relative openi n g .
These arrangeme n ts are des c ribed in C hap ter X V p 2 7 6 . . .
C o m b in at io n o f e ng in e an d e x h au s t t u rb in e —A co n sideratio n of .
the relative e ffi c ie n cy c urves in Fig 2 9 0 will make it apparent that a c o m .
bination of a good reciprocati n g engine exhau stin g into a similarly good

turbine at about atmos pheri c pressure the turbi n e expanding the stea m down ,
to a reaso n abl y low ba c k pressure will give a better e c ono my than either an ,
en gine or turbi n e design ed for the full range of p ressure .
For su p pose the e n ergy available from the upper pressure down to
,
atmos p heri c pressure is 1 00 and that available from atmospheric down to ,
say 1 lb absolute is also 1 00 ; the actual w ork do n e by either an engine or

.
tu rbine for the full range is o n an average 5 6 5 x 2 1 1 3 but for a c ombi n a ,
tion arran gement the work d o n e is 6 8 or

1 0 per c e n t better . .
The improvement of c ourse varies w ith t he i n itial pressure i n termediate

, , ,
an d back pressures an d e tfi c ie n c ie s of the u n its ,

.
I n p ra c ti c e the improveme n t varies from 1 0 t o 2 5 per ce n t a c cordi n g to

,
.
c ir c umsta n ces and is helped by t he fa c t that the e ffi c ie n c

y of a low pressure
-
turbine is a little better than that of a c omplete turbi n e size for size the , ,
various losses bei n g a less proportion .
The followi n g s c hedule is typ ical and is based on a c tual performan ces ,
.
I t is hardl y possible to adduc e exam p les of the ki n d that are not open to
c riti c ism but a fair statement of the case for the particular c o n ditio n s assum e d
,
has been attem p ted .
E ngi ne .
E x h au s T u b t ri ne . C o mb n at on
i i .
N o mi al vacuu m
n ,
in s .
Ab s i i ti al pr
n e ss 15 15 15 15 1 80
I i ti al t m p F
.
°
n e wet wet wet w et 4 50
b k pr
.
Ab s ac e ss lb s 2 1 5 °
2
rt
. . .
The o e co n sp per H P lbs

r
. . . . .
p e r h ou 1 36 21 92 83
66
-
66 6 19 6 17 ~
7 22
62 62 6 1_ 58 678
° ° ' ° °
Co n su m p lb s p e r B H P —h r 25 9 22 5 10 5
—h r
. . . .
.
, .
E H P . . . . 1 2 24
K wt .
-
hr. 4 2 65 1 58
t l t rp
To a wa e er h ou r ,
lb s .
B H P
. . .
K il o watt s
E XH A US T S T E AM T U RBIN ES . 331
The above may be compared with an engi n e or a turbine of approximate ly

the same overall size an d of correspondingl y good e fii c ie n cy
1 500 E w t T u
. rbi ne N o m na i l vac u u m, ins . 26 27 28 29
ET?) °
64 63
° °
6 24 608
°
ETn 60 59 585 57
°
°
—h r
°
. '
Co n sump i, 111 8 p e r B 11 P 1 1 94
-
—h r
. . . . .
E H P l3 5 1 2 71
—
° -
. . . .
K wt . h r . 1 7 05
-
1 59 8
Supe ri rity
o of e ng ne - u i t rbi ne
co mbi ti na on, pe r c e n t .
1 500 K w t E ng
. i ne N i
o m n al vac uu m, 111 8 . 6 27 28 29
B T” 66 63 5 607 57
~
° ° ° °
E1 1 , 61
°
59 7 57
°
53 6
°
Co n sump lb s p e r B H P —hr
—hr
.
.
,
. . .
E H P
—h r
1 9 . . . .
K wt . . l7 9
°
17
Su p ri rity
e o of e ngin e ~
t u rb i ne
co m b i ti na on , per cen t .
The above examples have more particular reference to turbo— electri c

generators but of course similar c omparis o n s may be made for marine or
,
other applicatio n s .
An outside compariso n of the two sister ships Otalci an d Orari is of special

i n terest as it is practi c all y the fi rst extan t example of its kind The Otalci is
, .
fi t te d with the combi n ation syste m ( Fig 2 9 4 ) and the 01 0 72 with ordi n ary .
m ari n e engi n es .
S team Co n su m p .
p r h ur
e o ,
lbs .
To tal r
P o pul s ve i e H P
I H P Co e ffi c ie n t
. . .
. . . .
pe r pe r
I H P
. . . e . H P
. .
Oran :
Thus the Otaki show ed an adva n tage of 1 7 per c e n t .

*
The combi n atio n arra n geme n t in a c rude form appears to have exerc ised
several mi n ds many years ago I n 1 8 3 7 Sir J ames An derso n patented .
( 7 407 of 1 8 3 7 ) the combination ; and in his sp e c ifi cat io n he illustrates the

e n gi n e and the exhaust turbine drivi n g a common shaft the former bei n g ,
cran ked direct an d the latter coupled by a belt The application is claimed
for either a non—
.
c onde n sing or conde n si n g system .
I n 1 8 40 ( Pat 8 5 7 2 ) M essrs C ordes an d Loc ke pate n ted another variety of

.
the same thi n g an d H e n ry B essemer ( Pat 1 1 3 5 2 of 1 84 6) covers some of the

, .
same ground Parson s in 1 8 9 4 pate n ted the arra n geme n t in more modern
.
gui se the un its d riving dynamos ele c trically c oupled B es semer also c lai ms
, .
the i n ventio n o f either a c o n densing or n o n co n de n si n g exhaust turbi n e ( the -
‘
Barker mill form is illustrate d ) and he eve n suggests putti n g the turbi n e
-
’
,
i n side the condenser — an idea again revived b y Parso n s .
Pape r by E g C m Wi m R N I t E a d S 1 909
n . o . sn o , . .
,
ns . . n .
,
.
3 32 1 11 1 T H E ORY 01 1 11 1 S T E AM 1 0 1 131 111 .
In 1 902 a p artial application was made to mari n e prop ulsion

Ve lox — illustratio n s of whi c h will be fou n d in several other man uals .
For some n o t very app are n t reason the combi n atio n idea lay p rac ti c ally
,
do r mant until about 1 906 — possibly owi n g to the relative magn itude of the
e ffi c ie n c ie s of e n gines an d turbines not being generally appreciated — but about
334 1 11 1 T H E ORY 01 1 11 1 S TE AM 1 0 1 131 11 1 .
the ge n eral evidence i n di c ating the superiority of the combinatio n syste m

over all en gi n es or all—turbi n es up to sizes likel y to b e deman ded for some
-
time to come —owi n g greatly to the in e ffi c ie n t c on dition s fo r H P turbi n es . .

,
and the p ra c ti c al limitations to the size of low pressure c yli n ders -

.
The exigencies of worki n g generating plan t add to the value of the

c ombi n atio n s ys tem For instan c e if the c ondensi n g plan t breaks do w n t h e
.
, ,
e n gi n e can be ru n to the atmosphere at a fairly good e c o n omy and for light

loads below about one—fo u rth full load of the combination the engine alone ,
should be worked bei n g bye—passed to the conden ser — its econ om y at su c h

,
loads being superior to that of a high pressure turbine or of an en gi n e of the -
f ull size of the combination .
Fig 2 9 5 shows typi c al c on sumption cu rves (plotted fro m the data in

.
the above table) for a plan t con sisti n g of one engine an d on e low pressure -
turbi n e .
These c urves the mselves i n di c ate that the most e c on omical way of ru n n i n g
the plan t w he n for instan c e the bac k p r essure is about 1 lb absolute is for
,
.
,
the engine to run alo n e at all loads below 5 00 kilowatts an d the c ombi n ation ,
above that load .
The dotted li n es A A B B are correspo n di n g curves for a single full size

,
-
e n gine an d turbine respe c tivel y assumi n g them to be of equal e ffi c ie n cy

,
although it is probable that the e n gi n e is the better of the two parti c ularly . ,
at light load s .
For combi n atio n units wo rki n g in parallel no governor valve is necessary

on the turbi n e either for dire c t c urre n t dyn amos or alternators an d any
,
-
n u mber of en gi n es m ay discharge i n to a c ommon turbine The followi n g .
ele c trical poi n ts may be n oted

For working in parallel without a turbine governor valve the dynamos ,
should not be over compoun ded at the maximum load u n less equaliser c ables
-
are fi tte d betwee n the various u n i t s I f the various u n its are similarly .
under c ompounded there is n o d iffi cu l ty in keepi n g them in positive parallel

-
although some electri c ian s consider equalis ers advisable Plain shun t—
,
wound .
dyn amos are prac ti cally fool—p roof during the operations of paralleli n g and ,
lock together perfe c tl y .
O rdi n ary altern ators lock themselves pe rfe c tly in parallel u n less of
extremely di fferent wave form an d are preferably excited from the same ,
excite r .
An as yn c hron ous i n du c tion ge n erator a p plied to the exhaust turbi n e

appears to be the simplest form of gen erator where the turbi n e is run
exclusively in parallel w ith syn c hron ous ma chi n es I n the case of a combined .
unit of e n gine and turbin e the e n gine may be started up with the c o n n e c ting
switches c losed the turbi n e bei n g motored round u n til the common quan tity
,
of steam passing and the relative speeds attained are su c h that the turbo
generator c an do positive work Al t ernatively the turbi n e may be motored
.
,
up in the usual way and the various steam and exhaust valves man ipulated
a c c ordi n gl y I t is perhap s bette r to relieve the heavy starting torque o n the
.
turbi n e by the assistan c e of a little live steam a small valve bei n g p r ovided ,
for the purpose The ge n eral diagram of the system is sho w n in Fig 2 9 6 A
. . .
The exhaust turbi n e of a c ombi n ation may be re n dered a useful stand b y -
in case the e n gine is tem p orarily disable d by providing a high pressure or ,

-
live steam su pp l y through a sep arate governor valve

-
.
For a sta n d by co n diti o n there is n o n eed to provide high —p ressure eleme n ts

in the turbine although some occ asio n s might warran t the elabo r atio n
, .
E XHA US T S T E AM T U RBIN ES . 335
Alternatively , if the turbi n e is p rovided with a low pressure governor -
v al y e,
live steam may be admitted o n occasio n through a redu c i n g valve ,
wh i ch is really a governor valve c o n trolled by a press ure variation i n stead of
°
8 7 6 5
2 2 2 2
dd
1 10
a
by a speed variatio n There are in fac t very many alte rnative s c hemes that
.
, ,
may be embodied in the c ombi n atio n system

Fig 2 96A represents diagrammati c ally a thr ee—
.
.
phase combination s c heme
of the simplest c hara c ter and F ig 2 9 6 13 of the most elaborate
,
. .
The former is su ffi c ie n t where there are several un its in the station and ,
the lat ter whe n one combi n ation is the o n ly unit an d where both engin e and
,
turbi n e are a stan d by to eac h other .

33 6 TH E T HE O R Y O F T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
I n Fig . the followi n g additio n al condi tions are ful fi lle d

2 96 A
E ngi n e c an run alone conde n sing t or as a stan d b y -
n o n co n densi n g
-
c onditio n .
the turbi n e breaks dow n seriously it may be blanked off a convenie n t ,
provision being a tapered blan k fl an ge 6 .
F IG . 99 6 A .
I n Fig 2 96 B
.
( 1 ) E n gi n e can condensing
ru n turbi n e is bei n g started or is shut
n o n c ondensi n g
-
dow n .
(3) with turbi n e in series either C or N C . . .
( 4) Turbi n e can run on live steam while engine is shut dow n either C or , .
(5 ) E n gineand turbi n e c an run in combi n ation on separate ci r cuits .
I f provision is required for r u nning either unit non —c ondensi n g while the
c o n denser tubes are out a valve must be fi tt e d at V The requireme n t .
,
would however be very unusual an d for tube clea n i n g purposes it meets the
, , ,
-
case to fl ood the steam side of the c o n denser W ith water .
A separator S or water po c ket is desirable tho u gh n o t absolutely ,
necessary .
I f the expan sion is fairly c omplete in the engine an d its e ffi c ie n cy is good ,

3 38 T HE T H EORY o r THE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
clea n er than is usually the case with n ormally clean steam which frequently ,
leaves an extremely adhesive pre c i p itate o n the blad i n g .
When steel blades are fi tte d in an exhaust tu r bi n e the pre se n ce of oil is

,
extremely valuable in preve n ti n g corrosion and prolon gi n g the life of the

bladi n g .
E ither of the above ste am arra n geme n ts may of course be ad o p ted for
, ,
direct curre n t gen erators but the arran gement c orrespo n di n g to Fig 2 9 6A
-
, .
w ill have the ad va n tage that the turbo d ynamo W ill ge n erate c urre n t without
-
the assistance of the engi n e dynamo I f the mac hi n es are shunt—

. wound or
only slightly compou n ded the turbi n e will keep perfectl y in p arallel on a
,
varying load with an y other u n it ( should the e n gine be disabled ) by being

sup p lied with live steam direct fro m the stop valve and without the inter,
v e n t io n of a govern or valve .
The other unit or u n its will take the variation in the load while the
turbine gives practically a c onstant load .
The arrangemen ts adop ted in practi c e of course vary with the c onditions .
That a c cording to Fig 2 9 613 would c e r tai n l y be unusual that to Fig 2 96A
. .
will p robabl y be c ome common while at present vario us intermediate arrange

,
ments fi n d most favour .

CH APTE R X V I I I .
T HE W HI R LI N G O F S H A FT S , B ALA N C I N G ,
ETC .
CO N TE N TS —Th Whi rl i g f R tati g Shafti g—C ri ti al V l ity—M a l Lo ad d Sh aft

e n o o n n c e oc ss e ss e
— Ov rh un g Sh aft —S h aft S p p rt ed at B th E d —Sh aft Fi x ed at B th E d o n s
Sy t m —Criti al S p d f D rum R tor —B al a ci g

e u o o n s
E x am pl f E l m n tary M l t i Di
R to r —
e o e e u -
sc s e c ee o o s n n
o s G ral Pr b l m —S tat i B al a i g—Dynami B al a i g

e ne o e c nc n c nc n .
T HE W H I R L I N G O F R O T AT I N G S H A F T I N G When a .
shaft at rest supported between bearings is released after a late ral displac e
, ,
m ent it Will vibrate with a freq u e n cy which we will call K and which depends
, ,
on the dimens ion s of the shaft and on it s elasticity .
If the shaft be rotati n g with an angular velocity and be si milarly (9 ,
di sturb e d the frequency k of the vibration w ill not be the same as the
,
frequency K whe n at rest but will be less ,

.
The centri fugal forces arising from any displac ement of the mass cen tre
from the centre of rotation are oppos ed to the righting forces of the vibratio n ,
so that the shaft takes a longer t im e in movi n g from its extreme displacemen t
to its cen tral position — ih other words the frequency is decreased , .
Taking the simplest case of an unload e d shaft it can be show n that ,
= K (1)
2 2 2
Ic -
w
As to increases It di mi nishes an d when w = K the righti n g power van ishes

,
altogether W hen the shaft reaches this condition it is in danger of breaking

.
if the speed is kept constant .
We may thus imagine a shaft at rest emitting a certain note when stru ck
so m ewhere in the middle an d that as we rotate the shaft with a gradually
, ,
increas ing velocity the note whi c h it emits when struck periodicall y during
,
this process beco mes lower an d lower u n til fi n ally the vibrations cease and , ,
the shaft begins to whip or whirl in the same way as we may whirl a cord
held at its extremities by the fi n ge rs .
These general features hol d for loaded shafts although a compli cate d ,
system of load ing introd u ce s more or less complicated m od ifi cat ions of the
foregoing process .
Th erefore in considering the effect of any disturbing forces that may

,
act o n a rotating shaft what we have to look to is the freq uen cy of the
,
late ral vi brati ns of the shaft as re d ced by the rotati o n

o u .
Dr C hree was ap parently the fi rst to point out the true nature of whirli n g
phen omena .
*
C R I T I CA L V E L O C I T Y — The veloc ity at whi c h whirling occ u rs .
is called the critical veloc ity .
Proc Physical S oc
. .
, v o l . x ix .
33 9
34 0 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM TU RBI N E .
When the shaft has a m ass

to it say a disc as in Fig 2 97 the
affi x e d , , .
,
phe n ome n on is the same except that the mass i n ertia and p o sition of the disc
, , ,
modify the numeri c al value of the c riti c al velocity .
I n a horizon tal system whe n the c e n tre of gravity of the mass does n o t
coincide with the c e n tre of the shaft —
,
which is al ways the case in practi c e

w e have a disturbing forc e in the system itself i n stead of o n e externally ,
applied as in the previous suppositio n .
The applied disturban c e also n eed n o t n e c essarily be a blo w I n the c ase .
of a plai n un loaded shaft the vibratio n is easily set up from the pulley an d
belt or other drivi n g mechanism I n the case of a turbine disc even if
.
,
perfe c tly true the a c tion of the steam on the vanes is quite su ffi c ie n t to set
,
up the vibration .
Let
You g s modulus 1 0 lbs per sq
’
n 9
. .
density ( 500 lbs p e r c ub . .
area of se c tion ( square feet) .
le n gth of shaft ( feet) .
diameter of shaft ( feet ) .
mass of an applied weight

of shaft ( feet )
d e fl e c t io n .
an gular velo c ity ( radians per

moment of i n ertia of shaft about a diameter perpendicular to
the plane of ben di n g .
moment of inertia of an applied weight similarly taken .
critical an gu lar velo c ity .
A fi rst approximatio n to the as c ertai n ment of the c ritical velo c ity in the ,
case of elemen tary systems may be made by using the common expressio n
,
for the de fl e c tion of a beam or shaft .
L O A D E D M A SS L ESS S H A F T — Assume that in F ig 2 9 7 the load

—in the form of a thi n disc—is not thrown appreciably out of square or its
.
.
normal plane of rotation .
FI G . 29 7 .
Let D be the position of the c e n tre of gravity of the dis c ,

an d CB the
d e fl ec t io n of the shaft at some particular mome n t .
Then approximately
, ,
d y B endi n g mome n t
2
d l2 EI
Therefore y Pxc
where P is the forc e applied an d c a constan t dependi n g on the size of the
shaft and in the case of more than on e bearing on the type of those bearings
, , .
The ce n trifugal force of the ro tati n g mass has to be balanced by P .

34 2 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
The c riti c al velo c ity o cc urs whe n k 0, so that

401
3
1
4
Let N be the c riti c al speed in revolutio n s per mi n ute .
The n 9 5 5w
‘
From ( 2) or ( 2a ) we therefore have

N 281 0012
3
L o ad e d M as s l e s s S haft — load at end — The c ritical veloc ity is
( 6) .
fou n d from the rather complicated quadrati c ( C hree R ayleigh ) -
(3
4
MI I
This is most c on venien tly solved by putti n g in the various numerical

values of the c oe ffi c ie n t s at o n ce The n egative root does n o t apply to the
.
c ase .I f the effe c t o f I I is small as is ge n erally the c ase I I may be omitted

,
2
, ,
an d we have as a s e c o n d ap p ro x im at io n
, ,
3E I
fi l
e <
and as a fi rs t ap p ro x im at io n , by omitti n g II altogether ,
3E I
3 b)
M
This is identi c al with the expression obtai n ed dire c tly by the method of
fi rst a p proximation s given o n the p revious page .
L d d M —~load at e n d
()
c o a e as s iv e S h aft .
By his s imp lifi e d an al ysis Dr C hree obtai n s

1 Ap l4 M 1 23 3 11 1
m 3E I 4 RI a ?
4 00
Professor Du n kerle y b y an exte n sive series of ex p e r ime n ts o n w hi r li n g

,
shafts of elemen ta ry form has devised a semi—empi r i cal fo rmula as foll o ws :

,
L e t 1 b e the criti c al velo c ity of the u n loaded shaft ( i

(0 b y ( 2) or . e .
Let 2 be the c riti c al velocity of the loaded massless shaft (i by

(0 . e .
( 3 a) or ,
Let B b e the c r iti c al veloc ity of the system

( .
T HE W H IR L IN G or S H A F TS BAL ANCIN G
, ,
E TC . 34 3
Applyi n g this expression to ( 2 ) and ( 3a) w e obtain

M M
3
1 Ap l 4 1 3
= + — 1
2
w 39 8 E I 3EI 4E I
whi c h agrees very clo se ly with

By Ch re e s analysis when I I is small the expression obtained
’
,
1 Ap l 4
M l 3
5 1 1
7 3
+
”
6 401 151 3 2 13 1 9 EI
I nserting n umeri c al values of the c onsta n ts ( 46) be c omes
3 8 1 , 000, 000d 4
S H A F T S U PP O R T E D A T B O T H E N DS — U n lo ad e d
(a ).
S h aft —.By the E ul er B ernouilli method ,

-
2 “
9
Ap l 31
By Ch re e
’
s an alysis ,
( )
6 may be written
L o ad e d M as s l e s s
( 6) S ll aft
’
— db is found from the quadrati c ( C hree
2
.
Rayleigh )
M1 1 15 “ 3 3 1311 1 9 M
This will be most co n ve n ie n tly solved for a parti c ular e xample by inserting
the numerical values of the c o n stants .
As a se c o n d ap p ro x im at io n , by n eglecti gn 11 2 we have
3E I !
M l a b2
‘
t’
and as a fi rs t ap p ro x imat io n , by neglecting II altogether ,
3E Il g
Ml a b fi’ 2
y
3 44 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
L
( ) o ad e d
c M ass i v e S h aft .
-
By D u nk e rl e y s
’
formula ( 5 ) applied to
( 6 ) an d ( 7a) w e obtain
1
‘
Ap l 4 M ,a2 b2 , I ,( a ,
-
b)2
2
(B 3 I 3OEI 3 EI ! 3E I!
Z4
6 36 , 000, 000d l 4
S H A FT F I XE D B O T H E N DS —
AT ( ) U n l o ad e d
a . S h aft .
By the E uler—
B er n ouilli method D unkerley obtai n s
2
a
,
Ap l 4
/
g
an d C hree by his simpler method

, ,
2
EI
1 6 22O
4
Ap l
( )
b L o ad e d M as s l e ss S h aft —I is found from the quad ratic
)
Ml I l a4 + 4 M I RI 1 2 131 1 l
K
. .
As a s e c o n d app ro x im at i o n , by omitti g n 1 1 2,
3E Il 3 1 9 I 1 (a b) 2
Ml a b 3 3 M 2 2
4 la b J
An d as a fi rs t ap p ro x im at io n ,
2
312113 y
(D :
M1a b 3 3
y
( ) L o ad e d
c M as s iv e S h aft — From .
an d ( 1 0a)
,
2
1 Ap l 4
M1a b 3 3 31 1
a b ( a,
, b)
3
s 1 6 1 00E I 3EI! 3
4 h ll
346 TH E THE ORY OF T HE S TE AM T U RBIN E .
For the u n loaded shaft

7 2 40
Taking in all c ases the fi rst ap proximations that is assumi n g that I I is of , ,
relatively small effe c t an d that the general error in bala n c e is uniform an d

,
very small the values of w 2 w3 4 e t c a r e symmet r i c ally dis p osed so that we

, , ,
«1 , .
,
n eed o n l
y c alculate them for half the number of dis c s .
The follo w ing parti c ulars can thu s be obtai n ed
1 762 x 1 04
w=
z
a bz
By Du n k e rl e y s
’
formula ,
1 1
—+
? 2
<3 (1
7
1
1
772 0 2 63
°
x 1 04
1
11 13
( the critical velo c ity of the unloaded shaft obviously negligible )

61 2 = 1 1 1 3 ,
revs per second

.
21r
N revs per minute

319 . .
A multi d is c turbine arran ged a c c ordi n g t o the rough dimensions here take n
would have a s p eed of about 2 5 00 revolution s per min ute The worki n g .
Sp eed is therefo r e about seve n times the critical s p eed Taki n g se cond .
approximation s i n stead of fi rst the c riti c al W speed works out to about

,
3 40 revolutions p e r minute — a t rifl in g differen c e .
As the criti c al velocity of the u n loaded shaft is quite negligible it ,
follows that the criti c al velo c ity of the shaft if stepped and swelled up in
its middle portion s is m u ch more negligible I n very ma ny c ases this c on di .
tion of affairs fortunately holds good and we do n ot have to go to the great

,
labour of fi n d in g out the d e fl e c t io n for a shaft of varyi n g diameter I i .

,
THE WH IR L IN G OF S H A FTS BA L ANCIN G , ,
ETC . 34 7
however this should be ne c essary it m ay be poi n ted out that the only feasible
, ,
method is by graphic con stru c tion for whi c h the reader is referred to books
,
on graphi c statics or app lied mechanics

C R I T I C A L S P E E D O F D R U M R O T O R S —The problem of
.
the criti c al speed of a dru m rotor of the usual c ompli c ated forms is n o t
ame n able to very satisfactory treatment an d at best m ore or less arbitrary , , ,
data must be assumed .
For a lon g thin roto r where parts of the drum are li ttle larger than the
F1 0 2 98
. .
shaft itself the only pra c ticable course is to patiently cal c ulate the d e fl e ct ion
,
of the rotor by the usual graphic methods .
For stiff rotors of a c omparatively large diameter an approximation may

be made by the followi n g c on sideratio n
R eferring to Fig 2 9 8 whi c h roughly represe n ts the most c ommo n method
.
,
of constru c tion it may be assumed that the at ta c hmen t of the shafts to the
,
Spider an d the drum is very rigid From the previou s formul ae it is obvious
.
that the drum itself if sup p orted at its ,
ends A and B has a very high c riti c al

,
speed far beyon d the workin g speed of

,
the turbine it may in fact be considered

as a practi c ally rigid i n sertion in the
shaft A fi rs t approximation to the
.
criti c al speed of the rotor may then be

found by c onsideri n g the whole mass of
the dru m concen trated an d closed up as
in Fig 2 99 in which case formula ( 8)
.
,
will give the approximate speed .
The above indicates the importa n c e of FI G 2 9 9

maki n g a an d b as s mall as possible ( the
e ffective le n gth of the shaft approximating ( 3 + 6 i n ste ad of a + b + c)
condition deman di n g short beari n gs glan ds and spaces between ,
.
I t is n ot at all easy in pra c tice to make a and b short enough to avoid havi n g
to pas s through the criti c al speed if the shaft be of a size reason ably oo mme n
surate with the po wer it has t o tran smit an d the criti cal speed can as a rul e , , ,
o n ly be avoided b y maki n g the shaft of very large diameter For instan c e .

,
the usual stress allowed in shafti n g varies from about 5 000 to lbs per .
sq uare inch but the shafts of d rum built turbi n es are only stressed to about
,
-
1 000 or 2 000 lbs per sq uare in c h although so far as twisti n g moment is

.
, ,
co n cer n ed a higher stress than is usual in r e ciprocati n g ma c hi n ery might

,
safely be ad opted .
348 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
I t is very fortun ate for the turbi n e that the phenomena of lubri c ation will
permit the ad o p tion of a large diameter of shaft .
B AL A N C I N G R O T O R S —I he .
’ ‘
g e n e ral p rob e m l in balan c ing

consists of two parts
Let the centre of gravity of the u n balan c ed roto r be at G an u n k n own ,
point ( Fig .
I f the plane C G C E were kno w n the rotor would be balan c ed by simply

placi n g an equivalen t mass op p osite to G ; but u n fort unately there is no ready
means of loc ati n g the plane 0 G C E .
The radial positio n of G can be lo cat ed very approximately by rolling the

rotor on perfectly level
parallels under W hi c h ,
con ditions the heavy side

will generally settle at
the bottom .
Wh en thi s test gives

F I G 3 00 consiste nt indi c ations
. .
after several rolli ngs to

an d fro the heavy side m ay be balan c ed while still on the parallels by
-
plac i n g a suitable mass W1 anywhere on the light side of the ro t or in the

plane A C B—as at B .
The rotor is n o w said to be balan c ed sta tically .
R eferri n g to Figs 3 00 3 01 let F be the c entrifugal force of the u n

.
, ,
balan c ed mass at an y speed belo w the c riti c al Then it will be seen that .
u n less by a fortuitous c han c e the plan e 0 C c oi n c ides with the plan e B B an ,
unbalan c ed c ouple Fa has been introduced in the syste m .
W he n this c ouple is balan ced by an equal an d opposite couple the rotor

is said to be balanced dynamically .
FIG . 3 01 .
To as c ertain whe n the correct bala n c e weights W2 W3 have been ap plied , ,
it is n e c essary to Spin the rotor at a c onsiderable speed .
W2 an d W3 must be applied i n the plane A B C only and they must ,
exac tly balan ce o n e a n other staticall y that is W2r2 = W3r3 They may , .
obviously from the theory of coup les be fi x e d at an y co n ve n ient pla c es on the

, ,
rotor— usually in plug h o les at the e n ds provided for the purp ose — so lon g
as W2 2 W3 3 an d W 2rgb W3r3 b WSa an d so lo n g as the rotor is rigid
r r
f
, .
C omparatively thi n dis c s do n ot as a rule require balan c ing d yn amically

, , ,
si n c e the u n balan c ed couple is exceedingly small .
The above sim ple theory meets several d iffi cu lt ie s in its pra c ti c al
application
S T AT I C B A L A N C I N G — C omparatively n arrow parallels —o r k n i fe
.
edges — are quite useless for stati c balan ci n g be c ause they si n k into the
’ “
,
350 T HE T H E ORY or T II E S T E AM TU R B IN E .
FI G 3 03
. .
—
S tat ic B al an c i ng Dev i ce .
THE W H I R L IN G OF se am s, B A L ANCIN G m e
, . 351
R eferring to the diagram portion of the fi gu re X represe n ts the cond ition ,
whe n the geometrical ce n tre of the disc to be balanc e d is exac tly in the pla n e
of the k n ife —edges .
I f the centre of gravi ty o f the disc proj e c ted on the pla n e of the paper
'
he at 9 then Wy = wx
, Ad j ust the positio n of the knife edge so that the
.
-
p oi n ter is verti c al then 9 d and w will be in a vertical li n e as shown in Y

, , , .
N o w turn the dis c rou n d 1 80 degrees The position befo re the system swi n gs .
o ver to equilibriu m is as sho wn dotted in Z since the displa c ement of
FIG . 3 04 .
—St ti a c Balan cing De vi c e .
cent re of gravity is 2 8 equilibri u m is on ly obtained by a further displaceme n t

, ,
so that Wyl w x l the displaceme n t being a meas u re of the error in balance 8

, .
For since a is a small an gle

,
.
,
‘V ( II S in a 2 8) = w l sin a .
where c and c are constan ts '

.
By taki ng a series of readi n gs at eq u al di visio n s aro u nd the disc the ,
heavy side may be a c curately loca t ed an d balanced .
The follo w ing method was devised by the author and gives very accura t e
results I t has the advan tage that the d isc may be mount e d on its prope r
.
sh aft inste ad of on a temporary one and it is also adaptable to long roto rs as ,
well as sh o rt o n es an d ad mi t s of a co n siderable ra n ge of sizes of sh aft

, .
Th e fi rs t advantage is appare n t in view of the fact that it is d iffi c u lt to

ensure that two shafts shall b e perfectly in t erchangeable bo th as regards a
plug fi t and fi nal concentricity .
c a F ig 3 04 are wide rollers of si mi lar w idth to the p reviously men

, l
.
, ,
t io n ed pa rallels These rollers are themselves mo u nted on rollers or ball

.
3 52 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
beari n gs accordi n g to the size of the apparatus an d the c omple te trai n s are
,
c arried by the plummer blo c ks 6 standing on trestles The plummer blocks .
bei n g carefully levelled the dis c with its shaft is simpl y pla c ed o n the rollers
,
and i n di c ated in the follo w i n g man ner .
A small weight w with a poi n ter is c lamped on to the rim o f the dis c the ,
weight bei n g adapted to the c ircumsta n c es an d so that a maximum displace

,
ment a equal to about 30 degrees is obtai n ed .
R eadings are taken by holding the poi n ter level with the cen tre and the n ,
releasi n g it so that the dis c swi n gs rou n d to rest at some positi o n A .
The dista n c e B A is then recorded

The rim is divided into a conve n ient n umber of parts —say 8—and
.
readi n gs taken with the poi n ter clamped at ea c h position .
A se c o n d series is then taken left

han ded that is with pointer starti n g
, ,
o n the left side i n stead of the right .
The mean of the two readi n gs for the

same points on the rim will eliminate
the fri c tion in the bearings .
A c urve of A B may then be dr wn

as in Fig 3 05 and the more accurate .
,
the readi n gs are the more perfect will ,
be its si n e c haracter .
The poi n t Al given b y the maxi

mum am p litude of the curve an d by
the radi u s of the p oi n ter i n dicates the
F I G 3 05 positio n w of the heavy side
and
W3 = w ( A1 B1 ) from w h1 c h the w e l gh t
. . .
of a suitable balan c i n g plug may be calculated .
DY N A M I C BA L A N C I N G — Referri n g to the elementary theory of

.
the c ase it is see n that dynamic balan cing is fa c ilitated by fi rst balan c i n g
,
stati c ally thus leavi n g only an u n bala n c e d couple in a k n own plan e

, .
The gen eral method of bala n cing is to supp ort the bearings in an elastic
bed which permits a c o nsiderable amou n t of play ru n n i n g the rotor up to a
suitable s p eed (preferably the worki n g speed) by some kind of motor which
drives either through a clutc h or belt throwi n g out the clutch or belt an d
, ,
the n observing the movement of the beari n gs if necessary by mean s of a

chalk mark or by feeli n g
,
.
B ala n c e p lugs are then applied in the plane of the unbalanced couple one ,
plug bei n g exactly opposite the plug i n serted for static balan ce .
S everal trials are generall y n ecessary to determi n e the exa c t weights to be

applied With some makers it is not custo mary to fi rst bala n ce st atically and
.
,
in this case the rotor should be marked with a piece of chalk at ea c h end
when ru n n ing free The marki n gs are generally very de c eptive an d are not
.
,
ne c essarily on the light or heavy side .
The marks obtained at j ust above an d below the criti c al speed of whipping
are gen erally opposite ; and ordinarily at high s p eeds there is co n siderable
lag owing to the friction of the system so that the marks may in fact c ome
, ,
an ywhere The effe c t of fri c tio n m ay be elimi n ated by run ni n g the rotor in
.
b o th dire c tio n s an d taki n g the mean of the readings E ven the n as it is not .
,
k n o w n d e fi n ite ly at fi rst whether weight should be app lied at or o p posite the

readi n gs the fi rst weight to be tried should considerably overbalan c e so th at
, ,
a c ertain conclusion after the next trial m ay be dra wn .

CHAPTE R X I X .
SPEED OF T U RBI NE S .
CON TE N TS —Sp ee d of rb A t r t r a d Dy
Tu o l e n a
-
o s n n am o s —Spe ed of M ari ne Tu rbi ne s
E xamp l e —Ta
b l of T rb i
e u ne S t r
eam e s .
TH E RE is no gen eral rule for the speed of revolution of the steam turbine .
The m ost suitable speed for a given size of turbine is qui ckly ascertained
by a few trial and error c alculation s Leavi n g the simple geared turbine of
.
the De Laval type out of the question the best speed is controlled by three
,
leading factors — the speed of the apparatus to be driven the relative cost and , ,
t he i n ter n al resistan c e .
T U R B O A LT E R N AT O R A N D DY N A M O S P E E D S — I n
-
.
the c ase of ele c tri c altern ator drivin g it is importan t to note that there
,
are on ly certai n speeds that c an give a required periodi c ity .
The general formula is

u mber of poles n
Th u s it is that the 5 0 periods per se c on d ( recommen ded by the Stan dards

C ommittee) whi c h is the most advan tageous all rou n d periodi c ity is de c idedl y
,
-
in c on venien t for some of the smaller size u n its I t gives a speed either much
.
too high or much t o o low the o n e i n volvi n g u n manageably high speeds— ii

,
n o t always for the turbine for the alte rnator — an d the other i n volvi n g either
,
an enormous n umber of stages or else high perip heral speeds and a prohibitive
,
internal resistan c e in some types of turbi n e .
For large size units— 2 000 kilo w att an d more— the i n c on ven ience is n o t so
marked .
The followi n g table gives t he on ly speeds admissible for a 5 0 period

alte rnator .
R e vol u ti on s pe r
Mi t
nu e .
In Fig 3 07 are plotted the speeds of a c tual turbi n es an d the spa c e betw een
.
,
the extreme curves will give w hat may be termed the p racti c al zon e of speeds .
For remarks o n the s p eed of exhaust steam turbines see p age 3 28 .
S P E E D O F M A R I N E T U R B I N E S — For the mari n e turbi n e .
the sp eed should be as low as possible o n ac c ount of the d iffi c u l ty in obtai n ing
,
a high e ffi c ie n cy with fast ru n ni n g p r op ellers .
3 54
SP EE D OF T U RBIN ES . 3 55
M atters are hel p ed considerably by the adva n tageous system of multiple

propeller shafts — three being a c ommon number The turbine is then split .
up i n to one high pressure and two low pressure u n its and thus the very large
- -
to tal number of stages required to deal w ith the ran ge of pressure an d a lo w

spe ed of revolution is some w hat disguised I n a four shaft arra n geme n t ea c h
.
-
wi n g pair of turbi n es forms a complete unit .
1 00 0 2 000 3 0 00
FIG . 307 .
—Speed of Tu rb in e s co u
pl e d t o E l ec tri Gc rtr
e ne a o s .
I n Fig are plotted approximate speeds for marine turb ines of the
3 08
This diagram shows that on the basis of horse—
.
Parsons type . po w er alone

, ,
previous practi c e is n o t a guide to a suitable speed for a marine turbi n e .
The ce n tre shaft n eed not ne c essaril y rotate at the same speed as the port
an d starboard shaf ts although it appears to be desirable that they should
, .
E xamples are as follo w s
Re vo l ut i o n s .
When the propellers are similar to eac h other the i n tended power is ,
an d
therefore about equal it does not appear to be an easy matter to i n duce the
,
shafts to revolve at the same speed The wake exerts a great i nfl u e n ce i n

.
varying the e ffi c ie n cy of eac h prop eller I n the three shaft arrangement and .
-
with si m ilar propellers the e ff e c t of the wake o n the naturally u n symmetri c al

directio n s of rotatio n takes the fo r m of a tende n cy for the wi n g shafts them
selves to rotate at a di ff ere n t speed I n the four shaft arran geme n t the sp eed
.
-
of the outer shafts like w ise te n ds to di ffer from that of the in n er shafts ,
a c c ording to p e c uliar circumstan ces .
wmo o
5 0 00
FI G . 308 .
—
Sp ee d o f M ari ne Tu rb i ne s ( n ot i nc l ud ing Des tr r
oye s
I n traci n g the rapid history of the mari ne turbi n e it is to be observed that

a considerable di ff ere n c e in the speed of the i n ner and ou t er shafts was
arran ged for in the earlier vessels principally with the idea of keepi n g the
,
diameter of the low pressure turbi n es small I t was found however that the
-
.
, ,
sac rifi c e was bei n g made at the wrong end an d th at it w as better to adopt
,
larger propellers with a slo wer speed The later designs therefore aim at .
having all the shafts to rotate at the same s p eed .
C avit at io n or the formation of a vac uous space at the back of the pro
,
peller blades due to the water not havi n g time to follow u p is the great
,
,
trouble with fast ru n ni n g p ropellers The limiti n g te n sion at which the

-
water c an be torn asu n der in this way seems to be about 1 2 lbs p e r square .
inch at 1 2 i n ches immersio n that is to say the w ater must not be thrust
, ,
35 8 THE TH E ORY OF THE ST E AM TU RBIN E .
The ratio of proj e c ted area to disc area of propeller has espe c ially in light ,
draught ves sels to be mu c h greater tha n in re c i p ro cati n g e n gi n e prac ti c e

,
-
although w ith a great i n c rease in the size an d p o wer of the vessel the c o n ditions
of the t w o types of prop ulsio n be c o me more alike A ratio of about 5 1 8 a .
'
c ommo n value 4 5 an d 5 5 bei n g the approximate limits I n any case i t I S

.
' '
.
,
u n desirable to ex c eed 5 5 .
FI G 3 1 0
. .
—
Pr op e ll e r T hru s t Pr es su r e w i th Tu rb i n e s .
For propellers of average e ffi cie n cy the , me an ef i

fec t ve thru st is given
approximately b y the followi n g formula ,
where B H P is the break horse p ower at the tail shaft an d K the spe ed of
. . .
-
the shi p in k n ots per hour .
The B H P is most p ro fi t ab ly fou n d from the resistan ce of a model of the

. . .
vessel but in the abse n c e o f this mean s the p o w er m us t be estimated in the

,
usual way .
SP EE D OF T U RBIN ES . 3 59
An exam p le wi ll illustrate the ge n eral procedure to be adopte d in

determini n g the speed of the turbi n es .
The estimated B H P o f t u rb in e s to propel a given vessel at

. . .
’
20 knots is
— 5 000 on each of three shafts .
2 6 0 x 5 000
20
lbs .
The class of vessel admits of the ass umption of a peripheral speed of pro
peller of 8 5 00 feet per mi n ute .
Then by Fig 3 1 0 the worki n g m ean thru st with the propeller tip
.
immersed 1 2 inches is about 8 lbs per square inch . .
The surface of the reference propeller is therefore

6 5 000
8 x 1 44
56 5 sq u are feet .
Assuming the ratio of

pro j e c ted area
disc area
565
the reference disc area AI 7
13
1
1 25 7 square feet ,
givi n g a diameter of 1 2 6 5 feet .
I n maki n g the ad j ustme n t for the actual im m e rso n of the propeller it is ,
best to refer to a co n stant peripheral speed Thus the 85 00 feet per mi n ute .
selected abo ve will be the spe ed of the ac tual as well as of the reference
propeller .
Let A2 be the disc area of the actual propeller and kl 11 2 the im mersions ,
of the ce n tres.
The n Al (h, 3 3 ) A2 U 1
,
From a preliminary design of the vessel it is es timated that the actual

i mmersion h2 will be about 1 6 feet .
There fore
16 33
1 03 5 square feet
115 feet diameter of propeller .
8 5 00
Revolut i ons x W
2 35 per mi n ute .
I n the earlier vessels the d ifii c u lty of obtaini n g s u fii c ie n t propeller surface

,
was par tially overcome by fi tt ing multiple s c rews o n the shafts several vessels ,
havi n g 3 on each shaft .
Progressive experien c e short as it has been has however shown that a

, , , ,
better e ffi c ie n cy is to be obtai n ed with single screws an d multiple s c rews are ,
therefo re only warra n ted u n der ex c eptional circumstan c es of power and

drau ght of the vessel .
The fo regoi n g is not i n te n ded to deal effectively with the many pe c ul i

ari t ie s and diversities of propeller design but to i n di c ate the method of ,
arrivi n g at the speed of the turbi n e .
Table XX c om p iled by M r E M S peakman gives particulars of marine

.
,
*
. .
,
turbine i n stallatio n s .
P I t E gi
ro c. ns a d S hi pb ild r i
. n S o tla d 1 905
ne ers n u e s n c n , .
V E SS E L . SE RV I C E . OW NER . B U I L DE R . B m
ea
T urb i n ia E xp e ri m tal en C A Pa
. . r so n s C A Pa
. . r so ns
K i ng Ed wa d r P l r t mr
e asu e s e a e r
T u b in e S t
e am e s, r Lt d . De n n y B r th r o e s
Q ue e n Al d r e xan a Di tt o Di tt o
Vip r e r
To p e d o -
b t d tr y r
oa es o e Haw h o t r n, Le s li e, da Co .
Cobra Ditt o Ditto r tr g Wh it w rth

A ms on , o ,
d C z o
l Di tt Di tt H w th r L li
.
Ve ox o o a C
o n, es e, o .
Ed e n
C tl
o as a d e s tr y r
o e s
Oc e an go n g -
i D itt o D i tto
des o e s tr y r
D itt o D itt o
R y al Ya h t
o c K M K ng E d w a d i r
ypt
. .
M ahro u ss ah Th e K h e d i ve o f E g
Ch l t mr t r C t y B r t h r
t
Sou h E as e n and h a
R i yC p y
-
an n e Ds ea e e nn o e s 31 0 40
h am a lw a o m an
B ri t Lo n d o n , gh o n , an d
t C t R il y Sou h o as a w a Co
t r r r S ran ae an d La ne
ri Se v c e
d d rry Ditt
i l il y Di tt
M d an d Ra wa Com
L on on e
p y o
an
o 33 0 42
Di tt Vi k r S M im o c e s on s ax
I l f M St m h i p Arm tr g Whitw rth s e o an ea s s on o

C mp y
,
C o an o
Ditt th E t r d C h t y Br th r
.
O w d n ar S D o ou as e n an a e nn o e s 40
h m R il w y C m p
-
y a a a o an
Di pp e Di tt
e L d Brigh t d F i fi ld
o on o n, o n , an a r e 34
S th C t R l w y 0 ou o as ai a 0
G J B Di tt urn s o
G r at W t r R il w y J h Br w 6 C
.
e es e n a a o n o n ; o. 350 40
C mp y d L i rd C o an an a o
P i E li z b th B l gi G m t C k rill
.
1 905 r n c e ss a e e an o ve rn en oc e
1 905 H m b r g H lig l d V l C mp y a u e o an u c an o an
S t am hi p C m p y e s o an
Lh P r i
as sa G lf t I d i ; B i ti h I d i St
e s an m hip u D y Br th r
o n a r s n a ea s en n o e s 27 5 0 0
I t rm di t C mp y
n e e ae o an
I t rC l i lS r i U i St m hi p C m Di tt
i —M l b r
L g oo n an a n e -
o on a e v ce , n on ea s o o 3 00 0 0
T m p y rN w Z l d
as an a e o u ne an o e e a an
bi i I I Pl r t m r Lak T bi St m hi p H wth r L li 6 C
' ‘
I ur n a e asu e s e a e e ur ne ea s a o n, es e, 3 o 260 0 0
O t ri y
.
.
C mp n a o o an
M h a e no I t rC l i l U i St m h i p C m
n e -
D y B r th r
o on a n on ea s o e nn o e s 0 0
p y fN wZ l d an o e e a an
A tr li P g r us a an asse n eW rk m d Cl k o an an ar e 300 0
Atl i I t m d i t All St m h i p C m
an t c n e r e a e D tt an ea s o i o 54 0 0
S r i p y e v ce an
Atl ti M il C rd C m p y an c a u na o an
Di tt Ditt o o
CHAPTE R X X .
LA B Y RI N T H OR F R I CT I O N P AC K I N G S .
CO NT E NT S—Th eory o f L abyr i n th E x pe r ime n ts wi th L abyri n th —Co e fii cie nt s of Disch arge

-
L ong Sli t —E x pe ri me n ts—Coe flicie nts o f Di sch arge —C e ntri fugal Packi n g— C omp ressor
Typ e of Packi ng .
T H E O RY O F LA B Y R I N T H —The estimation of leakage through a

.
labyri n th is best referred to the theoretical dis charge through a n ozzle of the
same area by a coe ffi c ient This co e ffi c ie n t would embody the effe c t of the
,
.
number of stages in the labyri n th an d the ge n eral effe c ts of fri c tion .
From experimen ts des c ribed in the sequel it appears that the latter depend
considerabl y on the ratio of expan sion .
The maximum dis c harge through a labyrinth is approximately c alculable

on more or less legitimate assumptio n s an d c ertainly the cal c ulated discharges
,
agree with those re c orded in the experime n ts in an encouragi n g man n er .
The maximum fl o w through a labyrint h would oc c ur whe n each slit is a

perfe c t nozzle an d appare n tly this conditio n is approximated m ore nearly
,
with a la r ge drop of pressure than with a small drop .
Let PI be the absolute initial pressure lbs per sq ft , . . .
p, sq inch . .
1
v i n itial s e c ifi c volume c u b ft per lh
p , . . .
fi n al
area of slit ,
s
q f t
. .
in c hessq . .
n umber of stages or slits .
quantity of steam fl o w in g lbs , .

p e r se c .
ratio of expan sio n

V
1
available en e r gy from r .
S ince the slits of a labyri n th are invariably of such a form that a velo c ity
greater than the criti c al veloc ity ( about 1 400 feet per se c o n d ) c an n ot be
p roduced within the slit it follo w s that there may p o ssibly be an ultra
,
c riti c al dro p of pressure be yond the last slit whi c h does not parti c i p ate in the
ratio of ex pan sion of the labyrinth proper The velo c ity c onditio n s in su c h a .
case will be similar to those of an under expandi n g nozzle or hole in a -

‘
plate
’
.
The p roblem may be investigated in a similar ma nn er to c ase 2 typ e 4 ,
( page ex c ept as regards the possible pe c uliarity of the last stage .
For the labyrinth may be viewed as a species of turbi n e where the ki n etic
,
36 2
LABY RIN THS . 3 63
energy created at ea c h stage is absorbed in heati n g the steam by eddies and

friction instead of doing work upon vanes .
The energy expe n ded in the fi rst stage or slit is

v—
1
2
e
9
1
2
and if the velocity does n o t i n crease beyo n d the critical velocity the e n ergy ,
expended in the last slit is
but if the total drop of pressure at the last slit is greate r than the critical ,
the energy expended i n the slit is

1 4002
30400 f t . lbs per 1h
. .
,
29
the ultra critical drop and velo c ity not appeari n g in

-
the value of
There are therefore two cases
C as e I — Let the total pressure range or ratio
.
of expansion and the total number of slits be such

that v n is not exceeded
a .
.
Then with co ordi n ates (e n ) F ig 3 1 1 the mean

-
, , .
,
val u e of 3 will be seen to o c c ur w he n E is one half -
expended .
When the expansion is isothermal as is app roxi ,
mately the case with wire drawn steam p -

constant , v Em 3 1 1
, ,
an d therefore
The co n dition of c onstant slit area is expressed by

Q c onstant
A
.
Also Elog r PV .
Therefore ( Fig .
log r
has a maxi mum value when
equals about °
7 2 8, which gives the li mi ts
r
between which the expressio n is valid .

3 64 T HE T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
C ase 2 .
—When the total drop of pressure at the last slit is greater than
V”
the critical the ratio of expan sio n of the labyri n th is not but some less
an d the mean value of e is the mean between
2 and 6
I
Further ,
E
'
Pv log
Ap 1
6 6 2— 10 g
Q
The limiting appli cation of this formula is whe n the fi n al volume is less
in which case ( 1 ) applies i n stead .
( 2) ann ot be solved dire c tly but the solution will be found an easy
c ,
matter by trial and—error -

.
The quantity of steam fl ow in g according to these formul ae may be

regarded as the approximate maximum I n practi c e — o r at least so far as
the author s experime n ts show—the formula holds fairly true for large
.
'
ratios of expan sion but for small ratios there is apparently a very mate r ial
,
fri c tional resista n ce within the slits themselves so that the actual fl o w is ,
rather less than given by the formula Possibl y this is c o n n e c ted with some .
variatio n in the kind of ex pan sio n the assumption of isothermal expansion ,
not bei n g stri c tly c orrect .
The pressure distribution in the labyri n th given by the ab ove formul ae

agrees remarkably well with the re c orded p ressures in the followi n g examples .
These pressures m ay be found b y i n serti n g the value of Q and p utti n g

73 equal to the number of slits u p to the position under cal c ulatio n .
E x p e rim e nt s Fig 3 1 2 illustrates an ex p e r ime n tal labyri n th with a

.
-
.
maximum of twelve slits The small s c rew valves are to e n able the pressu r es
.
E n giaweri n g d e r iv es a f rm l a
o u
)
1
3
Q = 6 8A
v1 n( l og r )
wh i h giv
c es
p acr ti all y th
c e sam e r e su l ts as ( 1 ) an d as th e c ase m ay b e .
From these fi gure s it will be see n that the fall of pressure follows
pra c ti c ally a straight li n e law whe n the clearan c es are u n iform I n addition
-
.
to testi n g the dis charge through the twelve slit labyri n th tests were made -
with six slits and with o n e slit .
N um b e r of S l ot s .
FIG . 31 3 —Fall of r
P essu er ( Air) thr h
o ug l2 -
l t L ab yri th
s o n . Low an d M rt
od e a e P r r
e ssu es.
The results from these seri es are plotted in Fig 3 1 6 The W w inch . .
l
li n e was obtained by extrapolatio n and deduction The co e ffi c ie nt in this .
and s ubsequent cases is

Actual discharge
With the twelve slit labyri n th set at fi

-
g
?
inch ( cold ) c learance the
followi n g re sults were obtai n ed with steam
LABYRIN TH S . 3 67
TA L EB XXI .
Dis A ppr ox D ig
Fi nal r Th r rg
. .
c ha ge eo Goe th cha e COOL

p N zzl i t
.
Te m per o e c en by ( l )
r Di h
.
F
’
. hou sc . or ( 2)
lb s . lbs h r
. . lbs hr . .
1 26
;
45 53 7 (1
'
71 7 1 28 28 1 (1
55
~36 2 ( 2)
°
33 s as4 14 3 ( 2)
' -
Nu m b e r of S lo t :
Fl u 3 1 4
. .
—Fal l of Pressur e ( Steam ) thro ugh 12 -
l t Labyri th
s o n . H i gh Pr essures
.
3 68 T HE T H EORY OF T HE S T E AM T U R B IN E .
The readi n gs were take n over periods of from one to th r ee ho u rs eac h and ,
were checked by subdivisions in the usual way for steam c o n sumption tests -
.
They are also the mean results of several readings take n o n di ff ere n t days .
The c o e ffi c ie n t s (colum n 7 ) in the above table are plotted in Fig 3 1 7 .
near the li n e A B C fro m which it will be see n that a maximum c o e ffi c ie n t

,
is obtai n ed when the ratio of expan sio n is about 6 .
C ombining these values with the c urves of Fig 3 1 6 the followi n g .

,
empirical formula is obtai n ed .
Co e ffi c ie nt O f d is c h arg e or leakage c o e ffi c ie n t , ,
04 427 '
J
, n
in which r has a maximum value 6 2 even though the a c tual ratio of ,
expan sion may be greate r .
This formula gives for 1 511 0 i n ch clearan ce the li n e A B C in Fig 3 1 7

.
“
5
.
,
practically c overi n g the e p e ri x
me n tal po i n ts an d si n ce b y Fig .
3 1 6 there is very little diff eren c e

in the c o e fiic ie n t for a large range
of c learan ces ( 5 ) also ap p lies very ,
c losely for an y cleara n ce likely to
o c cur in practice .
The theoretical formul ae

an d ( 3 ) give a nearly c o n s ta n t
c oe ffi c ie n t for a given n umber of
slits Thus ap plyi n g ( l ) an d .

, ,
( )
3 to the co n ditio n s of the e x e ri
p
me n ts the las t four colum n s in ,
Table XXI are obtai n ed These . .
d f oSl t o c o e ffi c ie n t s are also plotted in Fig

o s . .
F I G 3 1 5 —Fall f Pr r ( Ai r ) thr gh
. o
3 1 7 an d I t W I 11 be seen that the
e ssu e ou ,
6 l t Labyri th
-
s o theoreti cal formul ae hold remark
n .
ably true for large ratios of ex

p a n sion , but for lo w er values than about 6 it is n e c essary to resort to
( 5 ) for the c oe ffi c ie n t .
The theoreti c al discharge from the referen c e nozzle to be used in ( 4) may

be foun d from diagram A ( c over) or from the formul ae on p 44 .
.
N a p ier s formula is the simplest an d is quite accurate e n ough for the

’
,
purpose .
6129
Then Q 1
xA lbs per second
70
.
Ap 1
xA
1 0000
LO N G S L I T —I t is of i n te r est to c om p are the leakage through the

.
c ommo n labyri n th as co n structed with that through a plain long slit as

represented in Fig 3 1 8 I t is hardl y of any use to c losel y i n quire as to the
. .
leakage through a labyri n th of u n iform cross area as sho w n i Fig 3 1 9 as n .

,
su c h a c o n stru c tio n is hardly pra c ti c able ex c ept perhaps in radial fl o w ,
turbi n es .
I n the case of a lo n g slit m uch will depend on the smooth n ess of the ,
3 70 T HE T H E ORY O F T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
onsisted of a p lai n straight slit of a maximum length of 4 3 inches

o rifi ce c
the same length as the labyri n th .
After a series of tests had been m ade W i th the f ull le n gth of sl i t the ,
le n gth was reduced to one —h alf .
FIG . 317 .
—
C o e fii c ie n t o f Di sc h arg e of L abyri th r f rr
n e e e d to pe rf t N
ec 02 2 16 .
A third series of readi n gs is the same as fro m the si n gle slit of the
labyri n th that is a slit 1 inch lon g
, . .
Figs 3 20 3 2 1 illustrate the fall of pressure with low and very lo w heads
.
, .
Fig 3 2 2 gives the c o e ffi c ie n ts of discharge obtai n ed with air at low

.
pressures .
F ig 3 I 2A gives both the labyrinth an d long slit c oe ffi c ie n t s superposed

.
the length being c ommon Oi course these are only c om pa r able with the
.
FIG . 31 8
.
FIG . 319 .
parti c ular labyrinth dimensio n s adopted that is g inch pitch —a c ommon , ,

size in p ractice n evertheless , .
Thus ov all le n gth for le n gth the labyri n th has the advantage as a
er -
leakage reduc er for an y c leara n c e above fi m“, in c h but belo w about that value l s
,
the p lai n slit s c ores On the other han d for the larger cleara n c es there is
.
,
li ttle to c hoose be twee n them on t he basis of a tual length of path an d it c

,
L ABYRIN T H S .
37 1
therefore really doe s n o t matter much after all whether we regard the
labyrinth as a long tortuous pat h or as a kind of vaneless turbine .
3 20.
—Pre ssure Fal l al o n
g rr
na ow t
Sli w i th sm a ll Di ffe ren ce s o f Pressure .
Tests under high —pressure steam were also made with the long slit set
at fi g, inch (cold ) with the followi n g mean results
,
T A L E X XI I B .
A ppr x o .
Di sc a ge h r Th r t N zz l
eo e . o e
lb s p er h r
. . Di h r sc e e
lbs p e r
. r .
The above c o e ffi c ie n ts are plotted in Fig 3 1 7 . on li n e D E F, the poi n t D

be i n g obtained from the low —pressure air tests .
37 2 THE T H E ORY 0 1? T H E S T E AM T U RBIN E .
This line is rep rese n ted by the formula

Co e ffi c ie n t of d is c h arg e
A8 AI 0 4 6 57 ( 7)
’
:
w here A I is the c oe ffi cie n t obtained from Fig 3 22 for a given clearance and .
le n gth an d where r has a maximum value 6 7 For le n gths above about

,
1 5 in c hes the following formula approximately represe n ts Fig 3 2 2 and .
Fig 3 1 7 ( D E F) combined
.
,
A , = 43 046 5r
'
where c is the clearance in i n c hes an d

l is the length in inches .
FIG . 321 .
-
r
P r Fall al
e ssu e on g n a rr ow Sli t Wi th ve ry sm a ll Di f e re n c es of Pressure .
We then have very approximately

x A lbs per second
,
.
70
The above two series of experimen ts are not advan ced as a complete
solution of the labyrinthal leakage problem I n actual p r a c tice there is the .
effect of the rotation the effect of the fl ow through the slits being op posed
,
to the centrifugal force an d the effect of the presence of water ; in fac t there
is a host of minor variables j ust as there is in the turbi n e itself so that static ,
exp erime n ts can not presume to e n tirely represe n t the e ff ect in pra c tic e
H owever these various items mostly tend to reduc e the leakage still further
, ,
so that the c o e ffi c ie n t s give n above m ay be con sidered as maxima .

3 74 TH E T H E ORY OF T HE S T E AM TU R B IN E .
I f there is a permanen t ring of w ater revo lvi n g the above manner it is in ,
probable that the full differen ce of steam p ressure will at some time be
exert ed o n an y o n e ri n g .
The f ull steam pressure on the ri n g of wate r blowing it against the ce n tri ,
fugal forc e is ,
( 1 6 0 x 12 22 00 lbs .
The steam pressure is thus over whelmi n gly greater than an y centrifugal
force that can be c reated .
Su p pose that the pressure is graduall y redu c ed an d that a series of ,
pressure zones ( whi c h may be quite fi lle d with water) are trapped between the
successive ri n gs .
2 2 00
Then 18 ri n gs at least would be required .
1 26
The water ri n gs would however have an equal inducemen t to be held at

, ,
rest by fri c tion o n the fi x e d ri n g as to revolve with the dumm y ri n g The .
mean velo c ity w ould therefore be only and the n umber of ri n gs required
would be 7 2 an impracti c able number Similar fi gu re s are obtai n ed for the
,
.
low—pressure p iston The above example does n o t .

,
of c ourse take into account capillary forc es whi c h

, , ,
under the peculiar co n dition s are quite u n k n own , .
I t is very questionable whether surface tension

( except for very minute clearan ces indeed ) plays an y
im p ortan t part u n der the ki n d of grindin g action
and with the clearan ces that obtain in pra c tice .
With the ordinary type of dummy ri n gs the rings ,
Em 32 3 ,
must either actually rub or be c lear N ow it is an
,
.
extremely d iffi c u lt matter to e n sure having a give n

c learance whe n the turbi n e is at its full normal heat moreover variation s ,
of tem p erature an d of s uperheat c ertai n ly do have a c onsiderable effect on

the relative expansion of the roto r an d casi n g so much so that it has oc curred ,
that the rings have fouled seriously and have had to be ren ewed The rings ,
.
i n variably do rub a w ay in normal c ircumstan c es where it is obvious that all ,
con ditio n s c a nn ot be kept perfectly steady

I t therefore follows that for a given ad j ustme n t—which is nat urally
.
sup p osed to last for a co n siderable time —there will inevitably be a measure
,
able leakage clearan ce under the n ormal an d sub—normal c o n ditions of working

when the ri n gs have rubbed themselves j ust c lear u n der some extreme
con dition of worki n g ( su c h as a temperature rise of 5 or 1 0 above the ° °
normal an d whi c h is j ust as likely to occur on the fi rst day of worki n g as at

,
an y other time ) .
C E N T RI F U G A L P A C K I N G —As distinguished from the compara .
t ive ly minute ring of water A B of Fig 3 2 3 a ri n g of co n siderable radial .

,
depth m ay be arra n ged to form a stati c wate r seal -

.
Fig 3 2 4 re p rese n ts diagrammati c ally a type of p ac king whi c h as a centri

.
fugal pum p glan d appears to be of some a n tiquity As ap plied to a steam .
turbine the idea is a little di ff cult to carry out to e n sure satisfactory

i
op eratio n
The packing con sists of an annulus of w ater—o r water seal —a b c the
.
wate r b e in g ke p t rotati n g by the fi n s or paddles d secu red to a disc which is

‘
a wa t er tight fi t on the shaft

-
.
LAB YRI N I HS 37 5
' ‘
.
The difference of press ure p , p 2 Ap is bala n ced b y the ce ntrifugal force

,
-
,
of the rin g of water h .
The strictly corr e ct equation of eq uilibrium is rather complicated ,
parti c ularly if desig n ed to i n clude simultaneous variatio n s of h and of the

radii of the wate r surfac es .
The fo llowing app roximation is quite ac cu rate enough for practical

purposes especially as the quantity of water involved and its position of
,
eq uilibrium are largely matters of chance .
Let r be the mean radi us of the ring 11 3 then with the us u al notation , ,
we have
21 rrap
w2r
whe n ce 72
Let r = 5 feet
( 1 3 lbs per sq i n c h )
Ap = 1 8 7 0 . .
S peed of wa te r N = 1 5 00 revs per

,
. mi n .
and 5 x 1 870
feet or
h '
085 1 02-
i n c hes
.
There is con siderable uncertainty as to the tru e value of E ve n with

large fi n s and a prac tically smooth c hamber the water can hardl y have the ,
same angular velocity as the shaft itself There m u st n ecessarily be some .
side clearance between the fi n s and the casing with a cons equent amount of ,
slip .
The ac tual speed of the water therefore probably lies be twee n the l imi ts
, ,
and where ml is the angular velocity of the t urbine shaft

ml , .
Formul a 1 0) shows the importance of provid ing e ffi c ie n t fi ns to keep the

wate r in motio n .
1 57
Fo r instan c e if in the above example
, w
C
)
i n ch e s h 37 4 ,
a rather u n manageable dime n sion in prac ti c e for the size of gla n d .
The fa c t that the d raggi n g acti o n of the fi n s is not pe rfect an d that there ,
is co n siderable sl i p an d ed dy disturban c e re n ders it n ec essary to app ly a ,
co n t i n uous stream of w a ter to the gland b y a pump —a b ye pass from t he -
ho t well pump for i n sta n ce

-
,
A certai n amou n t of water a ls o b o ils away into
.
the t u rbi n e c asi n g an d has to be repla c ed .
The c hief obj e c tions to t his gland are fi rs t ly that it is di fii c ul t to preve n t

, ,
splas hi n g and spi lling of wate r ; and se c o n dl y that it is only p roperly ,
operative at about the fu ll speed of the turbi n e that is the turbine can n ot ,
be starte d up u nder a p ro per vac uum T hi s perhaps does n o t matter muc h

.
T HE T H E ORY 0 1? T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
for self con tai n ed u n its but when other plant discharges into the same co n
-
,
denser the feat u re is o f course a nuisan c e , ,

.
S uppose for example that with the above data the maximu m value
, ,
of 1 p rovided for in the design is H 5 feet

3
: .
Then from ( 1 0) w = 7 8
an d N 7 46 revs per m in of the water . .
,
o r say 1 000 revs of the turbine

, ,
. .
Fig 3 2 5 illustrates a c ombination of lab yri n th an d centrifugal pac king

.
pate n ted by M r W C hilton of the B rush Co the obj ec t bei n g to hold a

. .
,
reaso n able vac uum before the turbine is on speed .
Although it re q u ire s a very low speed for ce n trifugal force of a mass to
overc ome its weight ( whe n

2
i t is nevertheless not easy to form the ring
01
of w ater without rather heavy fl ushin g particularly if the air pumps do create ,
a di fference of pressure of a few pou n ds bet w een the outside an d i n side of the
turbine The water in fact simply blows straight through in broken streams
.
, ,
.
Fro 3 2 4 .
-
C t ri fen uga l Pack i n
g . FI G . 3 25 — C e ntri fugal Pac ki ng ( C h il to n )
.
To reduce this trouble it is ne c essary to make the channel as n arrow as

possible .
The g r eat adva n tage claimed for the packi n g is its shortn ess as compared
with the labyri n th or ot her pa c ki n gs an adva n tage that is c hie fl y ap p aren t ,
in s mall sizes of turbi n e Wi th large sizes it w ill be found that a short

.
pack ing does not ne c essarily allow the turbi n e shaft to be shorte n ed much ,
the le n gth of the latter bei n g really determined by a number of facto r s ,
i n c ludi n g ac c essibility of parts .
C O M P R E SS O R T Y P E O F P A C K I N G — A type of pac ki n g .
that is of n o use but is so ofte n proposed is what may be c alled the com
, ,
‘
pressor pac ki n g .
’
The ge n e r al idea is illustrated in Fig 3 2 6 a b 0 ( generally about three .

, ,
are p r oposed ofte n o n ly o n e ) are fi x e d c hambers comprisi n g the st u ffi n g box , ,
in ea c h of whi c h a ki n d of radial fl o w t u rbi n e is plac ed with the vanes op posed

-
to the direction of rotation so as to che c k the air tending to leak into the
c asi n g from outside The device is really su p posed to be a ki n d of turbo
.
compresso r .
CHAPTE R XX I .
D U M MY A R RA N G E M E N T S .
C ON TE N TS —Thr ee Typ i cal A rra nge m e n s t —Dou b l e Fl ow Turb i n es —R eve rse d Fl ow Tu rb in es .
T Y P I CA L A R RA N G E M E N T S .
— There have bee n ma n y arran ge
ments of dummy pistons devised mai n ly with the idea of redu c i n g their size,
both on account of mechani c al d iffi c u lt ie s and to mi n imise the leakage e ff e c t .
( )
1 The arra n geme n t whi c h e n sures a practically perfect balan c e at all
loads is that having dummies to the same n umber and of the same diameters
( approximatel y) as the drums This arra n gement is shown in Fig 3 2 7
.
. .
F1 G . 3 27 .
—C mm o on Du m my A rra nge m e n t.
The dummy diamete r s should be a little larger than the drum diameters ,
respe c tively to allow for e n d thrust o n the vanes

, .
This end thrust for a grou p of van es of the same length is practically
equal to Hp , 1 2)A since half the sum of the pressure drops takes pla c e in
1
,
the fi xe d pas sages A is the mean area of the vane an n ulus

. .
The balance pipes B B1 B 2 must be of amp le size to e n sure that o n ly a

, ,
mi n ute differen ce of pressu r e shall exist bet w ee n the respe c tive drum an d
dummy e n ds with the greatest leakage likely to oc c ur either way .
This arrangemen t has the disadvan tage that the low pressure dumm y is -
rather u n manageably large in turbi n es of even moderate size — tha t is it is ,
large to keep reaso n ably steam tight in proportio n to the si e of the turbi n e
-
z ,
an d dema n ds a large e n d to the casi n g to c ontai n it The estimatio n of .
dummy diameters is a matter of simp le arithmeti c an d hardly requires ,
e x e m p lifi c at io n .
(2) a r rangement p ate n ted by M r Fullagar and largely used by M essrs

An ,
Willan s Robi n son is that sho w n in Fig 3 28

, . .
H ere the third d ummy is tran sferred to the other end of the turbi n e and ,
378
D U M MY ARRAN G E M EN TS .
379
si n ce its i n n er diameter is that of the shaft instead of the sec o n d dummy D2 ,
the outer diamete r is con siderably smaller than in arrangeme n t The

thrust block — for residual and emergen cy thru st an d for longitudi n al ad j us t
FI G 3 2 8
. .
— Fu llagar s Dummy
’
A rra n ge m e n t .
m e n t — being at the end E dummy D3 cannot very well b e pa c ked by the

,
u sual form of labyrinth on a c count of the relative longitudinal expa n sion of

,
the rotor an d easing which is hardly ever c onstant an d may on o c casion

, ,
amount to a sixteenth of an in c h or so dependi n g upon the le n gth and con ,
stru c tion of the turbi n e .
The labyri n th then takes the form

shown in Fig 3 2 9. .
( 3 ) C learly the
, lea s t size of dummy
possible is obtained by adopting o n e dummy
only and applying the initial an d fin al
press u res of the turbine to it Em 329
This method — Fig 3 30—has the merit
. . .
of being an easier mecha n ical problem but has the disadvantage that u nless
,
the interm ediate pressur es p 3 are know n w ith fair certai n ty the error
in the balance may be considerable The l eakage loss can be kept about .
the same as in arran gements ( 1 ) and
FI G . 3 30 —Singl e Dumm y A ra
r n
ge me n t .
( 4 ) T H E DO U B L E F L O W T U R
-
B I N E — This type of tu rbine , .
pate n t e d by Parsons in the fi rs t i n stan ce ( Figs 1 08, has bee n largely .
adopte d by the W esti n ghouse Co , parti c ularl y for large sizes, F ig 1 2 8

. . .
The dru m , however, is n o t stepped in their examples .
I f the drum is stepped c urate balance depen ds on the eq uality of 102

, a c ,
and p a P s ample pipes are therefore req uired Fig 3 3 1

,
'
. .
I t is obvious o n ge n eral grou n ds that if in ( 1 ) the num be r of slits in the

3 80 T HE T H EORY 0 1? T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
dummy is equal to the n umber of rows of vanes an d if the c learan c es are ,
equal each to ea ch the to tal leakage l o ss through the turbi n e proper an d

, ,
through the dumm y is about the same an d there would be no advantage in ,
substituti n g a turbi n e for the dummy an d thus c on verting ( 1 ) i n to

I n any desig n of this sort ( whi c h n evertheless is c onve n ie n t in very large , ,
FI G . 33 1 — Dou . bl e - fi ow Tu rb i n e.
units as it avoids having to fi t un man ageabl y lon g van es at the lo w pressure

,
-
e nd b y halvi n g their le n gth ) it should be e n quired whethe r or n o t

ordi n ary dummy would be bette r .
Take a gen eral example :

I n a give n group let
pl 85 lbs absolute .
P230
S pee d = 1 5 00 revs p e r m in . .
v = 2 00 feet per se c o n d . d = 2 55 feet

mi) l 6 00
m 88 '
b 9
A 9 '
Then
E 6 2 5 00 ft lbs per 1b approx
. . . ,
p m
:
5 1 5 lbs absolute.
v," 82 1 x x = c u b ft per lh . . . approx .
73 : 1 4 ro w s , fi x e d plus movi n g .
Area required to pass 1 1h of steam p e r seco n d equals

.
1 x 80 5 x 1 44
s in q . s .
6 00
C learan c e area per lb . equals
a
sq 1ns
A 9
.
B ut total vane c learance ( 5) area

x x 1 2) 7 6 8 sq . i n ch .
76 8
Therefore leakage Q 3 580
lbs per se c
. .
The leakage streams do ac tive work to the exten t of o n e third ( page

Therefore effective le ak age Q as a loss is
23 8 lbs per sec
. .
or '
311 lbs per se c o n d per

. sq . i n ch .
38 2 TH E T H E ORY O F T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
( )
5 P art iall y d o u b l e fl o turbines in man y varieties have bee n
w -
devised from time to time the doubli n g usuall y bei n g made w ith the low
,
pressure portion of the turbi n e .
The chief advan tage lies in hal vi n g the le n gth of the c omparatively lon g
vanes req uired for large u n its and the c hief disadvan tages generally lie in
E m 3 33
. .
—
Part i al D b l ou e - fl ow Tu rb i ne .
the extra length of rotor req uired over that for the ordinary design and in ,
the a w kward positio n of the exhaust branch .
Fig 3 33 sho w s a typi c al arra n gement

. .
Fig 3 3 4 sho w s an arra n geme n t where by adopting a di fferent ratio in

. ,
t wo low press u re portions the high pressure d u m my is dispe n sed with

-
,
-
.
FI G . 33 4
.
—Partial D ubl o e - flow Tu rb i ne ( Lon don ) .
The di fferen c e in the ratio has n evertheless to b e so con siderable that one
or the other low p r essure portion must be very in e fli c ie n t— a feature hardly
-
permissible in the most valuable p art of the turbine The arran gement .
therefore defeats its obj e c t The balan ce moreover varies greatly with the
.
, ,
initial an d fi n al pressures and is liable to be dan gerous

,
.
( )
6 R EVE R S E D F L O-
W T U R B I N E S —Fig 3 3 5 shows the . .
ideal diagrammatic arran geme n t in which the pressure on one dru m is

balan c ed by that on the others .
E mbodied in o n e c asin g the ideal arrangeme n t is partly d estroyed be c ause a ,
shaft c omparatively thick in the middle does not give a su ffi c ie n t ly rigid roto r .
DU MM Y A RRAN G E M E N T S . 3 83
diamete r in the middle approximati n g the diameter of the high press u re -
Fxo 3 3 5
. .
—
Reve rse d fi ow Tm b in e
-
.
dru m is ge n erally necessary to preve n t ex c essive whipping at the low critical

speed of the system .
FI G . 336
.
—Reve rsed -
fl ow Tu rb i ne .
Th e above arrangement therefore beco m es transformed into that shown

in Fig . 33 6 .
FI G . 33 7 .
I n both this type of turbi n e in the partiall y d ouble fi o w type it is

an d -
be tte r if possible to t ran sfer the s team through the drum i n s te ad of throu gh
3 84 TH E T H EORY OF T HE S T E AM TU RBI NE .
a re c eiver pipe si n c e the latter is liable to pull the c asti n g out of li n e by the
,
relative ex p an sio n an d c o n trac tion eve n though an expa n sion poi n t be fi t t e d

, .
S everal turbi n es have bee n m ad e in whi c h the arrangement of F ig 335 is

.
m o d ifi e d to the exte n t of dividi n g the turbi n e i n to two separate portions

w ith pro p er beari n gs an d a c ou pling in bet w ee n i n stead of the i n tern al gland
,
or bush .
Fig 3 3 7 illustrates an early turbi n e made by the Westi n ghouse Co

. .
This arrangement is ge n erally obsolete now although it is n ot altogether

,
improbable that the adve n t of very large units —say k wt s or more

.
may see a revival The arran geme n t must n o t be c onfused with the divided
.
dis o—built impulse turbine I n that c ase it is n o t a question of pressure

.
balan c e but solely one of providing a stiff eno ugh rotor

,
.
386 TH E T H E ORY OF T H E S T E AM TU RBIN E .
mean s as a rule abo ut o n e test per d ay A cold water dou c he is

, ,
.
-
possi ble sometimes but n o t as a rule M oreover the removal an d

,
.
,
replac eme n t of laggi n g is frequently a seriously i n c onven ie n t item .
( )
4 S mall ap p aratus is liable to be c hoked or roughe n ed by a more or less
u n avo idable sedime n t from the steam eve n w he n superheated ,

.
For relative quantitative measureme n ts the followi n g app aratus was

employed — Fig 33 8 . .
A and B are c as t iro n re c eivers havi n g the plate 0 bo lted between their
flan ges The plate 0 is pe r forated to suit the particular test piece D to be
.
experimented with— for exam p le a labyri n th packi n g E is the air supply

,
.
c o n trolled by the c ock F to an y desi r ed p ressure in A The p ressure in B is .
c o n trolled by the area of a standard n ozzle fi t t e d at G Thermomete r s were .
FI G . 338 .
—Stan dard A pp ar atu s for m e asu ri n
g R e l at i ve Di sc h arge thr o ugh N zzl
o e s, e tc .
fi tte d as shown but it was fou n d u nn e c essary to take thermometer readi n gs

, ,
si n c e the i n let temp erature n ever va r ied mo r e than a degree or so an d was ,
pra c ti c all y i n de p e n de n t of the weather va r iatio n s A di ffe r e n tial barometer .
H ( water as a rule ) is fi t t e d between A an d B an d an other barometer J is

, ,
fi t t ed to B an d o p posed to the atmosphere A suitable quan tity of copper

.
gauze is p lac ed in A and B to kill the direct velocities ge n erated in fron t of

the apertures .
N o w it is k n ow n from t he various c lassi c ex p erime n ts of R ateau H irn

, , ,
R osenhai n and man y othe r s that an y n ozzle havi n g a straight axis has
, ,
p r a c ti c ally the same c o e ffi ce n t of dis charge for a c on siderable ran ge of head ,
parti c ularly if the p ressu re drop is less than the c riti c al an d the n ozzle is ,
convergen t an d c arefully bell—mouthed .
I t is also k n o w n that fo r s m all diff e r e n c es of p ressure within the limit of

the c riti c al dro p the velo c ity g e n erated is give n by the usual h ydraulic
,
formul a 0 2 29 71 .
M I S CELLAN E OUS E X PE RIM E N TS AN D CO E FF ICI EN TS . 3 87
I f then 17 2 is kept co n stan t the quantity fl o w in g is pro p ortion al to J p ,

,
-
p 2
.
Further with parti c ular referen c e to t he diff erential baromete r H the

, ,
quantity fl o win g from A to B will with the very small variation of the ,
regio n of the pressures ado p ted in the experime n ts be depe n dent solely o n
’
,
the difference of pressure between A and B For example if in o n e e xp e ri .

,
me n t p = at m o sp he ric = say 400 i n c hes of water and p = 420 i n ches ( the

B A
maximum di ff ere n tial readi n g ad o p ted here was about 2 4 i n ches of w ater ) ,
an d in another experiment p p = 4 1 0 4 3 0 i n c hes the quantity fl o win

g, A ,g ,
in both cases will be practically

identi cal and will be proportio n al
to J Ap or J 20 S imilarly .
,
changes in the atmospheric pres

sure are negligi b le .
The method of experimen t

for determi n ing the rate of flow
thro u gh a test piece D whi c h is
subj ected to serial m od ifi c at ion s
then becomes as follows
By means of the inlet co c k F
the air is ad j uste d to a random
series of pressures h, on the differ
e n t ial barometer H A standard .
nozzle of a suitable size (a pie c e

of glass tube draw n down an d
stuck in an air tight cork will do -
very well ) to give a conve n ient

ran ge of pressure readi n gs 11 2 o n
the baro meter J is i n serted at G .
R eadings h, an d 132 are taken

simultaneously and a curve drawn
as in Fig 3 4 1 for example A
. .
very large number of readings

c an be take n in a few mi n utes
—
,
a d
n fi n al accuracy should be S al h al f i z c e s e
easily attai n ed For small read .

Fl o 3 3 9 —Th Typi al N zz l . , re e c o es .
i n gs care must be take n with

the e ffect of capillarity when using water O ther obvio u s pre cautions need .
not be detailed here .
The relative quantity fl o win g at any selected press u re 71 , is then given by

the correspo n ding J kr
DI S C H A RG E T H RO U G H R E CTA N G U L A R AN D
C U R VE D N O Z Z L E S — Particularly with reference to turbines of types
.
1 and 4 where as a rule the pressure drop per stage is mu c h less than the
,
critical drop an d where in co n sequence the n ozzle passages should be wholly

,
converge n t it is requi r ed to k n ow the c o e ffi c ie n t of d is c harge of curved

,
passages of the shape more or less inhere n t to the turbi n e an d also when ,
those passages are isolated or in a series formed by mean s of blades or

,
van es.
Two series of experime n ts will therefore be described with isolated and

serial n ozzles respe c tivel y
—
.
S e r ies I I s o l at e
. d n o zz l e s These nozzles ( 1 ) ( 2) Fig 3 3 9 were
. .
,
carefully made in brass .

388 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
N oz zle ( 1 ) is pra c ti c ally ide ti al with s ozzle C for whi c h his

n c B ateau
’
n ,
*
experime n ts give a c o e ffi c ie n t of dis c harge ap p are n tly about 1 0 025 or ,
pra c ticall y u n ity .
N o z l e ( 3 ) is the a pp roximate shape of an ordinary Parso n s van e passage

z .
N o zz ie ( 2 ) is a n ear a pp roximation of the progression of area o f n ozzle ( 3 )

straighte n ed out All these n ozzles are about the same size at outlet but
.
,
were of c ourse registered The ex p erime n ts were made with air in the
.
apparatus above described an d the following abstracted results were

,
obtained .
TA B LE XXIII .
N zzl
o e .
a is the mean angle of discharge whi c h by a c oi n cide n ce o n ly happens to be

,
an a ngle freq u en tly me n tion ed throughout the book The observed .
angles shown in Fig 3 39 were found by means of a cotton thread fl ie r the

.
-
re c eiver B bei n g removed .
There is a d iffi c u lty in formi n g a de c ision as to what the real outlet area
of dis cha r ge is in N o 3 n ozzle Although the c on c ave or n ominal guidi n g
. .
surface is set at it seems obvious by i n spection that the area measured

square to this direction is in general inadmissible because it is not the ,
narrowest sectio n as given by the mi n imum distan c e of the c orner a from the
con vex surfac e c d This is especially noticeable with large pi tches of vanes
. .
The obj e c tio n s to taki n g the mean of the extreme spreadi n g an gles of the
actual dis c harged stream are similar also this mean an gle is n ot the mean
,
an gle of the mass disc harge There is certai n ly a compressio n on the c o n cave
.
side and a rarefaction on the c onvex side as sho w n by Fig 36 4 but it is an , .

,
extremely d iffi c ult matter to determ i n e exactly where the mean stream lin e is
in the c ase of a gaseous stream .
There is little doubt from the i n spe c tion of the issui n g st r eam of steam
,
( steam bei n g more or less visi b le

) that the c o n vex surface or bac k of the van e
,
drags the stream from its real geometri cal an gle of dis charge a c urved stream ,
line at ou tlet bei n g quite perc eptible This is particularly noticeable with .
Rat e au ,
Fl o w o f S team .
390 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S T E AM TU RBIN E;
‘
isolated passage tests The 131 732 c urves ( Fig 341 ) were struc k up as
’
.
, .
previousl y des c ribed and the following results abstra c ted
d 31
A t al
a c u
rr
Na ow es t N arr w t o es
Va
t
Sec i on . S ti ec on .
S tiec
ne
on
Sq I n s
[ X b x sin al
. .
8 3 0 88
2 51 8 7 9 ?
7 06 5 8 7 59 3
'
01 15 '
354 85 3 5 8
h, (i
n s . wa t e r
)
FI G . 3 41 .
—D ta f
a or Di sc h arg thr
e oug h E xp ri m n tal Va
e e ne Passage s .
I t has bee n see n from the isolated zzle exp erimen ts S e r ies I that there
no , .
,
is some just ifi cat ion for taki n g the true angle of dis c harge of the c urved shape
MI SC ELL AN EO U S sx p s am s urs AN D CO EFF ICI EN TS 39 1
'
to be no rmal to that at the n arrowest se c tion I f this is a true interpretatio n .

,
then it remai n s to ac c o unt for the difference of the values above Fig
% . .
34 2 gives the narrowest width of pas sage an d the an gle at that section of the
particular vane sha p e in terms of the pitch .
The set of the va n es was really 2 5 % ( see Fig

‘ ’
This an gle is
,
°
.
fre que n tly taken as the discharge angle I t is however obviously i n corr e ct
.
, ,
5 '
6
H ‘CVW/d tfi 34
'
Kan e s
FI G 3 42
.
—G eo m e tr i cal Prope rt i es o f A Van es .
for large pitches the normal c oming beyond the i n let ed ge of the vane For
,
.
the purpose of c omparison the thi c kness co e fii c ie n t measured in this way

is shown in Fig 3 43 . .
The ac tual appare n t a n gles of di sc harge as obtai n ed by cott o n fl ie rs are

give n in Fig 3 4 4 R everti n g to Fig 3 42 o n whi c h the investigatio n s will be
. . .
,
base d it will be found that the n omi n al thi c k n es s of va n e in the pla n e of

,
narrowest section does n o t ac coun t for the w hole of the c hoki n g and that the ,
di screpancy varies in the contrary way Some ad ditional phe n ome n o n must
.
be sought I t c annot be fri c tion to any measurable degree be cause it has

. ,
392 O
T H E T HE RY o r T HE S T E AM T U R B IN E .
been seen in B ateau s e xp c rim e n t s and in Series I that where the greater
’
.
part of the velo c ity is ge n e r ated close to the outlet there is no great fri c tion ,
t he surfaces of cou r se bei n g smooth Fri c tion may the n be expected on ly

.
FI G . 3 43 .
at very narrow pitches w here the ne ck of the n ozzle retires muc h farther
inside.
N o w it is see n that an isolated stream spreads ( Fig 3 3 9 whereas it is

.
obvious that multi p le streams can n ot ex c e p t fo r a small spa c e dep e n de n t o n

,
the effe c tive thi ck n ess of the van e edge S in c e however the te n de n cy exists
.
, , ,
i t m ay be i n ferred that there is a corresp o n di n g amoun t of interfere n c e or

c lashi n g of the n eighbouring streams
( F ig This is c on fi rm e d b y Fig
.
.
3 94 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE S T EAM TU RBIN E .
Q lost in 4 c lashes 3 2 2 '
an d Q lost in 1 c lash 08 '
in the 1 hole w ith clashi n g ( supposi n g the c ondition possible ) Q would be

7 065 0805 6 26
‘ ' '
B ut Q in the 1 hole w i t hout c lashi n g is 7 065 .
6 2 60
C l as hing c o e ffi c ie n t , k,
_
'
7 065
The T h i c k ne ss c o e ffi c ie n t la, based on Fig 3 42,

. is given
'
pitc h it is 6 8 7 6
4 08 '
Then combi n ed or total

C h o k in g co e ffi c ie nt K 8 87 x 6 87 6 09 .
N arro w p i tch
For 8 holes we have Q 2 51 8 .
For the 1 hole we have Q = 3 44 .
if there were no clashing Q in 8 holes would be

3 44 x
Q lost in 7 c lashes
an d Q lost in 1 clash
Q in the 1 hole with c lashing would be

, ,
'
3 44 '
01 43 3 29 7 .
'
3 29 7
C las h ing co e ffi c ie n t
W
The T h ic k n e ss c o e ffi c ie n t is 6 84 ( Fig
'
The total C h o k in g c o e ffi c ie n t 9 5 9 x 684 6 55 :

' '
.
These three c o e ffi c ie n t s are set out in Fig 3 46 Fig 3 4 3 gives the . . .
alternative c oe ffi c ie n t s obtai n ed o n the assumption that the an gle of dis c harge

is c on sta n t This ass u mptio n is of course on ly ap p roximately c orrect over a
.
, ,
n arrow ra n ge of pitches The clashi n g c oe ffi c ie n t is about the same in both

.
fi gu re s as i n deed it ought to b e — in fa c t the c oi n c ide n c e ap pears to c o n fi rm

, ,
the ge n e r al c orre c t n ess of the method of its extracti o n The combi n ed .
co e ffi c ie n t is co n seque n tly led astray by the thickness c o e ffi c ie n t .
R eferri n g to F ig 3 40 showi n g the van e section ( also Fig

.
, it will be .
seen that at a pitc h of about 1 8 i n c h the ne c k of the nozzle begi n s to ' ‘ ’
retire withi n the passage an d as the pit c h de c reases to form a c onvergo

, , ,
diverge n t nozzle An addition al c oe ffi c ie n t for fri c tion al losses should there

.
fore begi n to appear at this c r iti c al pitch an d this c oe fii c ie n t would also ,
i n crease to i n fi n ity at the bli n d pit c h .
A te n tative fri c tion coe ffi c ie n t c urve is added to Fig 3 4 6 but as no .

,
dis charge experime n ts were made with these small pitc hes the c urve has n o
experime n tal c on fi rmat ion .
Further when the passage becomes c o n v e rgo d iv e rge n t the dis charge pe r
, ,
u n it area i n c reases o n a c cou n t of the as p iratio n effe c t of the divergen t portion

MI SC E LL AN E O U S Ex rs s m s s rs AN D c o s rri c murs . 3 95
—at a n
y rate this appears
,
to be the case for small drops of pressure much
less tha n the critical drop An example of the phe n ome n o n is give n on
.
page 406 Ho w mu c h this effe c t c ompe n sate s for the l oss by fri c tion has
.
not bee n investigated The fri c tio n an d as p iratio n fa c tors so far as the
.
,
series under dis c ussio n are c o n c ern ed are c omparatively immaterial si n c e

, ,
the pitc hes involved are very much smaller tha n would be ad o pted in
prac ti c e .
S i n c e c las hing 1 s a pure edd y producing operatio n it seems ju st ifi ab le to ,
c onsider that the clashi n g c oe ffi c ie n t is c o n t rib u t0 1 y to the c oe ffi c ie n t

’
m ‘
Fl o 3 4 6
.
— Coe ffi c ie nts o f Disc h arge , e tc .
, thr o ug h A Va ne Passages .
( pages 1 2 0 1 9 9 ,
I,
f the nozzles alone as nozzles are bei n g dealt with this ,
will be the whole of m B ut in the case of typ e 4 turbine for i n stance it

.
, ,
will only be part of m although as it turn s out the other co n tributions are
, , ,
probably small .
For the fo rmer c ase then m = ( clash in g c oe ffi cie n t) an d is the facto r

, , ,
representi n g the ki n eti c e n e rg y c onverte d i n to heat by the clashi n g .
W he n c al c ulati n g a r eas of fl o w it is of c ourse n e c essary to take the

,
o ver all c oe ffi c ie n t of c h o ki n g whi c h is so far as the above fac tors c arry the
-
, ,
matte r thi ck n ess c o e fli c ie n t x clashi n g c o e ffi c ie n t

,
.
E xample with a t hic k s t raig ht — t aile d v an e For c o n venience these will .
be referred to as B vanes .
396 TH E T H E ORY OF THE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
Fig 3 47 gives an enlarged view of the s ection used The thi c k n ess of the
. .
vanes was 605 i n ch an d the set 2 0 degrees the blind pitc h is therefore
'
°
1 7 6 6 inch .
Two test pieces were made as before havi n g 2 van es an d 5 vanes re

sp e c t iv e l
y the,
total le n gth bei n g 2 i n ches in each case The pit c hes were .
n o t quite u n iform an d were therefore separately c alibrated

,
.
The followi n g results were obtai n ed with air
a A tual d c T tal o
No o f th
Pi c
A r a at A r a i l d L gth
e e nc u en of
.
Passage s I ns
.
N ar w r roi g Va e Va n ne ne .
S tiec S ti on .I ec on . n s.
Sq . I ns . Sq . I ns .
5332 51
3 14 3 015
'
2618 8 01
3 4 13
7
1 9 6 95 8 1 1 48 7 22
The 9 value for the practically perfect c urved nozzle bei n g 8 5 8 ( Series
a
the di fferen c es betwee n this value and those for the above isolated passages
app arently represe n t fri c tion .
Sc al e —21
f ll i z u s e .
F1 0 . 3 4 7 —E xp r i m
. tal Va e en n es.
Thus for ,
'
6 096 pitc h ,
°
14
36 3 6 57
‘ °
an d at the bli n d pitch ,

'
1 77 friction so
398 THE 1 11 110 11 11 o r T HE S T E AM T U RBIN E .
N arro w p itch
F ric t io n c o e ffi c ie n t k at 3 63 p it c h
Q lost by
clashes 5 1 29 .
1 c lash
The 1 hole W i th clashi n g would be “
26 1 8 0 25 8 2 36 .
C l as hing co e ffi c ie nt k,
The above deductions are based o n the assumption that the perfect passage
might be c o m pi ise d withi n the actual Sp a c e available that is that the full , ,
thi c k n ess of the van e which is parallel for a considerable length is

, ,
obstru c tive .
This does not app ear to be u n reaso n able esp e c ially as the two above ,
c o e ffi c ie n t s are already of c o n siderable magnitude ; and as there are more
FI G 3 49
. .
—M odel u se d for d e t rm i i
e n n
g L akag v r V a
e e o e ne T i ps .
variables than equation s there is no altern ative but to make the m ost reason
,
able assumption .
The t hic k n e s s c o e ffi c ie n t k is then a matter of geometry o n ly an d we

, ,
have for example

, ,
3 pitch thick n ess i t = 1 025 06 05 0 420 ' ‘

a
'
, p s n
'
042
co e ffi c ie n t
'
41 an d so ou .
°
1 025
Then the combined or total c h o k in g co e ffi c ie nt K = 71, x k x le , t.

The portion of these to be i n c l uded i n m is Is, 2 x
These var i ous coe flicie n t s are p lotted m Fig 3 48
‘
. .
L E A K A G E O V E R V A N E T I P S or C L E A R A N C E LE A K
A G E — A diffi culty in determini n g this c o e fii c ie n t lies in the provisio n of an
.
apparatus that in stati c experime n ts shall i n c l ude the effect of the motio n of
the van es .
I t seems reasonable to suppose that the relative motion of the vanes and
MI SC ELL AN E O U S E X PERIM EN TS AN D CO E FF ICI EN TS . 3 99
casi n g or drum as the case may he tends to make the leakage stream take
, , ,
the same path as the mai n strea m through the va n e passages .
Therefore i n stead of abutting a series of van e e n ds wi th a plain wall ( the

°
condition in a turbi n e at rest ) the leakage slit was placed bet wee n t wo series
of va n es as show n in the plan Fig 349 The leakage stream should the n
. .
have approximately the same distorting forces upo n it as actually o c c ur in the

movi n g turbine The represe n tation does n o t presume to be perfe c t for t he
.
,
Q
degree of perfection varies with the ratio L I f 3 is very large for i n stance
-
.
, ,
0 0
l
there is comparatively little distorting e ffo rt o n the leakage stream arising
from the relative motion The c o e ffi c ie n ts must therefore be j udged
.
ac c ordi n gly
.
R eferring to Fig 34 9 which represents the t est piece used the slit was
.
,
ad j usted serially from 0 to fi r m i n ch and the relative dis c harge ascertained in

e f
,
the p reviously described apparatus .
The 11 2 curves are set o ut in Fig 3 5 0 and taking the readi n gs at k, 8

.
the following table was obtained
The maximum
3 , 8 7 as against of Table XX II I is a little high but .
, ,
this m ay be due to the sides of the slit at a a not being closed u p thus ,
givi n g a little freer dis charge as i n dicated by the arrows in Fig 3 49

,
. .
I t will be seen that the drag of the va n e shape makes itself felt for clear
an c e s up to about inch The angle of dis c harge at the narro w est vane
.
area was about The sine of 36 is 5 9 an d the clearan c e coe fficient at

°
°
in c h is also 59 Therefore at
°
. i n c h the c learance m ay be
considered as a direct addition to the le n gth of the vane B elo w i n ch .
frictio n rapidly chokes o ff the leakage .
The c o e ffi c ie n t s obtained above of course o n ly apply stri c tly to the va n es

, ,
experime n ted with whi c h were 1 inch wide At the time of writi n g the
, .
,
author has n o t experimented with other sizes I t seems however reaso n able .
, ,
to suppose that the co e ffi c ie n t will be about c o n stan t for a given ratio of

clea ra n ce to width of va n e ; for although the actual clearan c e area varies with
the clearan c e onl y the friction varies w ith the width of the vane and the
, ,
time for draggi n g the direct leakage stream to the askew path is also in
proportion to the width H aving these poi n ts in view t he c o e ffi c ie n ts of
.
,
Fig 3 5 1 may be adapted to circumsta n c es witho u t any d iffi c ulty

. .
4 00 T HE 1 11 11011 11 0 11 THE S T E AM TU RBIN E .
E x amp le . W idth of
van e 9, i n ch c learan c e 0 36 ,
i n c h le ngth of van e l + b
, .
Fin d the total eq uivale n t

le n gth o i va n e L ( Fig
‘
,
.
By ( 1 ) page 1 8 9 ,
Ab
L = l + b+
K s in a
and by the above hypo

thesis 03 6 inch with a'
{2 i n ch van e is eq u ivale n t
to 0 2 4 i n ch with a 5 i n ch
van e Fig 35 1 then gives
. .
A= 7 3 °
S uppose K
. 64 :
( from Fig 346 or the like )

.
,
l + b = 3 inches an d a = .
73 x 0 36 °
T h en L 3
3 4 x 4 22
3 0 97 i n ches i n stead of ,
the a c tual width of an nulus .
T H E E FF E C T O F
O B L I Q U E I M PA CT .
— Let A B C Fig 3 5 3 be ,
.
,
an ordi n ary velo c ity t ri

angle an d let E B d re pre
,
sent the actual set of the

van es .
Then the obliquity of

the stream at entry is the
an gle Se e also Fig .
1 8 4 etc
,
.
The ap paratus to be
u s ed in determini n g the
e fl e c t of varying <5 requires
‘
special con sideration I n .
the case of imp u lse tu rb in e s

the c hief immediate eff ect
of impact is spilli n g a facto r ,
that depen ds considerably

o n the length of the va n es ,
the thi c knes s of the streams

and the curvature of the
vanes and the degree of
,
isolation of the n ozzles so ,
that a coeffic ien t possessi n g

an y ge n eral utility is hardly
possible of expression .
For rea c tion turbi n es

of type 4 where there is ,
a large n umber of rows of

van es of the same lengt h ,
b] (i ns wat e r )
FIG . 3 50
.
-
ta f
Da or Di h arg v r Va
sc e o e ne Ti ps .
4 02 T HE T H EORY o r T HE S TE AM T U RBIN E .
for i n sta n c e con sist of o n e series of van es pla c ed in fro n t of another series
,
w ith an o pen cleara n ce bet w ee n as in Fig 3 5 4 ,

. .
W ith su c h an a ff air there w ould be a fair amount of s p illi n g or spurting

o u t at the c learances There would moreover be a c ertain amou n t of dire c t
.
, ,
impa c t o n the van e edges — an u n n e c essary i n t r odu c ti o n .
I t is to be observed that the n e c essary a c c o mpa n ime n t

of 1 ; in most turbi n e co n stru c tio n s is a lo c al e n largeme n t
<
of the passage an d a spurious expansio n .
The ap paratus the r efore resolves itself i n to suitably formed

c losed passages either si n gle or in multiple ,
.
I n the p rese n t te sts si n gle passages w ere taken as being

the least c ostly an d as more generally adaptable to the
,
various exigen c ies of the tests .
S ix re c tan gul ar tubes a b c d e f Fig 355 were pre , , , , , ,

.
,
pared so that a was c o n stant an d 5 varied as shown ,

< .
A lon g straight tube A w as take n be cause the stream , ,
Em 3 54 . .
at impa c t was required 11 1 have a very d e fi n it e direction and ,
its parti c ular dis c harge c oe ffi c ie n t seemed to be immaterial

to the p r esen t problem The outlet tube B c orresp on di n g to the second
.
,
van e passage w as made c on vergen t to the origi n al i n let area in A The

,
.
im pa c t an d ac c ompan yi n g s p urious expansio n may then be regarded simply

as an i n c ide n t in the passage of the stream from one e n d to the other .
Sc a e — a s e
l h l f iz FI G 3 5 6 —Pre ssu re Vari ati on in
—Se ri
. . .
FI G . 355 es of N zzl
o t rm i i
e s fo r d e e n n
g E ffec t N o zz l e e Fig 3 5 5
,
. .
of O b li I t
q u e m pac .
Fig 3 5 6 represe n ts the pressure tran sformatio n s oc c urri n g in the tube d

.
,
for exam p le ( gauged from pilot holes in one side ) an d demo n strates that the ,
p ressu r e does a c tually fall nea r ly the full amount available before im pact and ,
that the straight i n let tube therefore appears to be suitable for the
experime n ts .
N ow the e ffect of the impac t and chan ges of p r essure may have a twofold
MI SC ELLAN EO U S EX PERIM E NTS A ND CO E FF ICI E N TS . 4 03
origin The ge n eral effect is a c hoki n g the bent passages passing less than
.
,
the straight one and this c hoking may arise from a true reduction of
°
equivale n t area or from a redu c ed veloc ity By the former is meant some
, .
thi n g in the nature of an obstru c tio n in the passage C o n sider for instance .
, ,
the limiti n g c ase where qS is w hich amou n ts to pluggi n g the e n d of the

passage e n tirely W ith 5 havi n g values between 0 and 1 80 we might expect
. <
°
a more or less proportion ate obstruction .
The experiments for discharge ca nn ot di ffere n tiate the two kinds of

choking and it is therefore necessary to measure the relative outlet energi es
,
of the streams by means of the balance ( as theore m I p 2 ) or by reaction .

, .
( as theorem
The rea c tion method is not suitable except with large apparatus and large
FI G . 35 7 .
—Se n si ti ve B al a n ce fo r light N o zz l e Di sc harge s .
qua n tities of air or steam as in Ro se n hain s experi me n ts

,
’
, p 43
. . The balance
was therefore used .
Let F be the forc e measured on the bala n ce

1) outlet velocity
Q quantity dis c harged
at inlet an d outlet area
p ou tlet density .
ap v2
Then we have F 91 )
9 9
and Q apfv .
Therefore if Q be measured we should k n ow 1) if p be constant ( the outlet

de n sity) I f p is consta n t for all tubes 7) should also be proport ional to J F
.
, .
I f p is not c onsta n t for all tubes then the tr u e velocity v is proportional to

,
'
p being commo n to numera tor and de n ominator .
I n addition to the ordinary pre c autio n s for ac c urac y the tubes were ,
carefully measured an d in the balance experiments the bu c ket ( which here

,
was a fl at plate ) w as set when at zero to precisely the same dista n c e in each
case from the o rifi c e —I U inch— b y a gauge Fig 3 5 7 will convey a general
I
. .
idea of the arra n gement .
F was measured on the steelya rd principle as being the most sensitive ,
method Z eros were also che c ked after eac h reading

. .
I t may be noted that a spring balance as used by Rateau ( F ig is , .
not sui table nor se n sitive enough even with the elaboratio n of a ve rtically
,
movi n g table so that whe n in e quilibrium under the impulse of the j et the
bu c ket shall b e at pre c isely the same dista n c e in all experime n ts from the
nozzle o rifi c e This ad j ust me n t is n e c essary in an y case beca use the effe c tive
.
,
4 04 T HE T H E ORY o r T HE STE AM TU RBIN E .
p
ressure F varies a little with the dista n c e a p art The a c tual dista n ce .
,
withi n reason able limits is n ot so im po r ta n t si n c e all quan tities measured

, ,
and dedu c ed are proportio n als o n ly an d n o t necessaril y absolute

,
.
The fo llowi n g results were obtai n ed an d a r e also plotted in F ig 3 5 8

, . .
Rat i o Ra ti o
Q
VF L — g
'
O ’
F of
/F
.
'
N 7 Q
Q
.
1 1 1
9 96 4 5 1 5 2 1 24 1
'
998 2 119 9975

'
'
9 69 996 1 0 27
° °
1 2 42 96 3 9 86
° °
8 84 87 2 85 9
° ' °
I t will be seen that there is a very fair agreement between c urves of Q '
an d of J F so that it is evident that the outlet de n sity does n o t vary much

’
.
,
B ut still if the difference that does exist be accepted the third curve of
,
gives the true variation of velocity .

,
2 ,
The full line 0 0

g
i s that obtai n ed from the curves of J F and Q '
r ,
allo w i n g for the errati c readi n gs 3 1 3 2 bei n g corre c ted the r eto
, .
Thus it appears that an obliquity of from about 1 0 to 3 5 degrees in c reases

the effi c ien c y of the passage as a nozzle .
( I h Fig 35 8 . is n o t unity e ffi c ie n cy The velocity e ffi c ie n cy or

,
.
c oe ffi c ie n t of dis c harge of ( a ) com p ared with n ozzle N o 1 S eries I is 8 5 3 .

,
.
,
perfe c t e ffi cie n cy is therefore rep rese n ted by an ordi n ate of about

Possibly this may be ex p lai n ed o n the supposition that the n atural
e n la r gement of the passage at the ki n k forms a n egative an d p ositive n ozzle ,
the p ressure risi n g an d fallin g a c c ordi n gly ( Fig and that the e ffi c ie n cy
.
'
of the former portio n is less than that of the latte r both e ffi c ie n c ie s are
more than that of the tube i n let w hi c h is well known to be low an d that
,
o n ly when the im p a c t be c omes violent enough to det r a c t su ffi c ie n tly from

the e ffi c ie n cy of the i n ternal n ozzles does the over all e ffi c ie n cy fall again to -
an d belo w the origi n al value .
I n other words the e n largeme n t pro du c es a b e n e fi c ial aspirati o n which is

,
dis c ounted by an im p ac t effe c t increasi n g with d) H owever eve n if the .

,
gy l oss be considered as re p rese n ted by the F c urve it is seen that a

'
e ner ,
very co n siderable obli q uity i n volves on ly a c o mparatively small loss of energy .
For instance if , the e n ergy with loss is 1 9 9 or 1 per cent , .
B ut if the 3 curve be take n — that is F per u n it mass dis c harge — there

1
,
'
Q
is an improvemen t in the e ffi c ie n cy of the passage of 1 0 8 —1 or 0 8 ,
per c ent .
I t is perhap s a little more correc t to refer the loss to the value of the
relative p erfe c t e ffi c ie n cy as give n above for although an a p paratus
, ,
might possibly be con structed givi n g a better over—all e ffi c ie n cy tha n a b out

8 5 this value n evertheless corresponds fairly closely w ith that obtai n i n g in
,
actual practice .
406 T HE T H E ORY 01 T HE S TE AM T U R B IN E .
Thus at ,
20
°
the energy loss by the F
'
c urve is or 85 per ce n t .
, an d
g
0
by ,
3g
the improvement is
1
— , or 6 8 per ce n t .
The ordi ates of the curve are

n F
'
ap proximated c losely by the c orre
s
p o val u es of 1/cos
n d in g This curve is also plotted in Fig 35 8 . .
E x p e rim e n t ill u s t rat in g as p irat io n o f c o n v e rg o d iv e rg e n t -
n o zz l e Fig 3 5 9 shows the nozzle used in the prese n t example

.
-
. .
Dis c harge readings in the standard apparatus ( Fig 3 3 8 ) were made fi rst .
,
w ith the complete nozzle A O B an d then with the nozzle cut down to A C , .
The results are p lotted in Fig 3 60 . .
he
FI G 3 59
.
— M ax imum r V ari ti Pr e ssu e a o ns in FI G 3 6 0 —Da
. . ta f N ozz l e Disc h arg
or e s.
Rec ta gul ar C v rg d i erg t N zz l
n on e o- v en o e .
I t is well k n own that the pressure at C is in ge n eral lo w er at 0 than at

A an d B ( S todola C arl Thomas and others ) but as a matter of i n terest the
, , , , ,
n e c k press ures were re c orded here three exam p les bei n g give n in Fig 3 5 9 , . .
The p ressures were measured th r ough a hole in the side and n o t by the more ,
usual Pitot tube I n Fig 3 5 9 the three observed p ressures are s imply j oi n ed
. .
b y straight li n es the complete p rogressio n of p ressures not being observed

, .
From S to do la s observation s the true c urve probabl y resembles a si n e c u rve

’
.
E xtracti n g an example from Fig 3 60 we have the following table .
N zz l
o e .
V
AB
MI S C E LL AN E O U S E X PE RIM EN TS AN D CO E FF ICI EN TS . 4 07
Thus with the partic u lar shape of these nozzles the dis charge per unit
area of neck is about twice as mu c h with the divergent appe n dage as without it .
Further experiments m ight be made with an appe n dage of variable

divergence .
I t will be n oted that the above observatio n s a p ply to small diff ere n c es of
pressure in particular Ac c ordi n g to Prof C arl Thomas experiments with
. .
’
steam whe n the differe n c e of pressure becomes c o n siderable the relative

,
discharge of the two nozzles in general be c omes reversed apparently owing , , ,
to the c hoki n g e ffect of the more or less viole n t oscillations o f pressure that .
are almost i n evitably prese n t .
The Ferranti stop valve Fig 3 6 1 ( made by M ess r s H opkin son ) is an , .

,
i n teresting application of the above phe n ome n a The valve simply con .
sists of an ordi n ary slui c e valve

designed to give a smooth bore
when opened and pla c ed at ,
the neck of a convergo d ivergen t -
nozzle The pressure variations

.
peculiar to steam fl o win g through

this type of passage therefore admit
the application of a valve mu c h
smaller than the normal size of the
pipe d As actually constructe d
.
,
d 1 is about o n e half d -
.
The over all drop of pressure

-
through the valve 101 —p 2 is of

course i n tended to be as small as
possible and the above e xp e ri
,
m e n ts i n di c ate that the valve is

probably highly efficien t as a dis
c harge apparatus .
This is borne out by the ac tual

duty perform ed b y the V 3 1V 9 8 Fm 3 6 1 —F a t i Pat t S t p Valv
’
9 . . e r1 n s en o e.
although it is rather d iffi c u lt to
obtain an absol ute measure of the e ffi c ie n cy the quan tities of steam i n volved ,
bei n g very large and the margi n of size on high pressure ste am fi t t in gs
,
-
being as a rule pretty liberal .
M r Ferra n ti s method of stating the e ffi c ie n cy w ill be seen in the tables

’
(p . ki n dly su pplied by him .
F ig 3 6 2 illustrates the apparatus used by M r Ferra n ti The apparatus

. .
c o n sists esse n tial ly of a line of pipe with c ontrol valves 0 at entry an d 02 at

1
exit valve u n der test V M easuring n ozzle M Pressure gauge P Thermometer
, , ,
T and M ercury gauges G 1 G 2

, The mode of operation was as follows : steam
1
.
was allo wed to flow through a p paratus for some time to warm it drai n s ( not ,
show n ) keeping the s ystem free from water Then drai n s were c losed and the .
two valves C1 02 so controlled that a predetermi n ed pressure was mai n tained

at inlet to V an d that gauge C 2 showed the di ffere n c e of pressure n e c essary
,
v
( obtai n ed from cal c ulated c urves

) w ith the temperature and pressure existi n g
at the time for a predetermined quantity of stea m to be passi n g Then .
readi n gs of T P G 1 G 2 and height of barometer were all logged

, , , .
The author has also made a fe w experiments with a small woode n model
of a Ferranti valve passage The ratio of the diameters was 2 1 as usual .
, ,
but the c ontour was probably not quite of sta n dard form The te sts were .
T HE TH E ORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
3 Fe rran ti —
”
Hop kzn son Valve 1 4 Diam
”
f Thro at
’
R esu lts f ro m T ests on . . o .
c: :1
0
0 -
0 0 ' bl) o
p
.
é
a :
2
h “d
8 8 50 3?
3 88 8 5 5
.
s o
2 3
=D
o 0 « 4 0
flnq 23
‘L O
a Q)
H R u -e
:J z fi u
“ 4 3 k P h
, ” 1
m O 4 -3 3 0 U g a n
c. w os
> E m
'
c n n c an
fi
qa p o
c crp c S
s
o . o g r
c: b
. H
_ o
ca m a. £1 Q.
9 °
o E w o n u
2 0 E ; ‘
75 8 a g
o a
9 -1
2 5"
é
l
w
—
0
5-4 8 G)
>
Q ‘ o
I lt hr at O tl t
F" u
:3 ° d o ” C
a 8 fi
.
T u m 1: 1
-
4
o:
5
n e o . e co 5" e
. .
.
0 4
Wet S team .
b v r l t t h q a t i ty f t
I n t he a o e e su s e u n o s e am per h r i that cal l t d fr m th v l i ty i th
ou s cu a e o e e oc n e
hr t v v Th q a t i ty al l at
t o a o f al e . e u n c cu ed fr m t h d r p f p r r i t h d i h arg zz l
o e o o essu e n e sc e no es
r t r all a es
is 2 2, g e a e i n c s .
Wate r
”
Tests f Ferran ti H op hzn son Valve w ith
'
o 6 -
.
T ests f
o 8 Ferran ti H op hi n srm Valve
-
at the Un iversi ty, S an Fran c isco, US A . . .
The v l i ty i t h thr at i ab u t
e oc n gr at r the th at r pr t d b y th d r
o s o e e an e ese n e e o
p
of
p r e ssu e r fr m i l t t thr at w i g t th i i t i al l i ty f th t am i th pi p
o n e o o . o n o e n ve oc o e s e n e e .
4 10 TH E T H EORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
in c hes w ater ) the n if the n ozzle is similar to that in the fi rst experimental
n ozzle above the worki n g differe n c e of p ressure available for the relay is 6
,
i n c hes of w ater i n stead of 2 5 ( b y Fig I f the shape is similar to the

.
Fe r ra n ti valve the auxiliary di ffere n ce of pressure is about 5 times the

difference in the t wo mains .
T E ST OF M OD EL OF F E RR A N T I V A LVE .
r b ab l Dr p
P o e o
hl It ,
r I lt
of P e ss ,
n e
/ R l at iv t Thr at
s if Q
l e e o o
In I n8 N ,
Re m ark s
wake “ wate r N gl ti g
. e ec n
'
I i t ial V l i ty
n e oc
o f S tr am e .
20 l 42 8
20
1 33 20 Same zz l no e
1 33 w i th r r co ne s
hll d i w i th
e n
w ax .
‘
34
’
5 83 10 O rigi al n
no zzl e cu t
d ow n .
I t is t noquite certai n what is the maximum possible magn ifi c at io n , but

for small d i ffere n c es of pressure it is at least six .
FI G 3 63 .
P re ssu re v ariat io n s zz l e p as s ag e s o f t he P arso n s T yp e

in no .
Fi gs . 3 64 A , B , C, D, illustrate pressure variation s occurri n g W ithin passages

MI S C ELL AN O U
E S E XPE RIM EN T S AND COE FF ICI ENTS .
41 2 THE T H E ORY OF T HE S TE AM TU RBIN E .
formed by two Parsons van es I n the p resen t experime n ts air was used .
instead of steam as bei n g altogether more c on ve n ie n t but the available ,
supp ly o n l y admitted a rather small pressure head — about 1 in ch of water -

.
The experime n tal van es were to a large s c ale an d were made of wood
varn ished F ig 36 3 is about full size an d the shape of the vanes is exac tly
. .
,
similar to a se c tion in common use .
The pressures were measured on o n e side of the passage by mean s o f a

lo n g i n dexed slidi n g p an el perfo r ated with a number of hol e s in d e fi n it e
p ositio n s an y of w hi c h c ould be readily c o n n ected to the man ometer by a
,
taper plug an d rubber tube The holes were also p itc hed so that only on e
.
could at an y time be over the passage in order to avoid an y leakage or dis ,
t u rb an ce not related to the phe n ome n a to b e observed The sliding .
Ho le s
FI G 36 5 — ppa
. A rat us f
or m easu ri n g P r r V ar iat i
e ssu e on s in V an e Passages .
also extended beyon d the o rifi c e an d pressures were re c orded thereat as sho w n
,
in F ig 3 6 5 b
. .
The test pieces w ere arranged on the top of a large wooden box or re c eiver
to whi c h air was supplied an d regulated b y a cock The gen eral arran geme n t .
is show n in Fig 3 6 5 The outlet pressure was of course atmos p heri c I n

. . .
the fi gu re s the full graded li n es de n ote positive pressures an d the dotte d li n es

,
-
negative pressures .
The existe n ce of a positive p r essure beyo n d the edge of the van e an d the ,
accompan yi n g eddies ap pears to con fi rm the previous i n fere n ce that there is a

,
c ertai n amou n t of i n te rfere n c e or clashing of the ad j ac e n t streams as they
emerge .
E XP E R I M E N T S I LL U S T R AT I N G T H E P R E SS U R E
O S C I L LA T I O N S W I T H I N T U R B I N E VA N E P A S S A G E S .
In these exp eriments a n ozzle A of rectan gular c ross —se c tio n was used ,
havi n g a progressio n of area suitable for the drop from 1 5 0 lbs (gauge) to .
atmosphere .
The experime n ts were n evertheless made with a graduated i n itial p ressure

risi n g from 5 0 lbs to 1 7 0 lbs gauge The steam supp lied in the steam pipe
. . .
414 T HE T H E ORY o r T H E ST E AM TU RBIN E .
de c reases This oc curred to an extent w hi c h was app are n t visually an d

.
,
belo w 5 0 1b s p ressure the j et broke away from the walls o f the nozzle the
.
,
over expansio n bei n g too great for it

-
N 13 I it ial p
.
o: 2 n r e s s u re
On the other ha n d there is little variation,
Ga g p lb s u e re s s ur e .
in the stability above ab o ut 1 00 lbs [70 150 130 110 90 70 5 0 3 0 0 0

.
1
The se c on d series of readi n gs were take n

with the open bu c ket C at ta c hed to the e n d
of the n ozzle as shown Soun di n g holes 6 b b .
were p ro vided all alo n g the curved p ath .
The total le n gth of the semicirc ular arc is

about the same as the length of the fl at plate B .
The curves p l o tted are to a commo n abscissa .
Figs 3 69 3 7 0 3 7 1 re c ord the results of

.
, ,
this series .
The third series were taken with the closi n g
Points of o b s e r vat io n .
FI G 3 6 7
. .
—Pr r O ill ti
e ssu e sc a on s in fr e e sp ac e FI G 3 6 8
.
—Pr e ss u re V ri at i o n s in
. a
t id N l
ou s e oz z e . fre e spac e ou tsid e N o zzl e .
piece D (c orresponding to the ba c k of an adj oi n i n g van e ) fi t t e d in The .
n ozzle in this case was placed i n c h away from the mouth of the buc ket ,
so as to give opportun ity for the pressure to be atmospheric at e n tran c e

( ex c ept for the superposed wave disturban c e ) .
MI S C E LLAN E O U S E X PERI ME N TS AND CO E FF ICI EN TS . 41 5
II 1 2 13 14 15 16 1 7 1 8
Poin t s o f ab s ar vat i on .
F IG . 3 70 .
Point s of o b s ervat ion .
F IG . 3 69 .
res re O c ill ati

P tra
n sm i tt d thr ou ha nd
gt
su s on s e
c r ated with in
e o pe n Va n e or Bu c e . FI G 3 7 1. .
416 TH E T H E O RY o r T HE S TE AM T U RBIN E .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 12 13 14 15 18 1 7 10
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Poin ts of o b s e r vaiian.
FI G 3 7 3 . .
29 21 22 24
POI HfS of o b s e r vat i o n .
F IG . 3 72 .
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 /1 12 13 14 15 15 17 /
8
18 20 2 1 22 2 3 24 25 28
“
r
P r O ill ati
e ssu e sc on s tra
n sm i tted through an d Points Of ODS CN G UO” .
r at d wi th i
c e e n l
c o sed Vane Passage s .
FI G 3 7 4
. .
418 THE T H E ORY or THE STE AM T U RBIN E .
MI S C ELL AN EO U S E X PERIM E NTS AND CO E FF ICI ENTS . 419
appears to be rela ted to the fact that the strea m li n es beyond the ou tlet are
not at all parallel as for i n stance shown in Fig 33 9
, , , . .
Pre ss ures measured at F an d E Fig 3 7 7 by holdi n g the ma n ometer plug , .

,
zz lc
FI G 3 77
. .
—A pp aratu s for m e asuri ng P r e ssu e r Variati on s in M o de l Va n ePassage .
j us t and facing the stream indicated an accumulation of the mass

in ,
discharge at F The sa me phenomenon was observed at the end of a lo n g

.
appen dage F E ’ '

.
Thus :
For Fig 3 7 5 . . For Fig 3 7 6 . .
m e ans of a special form of anemome t er o n the wi n d gauge p rin c i p le

By -
the velocity of the stream at F F a p peared to be higher tha n at E E The

,
'
,
'
fi gu res obtain e d however were erratic probabl y o w i n g to the great d iffi c u l ty

, , ,
in applying the i n strume n t in a satisfactory manner and in such a way as to ,
re cord a local condition .
N t — E x tra
o e .
pi f Diagram A may b
co b tain d appli ati t th Publ i h r
es o e o e on c on o e s e s,
C h arl G i ffi n C L td
es r o .
, .
T A BL E IV
XX .
PR O PE RT I ES OF S A T U R A TE D STE AM .
Te m p tr
e ra u e . Te m prtr
e a u e .
1 F ah r
. 1 Ab t
so l u e . t F ah r . 1
'
Ab l t
so u e .
-
a
O
O p
7 47 N w
w
I
7 49 5 91 2 N
7 51 5
I
N w
75 3 5 Q o
7 55 5 9 07 2 m o o
oo
a x
7 58
z
9 05 7 cd x
a l
7 60
x
904 2 o wx
a
76 2 c bt
o
o
764 -H
a ‘
901 4 c
°
v
76 6 ac c
é ;
9 00
mbo i
8 97 2
m
o cs
a t
r
771 8 96 md u
a
G
77 3 894 7
774 5 893 6
7 76 8 92 4 m !
?
g
7 78 89 1 mn i
w w
7 81 888 8 ma s
8 87 7
'z
. ;
P
i
-
xs
a
886 6 A op
'
7 86 hd
u
‘
m
Ai u u
i
7 88 5 8 83 4 °
b bc
i m
808
81 1
81 4
81 7
81 9 5
83 4 851
83 6
83 8 84 7 8
846 2
84 4 7
84 6 5 8 4l 7
°
84 8 5
For i t rm d iat val u

n e e e es at l ow p r r r f r t f ld
essu e s e e o o ed d iagram s.
420
I N DE X
A BS O LUTE back p r u r 2 9 4 e ss e, . C o mp ou n d turb i r a ti
63
e c on ne s , ,
path f tr am 1 4 8 o s e , . t rb i
u 57 7 9n es , , .
bar m t r 2 95
re ss ure C m u di g f
o o
pr
n r 62 n or e ssu e ,
AF
o e e , . .
( iabati q u ati e e o n s, v e oc ity 6 0 , .
A gl f d i h arg appar t a d r al 3 88
n e o sc e, en n e , ,
w i th i gl w h l 9 0s n e ee , .
ond i ge ns n mi f 32 0,
eco n o cs o , .
A r a f zz l 49 1 3 4 1 86 1 87
e . o no es , , , , .
p l a t r l at iv
n , t f 294
e e co s o ,
.
va pas ag 1 53 1 86
ne s es , , . ond u ti a d rad i ati
c on 2 01 n on , .
A pi rati 1 6 4 1 65 406
s on , , , . C ump ti f au i lia i 2 9 4
o ns on o x r es, .
t am ( tab l ) 304
s e e , .
BA LA N C E pi t an d gl and l akag 1 9 1
s o n s, s, e e, , T rry tu rb i
e 90 ne , .
362 . Th r t i al t am 4 8
eo e c s e , .
ord r m 1 06 1 08 3 7 8
u s, , , . ook parall l fl w tu rb i 22
e o ne , .
Bal a i g tatinc n 3 48 s c, ooli wat r 2 93

n e
, .
g , .
dy am i 3 4 8 3 5 2
n c, , . l br at i g il 9 6 1 1 1
u ic n o , , .
apparat 3 49 350 3 5 1
us , , ,
. C pli g 1 1 1 286
ou n , ,
.
Bar m t r abs l t p r
o e e ,r 2 95 o u e essu e , . C ri t i al p r r 3 6 3 7
c e ss u e , , .
a d va n um 2 9 4 cu , .
pe d 2 1 7
s e ,
.
B ri g l a ti 1 02 1 05 1 08
ea n ,
e s c, , , . v l i ty d i fri ti 2 1 7
e oc ,
sc c on , .
f t t p 95
oo s e , . f d rum r to r 3 47
o o s, .
B l l i a d M m turb i 90
e ss n 21 4
o rc o ne , , . f h aft i g t r i al 2 8 4
o s n ,
o s on , .
B r il li th r m 7 f hafti g w hi rl i g 339
’
e n ou s eo e , . o s n , n , .
B i bbi va i u data b y 29 4
n s, ro s , . f t pp d h afts 3 4 6
o s e e s , .
B l ad Va
es , see n es . f team 3 8
o s ,
.
Bu k t c l os d 8 1 33
e s, c e , , . C urti s t rb i 2 3 9 4 1 6 7
u ne, , , .
g v r i g 26 3 2 71
o e n n , ,
.
CAV I TA I O N 356 T , . va 2 09 n es , .
Ce tri f gal p r ure of t am

n u 41 8 e ss s e , .
tr
s i di
e sses tc 2 3 4 n scs , e .
, . A M P I N G f pr ur o il l at i 41 7 ess e osc on s, .
wat r al 3 7 4
e se , . e Laval i mpul t rb i 22 7 0 se u ne , ,
.
Ob k in va pa ag 1 28 3 94 39 8
in ne turb i t am ne, s e u m p ti n 3 05 3 1 3 cons
by bfiiq u i mpa t 4 03
o ss es , , , . o , ,
.
o e c , .
g r i 2 5
o ve n n
g 7 — 2 63 , .
Cla hi g f va
s n tr am 3 92 41 2
o ne s e s, , .
g v rn r 2 7 0
o e o , .
ffi i t 3 9 4
c oe c en , . z l 45
n o z es, .
Cl arae l akagn ce ffi i t 4 01
e e c oe c en , . r a t i turb i 2 6
e c on n e, .
i F ullagar turb i
n 11 2 1 13 ne , , . D fi iti
e n f a t u rbi
on o 2 ne , .
Par 1 06 1 1 1
so n s, , . Di agram ffi i y 3 1 1 9 1 74
e c e nc , , , .
Rat au 80 8 1 e , , . Di h arg fr m
sc zz l 43 49 3 85
e o no es , , , .
S t mp f 7 5 7 8
u , , . max i mum 4 6 ,
.
l akag ff t f type 1 1 3 8
e e, e ec o , , . Di h arg a gl 388 3 9 1 3 9 3 41 7
sc e n e, , , , .
type i ha gsc im t 38 5 t
r e ex d r e n s, o en .
t pe 4 , 1 87 . thr ugh la y i th 3 68
o rn ,
.
mm ua d gl a d 1 91
i es n n s, . l g li t f rm l a 3 72
on s o u , .
Cl d b k t
o se uc e s, rim t 3 69
e on e , .
C l t f u p rh at i g 300
oa c os s or s e e n , . ta a d ap parat 3 85
s n r u s, .
vari u va a 3 22 o s cu , . Di fri ti 2 1 6
sc c on , .
C mb i ati f gi a d t rb i 3 1 9 330
o n on o en ne n u n e, , . ffi i t f ai 2 1 8
c oe c en s or r, .
mar ine 33 1 3 3 3 , , . t am 22 1
s e ,
.
l t i 33 3
e ec r c , . m mary f
su im tal o ffi i nt 2 2 0ex er en c oe c e s, .
g v r r arra g m t 3 8 4
o e no n e en s, . w rki g f rm a aa 2 2 1
o n o , .
ump ti
co n s 3 31 on, . i Rateau tu rb i
n 52 ne , .
C mp i ti n f va 68 87 1 00 1 07
o os o o
‘
n es , , , ,
. in vac uu m, 2 70 .
4 22 I ND EX .
Disc , s tr esse s i n fl at so d , 2 3 7 li . x ri
E pe m e n t s, o n d i sc h arg fr e om n o zzl es,
in p e o rf r t a e d , 2 49 . 3 87 .
in u n o m , 2 42 if r . on d isc on, e fric ti

9, L wicki ’
i li d e ll s, 2 1 7
O ’
D sc , so d , fl aws in , 2 50 . .
tr
s e ng th
o f o a n g, 8 4 , 2 33 r t ti .
Stod ola s , 2 1 9
’
.
i l
D sp ac e me n , a a e , o f o o , 2 7 9 t v ri b l rtr . o n m ul i l e
p t
an e p assage s , 3 89 v .
iv r
D e ge nc e of n o es , 45 zz l . b
o n o li q u e i m pact 4 00 , .
bl
Do u e fl ow u in es , 3 7 9 t rb . rt r
on as p i a i o n i n c u ve d
passage s, 4 06 .
bl
Do u e m o o n t u i b in e s, 1 1 4 ti . on la b r th
y in , 3 1 2 .
r v
D own ed an e s, 1 7 . on l g li t
on sl v 3 69 s or ee e, .
r
D yn ess and w e n e ss o f s eam, 6 8 t t . on l akag e r van ti p 1 89 398 e o ve e s, , .
fr t i
ac on , 3 0, 3 4 . w i th F rra ti val v 4 08 4 1 0
e n e, , .
v r ti
a ia on d u n g e pan s o n, 30 ri x i . on pr r ill at i
essu e osc i zz l es 40 on s , n no ,
.
v
i n an e passage s , 1 3 7 .
.
a p a ag
i n v ne ss e s,
Dru i
m , d am e e s, ype 4 , 1 7 1 tr t . t id zzl 40 4 1 4
ou s e no es , , .
bl
a anc e o f, 1 01 , 1 06 , 1 08 . t a o rtai m m t f i rt ia 288
sc e n o en o ne
1 2 3 3 8 7—
.
,
t
s age s o n a g v e n s e p pe d , 1 7 3 i t . va l ne 4 00o sses, , .
str e sse s i n , 2 51 .
bl
Dummy o r a an ce p s o ns, 1 06 , 1 08, 1 1 3 it . FA CT OR o f safe ty r tati ng d i scs 7 6 2 52 ,
o , , .
3 78 . F e ran t i s impul e turb i n e 22

r
’
s , .
Dummy a ange m e n s, 3 7 8 rr t . s t p val e 4 07

o v , .
l k
e a age , 1 9 1 , 3 6 8 . Fl aws i n solid d i cs 250 s , .
ve rsus d ou bl
e fl ow , 3 8 0 . Fl w o f s t am in Parso ns turb in e 6 3 1 70
o e , , , .
Dun k e rle y s o mu a fo r c
’
fr lca e oc y o f r iti l v l i t re i st d 33
s e , .
w n , 3 41
g h i rli . u n r es i t e d 2 8 s , .
Dynami c a an c ng, 34 8, 3 5 2bl i . F l ywh ee l ff c t 2 7 9 e e , .
F t t p be ari ng 9 5
oo s e , .
ECO N O M I CA L ac uum , 3 2 1 v . Fo rc d l ub i c ati n 9 5 1 03

e r o , , .
E co n om i cs o f c on d e n si ng, 3 20 . Frac tur e f r tat i g d i sc s 2 51

o o n , .
E ddy Pr f
, o , sp ec ifi c e a s e am , 22 9
. h t t . Fricti n d i c 2 1 6
o , s , .
f tv r v
E fec i e a e a an e p assages, 3 9 4 va 1 2 2 1 44 39 5 39 7
n e, , , , .
E ffi c ie ncy, d i ag am , 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 63 , 1 7 4 r . v til ati g 2 1 8

or en n ,
.
t
e l ec ri c e fiic ie n c
y a io , 3 1 6
-
rt . F ri ti al l
c on a 1 2 2 3 95 3 9 7
o ss o n v n e s , , , .
x
e pe r i me n , 4 t . ffi i t 1 2 3 3 95 3 9 7
coe c en s, , , .
m a i mu m o se ed , 7 , 7 4
x b rv . F ll agar t rb i typ 1 82
u u ne, e , .
o f d e fl e c t i ng su aces, 6 rf . typ 4 1 1 3 e , .
je t i m p ac , 3 t . F llag
u l akag b afil
ar s
’
1 1 3 2 06
e e e is , , .
no zz
l es, 3 3 , 4 5 . F dam tal th ry i mp l t rb i 53
un en eo u se u ne , .
t
Pe l o n w e e l s, 7 4 h .
rati o, 1 9 5, 3 1 4 . G A SE S fl w f 2 8 , o o ,
.
of H P . . e ng n e , i 31 9 . Gl a d Parn s, 1 04 1 08 1 09 2 9 1 so n s, , ,
r ta g l ar zz l
ec n u no es, 4 5 . labyr i th th ry t 3 6 2
or n eo ,
e c .
typ 1 1 30 e , . G o r i g by thr tt li g 2 54 2 7 0
ve n n o n , , .
typ 2 1 6 3 1 56
e , ,
. b y m ll p r s r d i ff r
a 4 09 e ssu e e e nc e s , .
typ 3 1 6 8 e , . m b i at i
co f ngi a d t rb i on o en ne n u ne ,
typ 4 1 7 4 e , . mi d fl w t rb i
xe -
2 76 o u n es, .
th rm d y ami 3 1 4 p ri d i ad mi i 67 2
e o n c, . e o c ss o n .
E tfi ux ap p rat 3 85 a u s, . variab l ad mi i 2 6 2 e ss o n , .
E l tra t rb i
ec 91 u ne, . d vi e thr ttli g 2 70
c e s, o n , .
E l tri g
ec r r 31 6
c o ve n o s, . f C rt i t rb i
o u 9 7 2 7 1 27 4
s u n e s, ,
-
.
d ivi g p d 3 5 4
r n s ee , . Par t rb i
so n s 1 03 1 05 2 7 4 u n e s, , , .
e ffi i y rati
c enc 31 6 o, t am t rb i
s e 2 53 u n e s,
G v r r C rt i s 2 7 1 —2 7 4
. .
E l a ti b ar i g 1 02 1 05 1 08
s c e n s, , ,
. o e no , u , .
E rgy k i ti
ne , f t am 2 8 4 2
ne c, o s e , , . D Laval 2 7 0
e , .
l f i va
o ss o
pa ag
,
n 1 2 2 1 41 1 63 ne ss e s, , , ,
l t i 1 05 1 06 2 7 1
e ec r c, , , .
3 89 . P r 1 05 1 06 2 7 4
a son s , , , .
Er i
os o n o f va 66 n e s, . val Rat ve ,274 e au , .
E rr r i tr d
o s d b y p ra t i al c d i ti
n o uce c c on o n s, vari ati f p d 2 79 on o s ee ,
.
typ 1 1 4 1 1 47
e ,
-
. Z oe l ly, 2 7 0 .
typ 2 1 67 e , .
typ 3 1 6 7 e ,
. H A M I L TO N H OL Z W ORT H turb i n e -
,
89 .
Ex h a t t am t rb i
us s e 325 u ne , . H eat e ffe c t o f vari at i on o f 3 7 4
, , .
E xpa i f t rb i
ns o n o a 1 1 4 374 u ne c se , , . S pec i fi c , su pe rh at d t am e e s e ,
3 1 , 22 4 .
li ne ,
2 01 . H e ro s ’
r a ti tu rbi 2 5
e c on n e, .
4 24 I N DE X .
Pe ri d i ad mi i g v r i g by 2 6 7
o c ss on , o e n n , Sh aft wh i rli g l ad d ma l 3 40 n , o e ,
s s e ss, .
g v r r 1 05 2 6 7 2 7 5
o e no , , , . v rh g 3 41
o e un , .
g r i g a d flywh l ff t 2 7 9
o ve n n n ee e ec , . tr es 3 4 7
s e ss , .
P ri h ral p d 7 0 7 6 1 01 1 6 7 3 26
e
p e s ee , , , , ,
.
pp rt d at b th
su o d 3 43 e o en s, .
Pe rn ga l t i m p l u turb i 21 ’
s u se ne , . h aft wh i rl i g f 3 40
s, n o ,
.
Pil b w im p l
ro t rb i 1 9
’
s u se u ne , . h aft i g t r i al ill ati
n ,
f 2 84 o s on osc on s o , .
Pi t h f va
c o typ 4 1 88 n e s, e , . S h ck or im p a t l
o , c ,
osse s ,
bli d pi tch 3 89 3 96 Sh di p rf rat d 2 51

‘ ’
ro u n 8 o e
ibl y 0 1
n , . e , .
,
P i
o sso n s rat i
’
23 4 o, . e C f t m 229 0 .
p o s ea , .
Pr ur e ac t i
ess 2 on , .
pe i fi h at of
c p rh at d team 3 1 224
c e su e e e s , , .
Pr r ri t i l 36
e ssu e , c ca , . u rv f
c 2 28
e or use , .
f ll f in tu rb i 2 68
a o , ne , . S p i fi c v l m o f up rh at d t am 2 3 2
ec o u e s e e e s e , .
onpla rfa 2 n e su ce , . Sp d ee ri ti al 2 1 7
, c c , .
ill ati i va pa ag 4 1 2
o sc on s n ne ss es, . D Laval t rb i e 70 u ne s, .
t rb i grad at d 57
u ne, u e , . ha t t rb i
ex 3 28 us u n es, .
ma i turb i 3 54
x ne n e s, .
R A D I A TI O N , 2 01 . tu rb i 3 5 4 355 n e s, , .
Ram s o om i ngs in gl an d s, 1 1 0—3 7 4

b tt r . t rb al t r at rs 3 54
u o -
e n o , .
t t rb
Ra eau c om poun d u i ne , 80 . vari ab l i t rb i 9 2 e, n u ne, .
r r t rb
l ow p e ssu e u i n e , e fii c ie n cy, 38, 306
-
. va i at i i g v r i g 2 78
r on n o e n n , .
no zz x r t
l e e p e i m e n s, 4 5 . ill
S p in g, 6 , 6 8 , 1 63 , 1 6 4 .
t h
Pe l o n w e e l 7 4 , . r
S q u a e or ec an gu a n o es, r t l r zzl
ti t rb
Ra o of a u i n e , 1 6 , 6 4, 1 06, 1 9 4 . t
S age s, n u m e o f, i n yp e 1 , 5 9 , 1 33 br t .
R a ti
e c 9 on , . type 2 , 6 0, 1 5 6 .
d gr e f 13 ee o , . t
ype 3 , 6 2 , 1 6 8 .
t urb i mp d 62
ne, c o ou n , typ e 4,
t am a id wat r t rb i
.
D L aval 2 7 e , . S e d i t i ct i
r 17 e u n e s, s n o n s, ,
d c ri p t ies of a d d i t i c t i on , n s n on s , 11, 13 18 .
17 . S t am e tri f gal ff t f 50
,
ce n u e ec o , .
H ro 2 4 e , . m pti
c o n su rv 2 54 on c u e, .
J am Watt 2 4 es , . f m d r r i p roc ati g

o gio ( tab l )e n ec n en n es , e ,
mi x d i m p l a d 6 2 e u se n , . 3 07 .
p r 1 0 55 u e, , . of tu rb i n e s,2 89 .
Tou rn aire , 2 3 . tab l e o f, 3 04 .
V on Ra e n , 2 6 th . typ 2 ( T rry) 90 e e , .
W il so n , 2 7 . w i th p rh at 2 8 7 su e e ,
.
R eal and Pi c o n i mp ac w h t h l 24 ee s, . at rat d p r p rt i

s u f 2 89 e ,
o e es o , .
r
R e c i p oc at i n g e n gi n e an d ste am c on su mp p ifi h at f
s ec p rh t d 2 2 4
c e o su e ea e , .
ti3 06
o n s, . v l m f p rh at d 2 32
o u e o su e e e .
e a , 2 9 7—
,
su
pe rh t 2 99 .
p illi g 6 6 8 1 6 3
s n
ne 3 1 6—
.
, ,
t rb i
,
u . 31 8 . t tal h at f 2 9
o e o , .
vacuu m , 2 89 . v l i ty f 2 8
e oc o , .
Re s id ual v l ty d i p al f 1 20 1 2 2 1 41
e oc i , s os o , , , ,
w t f 68
e ne ss o , .
1 45 . S tr am li e t raj t ry 1 48 n e s or ec o , .
Re i ta s s di 21 6
n ce , sc , . S t d l a x p i m t w i th d i
o o ,
21 8
e er en s sc s , .
va 2 1 8 ne, . zzl , 3 8
no es .
R i t d fl w thr gh zz l
es s e o t 33 ou no e s, e c .
, . S tr gth f r tat i g d i
en 23 3 o o n sc s , .
R v r d fl w t rb i
e e se 3 82 o u nes, S tr i flat
e sses li d d i 23 7 n so sc ,
88—
. .
R i d l r S t m p f mp
e e -
d t rb i
u 92 co oun u ne, .
p rf rat d d i
e 2 49
o e sc , .
im l t rb i
s 76 e u n e s, . r tati g b d i 2 33
o n o e s, .
R ai
o se n zzl xp rim t 3 8—4 1
n , no e e e e n s, . h aft 3 47
s s, .
R tati g d i
o n
pp d i f rml y tr d
sc , su ose un o s e sse th i r i g 2 5 1 n n , .
2 42 .
va 3 2 6 n e s, .
di tr gth f 2 33
sc s, s en o , . S tu ffi g b x n l a d 88 1 04 1 08o e s, o r n s, , , .
lli p i d tr
e so i 2 41 ,
s e sse s n, . S t mp fu mp t rb i 88 9 2co ou n u n e, , .
fl t di tr
,
a i 2 37
sc , s e sse s n, . i m pl t rb i 7 6
s e u n e,
r i g tr
.
n i , 251 s esses n, . S l z r t rb i
u e 1 17 u ne , .
R t r m m t f i rt i a f 2 88
o o ,
o en o ne o , . S pe rh at m a u r m t f 301
u e ,
e s e en o , .
S p rh at d t am a d C rt i t rbi
u e e e s e n u s u n e s, 22 5 .
S C OT C H Bark r m i l l 2 7 e , .
p i fi h at 2 2 4
s ec c e .
S g r d b l m ti t rb i
,
e e ou 114 e o on u ne , . v lume 2 3 2 o .
Sh aft m ul t i pl m ari
,
s, 3 33 e n e, . Sup rh at r 2 9 9
e e e s, .
Sh aft w h i rli g a f fi d at b th nd , c se o , xe o en s S p rh ati g ff t f 2 9 6

u e e n ,
e ec o , .
3 44 . Sw p i g a t i
ee 1 42 n c on , .
I ND EX . 4 25
T P E R o f n ozz l e s, 4 5
A . Va i ta ce c ffi i nts for ai r 22 1
n e re s s n oe c e
rr t rb
Te y u i n e , 9 0
, , .
. t am 2 2 1 s e ,
hr tr
.
T e mo me e fi tt i ngs , 3 02 . Va es mp i ti f 6 5 9 9
n co os on o
t
p osi i on o f 3 01
, , , .
, . C h il t n 2 1 2 o .
hr t
,
T e m ome ry, 3 01 . t ru ti a d fi tti g 1 6 7—1 7 4
c o ns c on n n
hr
T e mo d yn ami c e ffi c ie n cy, 3 1 4
.
,
-
. C rti 2 09 2 1 2 2 1 3
u s, , , .
v
T hic k ress o f an e s , c o e ti s , 1 88 , 3 9 4 , 3 9 8 . . D Laval 2 03 7 3 2 1 3
e , , , .
h
T o mas , Pr f x r
o t
e pe ime n s , 1 6 6 Do ugl as , 2 1 2
T o li ng go v e ni n g b y, 25 4—
.
. . .
hr tt r , 26 1 . F8 rs t ro m , 2 09
. .
d e vi ces , 2 7 0 . P1 agar
2 05 , 207 , 2 08, 2 1 0 , .
hr t t
T u s , l o n gi ud i n al , 82 3 7 8 ,
. Gr
e en, 2 1 4 .
tv
m ean e ffec i e , 3 58 . I mle , 2 1 4 .
hr t b k
T us l oc , 1 1 1
-
. J ude ( B M 21 1 , 213 . . .
T i me o f re ssu re d ro p i n u t rb i n e , 268 . l
e ng th
o f, 1 2 3 , 1 43 .
i t h ft
To rsio n a osc ll a i o n s o f s a s, 2 8 4 . th ti l h
ma e ma ca s ape of, 1 3 0, 1 3 8 .
t rb
To u rnai re s u i n e , 2 3
’
. M o rc om , 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 .
tr v
i ec tory o f s eam in ane p assages , 1 4 8 . r
Pa s on s, 2 03, 2 04, 205 , 2 07 , 2 1 1 .
rb f t
Tu i n e , d e in i i o n o f, 2 . it h t
p c o f, ype 4 , 1 6 1 .
t r tb
s e ame s , a l e o f, 3 6 0 . t u
Ra e a , 2 07 , 2 1 5 .
v an e s, ma i n g an d fi tti ng, 203

k . sri k tri i
in s p p n g, 2 7 3 .
rb b ti
T u i n e s , d ou l e mo o n 1 1 4 , . h i t
Sc m d , 2 04 .
t
e ffi c ie n cy o f y e 1 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 4 , 1 3 0
p . r
S ege , 2 03 , 2 04 .
t ype 2 , 1 55 , 1 6 2 . k
S od a Co , 2 1 3 . .
type 3 1 6 8 . . t
S o n ey, 1 69 .
typ 4 a 1 1 7 4 ; 2 1 7 5 ; 3 1 8 1
e , c se , , , , ti h
Wes ng o u se , 2 1 5 .
1 97 Z oe lly, 8 4 , 8 5 , 87 , 2 09
c n e ss o f, 1 4 1 , 1 53 —
. .
i mpul 1 3 1 8 1 9
se , , , . V th i k
an es , 1 63 .
mari p d f 354
ne , s ee o , . Variab l ad mi i g r i g by 2 6 2 e ss o n , o ve n n ,
p a ti al
r c cm p und 7 9 co o , .
pe d tu rb i
s e S t mp f sy t m 9 2 ne , u s e . .
o
pe va n 74 ne , . Variat i f peed i g v ni g 2 7 8 on o s n o er n , .
si mpl i mpul 7 0 e se , . V e l i ty diagram fu dame ntal 1 2

oc , , n ,
.
r a ti 1 3 1 8 2 5
e c on , , , . f t am 2 8
o s e ,
.
steam mp ti
c o n su 2 89 o n, . i u i g fr m noz zl es ac tual 3 5 3 6
ss n o , ,
-
.
s
p d i 3 54
ee o , . c ri t i al 3 8 c , .
th rm dy mi ffi i y 1 9 5 3 1 4
e o -
na c e c e nc , , . t h o r t i al 3 0 3 1 3 2 4 7 e e c , , , , .
type f 5 5s o ,
. f wh ir l 1 2
o ,
.
ex h t 325 aus , . V l oc i ty resid al wa t 1 2 0 1 2 1

e ,
u or s e, ,
.
i mpul a d r a ti 5 7se n e c on , . variati n f r to r 2 79 o o o , .
co mb i n d v l i ty a d p re r 60 e oc n e ss u e , . V til ati g va e passages 9

en n n , .
co mp d i mp ul
ou n 57 se , . V i brati f sh afts l at ral 3 3 9
on o ,
e , .
r a ti 6 2
e c on , . t rs i nal 2 84
o o ,
.
grad at d p r u r 57e essu e , .
grad uat d l i ty 6 0
e v e oc , . WA T E R an d s ea t m turb i n es, d is ti t i nc on s ,
i m pul 1 3 5 5 se , , . 1 7, 18 .
mix d imp l a d r a ti n 1 3 6 2
e u se n e c o , ,
. Wate r in zl
n o z es , 50 .
m ix d fl w 3 28
e o ,
. va pa ag 50 ne ss es , .
p u r r a ti e 55 e c on, . Wate r al d gl a d -
t se 374 e n s, e c . , .
Watt tu rb i ’
24 s ne , .
V ACU UM an o me n t or, 2 9 2 . W ti gh u t urb i

es n 1 16 1 1 8 o se ne , ,
.
an d a ab e o
v ri l l ad ,
29 1 . W t r l ati v i t rb i
e ness , 68 e e, n u ne s , .
li tr
c o o ng w a e fo r, 2 9 3 . Whi rl v l i ty i 1 2 , e oc o ,
.
i l
ec o n o m ca , 3 2 0 . W h i rli g f h aft 339 n o s s, .
f t
e fec o f, 2 89 . Will n li e2 54
’
s ne, .
V r i n 66
an e e os o , . t rb i 1 1 3 2 1 0 3 7 8
u ne , , , .
fri ti 1 22 1 41 1 66 1 9 9 3 95
c on , , , , , . W il xp ri m t v l i ty f t am
so n s e
’
e en s on e oc o s e , 27
.
losses, 1 22 1 4 1 3 89 , ,
. i mpulse t urb i 2 0 ne , .
pa sag
s ar a thr
es , gh typ 1 1 3 4 e ou ,
e , ,
r a ti n 2 6
e c o ,
.
typ 2 1 59 e , . W rk d e ad i b ati x pa i
o on 31 ,
a c e ns o n , .
type 4 1 87 , .
l oss of r in 1 22 3 89
e ne , , . Z OE L LY gla d 88 n , .
pr uress l ti i 50 4 1 2
e ou
'
e o ns n, , . t rb i 84
u ne , .
resi ta 2 1 6
s n ce , . t am
s e m p ti o 3 05 3 1 2c o n su n, -
.
PR I NT E D BY NEIL L A N D CO LTD .
, ED I N B U RG H .

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AN I M P O R TA N T NE W W OR K

I N T WO V O LU M E S Boun d i n han d so me cl o th E ach p ro fusely ill ustrate d

PR OFE SSOR OF N A V A L A R CH I T E CT UR E I N T H E UN I VER S I TY O F GLA SG OW .

P art I —Areas . lumes C entres

Wi th 3 6 Fold i n g P l at es , ther Illustrat i o n s

I t h as i al i i t s t h r ugh d eali g w i th t h subj c t

N teac h er f n a al arc h i tec t re

I t wil l b th sta dard te x t b k f stude ts f a a l arc h i tec ture t wh m i t

h d eal s Wi th h see ms t h ave said all th ere i s t o say —Sk pp i g W ld

Co m pr isi ng t he Design i ng , Co ns tru c ti o n, an d W rki o ng o f M ar i e M ac h i ery n n .

Co n tai ns all that i s u se ul f t o k now a b t t h e cr

FOUR TH E D T ON II . Rev i dase nd En a l rg ed . P ck t i z

A Ma nu a lf i u ild rs S h i p Super i te d t s Stu de ts a d M ari e E gi eers

T ENT H E DI ION T . Re v i se d . Po c k e t siz e . Lea he t r . 88 6d . .

Fo r t he Use of Mari e E gi eers n n n , N a al Arc h i tec ts Draughts me

W ith 3 7 7 {i ll ust rati ons ano 3 jf oloing p lates

[All R ights R eserved ]

development of the turbine new data and in a comparatively ne w s ub j ect

the inevitable m od iﬁ cat io n of view s .

A word s eem s advisable in regard to the treatment of the problem of the

of the problem have been publish e d during the interval ( notably by

ma t e rially in pro s ecuting the s ub j ect A careful s tudy of the s e s olutions .

and their a ss u mption s s ugge s t s however that fundamental simpliﬁ c at io n s

it i s d ifﬁ c ult to avoid very arbitrary a ss umptions A few experiment s made .

different s ize s ha ve yet to be mad e i s a prima ry d ifﬁ c u lty The s e d ifﬁ c u lt ie s .

inevitable compromise are unremunerative .

S ome of the notes in my ﬁ rs t ed i tion relating to labyrinthal leakage are

new experimental data being I think fairly concordant , ,

reached ﬁ nality N evertheless s ome divergence yet existing between the

thermo dynamic e fﬁ c ie n c ies of the original exampl e s given in variou s tab l es

been revised to date and a ll new examples bas ed thereon

I am i ndebte d to M es srs B el li ss Sr M o rco m Ltd for fac ili t i es i n p resenting

a few ad d i ti ona l exper i ments of a more o r less fundamental characte r They .

the bea t en track of c i rcul ar nozzle ex p eri men ts .

I am al so under further obligation s to the technica l pre s s for s ome of

Al though the ed i t i on is i ntended to have a str i ctl y practical aspect no ,

to th is sid e of the subj ect .

ALE XAN DE R J UDE .

O ur knowledge of the propertie s of s team ha s made great advance s but ,

and has elicited novel information but up to the present mo s t of it is qualita

tive rather than quantitative .

M any fundamental propositions applicable to the water turbine are not

fundamental principle s in a conci s e and connected way but in a way which

will enable direct application to be mad e to the steam turbine problem .

F urther to enable the reader to acquire the c orrect point of vie w

formul ae may be manipulated .

future progre s s of s team turb i ne de s ign and manu facture .

s u rfaces by hi gh veloc i ty ste am .

Several s ub j ec ts s uch as app li ed thermometry and the sp e c iﬁ c heat of

su perheated steam which may a ppear at ﬁ rs t gl ance t o be extraneous matter

have been embod i ed i n t he b ook principal ly b e cause lack of attent i on to the se

Turb i ne problem unswayed by the om i ss i ons an d exagg eration s of advert i se

ments or the enthusiasm of fashion .

I acknow l e dge my indebtednes s to the variou s technical j ou rnals for much

M r Reginal d M o rco m M A for kindly read i ng the proofs and to my

ALE XA NDER J UDE .

Cl sed Buck e ts a d Passages —

Ear ly Rec rd s and Pate ts—I mpul se T urbi es —Reac ti on Turbi es

T he Vel ci ty f S team—U r si sted Fl w f Gases—T tal H ea t f Steam —E xamples

Curved Path — E xam pl es f ge eral T h e rem —a d am tal T h ry

G enera O u t in e—S m p e urb n es ;

l c i Type —C m p u d T urbi es Impulse Ty pe

Pure and Mix d —Ge eral Remarys