Project for a Scientific Psychology

In 1895, Freud finished Scientific Psychology. Project explained psychological

phenomena in neurophysical terms. He wanted to apply Helmholtzian physiology to the study of
the mind. Freud wasn't satisfied with his work, thus Project wasn't published (in his lifetime).
Freud gave up on developing a neurophysical (medical) model of the mind and began
psychoanalysis.

(In 1895, Project explained psychological phenomena in neurophysical terms. He wanted to apply
Helmholtzian physiology to the study of the mind. Freud gave up on developing a neurophysical
(medical) model and began psychoanalysis.)

The Seduction Theory

Freud presented "The Aetiology of Hysteria" at Vienna in 1896. The paper stated Freud's
hysteric patients always told him about a sexually abused childhood episode. Freud concluded
that such an event was the basis of all hysteria. He stated his conclusion forcefully as follows:
“Whatever case and whatever symptom we take as our point of departure, in the end we
infallibly come to the field of sexual experience. So here for the first time we seem to have
discovered an aetiological precondition for hysterical symptoms.” (Masson, 1984, p. 259) The
theory stated that hysterical or obsessive symptoms were caused by a repressed memory of
sexual abuse or molestation in early childhood.

Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902), the illustrious physician and head of the
department of psychiatry at the University of Vienna, chaired the meeting at which Freud’s
paper was presented. The aetiology of hysteria received a strange comment from Krafft-Ebing
saying that his theory was like a scientific fairy tale and called the solution to the theory foolish
and impossible. It appears that the psychiatric society regards this theory as baseless or lacks
sufficient evidence for it to be functional and credible.

In late 1897, Freud abandoned his seduction theory. He concluded that the sexual
experiences had not really taken place. Rather, the patients had imagined the encounter. Freud
believed that imagined experiences were just as distressing as real ones. Freud believed that
such an event was the cause of all hysteria, leaving his theory with numerous flaws due to the
fact that hysteria may be the main cause of some of these scenarios. However, he held his
belief that "the basis of neuroses was the repression of sexual thoughts, whether the thoughts
were based on real or imagined experience."

(Freud presented "The Aetiology of Hysteria" at Vienna in 1896. Theory stated that hysterical or
obsessive symptoms were caused by a repressed memory of sexual abuse or molestation. In
1897, Freud abandoned his seduction theory. He concluded that his patients had imagined the
sexual experiences.)

Freud’s Self-Analysis

To be an effective analyst, he had to be psychoanalyzed himself. Freud (1927) insisted that to

be a qualified psychoanalyst one need not to be a physician, but one does need to be
psychoanalyzed. Because no one was available to psychoanalyzed him, he took on the job
instead. His father’s death affected him deeply that he had severe depression and could not
work. His reaction was so acute that he decided he should regard himself as a patient.

(Freud's father's death affected him so deeply that he had severe depression and could not
work. Because no one was available to psychoanalyze him, he took on the job instead. To be a
qualified psychoanalyst one need not to be a physician, but one does need to be
psychoanalyzed.)

Analysis of Dreams

Freud assumed that the content of dreams could be viewed in much the same way as
hysterical symptoms. That is, both dreams and hysterical symptoms could be seen as symbolic
manifestations of repressed traumatic thoughts. Freud's self-analysis benefited from the second
approach of tapping the unconscious mind, dream analysis. Freud's self-analysis culminated in
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900/1953), which he considered his most important book.
Because a person's defenses are lowered but not erased while sleeping, repressed memories
only emerge in disguise. A manifest content is what a dream appears to be about and the latent
content is what it really is about.

Freud concluded that every dream is a wish fulfillment. Symbolic wishes during sleep allow
the dreamer to continue sleeping because expressing the wish directly would cause worry and
disrupt sleep. One must understand the dream's hidden wish. Dream work includes
condensation, in which one dream element symbolizes numerous things in waking life. Dream
work involves displacement, when the dreamer dreams of something symbolically comparable
to an anxiety-provoking object or event.

(Freud's self-analysis benefited from the second approach of tapping the unconscious mind,
dream analysis. The Interpretation of Dreams (1900/1953), which he considered his most
important book. Because a person's defenses are lowered but not erased while sleeping,
repressed memories only emerge in disguise. Freud concluded that every dream is a wish
fulfillment. Symbolic wishes during sleep allow the dreamer to continue sleeping because
expressing the wish directly would cause worry and disrupt sleep.)

Freud, Dreams, and Originality

In 1914 Freud said about dreams, "I do not know of any outside influence which drew my
interest to them". He also said that, prior to his work, for a physician to suggest there was
scientific value in the interpretation of dreams would have been "positively disgraceful". Before
Freud, Charcot, Janet, and Krafft-Ebing believed in the scientific value of dream interpretation.
These people said that dreams can provide important patient information.

(Freud was the first person to suggest there was scientific value in the interpretation of dreams.
Before Freud, Charcot, Janet, and Krafft-Ebing believed in the scientific value of dream
interpretation. These people said that dreams can provide important patient information.)

The Oedipus Complex

Freud confirmed his theory that young men tend to desire their moms and be jealous of
their fathers. This is the Oedipus complex. Freud said male children naturally want their mothers
since they bathe, touch, nurse, and hold them. Freud used sexual adjectives when "pleasant"
would do. Freud defined sexuality as anything pleasurable. The male child competes with the
father, who also wants the mother, but the youngster represses his feelings for the mother and
his hatred toward the father. Freud realized his emotion to his father's death was partly due to
guilt over yearning for his death. Freud claimed the Oedipus conflict is widespread among male
children and explains normal and pathological adult behavior. Freud concluded that infantile
sexuality is as normal and universal as the need to repress it, therefore he included it in his
theory of unconscious motivation.

(Freud confirmed his theory that young men desire their moms and are jealous of their fathers.
He concluded infantile sexuality is as normal and universal as the need to repress it. Freud used
sexual adjectives when "pleasant" would do; he defined sexuality as anything pleasurable.)

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life

In Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901/1960b), Freud discussed parapraxes

(singular, parapraxis). Parapraxes are slight errors in ordinary life, such as Freudian slips,
forgetting things, losing things, small mishaps, and writing blunders. Freud believed all conduct,
"normal" or "abnormal," was motivated, thus he investigated its causes. He believed that
because the causes of behavior are usually unconscious, people seldom know why they act as
they do. Freudian theory emphasizes overdetermination. Behavior and psychology sometimes
have several causes. A hysterical symptom may partially meet many conditions.

(Freud mentioned parapraxes in Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901/1960b). Parapraxes

include Freudian slips, forgetting, loosing, little mistakes, and writing blunders. Freud felt every
behavior was motivated, so he examined its causes. People rarely know why they act since the
causes are usually unconscious, he said. Freudian theory emphasizes overdetermination.
Multiple factors affect behavior and psychology. Hysterical symptoms might meet various
criteria.)

Humor. (1905/1960a) Jokes express sexual and aggressive urges. Laughter releases nervous
thoughts. Freud said we laugh at what makes us anxious. Jokes, like dreams, must disguise
sexual or violent goals or cause anxiety to be effective.

Religion. Freud's pessimism about human nature is shown in The Future of an Illusion
(1927/1961a). Freud maintained that religion is rooted in helplessness and insecurity. To
overcome these feelings, we create God. Freud believed we could only live rationally if we
understood our repressed drives.

A Review of Freud’s Theory of Personality

 The preconscious consists of the things of which we are not aware but of which we could
easily become aware. The unconscious consists of those thoughts and feelings that are being
actively repressed from consciousness and are, therefore, made conscious only with great
effort. Freud summarized his concepts of the id, ego, and superego.

(The unconscious is the part of consciousness that has not yet been actively repressed from
consciousness and is conscious only with great effort. The preconscious consists of those
things which we are not aware but of which we could easily become aware.)

The Id. (from the German das es, meaning “the it”) is the personality's generating
power. It contains all instincts, such as hunger, thirst, and sex. Id is unconscious and driven by
pleasure. The id craves immediate satisfaction of needs. Libido (Latin for "lust") is the collective
instinctual energy that drives most human action. It contains two means of satisfying a need:
one is the reflex action, which is automatically triggered when certain discomforts arise:
Sneezing and recoiling from a painful stimulus are examples of reflex actions. The second is
wish fulfillment, in which the id conjures up a representation of an object that will satisfy the
existing need

(Id (from the German das es, meaning "the it") is the personality's generating power. Id
contains all instincts, such as hunger, thirst, and sex. Id is unconscious and driven by pleasure.
Libido (Latin for "lust") is collective instinctual energy that drives most human action.)

The Ego. (meaning “I” in Latin, and from the German das ich, meaning “the its job is to
coordinate the id with the physical environment. In other words, the ego's function is to match
the wishes Id's with their counterparts in the physical environment.

The Superego. (from the German das überich, meaning “the over I”) which is the moral
arm of the personality. The conscience and ego-ideal, or internalized experiences for which the
child has been awarded. Once the superego develops, internalized parental ideals influence the
child's actions and ideas, and the child is socialized.

(The Superego is the moral arm of the personality, which includes the conscience and ego-
ideal, or internalized experiences for which the child has been awarded. Once the superesgo
develops, internalized parental ideals influence the child's actions and ideas, and the child is
socialized.)

Life and Death Instincts

 Freud had linked libido with sexual energy, but due to new data and opposition from
even his closest colleagues, he enlarged the concept to include sex, hunger, and thirst. When
all needs are met, a person is content. One of life's goals is to achieve perfect needlessness.
Thanatos is the death impulse (named after the Greek god of death). Life instincts aim to
prolong life, while death instincts aim to end it. When directed inside, the death instinct shows
as suicide or masochism; outwardly, as devastation and aggression. Freud believed
aggressiveness was part of human nature. No surprise the ego was called the executive of the
personality. It must solve actual environmental concerns and please the id without alienating the
superego. It also reduces anxiety when acting against internalized values.

(The ego is the executive of the personality. It must solve environmental concerns and please
the id without alienating the superego. Thanatos is the death impulse (named after the Greek
god of death) Life instincts aim to prolong life, while death instinct aim to end it.)

Anxiety and the Ego Defense Mechanisms Anxiety

Freud identified three types of anxiety as danger warnings. Objective anxiety occurs
when a person's well-being is threatened. Attacks by a person or animal cause objective
anxiety. Neurotic anxiety arises when the ego feels it will be overwhelmed by the id—in other
words, when the needs of the id become so powerful that the ego feels it won't be able to
control them and that the irrationality of the id will manifest in thought and behavior. When
violating an internalized value, moral anxiety arises. Moral anxiety causes shame or guilt. When
we act against the superego's values, we self-punish. The ego must deal with the physical world
to lessen objective worry. Freud called these processes ego defense mechanisms. Freud
claimed that all ego defense systems distort reality and work on an unconscious level.

(Freud identified three types of anxiety as danger warnings. Objective anxiety occurs when a
person's well-being is threatened. Neurotic anxiety arises when the ego feels it will be
overwhelmed by the needs of the id. Moral anxiety causes shame or guilt when we act against
the superego's values.)

The Ego Defense Mechanisms

Repression is the foundation of all defense mechanisms. Only disguised repressed

concepts penetrate consciousness without causing distress. Displacement is another defense.
Displacement entails replacing one anxiety-provoking object or aim with another. Sublimation is
when nonsexual goals replace sexual ones. Freud considered sublimation civilization's
foundation.   Freud considered civilization a compromise. For civilization to exist, humans must
restrain their basic desires. Another technique to deal with an anxious thought is to attribute it to
someone else. Such a process is called projection. When feeling angry and nervous because of
an internalized value, one can borrow someone else's achievement through identification. If one
wears, behaves, or talks like a successful person, some of their success becomes one's own.
Rationalization is giving a false but reasonable rationale for a failure or shortcoming. When
doing what they want would cause worry, they do the opposite. This is called reaction formation.

(Repression is the foundation of all defense mechanisms. Displacement entails replacing one
anxiety-provoking object or aim with another. Sublimation is when nonsexual goals replace
sexual ones. Freud considered sublimation civilization's foundation. For civilization to exist,
humans must restrain basic desires.)

(Projection: Another technique to deal with an anxious thought is to attribute it to someone else.
When feeling anxious or angry, one can borrow someone else's achievement through
identification. If one wears, behaves, or talks like a successful person, some of their success
becomes one's own. When doing what would cause worry, they do the opposite - this is called
reaction formation.)

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud said different body parts provide sexual pleasure at different ages. Sexual
pleasure is concentrated in erogenous zones. Erogenous zones mark growth stages. Early
experiences shape a child's personality, according to Freud. During oral stage, the mouth is
erogenous. Lips, tongue, sucking, chewing, swallowing are enjoyable. If oral needs are over or
undermet, the child will be an oral adult. Oral incorporation causes early fixation. Fixation during
tooth development causes oral sadism.  Anal stage lasts two years, and erogenous zone is
anus-buttocks. Fixation is anal. Anal-expulsive people fixate on feces expulsion during the early
anal stage.  After toilet training, anal children enjoy holding feces. This causes anal-retention.
The phallic stage lasts around three to five years, and the erogenous zone is the genital
region. Freud viewed the clitoris to be a small penis, and the phallic stage describes the
development of both male and female children. The male child has an intense desire for his
mother and jealous hostility toward his father. The female child also has ambivalent feelings
toward her father. To resolve the female Oedipal complex, the female child must repress her
hostility toward her mother and her sexual attraction to her husband. Freud controversially
concluded that the male superego (morality) is stronger than the female superego. Clearly,
Freud thought women were more intriguing than males. The latency stage lasts from the sixth
year till puberty. Because of the severe repression required during the phallic stage, sexual
activity is all but erased from consciousness during the latency period. This period is marked by
alternative activities, such as academics and peer activities, and curiosity about the world. The
genital stage lasts from adolescence until the end of life. Puberty makes sexual desires too
intense to repress, so they surface. Now, opposite-sex people are the focus. If the previous
stages went well, this will lead to dating and marriage. Undergratifications, overgratifications,
and fixations during psychosexual stages determine adult personality.

(Freud said different body parts provide sexual pleasure at different ages. Sexual pleasure is
concentrated in erogenous zones. Erogenous zones mark growth stages.)

(During oral stage, the mouth is erogenous. Lips, tongue, sucking, chewing, swallowing are
enjoyable.)

(Anal stage lasts two years, and erogenous zone is anus-buttocks. Fixation is anal. Anal-
expulsive people fixate on feces expulsion during the early anal stage.)

(The phallic stage lasts around three to five years, and the erogenous zone is the genital
region.)

(Latency stage lasts from the sixth year till puberty. Because of the severe repression required
during the phallic stage, sexual activity is all but erased from consciousness during the latency
period)

(Genital stage lasts from adolescence until the end of life. Puberty makes sexual desires too
intense to repress, so they surface.)

Freud’s Fate

Even as he battled cancer, Freud remained productive. When the Nazis occupied
Austria in 1936, his situation worsened. Psychoanalysis was banned in Germany as "Jewish
science" In Vienna, the Nazis burned Freud's books from the public library. After the Gestapo
developed an interest in his family, Freud left Vienna. To do so, he had to sign a statement
attesting to the respectful and caring treatment he had received from the Nazis. Freud added
(sarcastically), "I can heartily recommend the Gestapo to everyone" (Clark, 1980, p. 511). Freud
had to leave his sisters behind when he fled Vienna, and he died not knowing that they would all
perish in Nazi death camps.

Freud finished Moses and Monotheism (1939/1964b) in London, where he died at age
83. Martha Freud died at 90 in 1951. Freud faced death without self-pity. Schur injected Freud
with three centigrams of morphine on September 21, the standard dose for sedation. Freud fell
asleep. When restless, Schur repeated the injection and gave a final one on September 22.
Freud fell into a coma and never awoke. He died at 3 am on September 23, 1939. (p. 651).

(Freud's work was banned in Germany as "Jewish science". In Vienna, the Nazis burned
Freud's books from the public library. Freud had to leave his sisters behind when he fled
Vienna, and he died not knowing that they would all perish in Nazi death camps.)

(Freud faced death without self-pity. Martha Freud died at 90 in 1951. Schur injected Freud with
three centigrams of morphine on September 21, the standard dose for sedation. Freud fell into a
coma and never awoke. He died at 3 am on September 23, 1939.)

Revisions of the Freudian Legend

Freud's seduction theory was changed under dubious conditions, and many of his
theories were not as creative as he and his followers claimed (such as infantile sexuality, dream
analysis, and male hysteria). According to Ellenberger (1970), Freud and his followers tried to
portray him as a lonely, heroic character who was discriminated against as a Jew and for his
revolutionary views. Freud and his followers had a low tolerance for criticism, accusing critics of
resistance, misunderstanding, or even racism.

(Freud's seduction theory was changed under dubious conditions, and many of his theories
were not as creative as he claimed. According to Ellenberger (1970), Freud and his followers
tried to portray him as a lonely, heroic character who was discriminated against as a Jew.)

The Reality of Repressed Memories

 Freud believed he failed by accepting his patients' seduction stories literally. Masson
believed Freud's mistake was dismissing the accounts as fantasies. Freud's "The Aetiology of
Hysteria" (1896) and two other works on his seduction theory in the same year imply that none
of his patients publicly recounted a childhood sexual experience. All the evidence suggests that
Freud's early patients did not recollect infantile seductions, but rather analytic reconstructions
he pushed on them (Esterson, 1993, pp. 28–29; see also, Esterson, 1998, 2001). Freud said a
patient doesn't need to know what's wrong to be treated. Psychoanalysts think patients are
unaware of symptom sources. The analyst must characterize the ailment, discover its cause,
and notify the patient. While accepting his seduction theory, Freud never implicated parents in
the seductions. He implicated nursemaids, governesses, household servants, adult strangers,
teachers, tutors, and in most cases older brothers. Freud stated that seduction stories were
fabricated by patients to cover recollections of true infantile sexual experiences, such as
masturbation or incestuous impulses directed at the opposite sex parent.

(Evidence suggests that Freud's patients did not recollect infantile seductions, but rather
analytic reconstructions he pushed on them. Masson believed Freud's mistake was dismissing
the accounts as fantasies. While accepting his seduction theory, Freud never implicated parents
in the seductions.)

Current Concern about Repressed Memories

Memory is a complex phenomenon impacted by internal and external influences. Many

scholars regard repressed memories as valid but many don't. Elizabeth Loftus acknowledges
childhood sexual abuse as a major social problem in her 1993 article "The Reality of Repressed
Memories." She questions repression and recovery of such memories. Loftus says most
repressed memory reports are false. Why do so many people claim to have such recollections if
she's right? Such memories may satisfy a personal need. According to Loftus, the fact that so
many individuals enter therapy without memories of abuse, but leave with them, should make
one wonder about what is going on in therapy. Loftus and other researchers do not deny that
many people have terrible childhood experiences or that therapy can help them overcome them.
The processes used to restore "repressed memories" are being questioned.

(Elizabeth Loftus says most repressed memory reports are false. The fact that so many
enter therapy without memories, but leave with them, should make one wonder what is going on
in therapy. The processes used to restore "repressed memories" are being questioned.)
Evaluation of Freud’s Theory: Criticisms and Contributions

Freud's theory, which touched so many facets of human life, was certain to be criticized.
Common Freud criticisms include: Method of data collection. Freud used his own observations
of his patients as his primary source of data. Dogmatism. As we have seen, Freud saw himself
as the founder and leader of the psychoanalytic movement, and he would tolerate no ideas that
conflicted with his own. Overemphasis on sex. Freud overemphasized sex as a motive for
human behavior. Some thought that to speak of sexuality everywhere (even as a metaphor) was
extreme and unnecessary. Length, cost, and limited effectiveness of psychoanalysis. Only the
most affluent can participate. Only reasonably intelligent and mildly neurotic people can benefit
from psychoanalysis. Lack of falsifiability. Freud's hypothesis violates the falsification principle.
Popper says a scientific theory must specify observations that refute it. The theory is unscientific
without such observations.

Freud made great advances to psychology despite criticism. Among them: Expansion of
psychology’s domain. Freud highlighted to the need of studying the connections among such
topics as unconscious motivation, infantile experience, and anxiety. Every personality theory
since Freud's is a reaction to his ideas. Psychoanalysis. Freud altered how we view mental
illness and abnormality. Psychopathology of Everyday Life led us to evaluate behavior based on
its utility. Understanding of normal behavior. Freud not only improved our understanding of
abnormal behavior, but he also explained much of our normal behavior. Psychological
generalization. By using psychology to explain religion, athletics, politics, art, literature, and
philosophy, Freud broadened psychology's importance. Not just scientific technique may
appraise a theory. Structuralism required controlled experiments to test its hypotheses.
Structuralism vanished while psychoanalysis survived.

(Freud's theory was criticized for its overemphasis on sex and lack of falsifiability. Popper says a
scientific theory must specify observations that refute it. The theory is unscientific without such
observations. Only reasonably intelligent and mildly neurotic people can benefit from
psychoanalysis.)

(Freud made great advances to psychology despite criticism. Every personality theory since
Freud's is a reaction to his ideas. He broadened psychology's domain to include religion,
athletics, politics, art, literature, and philosophy. His theories led us to evaluate behavior based
on its utility.)
Beyond Freud

Several members of Freud's close circle broke away to develop their own beliefs. New voices,
especially women's, joined psychoanalysis' chorus over time. Anna Freud's work supported her
father's views, although her subsequent contributions in defensive mechanisms extended
psychoanalytic orthodoxy.

(Freud's tight circle developed their own opinions. Psychoanalysis gained new voices, especially
women's. Anna Freud's work confirmed her father's theories, but her contributions to defensive
mechanisms advanced psychoanalysis.)

Anna Freud (1895-1982)

The youngest of Freud's six children was born the same year Breuer and Freud
published Studies on Hysteria, establishing psychoanalysis. Anna became a primary school
teacher, her interest in psychoanalysis grew, and Freud began psychoanalyzing her in 1918.
Anna presented a paper on childhood fancies to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1922 and
was certified two weeks later. Freud's cancer diagnosis in 1923 (Anna was 27) brought them
closer. As her father's health worsened, Anna competed with her mother to become his primary
caregiver. The relationship was reciprocal. Freud could discuss psychoanalysis with Anna, but
not with his wife, who considered it pornography (Gay, 1988, p. 61). Anna became her father's
representative to psychoanalytic societies worldwide, delivered his papers, typed his daily
communication, and catered to his personal and medical requirements. Anna inherited her
father's books, antiques, and ideals. Anna Freud not only continued her father's views, but also
expanded them into child analysis (1928), education, and child rearing (1935).

(As a primary school teacher, her interest in psychoanalysis grew; Freud began
psychoanalyzing her in 1918. She continued her father's work into child analysis (1928),
education (1935), and child rearing.)

Anna Freud and Melanie Klein: Conflicting Views on Child Analysis

As Anna Freud began developing her ideas on child analysis, they soon came into
conflict with the theories of Melanie Klein (1882–1960). Klein departed somewhat from
traditional psychoanalysis by emphasizing pre-Oedipal development. According to Klein, the
feelings created by the infant's interactions with the mother's breast and life and death instincts
are utilized to evaluate all subsequent events. For Klein, good and bad develop during the oral
stage, not the phallic stage as Freudians (including Anna) believed. Anna Freud disagreed with
Klein's concepts of child analysis, emphasizing the phallic and genital stages of development
and analyzing children's fancies and dreams during treatment. Anna Freud's beliefs on child
analysis prevailed despite Klein's influence.

(Anna Freud's ideas on child analysis clashed with those of Melanie Klein, who emphasized pre-
Oedipal development. For Klein, good and bad develop during the oral stage, not the phallic
stage as Freudians (including Anna) believed. Anna Freud's beliefs prevailed despite Klein's
influence.)

Ego Psychology

Anna emphasized the ego more in child analysis than in adult analysis because of the
differences. Children don't remember childhood traumas like adults do. Instead, children
develop as they do. Anna Freud (1965) described a child's gradual transition from external
control to internal and external reality as developmental lines. Developmental lines show how a
kid adapts to situational, interpersonal, or personal pressures. Normal development can be used
to define maladjustment.

In The Ego and Defense Mechanisms, Anna Freud emphasized autonomous ego
functions (1936; 1937). In her studies, she linked each ego defense to a type of anxiety
(objective, neurotic, moral). Anna, unlike traditional analysts, regarded ego defenses as relevant
(including her father). She showed how social and biological needs change. Anna Freud added
two defenses. Altruistic surrender is giving up one's own goals to live vicariously through
another's. Identification with the aggressor is when someone adopts a victim's views and
habits, they identify with the attacker. This is called Stockholm syndrome. The term comes from
a Stockholm, Sweden, bank robbery in 1973. During the incident, the woman got emotionally
dependent on one of the robbers and broke off her engagement to another guy to be devoted to
him in prison.

Anna Freud obtained an honorary degree from Clark University in 1950, much like her
father. Anna Freud suffered a stroke in March 1982 and died in October. Anna Freud started
ego psychology, which was continued by others. Erik Erikson (1902–1994) defined how the ego
gets strength via eight phases of psychosocial (not psychosexual) development. Erikson was
qualified to become an analyst by Anna Freud.

(Children don't remember childhood traumas like adults do, instead, they develop as they do
and respond differently to different kinds of stressors (situational, interpersonal, or personal))

(She linked each ego defense to a type of anxiety (objective, neurotic, moral). Altruistic
surrender is giving up one's own goals to live vicariously through another's. This is called
Stockholm syndrome and comes from a 1973 bank robbery.)

(Anna Freud suffered a stroke in March 1982 and died in October. Anna Freud obtained an
honorary degree from Clark University in 1950, much like her father. Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
defined how the ego gets strength via eight phases of psychosocial development.)

Developmental Milestones

Erikson completed his training at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, following
his analysis with Anna Freud. Erikson felt that personality continues to evolve over the course of
one's lifetime. Erikson changed developmental psychology and contributed to the rise in
popularity of gerontology by extending Freud's developmental stages into adulthood and into old
life.

John Bowlby (1907–1990) and Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913–1999) studied mother–
infant attachments. Bowlby, a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, aimed to integrate Freud's
theories with biological psychology, notably ethology (animal behavior; Chapter 18). Ainsworth
derived "strange scenario" from Bowlby's beliefs. Ainsworth observed how an infant reacted
when left in a strange room and when the mother returned. Bowlby and Ainsworth earned
significant honors for grounding Freud's concepts in biological psychology and advancing
psychoanalytic theory.

(Erikson extended Freud's developmental stages into adulthood and into old life. Erikson felt
that personality continues to evolve over the course of one's lifetime. John Bowlby and Mary
Salter Ainsworth were pioneers in integrating Freud's theories with biological psychology.)

Carl Jung

Carl Jung (1875–1961) was born in the Swiss hamlet of Kesswil to a minister and a
minister's daughter. Jung studied medicine at Basel before serving as a resident for Eugen
Bleuler (who coined the term schizophrenia). The first time Jung encountered Freud's ideas was
when he read The Interpretation of Dreams. When Jung applied Freud's concepts to his own
practice, he discovered that they were effective. He began to contact with Freud, and finally they
met at Freud's residence in Vienna. The duration of their first encounter was thirteen hours, and
they became good friends.

Jung questioned Freud's focus on sexual motivation. In 1912, the two stopped
communicating, and in 1914 they ended their relationship—despite Freud's nomination of Jung
as the first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. Jung was both competitive
and ambitious, and some have speculated that the reasons for the breakup were more personal
than professional (McLynn, 1996). Even if impatience or jealousy played a role, the breakup
was exceptionally disturbing for Jung, who entered his "dark years," a period during which he
was so miserable he couldn't even read a scientific book (Jung, 1961). Freud and Jung
disagreed about the libido. Freud saw libido as the driving force of personality when he worked
with Jung. Jung disagreed, believing libidinal energy is a creative life force that can aid
psychological progress. According to Jung, libidinal energy can be employed to satisfy bodily,
intellectual, and spiritual requirements. As one gets better at satisfying the former demands, one
can expend more libidinal energy on the latter.

Jung didn't think that personality development stopped in childhood, like Erikson did.
Most people go through a big change in their late 30s or early 40s. Once a person knows what
their opposing forces are, they can combine them and make them work together. A healthy,
whole person develops and shows each part of their personality. Jung thought that everyone
has a natural tendency toward self-actualization, but only a small number of people do it.

(Carl Jung (1875–1961) was a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst and pioneer of psychoanalysis. He

first encountered Freud's ideas in The Interpretation of Dreams and applied them to his own
practice.)

(Freud saw libido as the driving force of personality when he worked with Jung. Jung disagreed,
believing libidinal energy is a creative life force that can aid psychological progress. The
breakup was exceptionally disturbing for Jung, who entered his "dark years".)

(Johannes Erikson thought that personality development stopped in childhood. Most people go
through a big change in their late 30s or early 40s.)

The Personal and Collective Unconscious

 Jung's personal unconscious combines Freud's preconscious and unconscious,
consisting of repressed or forgotten experiences from one's history. Other of this material is
easily retrievable, while some is not. Jung's most mystical (and controversial) concept was the
collective unconscious. Jung believed the collective unconscious was the deepest and most
powerful personality component, reflecting humans' evolutionary past. Jung called each
collective unconscious predisposition an archetype. Archetypes are generic pictures that
influence life occurrences. They record perceptual experiences and related emotions. For Jung,
the mind isn't a "blank tablet" at birth but has a Lamarckian structure. Thus, previous
generations' experiences are passed on. Jung believed archetypes' emotional aspect was their
most important. When an experience "communicates with" or "identifies with" an archetype, the
emotion evoked is typical of people's emotional response to that type of event through the time.

Jung identified many archetypes and elaborated on the following. Personas cause
people to hide parts of themselves. It's a mask because it hides personality traits. The anima is
the male personality's female component and a foundation for male-female interactions. The
animus is the masculine component of female psyche and a framework for female-male
interaction. The shadow, an ancestral archetype, makes us unethical and hostile. The self
drives people to synthesize their personas. It symbolizes the demand for absolute personality
oneness. Jung called self-actualization oneness.

Jung described two views of the world. Introversion and extroversion were his labels.
Introverts are quiet, imaginative, and interested in ideas over others. Extroverts are social. Jung
thought that a healthy, mature adult displays both introversion and extroversion equally.

(Jung believed the collective unconscious was the deepest and most powerful personality
component. Jung's personal unconscious combines Freud's preconscious and unconscious,
consisting of repressed or forgotten experiences from one's history. Jung used the word
"archetype" to describe each collective unconscious tendency. Archetypes are general pictures
that affect what happens in life. They write down what they see and how they feel about it.)

(Personas are masks that hide parts of themselves. The shadow, an ancestral archetype,
makes us unethical and hostile. Jung called self-actualization oneness - absolute personality
oneness.)

(The anima is the male personality's female component and a foundation for male-female
interactions. The animus is the masculine component of female psyche and a framework for
female-male interaction.)
Causality, Synchronicity, and Dreams

Jung was deterministic like Freud. Both felt prior experiences shape a person's
personality. Jung thought that to properly comprehend a person, one must grasp the person's
past experiences and future ambitions. Thus, unlike Freud's theory, Jung's included teleology
(purpose). For Jung, people are pushed by the past and pulled by the future. Synchronicity is
another personality factor for Jung. Synchronicity happens when two or more separate
occurrences coincide meaningfully. Jung understood dreams differently than Freud. Freud
argued that dreams disclose suppressed, traumatic experiences since one's defenses are
lowered during sleep. These experiences are kept in the unconscious mind while awake
because they would cause anxiety. Jung believed everyone has the same collective
unconscious, but can recognize and express different archetypes differently. Jung believed
everyone has an innate tendency to recognize, express, and synthesize personality
components. For Jung, dreams reflect underdeveloped psychological characteristics. If a person
doesn't express the darkness, they may experience monster dreams. Dream analysis can
evaluate which components of the psyche are being adequately expressed.

(Dream analysis can help identify which components of the psyche are not being adequately
expressed. Jung believed everyone has an innate tendency to recognize, express, and
synthesize personality components. For Jung, people are pushed by the past and pulled by the
future.)

Criticisms and Contributions

Jung’s theory is often criticized for embracing spiritualism and mysticism. Many
considered Jung unscientific or antiscientific because he used art, religion, and human fantasy
to develop his theory. Some call Jung's thinking confusing, contradictory, and vague. Finally,
Jung has been criticized for employing the Lamarckian concept of acquired qualities. Despite
these objections, Jungian theory is still widely used in psychology.

(Many considered Jung unscientific or antiscientific because he used art, religion, and human
fantasy to develop his theory. Some call Jung's thinking confusing, contradictory, and vague.)
Alfred Adler (1870 – 1937)

Alfred Adler, who was born in a Vienna suburb, remembered his childhood as unhappy.
He was a sickly child who saw himself as small and ugly. After finishing medical school, Adler
read The Interpretation of Dreams. In 1911, Adler resigned as society president due to
differences with Freud. The two men never saw each other again after a nine-year friendship.
Freud accused Adler of reducing psychoanalysis to layman level. One of Adler’s major
disagreements with Freud were his sexual factors, particularly those of childhood. Another is the
concepts of repression, infantile sexuality, and even of the unconscious itself were discarded
Ernest Jones

(1955Adler moved to the U.S. in 1935 because of the Nazis. In 1937, he died. Adler focused on
working-class clients, unlike Freud (Wassermann, 1958). Adler was struck by how the average
person had to deal with problems every day and how much his clients wanted to "get ahead."

(Adler moved to the U.S. in 1935 because of the Nazis and died in 1937. Freud accused Adler
of reducing psychoanalysis to layman level. Adler focused on working-class clients, unlike Freud
(Wassermann, 1958).

Inferiority and Compensation

Like Freud, Adler was trained in the materialistic-positivist medical tradition; every
problem was thought to be physiological origin. Adler (1907/1917) argued that "inferior" organs
are more susceptible to disease. To compensate for a weakness. A person can compensate for
a body part's weakness by strengthening others. Overcompensation is another approach to
react to a weakness. In 1910, Adler showed that psychological inferiorities can be compensated
for and overcompensated for. Adler said all humans start life dependant on others and with
inferiority complexes. Although inferiority motivates personal growth and is positive, it can
disable some people. People with an inferiority complex are overpowered by such feelings and
do little or nothing. Thus, depending on one's attitude toward them, feelings of inferiority can
either be a drive for positive progress or a disabling force. Adler also studied birth order. Adler
believed second-borns, like himself, were ambitious, competitive, and had sibling rivalry. Eldest
children struggle to meet their parents' high expectations, while youngest children are often
spoilt and immature even as adults.
(In 1910, Adler showed that psychological inferiorities can be compensated for and
overcompensated for. People with an inferiority complex are overpowered by such feelings and
do little or nothing. Adler also studied birth order.)

Worldviews and Lifetsyles

Hans Vaihinger’s philosophy of “as if” influenced Adler’s theory. Like Vaihinger, Adler
believed that life is inherently meaningless, and therefore whatever meaning life has must be
assigned to it by the individual. A person’s worldview develops from early experiences as a
child. The youngster begins to plan his or her future by forming "guiding fictions." Given the
child's viewpoint, these goals are realistic. If the youngster has a good viewpoint, they may want
to become a doctor, scientist, artist, or teacher. If the child's perspective is negative, they may
plan a life of crime and devastation. A lifestyle includes daily activities while pursuing goals. A
person's lifestyle affects what they focus on, what they perceive and ignore, and how they solve
difficulties. Adler says a lifestyle must have social interest to be effective. Its purpose must
include creating a better society for everyone.

(A person's lifestyle affects what they focus on, what they perceive and ignore. The purpose of a
lifestyle is to create a better society for everyone. Lifestyle must have social interest to be
effective at creating a better world. It must also include daily activities while pursuing goals.)
Adler

The Creative Self

Adler disagreed with Freud and Jung that humans are solely products of their
environment and biology. Environment and heredity offer personality's raw elements, but a
person can arrange them whatever they like. Personal choices determine whether inferiority
sentiments help or hinder growth. Life is meaningless, but one can construct meaning and act
"as if" it's true. Adler's view of the creative self- united him with Nietzsche's belief in free will.
Adler questioned Freud's psychoanalysis's core psychoanalysis—repressed memories of
painful experiences. Adlerian therapy is frequently regarded as a first step toward humanistic
psychology.
(Adler's view of the creative self- united him with Nietzsche's belief in free will. Adler questioned
Freud's psychoanalysis's core psychoanalysis—repressed memories of painful experiences. His
therapy is frequently regarded as a first step toward humanistic psychology.)

Karen Horney (1885 – 1952)

Pronounced as “horn-eye” was born Karen Danielson in a small village near

Hamburg, Germany. Horney completed her medical degree at the University of Berlin in 1913.
She attended psychoanalytic training at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute, where she was
analyzed by Karl Abraham and Hans Sachs, two of Freud's inner circle. Franz Alexander invited
Horney to join the Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis in 1932. Two years later, she moved to
New York and trained at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute. During this phase, her opinions
diverged from traditional Freudians'. Due to these differences, her students' theses were
consistently rejected, and she was finally dismissed. In 1941, she withdrew from the New York
Psychoanalytic Institute and created the American Institute for Psychoanalysis, where she
developed her own theories until 1952.

(Horney completed her medical degree at the University of Berlin in 1913. She studied with Karl
Abraham and Hans Sachs, two of Freud's inner circle. In 1941, she created the American
Institute for Psychoanalysis, where she developed her own theories.)

General Disagreement with Freudian Theory

Horney believed Freudian notions like unconscious sexual motivation, the Oedipal
com plex, and the division of the mind into an id, ego, and superego may have been appropriate
in Freud's cultural setting and at his time in history, but they had little relevance for Depression-
era problems in the U.S. Horney concluded that social experiences, not intra-psychic conflict
(between the id, ego, and superego), determine a person's psychological difficulties. Horney
believes that society and social interactions generate mental disease and must be addressed in
therapy. Horney (1937) argued that damaged interpersonal interactions produce psychological
difficulties, especially between parents and children. She felt children need to be sheltered from
pain, danger, and fear and have their biological needs met. A youngster who experiences evil
develops parental animosity. Because a child's parent–child interaction is so important,
animosity evolves into a worldview. Repressed hostility generates anxiety. Basic anxiety is the
"all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world" (Horney, 1937, p. 77) and a
prerequisite for neurosis.

(Horney argued that damaged interpersonal interactions produce psychological difficulties,

especially between parents and children. She felt children need to be sheltered from pain,
danger, and fear and have their biological needs met. Repressed hostility generates anxiety;
basic anxiety is a prerequisite for neurosis.)

Feminine Psychology

Horney is the first psychoanalytic feminist, argues Chodorow (1989). Horney agreed
with Freud that anatomy determines destiny. In her view, men envy female anatomy, not vice
versa. Feminine Psychology collects Horney's 1923 writings on how culture affects female
personality development (Horney & Kelman, 1967). Horney agreed with Freud that women often
feel inferior to males, but it's not penis envy. Horney says women are culturally, not biologically,
inferior to men. When women act masculine, they're really seeking cultural equality.

Horney agreed with Freud on early childhood experiences and unconscious

motivation, but he emphasized cultural motivation. She felt people could solve many of their
own issues, unlike Freud (see her book Self-Analysis [1942/1968]).   In conclusion, Freudian
theory profoundly impacted Horney, who embraced much of it. She disagreed with Freud's
conclusions regarding women. All subsequent theories of personality and therapeutic
procedures owe a debt to Freud because he was the first to comprehensively explain
personality and treat mental disease.

(Feminine Psychology collects Horney's writings on how culture affects female personality
development (Horney & Kelman, 1967). Horney agreed with Freud that women often feel
inferior to males, but it's not penis envy. When women act masculine, they're really seeking
cultural equality.)

(Freudian theory profoundly impacted Horney, who embraced much of it but disagreed with its
conclusions regarding women. Horney agreed with Freud on early childhood experiences and
unconscious motivation, but he emphasized cultural motivation. She felt people could solve
many of their own issues, unlike Freud.)
Summary:

Through self-analysis, Freud realized that dreams contain the same information about the roots
of a psychiatric condition as physical symptoms and free associations. He distinguished
between a dream's manifest and latent content, or what the dream appears to be about and
what the dream is actually about. According to Freud, hidden content reflects desires that a
person cannot actively entertain without experiencing anxiety. Dream work obscures the
fundamental meaning of a dream. Condension, in which multiple aspects of a person's life are
condensed into a single symbol, and displacement, in which a person dreams about something
symbolically related to an anxiety-provoking object, person, or event rather than the actual
object, person, or event that causes anxiety, are two examples of dream work. According to
Freud, the adult mind is made up of an id, an ego, and a superego. Because the id is completely
unconscious and requires instant fulfillment, it is thought to be governed by the pleasure
principle. The reality principle is said to govern it because the ego's function is to detect actual
objects in the environment that can meet desires. The rational processes of the ego are referred
to as secondary in order to distinguish them from the irrational basic processes of the id. The
superego is the third component of the mind, and it is made up of the con science, or the
internalization of experiences for which a child was punished, and the ego-ideal, or the
internalization of experiences for which a child was rewarded.

Freud distinguished three types of anxiety: objective anxiety (fear of environmental

occurrences), neurotic anxiety (fear that one's id would take over), and moral anxiety (fear of
breaking one or more internalized standards). One of the ego's key responsibilities is to reduce
or eliminate worry, therefore defense mechanisms are used. All defense mechanisms rely on
suppression, or the unconscious storage of distressing thoughts. Displacement, sublimation,
projection, identification, rationalization, and reaction construction are some more ego defense
methods.

The erogenous zone, or the area of the body associated with the greatest amount of pleasure,
changes during the psychosexual stages of development. Freud classified developmental
stages according to their erogenous zones. Overgratification or undergratification of oral needs
results in a fixation during the oral stage. Fixation during the anal stage results in either an anal-
expulsive or an anal-retentive adult. The male and female Oedipal complexes occur during the
phallic stage. Freud believed that male and female psychology were qualitatively different,
owing to different Oedipal experiences. Latency is characterized by sexual desire repression
and sublimation. During the genital stage, the person emerges with the personality traits that
have been shaped by the experiences of the preceding stages.

In ordinary life, Freud discovered ample evidence for his idea. He believed that forgetting, losing
things, mishaps, and slips of the tongue were frequently prompted unintentionally. He also
believed that jokes give information about repressed experiences since people find anxiety-
provoking content interesting. Although we share the innate nature of other animals, Freud
argued that humans have the ability to understand and harness instinctual impulses through
rational reason. Religious belief, according to Freud, is an illusion that keeps individuals
functioning at an infantile level. His ambition was that people would embrace scientific concepts,
becoming more objective about themselves and the world as a result.

Freud and psychoanalysis have been misunderstood for years. Some historians contend that
Freud wasn't the bold, innovative hero he and his admirers depicted him as, and that his
theories weren't as original as they claimed. Several historians and researchers believe Freud
assumed repressed childhood sexual trauma caused a patient's condition. Freud was attacked
for overemphasizing sexual motivation and establishing an ineffective, expensive therapy
practice. Freud's thesis isn't falsifiable, according Popper.

For many years, Freud and psychoanalysis were misunderstood. Some historians argue that
Freud was not the daring, innovative hero that he and his fans portrayed him to be, and that his
theories were not as novel as they claimed. Several historians and researchers believe Freud
assumed a patient's condition was caused by repressed childhood sexual trauma. Freud was
criticized for overemphasizing sexual motivation and developing an unproductive, expensive
therapeutic practice. According to Popper, Freud's thesis is unfalsifiable.

Jung, a Freud disciple, parted with him. Jung saw libido as a source of good energy for a
lifetime. Jung contrasted the personal unconscious from the collective unconscious, which
records universal human experience. According to Jung, the collective unconscious contains
predispositions to emotionally respond to life experiences and generate myths about them.
Persona, anima, animus, shadow, and self are well-developed archetypes. Jung compared
introversion and extroversion. He also believed that synchronicity determines one's life path.
Jung believed dreams express parts of the personality not expressed in waking life.

Adler was an early Freud follower who went his own way, like Jung. Adler's theory was unlike
Freud's and Jung's. Adler believed infant helplessness made everyone feel inferior. Adler
believed most people develop a lifestyle that gives them power or nears perfection to overcome
inferiority. Some people are overwhelmed by inferiority complexes. Adler believed the only
meaning in life is what the individual creates. A child forms a worldview from early experiences.

Horney studied Freud but formed her own idea. She believed that societal issues and
interpersonal relationships cause psychological disorders more than sexual disputes. Parent-
child interactions are crucial. Horney believed there were two types of parent–child
relationships: one that satisfies the child's biological and safety requirements and one that
frustrates them. Repressed animosity generates anxiety, the feeling of being alone and helpless
in a hostile environment. Moving toward people emphasizes affection, moving against people
focuses hatred, while moving away from people emphasizes withdrawal. Normal persons
employ all three adjustment mechanisms, but neurotics use only one.

Horney challenged Freud's thesis that anatomy determines fate, claiming that gender variations
in personality are culturally determined. She stated that women frequently feel inferior to males
due to cultural differences. Horney discovered that males were envious of female biology rather
than the other way around in her profession. Horney believed that because it was invented by
men, psychoanalysis felt more acceptable and complementary to men. Horney used a number
of Freudian concepts and procedures in her psychoanalytic practice, although she was more
optimistic about personality transformation than Freud.