1.

Machine dependent and Machine independent optimization:

- Machine dependent optimization refers to the optimizations performed by a compiler or
an optimizer specifically targeting a particular hardware architecture or machine. These
optimizations take advantage of specific features and characteristics of the target machine
to improve the efficiency of the generated code.
- Machine independent optimization, on the other hand, refers to optimizations that are not
tied to a specific hardware architecture. These optimizations focus on improving the code's
efficiency and performance without considering the underlying machine. They are applicable
to a wide range of hardware platforms and can be implemented by the compiler or
optimizer.

2. Compiler and Cross Compiler:

- A compiler is a software tool that translates source code written in a high-level
programming language (such as C, C++, Java) into machine code or an intermediate
representation (such as bytecode) that can be executed by a target machine.
- A cross-compiler is a type of compiler that runs on one platform or architecture and
generates executable code for a different platform or architecture. In other words, it is used
to compile code for a target machine that is different from the machine on which the
compiler itself is running. For example, a developer using a Windows machine could use a
cross-compiler to generate executable code for a Linux-based system.

3. Synthesized and Inherited attribute:

- In compiler design, attributes are properties or characteristics associated with various
language constructs or grammar rules. They provide additional information about the
constructs to aid in the compilation process.
- Synthesized attributes are attributes whose values are determined based on the attributes
of the child nodes in a parse tree or syntax tree. The value of a synthesized attribute is
computed during the parsing or semantic analysis phase and can be propagated up the tree.
- Inherited attributes, on the other hand, are attributes whose values are determined based
on the attributes of the parent or ancestor nodes in a parse tree or syntax tree. The value of
an inherited attribute is computed during the parsing or semantic analysis phase and can be
propagated down the tree.

4. DAG and Flow graph:

- DAG stands for Directed Acyclic Graph. In compiler optimization, a DAG is a data structure
used to represent the common subexpressions in an expression tree or a control flow graph.
It eliminates redundant calculations by identifying subexpressions that occur multiple times
and replacing them with a single computation.
- A flow graph, also known as a control flow graph, is a graphical representation of the
control flow or the sequence of instructions in a program. It depicts the basic blocks of code
and their interconnections, showing the order of execution and the branching paths.

5. LR(0) and LR(1):

- LR(0) refers to a type of parsing algorithm called LR(0) parsing, which is used to construct
the parsing table for a context-free grammar. LR(0) parsing works by building a state
machine that represents the viable prefixes of the grammar. It does not take into account
any lookahead symbols when deciding how to reduce a production rule.
- LR(1) is an extension of LR(0) parsing. It is a more powerful parsing algorithm that
incorporates lookahead symbols into the parsing decisions. LR(1) parsing uses a look-ahead
of one symbol to determine the appropriate reductions or shifts in the parsing process,
making it more expressive and capable of handling a broader class of grammars.

6. Sentence and Sentential form:

- In the context of formal languages and grammars, a sentence refers to a string of terminal
symbols that can be generated by a grammar. It represents a valid sequence of tokens in a
programming language or natural language.
- A sentential form, also known as a production or a derivation, is an intermediate string that
consists of a combination of terminal and non-terminal symbols. It is obtained by applying
production rules of a grammar during a derivation process. The sentential form eventually
transforms into a sentence through a series of rule applications.

1. What is input buffering techniques explain with example

Input buffering is a technique used in parsing and scanning processes to improve the
efficiency of reading input from a source. Instead of reading one character at a time, input
buffering involves reading a block of characters into a buffer and then processing the input
from the buffer. This reduces the frequency of input operations, improving the overall
performance.

For example, let's consider a text file containing the following sentence:
"Input buffering improves the performance of input operations."

With input buffering, the system may read the first 10 characters ("Input buff") into a buffer
and then process the input from the buffer. Once the buffer is empty, another block of
characters is read into the buffer. This approach minimizes the number of input operations
required, which can be time-consuming compared to reading from memory.

2. Write down the regular expression for the binary strings with odd
one’s.
The regular expression for binary strings with an odd number of ones is:
(0*10*1)*0*

Explanation:
- (0*10*1)*: This part represents any number of repetitions of the pattern 0*10*1. It allows
for any number of leading and trailing zeroes with alternating ones and zeroes in between.
- 0*: This part allows for any number of trailing zeroes after the alternating pattern.

3. Write short note on symbol table.

A symbol table is a data structure used by compilers and interpreters to store information
about identifiers, such as variables, functions, classes, and other language constructs,
encountered during the compilation process. It serves as a central repository for managing
and accessing information related to symbols.

Key characteristics of a symbol table:

- It associates a symbol (e.g., identifier name) with its attributes (e.g., type, scope, memory
location).
- It supports operations like insertion, retrieval, and updating of symbol information.
- It handles issues like scope management, symbol visibility, and name resolution.

The symbol table is typically constructed and maintained during the various phases of
compilation, such as lexical analysis, parsing, and semantic analysis. It plays a crucial role in
type checking, identifier resolution, and code generation.

4. Explain in detail about the compiler construction tools

Compiler construction tools are software tools used to aid in the development of compilers.
These tools provide automated support for various phases of the compiler design and
implementation process. Some popular compiler construction tools include Lex, Yacc, Flex,
Bison, and ANTLR.

Lex: Lex is a lexical analyzer generator that takes a set of regular expressions and
corresponding actions as input. It generates a lexical analyzer (also known as a scanner or
tokenizer) in a programming language, such as C or C++, that can tokenize input according to
the specified regular expressions.

Yacc: Yacc (Yet Another Compiler-Compiler) is a parser generator that takes a grammar
specification as input and generates a parser in a programming language, such as C or C++. It
uses the specified grammar rules to parse input and construct a parse tree or an abstract
syntax tree.

These tools, along with others, facilitate the automation and standardization of various tasks
involved in compiler construction, including lexical analysis, parsing, syntax tree generation,
semantic analysis, and code generation.

5. Differentiate between Token, Pattern and Lexeme with suitable

example.
Token, Pattern, and Lexeme are terms associated with lexical analysis and describe different
components and concepts related to scanning and tokenizing input.

- Token: A token is a meaningful unit of language, defined by a lexical grammar. Tokens

represent the smallest indivisible units of a programming language, such as keywords,
identifiers, operators, literals, and punctuation symbols. For example, in the expression "x =
10 + y;", the tokens would be "x", "=", "10", "+", "y", and ";".

- Pattern: A pattern is a description or a rule that defines the structure or form of a token. It
specifies the valid sequence of characters that a token can have. Regular expressions are
often used to define patterns for tokens. For example, a

pattern for an identifier in a programming language may be defined as [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*,

which indicates that an identifier should start with a letter and can be followed by letters or
digits.

- Lexeme: A lexeme refers to the sequence of characters in the source code that matches a
specific token. It is the actual text representation that corresponds to a token. For example,
in the expression "x = 10 + y;", the lexemes corresponding to the tokens would be "x", "=",
"10", "+", "y", and ";".
In summary, a lexeme is the actual text matched in the source code, a pattern describes the
structure of a token, and a token is a meaningful unit of language identified during lexical
analysis.

(Note: The term "lexeme" is sometimes used interchangeably with "token" depending on
the context.)

6. Write a regular expression for the language L= {w:| w| mod 3 = 0}, w

belongs to (a,b)*}.
The regular expression for the language L = {w : |w| mod 3 = 0, w ∈ {a, b}*} (i.e., the
language of binary strings where the length is a multiple of 3) can be expressed as:

((aaa)*(bbb)*)*

Explanation:
- (aaa)*(bbb)*: This part matches any number of repetitions of the pattern "aaa" followed by
any number of repetitions of the pattern "bbb". This ensures that the length of the string is a
multiple of 3, as "aaa" and "bbb" have lengths of 3.

- ((aaa)*(bbb)*)*: This part allows for any number of repetitions of the "aaa-bbb" pattern.

7. Give distinction between regular and context free grammar and

limitations of context free grammar.
Distinction between regular and context-free grammar and limitations of context-free
grammar:

Regular Grammar:
- Describes regular languages.
- Can be parsed by finite automata or regular expressions.
- Rules are in the form of A → aB or A → a, where A and B are non-terminal symbols, a is a
terminal symbol, and ε (empty string) is allowed.
- Regular grammars are less expressive than context-free grammars.

Context-Free Grammar:
- Describes context-free languages.
- Can be parsed by pushdown automata or top-down parsing techniques (e.g., recursive
descent parsing).
- Rules are in the form of A → α, where A is a non-terminal symbol and α is a string of
terminals and non-terminals.
- Context-free grammars are more expressive than regular grammars and can describe more
complex languages.

Limitations of Context-Free Grammar:

- Context-free grammars cannot fully capture certain language features, such as nested
structures or balancing parentheses, which require context-sensitive or more powerful
grammars.
- Context-free grammars cannot handle certain language constructs that require multiple
passes of analysis or semantic processing, such as type checking or scope resolution. These
tasks often require more advanced analysis techniques beyond the scope of context-free
grammars.

8 Explain the different phases of compiler design with the help of

suitable diagram.
Phases of Compiler Design:
1. Lexical Analysis:
- Converts the input source code into a sequence of tokens.
- Involves scanning and tokenizing the source code using regular expressions and lexical
rules.
- Generates a stream of tokens for the subsequent parsing phase.

2. Syntax Analysis:
- Analyzes the structure of the source code based on a grammar or language specification.
- Constructs a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree representing the syntactic structure.
- Checks the syntactic correctness of the source code.

3. Semantic Analysis:
- Performs various semantic checks and analyzes the meaning of the source code.
- Enforces language-specific rules and constraints.
- Builds symbol tables, performs type checking, and detects semantic errors.

4. Intermediate Code Generation:

- Transforms the input source code or parse tree into an intermediate representation.
- The intermediate code is typically

closer to the target machine code but still independent of the target machine architecture.

5. Code Optimization:
- Applies various optimization techniques to improve the efficiency of the intermediate
code.
- Optimizations include constant folding, loop optimization, and register allocation.
- Aims to generate optimized code that is more efficient in terms of time and space.

6. Code Generation:
- Translates the optimized intermediate code into the target machine code or an
equivalent representation.
- Involves instruction selection, register allocation, and code scheduling.
- Produces the final executable code that can be run on the target machine.

9. Construct a Finite Automata that Accept All String of Length At Most

2
Finite Automaton accepting all strings of length at most 2:
The Finite Automaton (FA) accepting all strings of length at most 2 can be represented as
follows:
 State: {q0, q1, q2}
Alphabet: {a, b}

Transition Table:
- δ(q0, a) = q1
- δ(q0, b) = q1
- δ(q1, a) = q2
- δ(q1, b) = q2
- δ(q2, a) = q2
- δ(q2, b) = q2

Start State: q0
Accepting States: {q0, q1, q2}

The above FA has three states: q0, q1, and q2. The start state is q0, and all states are
accepting states. The transitions allow any input symbol (a or b) to move from one state to
another. Since the maximum length of the string is 2, the automaton accepts any string of
length 0, 1, or 2.

10. What do you mean by context free grammar with the help of an
example.
A context-free grammar (CFG) is a formal grammar used to describe the syntax or
structure of a language. It consists of a set of production rules that define how symbols
(terminals and non-terminals) can be combined to form valid language constructs.

Example:
Consider the following context-free grammar:

S → aSb
S→ε

In this grammar, S is a non-terminal symbol, and a and b are terminal symbols. The
production rules state that S can be expanded to either "aSb" or ε (empty string). This
grammar describes a language where any number of 'a's can be followed by an equal
number of 'b's, including the possibility of an empty string.

For example, using this grammar, we can derive the following strings:
- S → aSb → aaSbb → aabbb
- S → ε (deriving the empty string)

Context-free grammars are widely used in formal language theory, compiler design, and
natural language processing to define the syntax of programming languages and human
languages.