Sunny Kapadia SRPfinal

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/337480407
Comminution in mineral processing
Research · November 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.34991.89760
CITATIONS READS
3 18,287
1 author:
Sunny Kapadia
Technische Universität Clausthal
4 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Geology View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Sunny Kapadia on 24 November 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Student Research Project
Author,
Mr Sunny Kapadia
Enrol: 458799
Professor,
Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Alfred Weber
Institute of Mineral Processing, Department of Mechanical Engineering
i
Declaration of originality
“I declare that this thesis is my own work. Information derived from the published and unpublished
work of others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references is given in the
bibliography.”
_________ ________________
Date Signature
ii
Abstract
The aim of mineral processing is to get the mineral from rock or Ore that has good economic value
in the market. Generally, the ability of treating crude material from excavation into mineral product
is referred to as Mineral Processing. Ore dressing or separation technics have been introduced long
ago and had been undergone through huge transformations. Thus, various methods of mineral
extraction have always been the integral part for the development of human civilization. The boost
of industrial growth and heavy consumption of mineral has created new dimension for research and
development of new technologies and practices for the mining and metal industries.
Mineral processing contains several layers of mechanical processes but these processing are
commonly defined as below:
Geostatistical analysis concentration and

comminution
and excavation dewatering
Ore deposit is the gathering of ore where ore is defined as a rock or sediment which contains
sufficiently high levels of minerals that can be profitably extracted. Here, mineral is dissociated
from the ore by different activities such as reduction by size, shape, grades etc. This can be taken
under the consideration of unique method of extractive metallurgy in which main steps are known
as liberation, separation and concentration. Functions of each section are conservation of mass,
shorting of minerals by grades, collection of different minerals in concentrated forms respectively.
Here, the Ore is converted to manageable feed for further units of concentration and separation.
Essentially, comminution is the key for mineral beneficiation where the aim is to form mineral
components into least energy consuming elements in terms of thermal, physical or chemical
treatments.
Crushing and grinding are known as comminution procedure where the major operations are
intensively related to liberation and reduction of particle size by means of different technologies.
Cone, jaw, gyroscopic crushing etc. are the most common techniques for crushing whereas grinding
is usually performed by rod milling, ball milling etc. There are many new technologies which more
cost and energy are effective and had been introduced in recent time however, the main principle
and mechanism for comminution has remained same.
In this research work, the discussion is mainly focused on the basic concept, use of recent
technologies and machineries in current generation for comminution industries. In addition, this
report will also highlight the enhancement of rudimentary technics and future technologies for
comminution.
iii
Table of Content
1.Introduction .....................................................................................................................................1
1.1 What is mineral? ......................................................................................................................1
1.2 What is mineral processing? ...................................................................................................2
2.Mineral beneficiation ......................................................................................................................4
3.Comminution ...................................................................................................................................7
4.Crushing and grinding....................................................................................................................9
Exercise 4.1 ...................................................................................................................................11
5.Crushing and grinding equipment .............................................................................................. 12
5.1 Crusher ...................................................................................................................................12
5.1.1 Jaw crusher ......................................................................................................................12
5.1.2 Gyratory crusher.............................................................................................................13
5.1.3 Cone crusher ....................................................................................................................14
5.1.4 Roll crusher .....................................................................................................................15
5.1.5 Hammer and impact crusher ......................................................................................... 16
5.2 Grinding ..................................................................................................................................17
5.2.1 Tumbling mills.................................................................................................................18
5.2.2 Stirred mills .....................................................................................................................19
6.New technologies in comminution ............................................................................................... 20
6.1 Crushing by jaw crusher .......................................................................................................20
6.2 Crushing and grinding by cone crusher ..............................................................................21
6.3 Grinding by dry grinder ........................................................................................................21
7.Conclusion......................................................................................................................................23
Bibliography .....................................................................................................................................24
iv
Table of Figures
Figure 1. 1 Sample of ore (Image- mining-technology) ..................................................................2
Figure 2. 1 Specimen of ore with valuable mineral and waste particles .......................................5
Figure 3. 1 Deformation of structure by compressive and tensile stress ......................................7

Figure 3. 2 Size distribution of grain ................................................................................................ 8
Figure 3. 3 Particle size after different stresses during comminution ...........................................8
Figure 4. 1 Concept behind crushing and grinding(Image- metso) ...............................................9
Figure 5. 1 Jaw crusher (Image- camelway) ..................................................................................13

Figure 5. 2 Gyratory crusher (Image- FLSmidth) ........................................................................14
Figure 5. 3 Cone crusher (Image- engineeringintro) ....................................................................14
Figure 5.4. 1 Double roller crusher (Image- williamscrusher) ....................................................15

Figure 5.4. 2 Single roll crusher (Image-SUR iron and steel co.) ................................................16
Figure 5.5. 1 Hammer crusher (Image- Indiamart) ......................................................................16

Figure 5.5. 2 Impact crusher (Image- Salesandmaker) ................................................................ 17
Figure 5.6. 1 Tumbling mill with grinding media ball (Image- 911metallurgist) ......................18
Figure 5.6. 2 (left) AG/SAG mill, (right)inside view grinding media (Both images-
911metallurgist)................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 6. 1 N-Berg C series jaw crusher (Image: Metso) ............................................................. 20

Figure 6. 2 Vibrocone CO series cone crusher (Image: Canadian mine journals) ....................21
v
1.Introduction
Metals are known to be the most important part of human life for development. They can be
obtained mainly by two resources: Primary resources and secondary resources. Primary resources
are mostly identified as natural resources in which the metals are extracted in ore. In secondary
source, metals are generally scraped or recycled material [12]. There is a huge demand for different
metals in various industries, namely: heavy metals, construction, chemical, machine manufacturing
etc. Enormous growth of such industries has created dramatic need for metals and minerals. These
needs cannot be fulfilled by secondary resources. Therefore, producing or obtaining minerals and
metals from natural reserves has been augmented for years.
1.1 What is mineral?
Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid with a fixed or limited range in
chemistry. The term naturally occurring means the synthetic production of mineral is not possible.
Minerals are crystalline in nature and thus the molecules or atoms or ions are arranged in an
arranged symmetrical pattern, repeatedly (DRZYMALA, 2007).
The properties of mineral are mainly the result of composition and its physical structure.
Composition can affect colour and bond strength whereas the structure is responsible for bond
strength but in addition it can also affect its hardness. For example, calcite is known as lime stone,
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It has crusty line build up pattern due to enormous amount of hard
water floatation on its surface. Carbon molecules are covalently bonded with oxygen and the
molecules of calcium are ionically bonded. The group of carbonates (CO3) is attached with calcium
in very loose bond which creates weak group of molecules which results in a very weak physical
structure and can easily be broken. The identical part of this bonding is, different strength with
different molecules which results into stronger carbonate structure. Calcium carbonate can be
dissolved in water where the calcium gets separated from carbonate. If CaCO3 is submerged into the
acid, the valent electron of acid attacks on the covalent bond which is completely dissociates the
atoms and ends up by releasing Carbon dioxide (CO2) (DRZYMALA, 2007).
CaCO3 → CaO +CO2
Molecular arrangement plays a big role for the remarkable impact on the physical properties of
mineral. Different structure forms various mineral depending on their molecular arrangement. For
easy understanding, carbon is a single element which can universally be found in different
formation (DRZYMALA, 2007). Accumulation of carbon molecule forms a very thin sheet. These
sheets are piled up together with Van der Waal bond and a mineral can be structured which is
known as graphite. When arrangement of carbon molecule is very close which creates a very strong
structure, this formation is known as diamond. Graphite is a weak structure and with a little force, it
breaks down into the pieces, but diamond is the strongest mineral on earth. Formation of mineral
1
depends upon the instability of earth’s lower crust where volcanic activities take place. Gradual
change in temperature forms solidus matter and at a certain point of low temperature, it starts
crystal formation. During this process, many other elements which are more likely to share their
valency, forms a unique structure. This structure contains more than one elements, water content
etc. In other words, this structure is the gathering of various mineral or the gangue of minerals
which is known as mineral ore (Figure 1.1). Ore is the mixture of minerals with other impurities
(OSWER, May 2012).
Figure 1. 1 Sample of ore (Image- mining-technology)
1.2 What is mineral processing?
Mineral processing is one of the branches of extractive metallurgy that deals with various processes
which turn the natural inorganic material into the economically viable mineral. Processing of such
material or gangue of mineral defines the unique property for desired mineral or element. This
subject is mainly related to rock science, geology of earth crust and formation of different mineral.
Mineral processing has been performed since ages for many purposes [19]. In recent decades,
industries have shown enormous growth whether it is mineralogical or metallurgical industries.
Processing of such mineral for the use of industries has become essential which can be linked to the
crude mineral and chemicals. Mineral processing is based on the concepts of mass conversion,
sorting, separation and analysis. In other words, these processes are backbone for preparation and
beneficiation of valuable mineral (DRZYMALA, 2007).
The classification of rocks is differed into three groups: magmatic rocks, sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks. These rocks are integral part of the unique deposits which are divided into
magmatic, post magmatic and sedimentary deposits. In magmatic deposits, copper, platinum,
corundum etc. are the common mineral (OSWER, May 2012). These minerals are found in terms of
accumulation in magmatic rocks. Metamorphic deposit is the result of the process between magma
and surrounding rocks which contains various minerals such as iron, copper, zinc, graphite etc.
2
Sedimentary deposits have the deposit of coal, sandstones, crude oil, manganese etc. During the
excavation of such deposits, ore of different mineral is produced which can be in powder form or
solid rocks. In many cases, crude ore can also be found in form of solution due to variable depth of
ground water in the respective strata of sedimentary deposits (DRZYMALA, 2007).
On the early stage, geostatistical rock analysis takes place at the ore deposit site which shows the
amount of valuable mineral in the ore specimen. This analysis approves further excavation of this
documented or identified deposit. After full scale mining of the deposit, it turns into excavated or
mined material. Mined material has different specification as per industrial, construction, chemical
utilization, energy and many more applications. Mined material goes under sampling process where
the whole series automatic samplers provide accurate information about the quantity of single or
multiple samples [18]. Many mathematical models for sampling have also been developed to meet
the appropriate criteria for proper sampling. Next step for processing is testing and analysis. Testing
is performed in terms of analyse chemical, mineralogical and particle strength. Emission
spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy are widely known testing method for chemical
testing. In emission spectroscopy, specimen is placed between the highly charged electrodes.
Receiver gets the emitted wavelength from the different mineral from the sample as per their
concentration and size. In X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy method, X-radiations of same
wavelength are released on the sample. The number of reflected beams is mainly related to
sensitivity and characteristic of the individual element present in the sample (DRZYMALA, 2007)
(Gross, 1938).
After the mineral analysis, ore sample needs size reduction to get separated from the waste particle.
Size reduction is achieved through the series of crushing and grinding. In crushing, large rocks are
placed into the crusher where the large rock is cut into small pieces under the size range of
centimetres to millimetres. After crushing, smaller parts are separated into a big hopper. Material in
this hopper turns into feed for the next procedure called grinding. Grinding is the most important
part of whole mineral processing. Generally, grinders are containing the size reducing element such
as metallic balls, rods etc. Such elements are called grinding media. Material passes through this
media results into huge size transformation in a big rotating uniaxial tumbler under the remarkable
influence of gravity. Screening can be followed by crushing and sometimes grinding. Sieves of
holes with different diameter separate the material into different sizes. At this point, mineral is
mixed with liquid chemical for the removal of contaminants by optic separation. Concentration
includes the differentiation of valuable minerals from the waste and other material. It can be done
by colour, density, electric and magnetic sensitivity and other properties. Filtration, floatation,
thickening, drying and dewatering processes make the mineral identical and ready for various
purposes (Clarence H. Lorig, March 2017) (DRZYMALA, 2007).
3
2.Mineral beneficiation
Mineral beneficiation is considered as the first step of mineral extraction from its natural resources.
It’s very rare to find mineral particle on the surface which is ready for extraction process. When ore
aggregates with gangue mineral, it becomes necessary to separate valuable mineral from the
gangue. Mineral beneficiation is the process to convert raw material into marketable product. This
process is also known as mineral dressing or ore dressing (Clarence H. Lorig, March 2017). During
this operation, mineral doesn’t loose its chemical and physical identity. Here, Size of the mineral
particle varies by different operations which are called as unit operations. These operations technic
essentially mean such mineral processing where minerals are turning into more acceptable product
for market without changing its basic nature [14].
In all the operations, mineral beneficiation is done by crushing and grinding with the help of
different equipment. Large particles are passing through the hard surfaces where it gets hammered
and broken into small pieces. These pieces further move to the different machines with allowable
size opening and again go under intense size reduction and turn into fine particles. In extractive
metallurgy, such operations are technically known as comminution. Comminution or size reduction
requires huge amount of energy. As per estimation, rock ore to get powder form requires 5kwh per
tonne to 25kwh per tonne depending on the machine and property of the ore particles (Wills, 2006).
In several cases, comminution becomes first step in mineral processing as it achieves particle size
reduction along with liberation of minerals. Minerals are found in nature with the agglomeration of
different particle of another material. In case of single mineral particles agglomeration, it is called
as free particles and when there are more different particles together, they are called as locked
particles (Gross, 1938). By reducing size, main target for liberation is to unlock the mineral particle
from other gangue particles. Process of Unlocking mineral particle is the relevant function of
degree of liberation of mineral. Degree of liberation can be defined as the percentage of mineral
occurred as free particle in the ore compared to total ore content (DRZYMALA, 2007) (Gross,
1938).
When the particles are more liberated, they are more likely to get free from each other and more
single mineral to be available in mass generation. Thus, by reducing size in comminution, it tends
to create much larger surface area for mineral particles which becomes advantageous in several
processes such as leaching, forth floatation etc. For example; in leaching, mineral particles in
powder form create large effective area which is more likely to dissolve in acid or alkali and turn
into rich solution and execute the upcoming processes more effective. Comminution process creates
not only the larger surface area, by breaking the particle it adds new surfaces which may be more
active for any chemical and physical reaction as they are not weathered by any geological
phenomena (DRZYMALA, 2007)[16] (Gross, 1938).
There are very few processes where it requires large particle size. The degree of fineness of the
particle depends upon the acceptance of the particle size for the upcoming process that needs to be
4
operated. For example, in fluidic process, particles make homogeneous mixture with gas. If the
particle is very fine, it becomes lighter than the density of gas which results into scattering of
particle and turning the process less efficient. In forth floatation technic, large surface area of the
particles is easy to get attached due to surface tension of the bubble. If the particles are too big, it
becomes harder to get elevated and attached with foam bubble surface. Involvement of Surface
properties of the particle decides the success of the process. Finer particles are lighter, containing
large surface area, pure in terms of mineral value. Crushing and grinding needs to be followed by
sizing where the fineness of the particle measured. In sizing, screening process becomes essential to
get different size of the particles in group at various stages. The principle of screening is to separate
the same size particles. Crushed particles are supplied through the hopper as feed to the top screen
which is metallic perforated device. There is a series of screens followed by top screen in which
hole sizes varies and they are vibrated in a stack, so the finer particle gets separated at the bottom
and coarser particles remains on the screens as per their respective size and shape. So that,
screening process classifies the size reduction of material and forms the group of particles
(Clarence H. Lorig, March 2017)[14].
Figure 2. 1 Specimen of ore with valuable mineral and waste particles
Here, the given specimen is a gathering of all elements such as valuable mineral, gangue mineral,
waste, rocks etc. Distribution of the valuable mineral is in unarranged manner and differed by its
grade. Molecule is attached to the surrounding particles through a unique boding as explained
earlier in mineral section which always tends to lose its valence electron. Same molecules have
strong bonding with compare to different molecule so that separation process take place in most of
the case from the boundary of different molecules [14].
5
In industries, particle size classification through vibrating screens becomes older solution and it has
limitations during the continuous production. Industrial processes specifically require continuous
flow of the input material at defined size range during the process circuit like petroleum
refineries[19]. Nowadays, metallic rods are used for screening where long inclines rods are
connected at different height and create certain spacing between the parallel rods. The ore goes
from the top of this vibrating rod setup and finer particles go down through the opening between
the rods and coarser remains on top. Grizzlies 1 of different grades are used for size reduction
mineral processing as mainly it works as a screening apparatus[12].
1
Grizzly- Course screening or scalping device that prevents oversized bulk material from entering a
material transfer system (definedterm).
6
3.Comminution
Most of the minerals create agglomeration and convert ore particle in to gangue mineral which
needs to be liberated prior to separation. Liberation of the valuable mineral follows a unique
process during mineral beneficiation called comminution (Wills, 2006). Comminution process
targets to convert the raw material to a manageable feed for further separation or various ore
carriers. Comminution, in general, consists of two processes together namely crushing and
grinding. Crushing is the first stage in comminution where lumps of ore from natural reserves are
being crushed into intermediate size from its originally huge size. Screening process is followed by
crushing at individual stage. At every stage, over size ore pieces which are not crush into proper
size, again conveyed towards re-crushing by process circuit and the under-size particles are sent to
upcoming size reduction operations. After crushing, valuable mineral gets liberated up to certain
extent but the mineral particles which are still agglomerated with gangue mineral because of the
particle size need to go further intense crushing stage which is called grinding or milling. In the
milling operation, the feed is under-size from crushing process (Inoue) [14].
As mentioned in first chapter, minerals are having crystalline inorganic structure in which the
arrangement of atoms of particular mineral is situated in three dimensional arrays. Atoms in these
patterns are connected though bonds, and regular repetition of unique pattern creates a physical
structure. Physical and chemical properties of the molecule are responsible for the internal bond
between atoms which varies mineral by mineral. The strength of this bond can be effective for very
smaller distance (Wills, 2006). Any external force in terms of compressive or tensile stress results
breakage of bonding between atoms (Figure 2).
Figure 3. 1 Deformation of structure by compressive and tensile stress
7
Mainly three types of forces become responsible to deviate the ground properties of any substance:
compressive, impact and shear. Production of very small size particle can not only be the result of
tensile or compressive force. Tension due to shear force plays a big role to break the material into
particle size and broaden the active surface area for the upcoming milling process (Wills, 2006).
Figure 3. 2 Size distribution of grain
Figure 3. 3 Particle size after different stresses during comminution
Size distribution of grain (Figure 3.2) into the particle has a huge impact of the above stresses
(Figure 3.3) and those stresses show changing characteristic of the surface tension of the grain
during crushing and milling operations. Many applications use the particle size remaining under
compressive range where other applications have very specific size range as feed for their
operations. Cracking path through the grain shows the physical properties of the mineral bond
between their crystalline structure (OSWER, May 2012) (Wills, 2006).
8
4. Crushing and grinding

Mineral for industrial usage is found under earth crust in form of rock which consist of mineral
agglomeration surrounded by waste and gangue mineral. Sometimes, rock needs to be powdered for
creating effective surface. Larger surface area becomes more advantageous for execution of any
mineral liberation process.
There are many methods available today for liberation but many of them have limitations and many
methods are less pocket friendly. So, liberation is manly done by comminution in today’s
industries. Crushing and grinding are commonly known as size reduction process (comminution) in
mineral processing which helps to reduce the huge energy consumption and lower the costs to
extract valuable mineral for many useful purposes[16]. In simple words, crushing is converting big
rocks into small gravel where grinding is turning little rocks or gravel into very small grains or
powder. Crushing can be done through applying breaking force by several machines such as cone
crusher, jaw crusher, gyratory and rolls whereas grinding tends to have very fine particle size by
ball mill, rods, tube mill etc. Mainly, the active force behind crushing is compression or impact and
the common operation for grinding is attrition[14] (Figure 4.1).
Figure 4. 1 Concept behind crushing and grinding (Image- metso)
9
Compression can be described as conclusion of any forcing action that results into cracking for
longer path. Jaw, disk crushers and some other milling equipment use such kind of forcing action
which is led to large deformation into rock. Impact is compiled as sudden force which sustains for a
very short time and relatively shorter distance than compression. Hammer mill and ball mill use
this force for grinding operation. Attrition can not be clubbed with any of the above forces. Here,
the bond between molecules are pressurised through counter forces from upper and lover level.
Weak bond between the molecules are more prone to get damaged with this force and get broken as
well into very small particles or in mid-size grain [14] (Wills, 2006).
There are two laws define crushing in more prominent by helping us to predict the diameter of
product particles or feed particles once they have entered to the crusher.
Rittinger’s law
“The Energy required for crushing is proportional to the new surface formed” or “the energy
required is proportional to the reduction in diameter”
p 1 1
= k r (D − D )
ṁ sb sa
Where,
Kr is Rittinger constant.
a = feed, b = product
ṁ= mass flow rate
1
Ds = xi
∑n
i=1Dpi
Where,
Xi = mass fraction of ith particle
Dpi = equivalent diameter of ith particle
Kick’s law
“The energy required for producing analogous changes of configuration of geometrically similar
bodies of equal technological state varies as the volumes or weights of the bodies” or “for any unit
weight of ore particles the energy required to produce any desired reduction in volume of the
particles in the mass constant no matter what original size of the particles may be.”
p D
= k k . ln( Dsa )
ṁ sb
Here,
Kk is kick constant
Kick’s law defines the energy requirement in term of very fine grinding. Generally, both laws are
integrated for final effective results (Earle, 1983).
10
Exercise 4.1
A material is initially crushed from 40mm to 9mm. This crushing requires 154.87 kJ/kg of energy.
Consider the same material for grinding up to 2.5mm. Calculate the required energy by using 1)
Rittinger’s law and 2) Kick’s law (Earle, 1983).
Rittinger’s law:
p 1 1
= k r (D − D ) (1)
ṁ sb sa
p
Here, 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔. So that,
ṁ
1 1
154.87 = k r (9 − 40)
Kr = 1798.5 kJ/kg.mm (2)
By using result of (2), we need to calculate (1) as new size after grinding is 2.5mm,
p 1 1
= 1798.5 (2.5 − 40)
ṁ
E = 674.438 kJ/kg
Required energy as per Rittinger’s law is 674.438 kJ/kg
Kick’ law:
p D
= k k . ln( Dsa ) (3)
ṁ sb
Put all the respective values,
40
154.87 = k k . ln( 9 )
Kk = 103.82 kJ/kg (4)
By using result of (4), we need to calculate (3) as new size after grinding is 2.5mm,
p 40
= 103.82 ln( 2.5)
ṁ
E = 287.85 kJ/kg
Required energy as per Kick’s law is 287.85 kJ/kg
11
5.Crushing and grinding equipment

5.1 Crusher
As discussed earlier about crushing process, equipment used for crushing are known as crushers.
Crushing is the primary stage of mineral beneficiation. Crushing equipment are divided into two
categories as per their working. Impact crushers and pressure crushers. Pressure crushers run
crushing operation by applying compression on the contact surface of rock (Wills, 2006). Gyratory
and cone crushers are known examples of pressure crusher. Impact crusher uses the impact force
against the rock to the hard surface which results into crushing by hammering effect (Clarence H.
Lorig, March 2017). Various type of hammer mill are impact crushers. As per their use, crushers
are classified into two categories. All the categories and sub-categories are as follow:
Classification of crusher
Primary crusher Secondary crusher
Hammer and
Cone crusher impact crusher
Jaw Gyratory Roll crusher
Crushing of the mineral is the depending factor of hardness index of respective material. Generally,
ore has various kind of mineral agglomeration. Crushing effect has to be hard enough to crush
through mainly all mineral and turn into smaller granule for the upcoming grinding. Larger particle
requires more energy for fracturing. So that, crushing units are robust, strongly structure and large
in size in terms of mining applications (Gross, 1938).
5.1.1 Jaw crusher
Jaw crusher is an important primary crushing element in mineral processing industries. It uses
pressure crushing that results the large size particle into smaller pieces and reducing the cost for
further processing. It delivers simple crushing operation using two jaws where one jaw is
stationary, and the other is moving in an oscillatory motion with the help of toggle and drawing rod
(Wills, 2006). Feed enters through opening on top and goes under repetition of alternate nipping
and discharge as free-fall ahead for upcoming crushing chamber. Size of the crusher is known by
its opening which allows maximum size of feed. Here, moving jaw is directed by a fixed pivot and
classification of jaw crusher is based on the position of pivot connected to swing jaw. Swing jaw is
12
fixed with pivot in the upper position is called Blake crusher, with the lower position is called
dodge crusher and fixed in the intermediate position is universal crusher (Wills, 2006)[17].
Figure 5. 1 Jaw crusher (Image- camelway)
5.1.2 Gyratory crusher

Gyratory crushers are the part of primary crushing for heavy duty operation that reduces large rock
pieces resulted during mine blasting into the gravel size rock mixture. Design of this crusher is
mainly consisting of outer shell and inner asymmetric spindle shaft which is placed inside the inner
hole surrounded by mantel. Outer shall is made of manganese or steel alloy where the shaft is
forged metal made of carbon steel alloy. Eccentric motion of shaft is driven by driving gears at the
bottom and held by concave with the wear resisting shield in a steady spider at top (Michaud,
2016). Sectional view describes the conical shape of outer shell which continuously decreases by
diameter and ends with reduced gap between shaft and shell (Wills, 2006).
Main shaft is connected to large electric motor through crown gears which constantly force the
shaft to spin with high torque and due to asymmetrical shape of shaft, it moves forward and
backward such as pendulum through the crusher’s centre line. Gyratory crusher has general rotation
speed range between 150-400 rpm [20]. Feed is given from the top opening gap induced by inner
mantel and rotating shaft connected to bush. Due to the gyration of shaft, the gap becomes closer
and implies huge pressure on large rock against hard surface that results into small pieces. When
the gap between mantel and concave increases, the broken rock is released and falls lower into
crusher cavity where the gap is narrow. Certain rock size which is fine enough falls through the
crusher with out further crushing to the feeder or on to the conveyor belt and large pieces which are
escaped during process are recirculated to the top of crusher for repeated crushing. Crushing takes
place in crushing chamber where inner passage gets narrower due to shape of chamber and shaft
which creates angle of certain degrees. It is called angle of nip (Michaud, 2016). This angle varies
between 22° and 30° by the size and capacity of the crusher (Wills, 2006).
13
Figure 5. 2 Gyratory crusher (Image- FLSmidth)
5.1.3 Cone crusher

Cone crusher comes under fine grinding operation and hence, it is placed at the initial stage of
secondary grinding circuit. Cone crusher can be named as advance version of gyratory crusher with
shorter spindle size. Crushing process is quite similar to primary gyratory crusher where eccentric
motion is applied to main shaft from the lower part with spiral bevel gear mechanism. Here, gear is
mounted on frame. Frame gets rotating motion due to bevel gear and the bearing in this frame are
placed off centre to the axis of the main shaft and it creates oscillatory motion. Cone rotation is
independent function without any stationary mounting from top. Gap between bowl and rotating
spindle gets narrower throughout length of spindle head like gyratory crusher (mineral processing
handbook, 2011)[18].
Figure 5. 3 Cone crusher (Image- engineeringintro)
14
Crushing takes place between two different conical surfaces with reduced opening where rocks get
suspended and further crushes the rock into fine gravel size material. Crusher head design provides
high reduction ration and better cutting efficiency. Due to high pressure or an overload against
mantle surface, bowls are attached with spring suspension to eliminate damage to the crusher.
Outer shell or mantel is made of high grade manganese alloy. Main disadvantage of this crusher is
its shallow design. It prevents constant reduced output because of limited discharge opening. To
solve this problem, disk crusher was introduced[18].
5.1.4 Roll crusher
Size reduction in roll crusher works on the principle of attrition, shearing and compression. Roll
crusher, as its name suggest, has roller as crushing element which are further classified into two
types by number of rollers. Single roll crusher and double roll crusher (Wills, 2006).
In double roll crusher, there are two rollers in which one is fixed, and another is attached to spring.
Both rollers are kept facing each other with desired gap. Both rollers rotate in opposite direction
which creates tremendous pressure on material by roller’s circumference towards bottom. Material
gets squished un till the point of discharge. Generally, capacity of double roll crusher can be
reached up to 3500 tph (Wills, 2006). As per characteristic of material, both rollers may vary the
rotation speed and gap between them. Roller’s size and types many also vary as per its application
where it can have grooves or sharp edges on its surface which gives additional surface tension on
material (Michaud, 2016).
Figure 5.4. 1 Double roller crusher (Image- williamscrusher)

In single roll crusher, crushing roll with teeth or edges rotates under a closed system where
conveyor belt beneath roller works as crushing plate. Feed is given from opening of system which
goes further till the pint of crushing. Now, roller tooth provides compressive force on the surface of
feed material and gets compressed against the surface of conveyor. Crushing output is mainly
15
coarse therefore abrasive material such as limestone, coal etc can be perfect to be crushed with
single roll crusher (Michaud, 2016).
Figure 5.4. 2 Single roll crusher (Image-SUR iron and steel co.)
5.1.5 Hammer and impact crusher

Hammer crusher uses breaking(hammering) principle for size reduction. High strength steel alloy
bars are attached at regular interval on the periphery of rotor. These bars are tapered and wear
resistant. With the rotation of drum, these bars execute repetitive impact on feed material which
ends breaking rock into small pieces. Initially, feed is transferred to the rotating drum which is
surrounding by unique size of grates. Grates are made of stainless steel and vary in size from 2 to
10 mm and easily removable for maintenance (Wills, 2006). Main function of grate is sieving like
grizzly rods. Gap between hammers and grates are relatively on higher size that allows proper
hammering on rock[20].
Figure 5.5. 1 Hammer crusher (Image- Indiamart)
16
Rotor of hammer crusher rotates at the speed of 1500-1700 rpm and crushing speed reaches up to
1500 tph in case of limestone crushing (Michaud, 2016). It is perfect solution for moist rock such
as gypsum, sand rock etc. This crusher is the main successor of crushing due to its compact size
and mobility[20].
Impact crusher uses unique technic as its name suggests: impaction. Without any pressure, attrition
or compression, size reduction of rocks take place through impact force against relatively hard
surface. Feed is provided through hopper and goes to crushing chamber. In the crushing chamber,
impact bars are fixed on rotating mechanism and impact plates are attached to the hinging device
that has damping motion. As large rock enters the chamber, plates get retracted and crushers the
rock into small size particles. This pulverised mineral leaves the chamber through narrow opening
at bottom and gets collected via belt conveyor. Production rate is very high and successful size
reduction device for coal, limestone and another “soft material”[20].
Figure 5.5. 2 Impact crusher (Image- Salesandmaker)
5.2 Grinding
Grinding in mineral processing is considerably the final stage size reduction process and important
for further extraction of valuable mineral from ore. Principle of grinding is mainly impact and
abrasion. Principle of grinding is mainly impact and abrasion. In general, output of grinding mill is
powdered form of ore and economically viable for mineral sorting. Ore in powder form increases
surface area which results into effective liberation and reduces the energy consumptions. Being
final process for size reduction, grinding is followed by secondary crushing process and hence,
output of secondary crusher becomes feed for grinding process in common way. Thus, the size of
feed for grinding or milling stays in the range of 5 - 250 mm (Wills, 2006). Grinding is highly
energy consuming size reduction method where 50% of total consumption of energy for mineral
17
extraction is only consumed in grinding (Michaud, 2016). During this process, it becomes very
essential to measure the ground particle size which should be justified by upcoming processes.
Much finer particle also ends costing much energy and time.
Grinding is exclusively performed through nipping method where media can be ball or rod. Size of
the media is a relevant factor of ore characteristics and output quality. A huge cylindrical vessel
gets continues rotation with media in it where media gets agitated and material surrounding it goes
under repetitive nipping. As per motion of the vessel for energy transfer to the ore, grinding is
classified by two types: tumbling mills and stirred mills (Gross, 1938).
5.2.1 Tumbling mills
Tumbling mill is defined as a drum rotating on horizontal axis for making pulverisation of ore with
the help of grinding media. Tumbling mill has two cylindrical shells where outer remain stationary
and inner shell rotates for milling. Grinding in tumbling mill is highly affected by rotation speed of
drum, type of grinding media (material of ball or rod too) and spacing that allows media to transfer
charge[21]. Inner shell has replaceable wearing liners that sustain hard intermittent impact of
grinding media and rock itself (in case of autogenous milling). Large rotating drum is pivoted
through bevel gears on end plates and a bearing attached to this end plate has direct integration with
motor drive. Tumbling mills have bearing that has capacity to withstand substantial forces.
Tumbling mills are generally designed for massive production which parallelly increase the size
and energy consumption. For example, grinding is done by semi autogenous mill at Cadila hill gold
mine which has drum diameter of 12m and capacity up to 2000 tph and consumes 20MW energy.
Such energy requirement is the result of stress generation between bearing head and drum head
(Wills, 2006).
Figure 5.6. 1 Tumbling mill with grinding media ball (Image- 911metallurgist)
18
In tumbling mills, rod and ball are commonly used as grinding media. Rod mills are mainly
responsible for homogenous fine or coarse product as per requirement. This rod can be sized from
several inches up to 20 feet in length (Wills, 2006). During operation, rods get overlapped on each
other with the support of rotation of drum which further grinds material trapped between rods. Ball
mills are main successor of grinding industries as they have certain advantages. These balls are
mainly made of carbon steel alloy and perfect match for very fine grinding. As its shape defines,
ball media has all dimension usable surface that make economic benefit over rod media. In ball
mill, grinding depends on the ratio of ball density to ore density that generally stays around 70%
(Michaud, 2016). Grinding is also done in several stages which increases production rate with
increased cost and initial investment. Beside of all these mill types, autogenous mill (AG) is also a
very uncommon tumbling milling option for grinding in which ore material itself is used as
grinding media. Size of ore pieces plays an important role which decides grinding ratio of this
milling. For smooth operation and better quality, additional steel balls are also added in semi-
autogenous milling (SAG). AG ore processing make ore particles acceptable for further mineral
extraction processing (Wills, 2006) (Kumar, September 2015).
Figure 5.6. 2 (left) AG/SAG mill, (right)inside view grinding media (Both images- 911metallurgist)
5.2.2 Stirred mills

Stirred mills have stationary outer shall and rotating stirrer inside the mill. Unlike tumbling mill,
feed is given from upper side of drum which goes under fine grinding through grinding disks and
stirrer. Fine particles are discharged with water mixture and coarse material is again conveyed to
the mill for further reduction. Vertical mills have gravitational advantage of ore breaking with
reduced damage to the disks and pins during operation (Wills, 2006).
19
6.New technologies in comminution

After the generations of processing in size reduction, new technologies and modifications have
implemented subtle changes in terms of technical knowhow and economical advantages. Earlier,
many crushers were limited to process certain material as per grading, physical and mechanical
characteristics, energy requirement etc. Due to the huge capital investment, limitations to process
certain material led the industry to develop such crushers that overcome many hurdles.
6.1 Crushing by jaw crusher

In recent years, impact frame development in jaw crushers set whole new technological
achievement as it became detachable. Crushers became more versatile towards different density
and hardness of ore and hence, primary crushing executes output more efficiently. Metso has such
widely implemented such technology for its N-Berg C jaw crusher series and boasts of less energy
consumption and less maintenance requirement (metso, n.d.).
Figure 6. 1 N-Berg C series jaw crusher (Image: Metso)
20
6.2 Crushing and grinding by cone crusher

Huge energy consumption for mineral processing remains biggest issue even today and that has
pushed many industrial giants to conduct research in this direction. Sandvik has unique secondary
crushing solution which also includes partial grinding. Recently patented technology has been
tested successfully for copper, gold and iron ore for 10,000 hours and registered dramatic savings
of energy up to 30% in secondary or downstream processing. This crusher contains multiple
compression chambers which despatches product size ranging 2-8 mm (www.met-solvelabs.com,
n.d.). Conventional cone crusher uses eccentric mechanism that compresses the rock against
mantel. Here, structure looks much similar to conventional cone, but mantel creates unique
movement with the help of unbalanced weight which rotates around main shaft and changes
oscillatory motion to circular rotation. Thus, generated vibrations are transferred to screens which
short the material to different size range. It has huge advantage in open circuit grinding of not only
reducing the energy requirement but also eliminates the requirement of first stage grinding
(SANDVIK LAUNCHES VIBROCONE™ , 2012).
Figure 6. 2 VIBROCONE CO series cone crusher (Image: Canadian mine journals)
6.3 Grinding by dry grinder

Lot of changes have successfully been carried out in terms of efficient crushing, low energy
consumption, ease to operate and versatile for different mineral. Recently, Mineworx has patented a
new technology of dry grinding to reduce the cost of grinding media. Grinding media is an essential
part of milling process where it comes direct into contact with grinding material. Earlier,
gravitation issues have been found during upcoming process such as forth floatation. New
21
technology is more autogenous and semi autogenous milling and uses dry grinding environment
where product gets separated through air by artificially induced cyclone[22]. It has consistency in
product size around 150 micron which increases more stability for concentration and accumulation
for mineral cleaning (Iberian, July 07, 2016).
These are few mentions from many which have overcome many problems. In several cases,
machines get only modification as per customers’ need but sometimes whole new technology gets
patented with many aspects and future of industry.
22
7.Conclusion
Excavated ore has no economic value until it gets fully processed through various stages. In
geological perception, physical structure and behaviour of mineral plays an important role for
process making and preparation for final execution. Once, all results are thoroughly reviewed
including various parameters related to particular mineral, required processes are decided.
Comminution process clubs many mechanical equipment with never ending continues feed through
conveying belt. Main principles behind any mechanical size reduction are sheer, tensile, attribution,
impact and compression force. Crushers reduce the size of ore and turn into the allowable feed for
secondary crushing or preliminary grinding.
Crushing is the part of huge capital investment and as the result, it can be executed through mobile,
semi mobile crusher at mine site or exclusive crushing plant as per requirement. Grinding or
milling is the secondary stage of comminution followed by crushing and considered to be a very
energy extensive process. Output of grinding is the powdered form of ore varies between 50 to
1000 microns depending on upcoming process and profitable mineral.
Size reduction of mineral has got many advancements in terms of technological changes and low
energy consumption. Crushers have become more versatile and executes results with high bearing
capacity and precision. Certain patents in crushing process have even eliminated primary milling
stage and lowered the expenses significantly. However, comminution is still requiring staggering
amount of energy which still becomes a widely discussed issue till date.
23
Bibliography
1) Clarence H. Lorig, H. G. (March 2017). MIneral processing. Encyclopedia Britannica.
2) DRZYMALA, J. (2007). Mineral Processing. Wroclaw: Jan Drzymala,.
3) Earle, R. L. (1983). Unit Operations in Food Processing. NZIFST (Inc.).
4) Gross, J. (1938). Crushing and grinding. Washington: United states gov. printing office.
5) Inoue, T. MINERAL COMMINUTION AND SEPARATION SYSTEMS. University of
Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
6) Kumar, A. (September 2015). Grinding Mills.
7) I. M. (July 07, 2016). Mineworx Files Patent on New Mineral Grinding Technology.
Edmonton, Alberta.
8) metso. Nordberg c series jaw crusher. metso. www.metso.com/products/jaw-
crushers/nordberg-c-series
9) Michaud, L. D. (january 2016). 911metallurgist: https://www.911metallurgist.com/cone-
crushers
10) www.met-solvelabs.com
11) mineral processing handbook. (2011). Mequon, WI: TELSMITH, INC.
12) OSWER. (May 2012). Inroduction to mining and mineral processing.
13) (2012). SANDVIK LAUNCHES VIBROCONE™ . Sandviken: Sandvik AB.
14) Lewis, F.M., Coburn, J.L., and Bhappu, R.B. (1976). Comminution: A guide to size-
reduction system design. Min. Engng., 28(Sept.), 29.
15) Wills B.A. and Napier-Munn T., (2006), Mineral processing technology
16) Bernotat S. and Schönert K., (2005), Ullmann Encyclopedia – Size Reduction
17) Thyssenkrupp-Industrial solutions, Jaw crushers
18) Yan D. and Gupta A., Mineral Processing Design and Operation
19) Svedala, (2001), Basics in mineral processing
20) Metalliferous Mining- Processing, Crushing Resource Book
24
21) Klimpel, R.R., (1984), Influence of material breakage properties and associated slurry
rheology on breakage rates in wet grinding of coal/ores in tumbling media mills, in
Reagents in the Mineral Industry, ed. M.J. Jones and R. Oblatt, I.M.M., London, 265-270.
22) Kawatra, S.K., Eisele, T.C., Zhang, D., and Rusesky, M. (1988), Effects of temperature on
hydrocyclone efficiency, Int. J. Min. Proc., 23, 205-211.
23) Moys, M.H., (1989), Slurry rheology - the key to a further advance in grinding mill control,
Proc. of SAG 1989 Conf., Vancouver, Canada, 713-727.
25
View publication stats

Sunny Kapadia SRPfinal

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sunny Kapadia SRPfinal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Comminution in mineral processing

Research · November 2018

Geology View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Student Research Project

Comminution in mineral processing

Geostatistical analysis concentration and

Figure 3. 1 Deformation of structure by compressive and tensile stress ......................................7

Figure 4. 1 Concept behind crushing and grinding(Image- metso) ...............................................9

Figure 5. 1 Jaw crusher (Image- camelway) ..................................................................................13

Figure 5.4. 1 Double roller crusher (Image- williamscrusher) ....................................................15

Figure 5.5. 1 Hammer crusher (Image- Indiamart) ......................................................................16

Figure 6. 1 N-Berg C series jaw crusher (Image: Metso) ............................................................. 20

1.1 What is mineral?

CaCO3 → CaO +CO2

Figure 1. 1 Sample of ore (Image- mining-technology)

1.2 What is mineral processing?

Figure 2. 1 Specimen of ore with valuable mineral and waste particles

Figure 3. 1 Deformation of structure by compressive and tensile stress

Figure 3. 2 Size distribution of grain

Figure 3. 3 Particle size after different stresses during comminution

4. Crushing and grinding

Figure 4. 1 Concept behind crushing and grinding (Image- metso)

Required energy as per Rittinger’s law is 674.438 kJ/kg

Required energy as per Kick’s law is 287.85 kJ/kg

5.Crushing and grinding equipment

Primary crusher Secondary crusher

Figure 5. 1 Jaw crusher (Image- camelway)

5.1.2 Gyratory crusher

Figure 5. 2 Gyratory crusher (Image- FLSmidth)

5.1.3 Cone crusher

Figure 5. 3 Cone crusher (Image- engineeringintro)

Figure 5.4. 1 Double roller crusher (Image- williamscrusher)

5.1.5 Hammer and impact crusher

Figure 5.5. 1 Hammer crusher (Image- Indiamart)

Figure 5.5. 2 Impact crusher (Image- Salesandmaker)

5.2.2 Stirred mills

6.New technologies in comminution

6.1 Crushing by jaw crusher

Figure 6. 1 N-Berg C series jaw crusher (Image: Metso)

6.2 Crushing and grinding by cone crusher

Figure 6. 2 VIBROCONE CO series cone crusher (Image: Canadian mine journals)

6.3 Grinding by dry grinder

17) Thyssenkrupp-Industrial solutions, Jaw crushers

19) Svedala, (2001), Basics in mineral processing

20) Metalliferous Mining- Processing, Crushing Resource Book

View publication stats

You might also like