The Evolving Nature

of Literary Criticism:
An Exploration of
Different Periods

by:
Mr. Shane Jay G. Fabugais
 Literary criticism has played a vital role in shaping our understanding and interpretation
of literature throughout history. By analyzing and evaluating literary works, critics have provided
insights into their aesthetic, cultural, and philosophical dimensions. This essay aims to trace the
history of literary criticism from Plato to T.S. Eliot, examining the major periods of literary
thought and the theorists who have contributed to their development.
In this comprehensive exploration, we will delve into various schools of thought,
beginning with the Classical period, characterized by the works of ancient Greek philosopher
Plato. Plato's seminal work, "The Republic," laid the foundation for discussions on literature and
its role in society. We will also explore the ideas of other influential theorists from this period,
such as Aristotle, whose "Poetics" offered a systematic examination of tragedy and the elements
of literary composition.
Moving forward, we will examine the Medieval period, where literary criticism became
intertwined with religious and theological perspectives. Christian thinkers like St. Augustine and
Thomas Aquinas provided insights into the moral and spiritual dimensions of literature, with
works such as Augustine's "Confessions" and Aquinas's theological treatises.
The Renaissance period witnessed a revival of interest in classical literature and humanist
ideals. During this time, critics like Sir Philip Sidney and Francesco Petrarch championed the
importance of literature as a means to educate, inspire, and cultivate moral virtues. Sidney's "An
Apology for Poetry" and Petrarch's sonnets exemplify their respective contributions to literary
criticism.
As we progress into the Enlightenment period, we encounter a shift towards reason,
science, and skepticism. Thinkers like Denis Diderot and Immanuel Kant sought to apply
rational principles to the analysis of literature. Diderot's "Paradox of Acting" and Kant's
"Critique of Judgment" shed light on their distinctive perspectives on literature and aesthetic
experience.
The Romantic period, in contrast, emphasized the individual's emotional response to art
and nature. Critics such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth celebrated the
sublime, imagination, and the power of the creative spirit. Coleridge's "Biographia Literaria" and
Wordsworth's preface to "Lyrical Ballads" are significant works that reflect their theoretical
insights.
The Victorian era witnessed a moral and social consciousness in literature. Critics like
Matthew Arnold and John Ruskin examined the role of art in society and advocated for its moral
and educational value. Arnold's "Culture and Anarchy" and Ruskin's "Modern Painters"
demonstrate their engagement with literature and aesthetics within the Victorian context.
The Edwardian period and the rise of Modernism brought about a radical departure from
traditional literary forms. Critics like T.S. Eliot and Virginia Woolf explored themes of
fragmentation, alienation, and the nature of consciousness. Eliot's "The Sacred Wood" and
Woolf's "Modern Fiction" encapsulate their innovative ideas on literature and the modern
condition.
 In conclusion, this essay aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the history of
literary criticism from Plato to T.S. Eliot. By examining the major periods and theorists, we will
gain a deeper understanding of the evolving nature of literary thought and its impact on the
interpretation of literature.

CLASSICAL PERIOD
In the Classical period, spanning from the 5th century BC to the 4th century BC, literary
criticism began to take shape with the works of influential philosophers such as Plato and
Aristotle. This period marked the earliest attempts to analyze and evaluate literature, setting the
groundwork for future developments in literary theory.
Plato's views on literature are presented in his work "The Republic," specifically in Book
X, where he presents literature as "an inferior, who through an imitation of the truth, deceives
the mind." Plato believed that literature was a form of imitation that was removed from reality
and had the potential to corrupt the youth by presenting them with false ideas and values. In his
ideal state, based on the principles of justice and reason, Plato argued that literature had no place,
as it was a form of imitation that lacked practical value. Instead, he advocated for a society
governed by philosopher-kings who could comprehend the true nature of reality and make
decisions based on rationality. Plato's stance reflected his belief that literature was detached from
the truth and had the potential to mislead individuals away from reason and knowledge.

In contrast, Aristotle, another influential thinker of the Classical period, presented a

different perspective on literature in his work "Poetics." Aristotle's "Poetics" is considered one of
the foundational texts of Western literary criticism, offering a typology and description of
literary forms. Aristotle viewed literature as a form of imitation as well, but he believed that it
had the potential to produce knowledge and teach us about the human condition. Unlike Plato,
Aristotle recognized the value of literature in society, emphasizing its ability to evoke emotions
and offer catharsis, a purging of emotions that leads to a greater understanding of the human
condition. Aristotle saw literature as a valuable art form that could provide insights into the
complexities of human experience.

The contrasting views of Plato and Aristotle on literature reflect their broader
philosophical and epistemological perspectives. Plato's skepticism towards literature can be
understood in the context of his quest for ultimate truth and his belief that sensory experiences
and imitations could lead individuals astray from rationality. On the other hand, Aristotle
embraced the potential of literature to illuminate truths about human nature, recognizing the
power of storytelling and emotional engagement in conveying meaningful insights.
 Both Plato and Aristotle's perspectives on literature influenced the development of
literary criticism and its subsequent schools of thought. Plato's emphasis on the moral and
educational dimensions of literature laid the groundwork for discussions on the societal impact
of art, while Aristotle's focus on the analysis of literary forms and their effects contributed to the
development of formalist and structuralist approaches to literary criticism.

Literary Theory Focus: Mimetic Theory

In the provided paragraph, the focus of literary theory in the Classical period is on the
concept of mimesis or imitation, which influenced the perspectives of both Plato and Aristotle
regarding literature.
Plato's views on literature, discussed in his work "The Republic," align with the mimetic
theory. He argues that literature is an inferior form of imitation that deceives the mind by
presenting a distorted version of reality. According to Plato, literature has the potential to corrupt
the youth by introducing false ideas and values. His ideal state, based on justice and reason,
rejects literature and instead advocates for governance by philosopher-kings who possess the
ability to discern the true nature of reality. Plato's stance reflects a critical view of literature as a
detached imitation that can mislead individuals away from rationality and knowledge.
Aristotle, on the other hand, also acknowledges the concept of mimesis in his work
"Poetics." However, he offers a different perspective from Plato. Aristotle recognizes the
potential of literature to produce knowledge and teach us about the human condition. While he
agrees that literature involves imitation, he emphasizes its ability to evoke emotions and provide
catharsis, leading to a deeper understanding of human experiences. Aristotle values literature as
an art form that offers insights into the complexities of human nature.
The contrasting views of Plato and Aristotle on literature reflect their broader
philosophical and epistemological perspectives. Plato's skepticism towards literature stems from
his search for ultimate truth and his concern that sensory experiences and imitations can lead
individuals astray from rationality. Aristotle, on the other hand, embraces the potential of
literature to illuminate truths about human nature, recognizing the power of storytelling and
emotional engagement in conveying meaningful insights.
The mimetic theory, explored through the perspectives of Plato and Aristotle, had a
significant influence on the development of literary criticism. Plato's emphasis on the moral and
educational dimensions of literature laid the groundwork for discussions on the societal impact
of art. Meanwhile, Aristotle's focus on the analysis of literary forms and their effects contributed
to the development of formalist and structuralist approaches to literary criticism.
In summary, the Classical period was marked by the exploration of mimetic theory in
literary criticism, as exemplified by the contrasting views of Plato and Aristotle. While Plato
viewed literature as a deceptive form of imitation with the potential to corrupt, Aristotle
recognized its ability to produce knowledge and provide insights into the human condition.
These differing perspectives continue to shape discussions on the role and value of literature in
society and have had a lasting impact on the trajectory of literary criticism throughout history.
In conclusion, the Classical period witnessed divergent views on literature from
influential philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Plato regarded literature as a deceptive form
of imitation that could corrupt the youth, while Aristotle recognized its potential to produce
knowledge and offer insights into the human condition. These contrasting perspectives continue
to shape discussions on the role and value of literature in society and have influenced the
trajectory of literary criticism throughout history.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD
As the Classical period of literary criticism gave way to the Medieval period, there was a
significant shift in the approach to literature and its analysis. The Medieval period, spanning
from the 5th to the 15th century, saw the integration of religious and theological perspectives
into literary criticism. Building upon the foundation laid by the Classical theorists, medieval
thinkers like St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas explored the moral and spiritual dimensions of
literature. This transition from the Classical to the Medieval period marked a new chapter in the
evolution of literary criticism, with a renewed focus on the intersection of faith, literature, and
the human experience.
During the medieval period, Christianity exerted a significant influence on literary
criticism, shaping the understanding and evaluation of literature. With the adoption of
Christianity as the dominant religion in Western Europe, the intersection of faith and literature
became a focal point of analysis. The influence of Christianity can be observed in the
development of a systematic poetic grammar that classified literature under grammar, rhetoric,
and poetry. In this context, theologians and poets were considered to be on equal footing, with
their poetry seen as a form of prophecy or revelation comparable to philosophy.
One prominent figure in the medieval period who exemplifies the influence of
Christianity on literary criticism is St. Augustine. As a Christian theologian of the 4th and 5th
centuries AD, Augustine's work "Confessions" stands as one of the earliest autobiographical
works in Western literature and serves as a significant example of Christian literature.
Augustine's views on literature were deeply shaped by his Christian faith. He believed that
literature held the potential to lead individuals astray from God, viewing it as a form of
temptation that could corrupt the soul. Augustine's perspective on literature stemmed from his
conviction that the human soul was inherently sinful and in need of redemption through God's
grace.
Another noteworthy figure is Dante Alighieri, the Italian poet of the 13th and 14th
centuries AD. Dante's magnum opus, "The Divine Comedy," is considered one of the greatest
works in Western literature and stands as a profound example of Christian literature. Dante's
views on literature were strongly influenced by his Christian faith. He believed that literature
possessed the power to guide individuals towards God, considering it a form of revelation
capable of elevating the soul. Dante's understanding of literature was rooted in his belief that the
human soul could attain salvation through faith and good works.
Both Augustine and Dante shared the belief that literature possessed a profound influence
on the human soul, capable of leading individuals closer to God or further away from Him. They
recognized the power of literature as a transformative tool that could shape the individual's
spiritual journey. Their perspectives on literature were deeply informed by their Christian faith
and their understanding of the salvific power of God's grace.
In conclusion, the medieval period witnessed the profound impact of Christianity on
literary criticism. The integration of religious and theological perspectives into the analysis of
literature led to a greater emphasis on the moral and spiritual dimensions of literary works.
Figures like St. Augustine and Dante Alighieri exemplify the influence of Christianity on literary
criticism, with their views shaped by their faith and their belief in the potential of literature to
guide the soul towards salvation. The medieval period marked a significant chapter in the
evolution of literary criticism, with the Christian worldview leaving a lasting imprint on the
interpretation and evaluation of literature.
Literary Theory Focus: Christian Literary Criticism
The paragraph focuses on the literary theory of Christian literary criticism during the
Medieval period. This theory explores the integration of religious and theological perspectives
into the analysis of literature and emphasizes the moral and spiritual dimensions of literary
works. The works of St. Augustine and Dante Alighieri serve as examples of how Christian
beliefs and values influenced the understanding and evaluation of literature during this era.
The integration of Christianity into literary criticism during the Medieval period is
evident in the emphasis on the intersection of faith and literature. The paragraph highlights how
Christianity shaped the understanding of literature, leading to the development of a systematic
poetic grammar that categorized literature under grammar, rhetoric, and poetry. Theologians and
poets were considered equal, and their poetry was seen as a form of prophecy or revelation
comparable to philosophy. This theory asserts that literature can serve as a vehicle for conveying
religious and spiritual truths.
St. Augustine's views on literature, as exemplified in his work "Confessions," reflect the
Christian literary theory. He believed that literature held the potential to lead individuals away
from God, viewing it as a temptation that could corrupt the soul. Augustine's perspective
stemmed from his belief in the sinful nature of the human soul and the need for redemption
through God's grace. His writings showcase the moral concerns and spiritual implications
associated with literature, aligning with the Christian literary theory.
Dante Alighieri's work, particularly "The Divine Comedy," exemplifies the Christian
literary theory in the Medieval period. Dante saw literature as a form of revelation capable of
guiding individuals towards God and elevating the soul. His understanding of literature was
grounded in the belief that faith and good works could lead to salvation. Dante's work combines
theological themes and poetic expression, reflecting the Christian worldview and emphasizing
the transformative power of literature.
Both Augustine and Dante shared the belief that literature possessed a profound influence
on the human soul and its spiritual journey. Their views align with the Christian literary theory,
which emphasizes the role of literature in guiding individuals closer to or further away from
God. They recognized literature as a transformative tool that had the potential to shape beliefs,
values, and moral perspectives.
In summary, the literary theory focused on in the paragraph is Christian literary criticism.
This theory explores the integration of religious and theological perspectives into the analysis of
literature during the Medieval period. It emphasizes the moral and spiritual dimensions of
literary works and examines how literature can serve as a vehicle for conveying religious truths.
The works of St. Augustine and Dante Alighieri exemplify this theory, reflecting their belief in
the influence of literature on the human soul and its journey towards salvation.

RENAISSANCE PERIOD
The Renaissance period, characterized by the revival of classical Greek and Roman
culture known as humanism, ushered in a new era of literary criticism. This cultural awakening,
which took root in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries, saw the emergence of defenses of
poetry and dialogues on language and literary imitation. However, it was in 16th-century Italy
that Renaissance literary criticism reached maturity and gained independence as a distinct
discourse, fueled by the recovery of Aristotle's Poetics and the subsequent development of
comprehensive theories of poetry. Key figures of this transformative period, such as Joachim
DuBellay and Sir Philip Sidney, contributed manifestoes that illuminated the literary programs of
the Pléiade and the golden age of Elizabethan poetry, respectively.
The humanistic spirit of the Renaissance sought to revive the ideals of ancient Greece and
Rome, emphasizing the importance of education, the pursuit of knowledge, and the individual's
capacity for greatness. It was within this intellectual climate that Renaissance literary criticism
found its fertile ground. The recovery of Aristotle's Poetics, a foundational text of classical
literary theory, played a pivotal role in shaping the discourse of Renaissance criticism. This event
served as a catalyst for a series of commentaries and discussions that expanded into
comprehensive theories of poetry.
One of the notable figures of this period was Joachim DuBellay, a French poet and critic
associated with the Pléiade group. DuBellay wrote a manifesto titled "Defense and Illustration of
the French Language," which articulated the literary program of the Pléiade. This movement
aimed to elevate French literature to the level of classical Greek and Roman works, advocating
for the use of vernacular language and the adoption of classical poetic forms. DuBellay's
manifesto not only reflected the humanistic ideals of the Renaissance but also highlighted the
significance of language and its relationship to literature.
 Another influential figure of the Renaissance period was Sir Philip Sidney, an English
poet, courtier, and scholar. Sidney's work "The Defense of Poesy" stands as a significant
manifesto of Renaissance literary criticism. In this treatise, he championed the role of poetry in
society and defended it against its detractors. Sidney celebrated poetry as a powerful means of
moral instruction, imaginative expression, and the embodiment of truth. His work not only
contributed to the elevation of literature as a valuable art form but also shaped the conception of
the "golden age" of Elizabethan poetry.
The Renaissance period witnessed a remarkable flourishing of literary criticism, driven
by the humanistic ideals and the rediscovery of classical literary theories. Through the works of
figures like Joachim DuBellay and Sir Philip Sidney, Renaissance literary criticism gained
prominence and independence as a distinct discourse. Their manifestoes and theories not only
reflected the cultural and intellectual milieu of the time but also laid the foundation for the
exploration of aesthetics, language, and the transformative power of literature. The Renaissance
period stands as a pivotal era in the evolution of literary criticism, ushering in new perspectives
and methodologies that continue to shape our understanding and interpretation of literature to
this day.
The Renaissance period was marked by a profound revival of interest in classical works
from ancient Greece and Rome, which had a significant impact on literature, art, and intellectual
discourse. This resurgence of classical learning and culture, known as humanism, played a
pivotal role in shaping the literary landscape of the time. Two influential theorists who embodied
the spirit of humanism and made notable contributions to the Renaissance are Francesco Petrarch
and Marsilio Ficino.
Francesco Petrarch, an Italian poet and scholar, is often regarded as the father of
humanism. His works, such as his collection of poems known as the "Canzoniere" and his letters,
exemplify his passion for reviving the literature of ancient Rome, particularly the works of the
Roman poet Cicero. Petrarch's emphasis on the importance of studying classical texts and the
pursuit of knowledge for its own sake helped establish the foundations of humanistic thought.
His writings revealed a deep admiration for the wisdom, beauty, and ideals found in classical
literature, and he advocated for the integration of these values into contemporary society.
Petrarch's humanistic approach influenced subsequent generations of writers and intellectuals,
fueling the Renaissance's enthusiasm for the revival of classical culture.
Marsilio Ficino, an Italian philosopher and translator, made significant contributions to
the field of humanistic philosophy. He was one of the key figures associated with the Platonic
Academy in Florence, which aimed to reconcile the philosophy of Plato with Christian theology.
Ficino's most renowned work is his translation and commentary on Plato's dialogues, known as
the "Platonic Theology." In this monumental work, Ficino highlighted the relevance of Platonic
ideas to contemporary society and emphasized the importance of philosophical contemplation
and spiritual pursuits. He believed that the study of philosophy and the pursuit of wisdom were
essential for the cultivation of virtuous individuals and the betterment of society as a whole.
Ficino's work not only contributed to the understanding and interpretation of Plato's philosophy
but also inspired a renewed interest in Neoplatonic thought and its influence on Renaissance
humanism.
The importance of Petrarch and Ficino's works lies in their efforts to bridge the gap
between the ancient and contemporary worlds, forging a connection between classical wisdom
and the challenges of their time. Their works served as a catalyst for the revival of classical
learning, providing a rich intellectual and cultural foundation for the Renaissance. Petrarch's
passion for studying ancient texts and his belief in the value of humanistic pursuits set the stage
for the exploration and celebration of human potential. Ficino's translation and commentary on
Plato's dialogues expanded the scope of philosophical inquiry and demonstrated the relevance of
ancient wisdom in addressing contemporary philosophical and spiritual concerns.
The impact of Petrarch and Ficino's works reverberated far beyond their own time. Their
contributions to humanistic thought paved the way for a renewed appreciation of classical
literature and philosophy, inspiring generations of scholars, writers, and artists to delve into the
treasures of the past. The revival of interest in classical works and the emergence of humanism,
as championed by Petrarch and Ficino, laid the foundation for the transformative intellectual and
cultural movement of the Renaissance, shaping the course of Western thought and literature for
centuries to come.
Literary Theory Focus: Formalism
In the provided paragraph discussing the Renaissance period, the literary theory that can
be focused on is Formalism. Formalism emphasizes the analysis and interpretation of literature
based on its formal elements, such as structure, style, language, and literary devices. By
examining these formal aspects, Formalism seeks to uncover the inherent meaning and aesthetic
qualities of a literary work.
In the Renaissance period, Formalism can be applied to analyze the literary works of
Joachim DuBellay and Sir Philip Sidney, who are mentioned in the paragraph. Formalism would
involve studying the specific formal elements employed by these writers, including their use of
poetic forms, language choices, imagery, and rhetorical devices. By focusing on these formal
aspects, one can gain insights into the artistic techniques employed by DuBellay and Sidney, as
well as the overall aesthetic impact of their works.
For example, in the case of Joachim DuBellay, Formalism would explore how he utilized
classical poetic forms and techniques in his works to elevate French literature to the level of
Greek and Roman classics. The analysis would delve into the specific structures, rhyme schemes,
and meters employed by DuBellay in his poems, as well as the use of vivid imagery and
symbolic language.
Similarly, in the case of Sir Philip Sidney, Formalism would involve examining the
formal elements in his work "The Defense of Poesy." This analysis would focus on Sidney's use
of rhetoric, his employment of poetic devices such as metaphor and allusion, and the overall
structure and style of his prose. By studying these formal aspects, one can gain a deeper
understanding of the persuasive techniques employed by Sidney to defend the importance of
poetry and its role in society.
By applying Formalism to the literary works of DuBellay and Sidney, scholars and critics
can uncover the aesthetic qualities, technical craftsmanship, and artistic choices made by these
writers. This approach allows for a focused analysis on the form and structure of the works,
shedding light on their artistic achievements and contributing to a comprehensive understanding
of Renaissance literature.

PERIOD OF ENLIGHTENMENT
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a transformative intellectual
and philosophical movement that swept across Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, leaving a
lasting impact on global society. It was characterized by a range of ideas that emphasized the
value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge through reason and evidence, and principles
such as natural law, liberty, progress, toleration, constitutional government, and the separation of
church and state. Enlightenment thinkers believed that advancements in science and industry
heralded a new era of egalitarianism and progress for humanity. This period witnessed increased
production of goods, improved mobility, and opportunities for social mobility, challenging
traditional cultural institutions.
During the Enlightenment, many intellectuals critiqued established institutions, with the
Church often singled out for impeding the progress of human reason. Deism, a rejection of
traditional Christianity in favor of a rational and non-interventionist belief in God, gained
popularity among Enlightenment thinkers. Prominent figures like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and
Voltaire championed reason, science, and religious tolerance, challenging existing knowledge
and disseminating new ideas throughout Europe and the Americas. The Enlightenment fostered a
spirit of openness, investigation, and skepticism towards blind faith.
The Enlightenment also witnessed the rise of influential writers such as Rousseau,
Voltaire, Kant, and Locke. These thinkers, inspired by the changing social and political
landscape of the late 17th century, reimagined societal structures and governance. John Locke, in
particular, presented novel ideas about the organization of government, opposing the views of his
contemporary Thomas Hobbes. The period sparked intellectual discourse in various fields,
including philosophy, political science, and history, with reason becoming a central theme.
Considered a pivotal moment in Western civilization, the Enlightenment marked a shift
from an age of darkness to an age of light. It brought forth significant social, religious, and
intellectual transformations within the British Empire and beyond. While the Great Awakening
emphasized emotional religious fervor, the Enlightenment promoted the power of reason and
scientific observation. The belief in the existence of a supreme being, particularly a creator who
does not intervene in the world, emerged as a notable development during this period.
The Enlightenment's impact on the world was profound. It fostered great progress in
science, politics, and philosophy, setting the foundation for many of the ideas and values
cherished in contemporary society. It encouraged critical thinking, championed human rights,
and challenged traditional authority, leaving an enduring legacy that continues to shape our
understanding of the world.
The Enlightenment period, characterized by the rise of reason, rationality, and intellectual
inquiry, witnessed a significant shift in literary criticism towards a more analytical approach.
During this transformative era, notable figures emerged who contributed to the development of
literary criticism. Two influential theorists who made substantial contributions to this period are
Samuel Johnson and Immanuel Kant.
Samuel Johnson, an English writer and lexicographer, played a pivotal role in shaping
literary criticism during the Enlightenment. His notable work, "The Lives of the Poets," stands as
a comprehensive collection of biographies of English poets, accompanied by critical evaluations
of their works. In this extensive body of work, Johnson offers insights into the lives and creative
output of prominent poets, including William Shakespeare, John Milton, and Alexander Pope.
Johnson's critical evaluations provide readers with a deeper understanding of the literary
achievements of these poets and offer a valuable framework for analyzing their works. His
approach to literary criticism emphasizes the importance of intellectual rigor and the examination
of the artistic merits of poetry, making him a significant figure in the Enlightenment's analytical
approach to literature.
Immanuel Kant, a renowned German philosopher, contributed to literary criticism
through his groundbreaking work, "Critique of Judgment." In this seminal text, Kant explores the
nature of aesthetic experience and the principles of aesthetic judgment. Kant's examination of the
beautiful and the sublime, as well as his exploration of the subjective nature of taste, profoundly
influenced the field of literary criticism. He argued that aesthetic judgment was based on the free
play of imagination and understanding, emphasizing the importance of the individual's subjective
response to a work of art. Kant's ideas challenged previous notions of objective beauty and paved
the way for a more nuanced understanding of aesthetic appreciation. His work continues to shape
literary criticism and remains a cornerstone in the study of aesthetics.
The impact of Samuel Johnson and Immanuel Kant's contributions to Enlightenment
literary criticism cannot be overstated. Johnson's emphasis on critical evaluation and rigorous
analysis provided a foundation for future scholars and critics to engage with and interpret literary
works. His biographies and evaluations of poets fostered a deeper understanding of their artistic
achievements and their significance in English literature. Kant's exploration of aesthetic
experience and subjective judgment expanded the horizons of literary criticism, highlighting the
importance of individual responses and subjective interpretations in the appreciation of art. His
ideas challenged traditional notions of aesthetics, allowing for a more inclusive and diverse
understanding of literary works.
Overall, the Enlightenment period marked a significant shift in literary criticism towards
a more analytical and reasoned approach. Samuel Johnson and Immanuel Kant, with their
respective works, "The Lives of the Poets" and "Critique of Judgment," played instrumental roles
in shaping this new direction. Their contributions continue to influence and inspire scholars and
critics, underscoring the enduring impact of their ideas on the study and interpretation of
literature.
Literary Theory Focus: Enlightenment Criticism
In the provided paragraph discussing the Enlightenment period, the literary theory that
can be focused on is Enlightenment Criticism. Enlightenment Criticism refers to the analytical
and reasoned approach to literature that emerged during the Enlightenment era, characterized by
the rise of reason, rationality, and intellectual inquiry.
The Enlightenment period was marked by a transformative intellectual and philosophical
movement that emphasized the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge through
reason and evidence, and principles such as natural law, liberty, progress, toleration,
constitutional government, and the separation of church and state. Within this context, literary
criticism underwent a significant shift towards a more analytical and reasoned approach,
focusing on the examination of artistic merits, critical evaluation, and the exploration of aesthetic
experiences.
Samuel Johnson, an English writer and lexicographer, played a crucial role in shaping
literary criticism during the Enlightenment. His work, "The Lives of the Poets," stands as a
comprehensive collection of biographies and critical evaluations of English poets. Johnson's
approach to literary criticism emphasizes intellectual rigor and the examination of artistic merits.
By providing insights into the lives and creative output of prominent poets, he offers readers a
deeper understanding of their literary achievements and a valuable framework for analyzing their
works. Johnson's critical evaluations align with the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and
analytical thinking, making him a significant figure in Enlightenment Criticism.
Immanuel Kant, a renowned German philosopher, contributed to literary criticism
through his work, "Critique of Judgment." In this seminal text, Kant explores the nature of
aesthetic experience and the principles of aesthetic judgment. His examination of the beautiful
and the sublime, as well as the subjective nature of taste, profoundly influenced literary criticism.
Kant argues that aesthetic judgment is based on the free play of imagination and understanding,
emphasizing the importance of the individual's subjective response to a work of art. His ideas
challenged previous notions of objective beauty and paved the way for a more nuanced
understanding of aesthetic appreciation. Kant's exploration aligns with the Enlightenment's
emphasis on reason and individual autonomy, making him a key figure in Enlightenment
Criticism.
The focus on Enlightenment Criticism allows scholars and critics to examine the literary
works of the period through an analytical and reasoned lens. It highlights the shift towards
critical evaluation, intellectual rigor, and the exploration of aesthetic experiences. Samuel
Johnson's emphasis on examining artistic merits and Immanuel Kant's exploration of subjective
aesthetic judgment contribute to this analytical approach, aligning with the values and ideals of
the Enlightenment.
 By applying Enlightenment Criticism to literary works, scholars can delve into the
intellectual landscape of the time, analyze the artistic achievements of writers, and understand
the ways in which reason and critical thinking influenced their works. This approach enables a
deeper understanding of the literature of the Enlightenment, its engagement with societal
structures and values, and its impact on the development of contemporary ideas and values.
Overall, the focus on Enlightenment Criticism in the provided paragraph helps uncover
the shift towards an analytical and reasoned approach to literary criticism during the
Enlightenment period. Samuel Johnson and Immanuel Kant, through their respective works,
exemplify this approach by emphasizing critical evaluation, examining artistic merits, and
exploring aesthetic experiences. Enlightenment Criticism provides a framework for analyzing
and interpreting the literature of the period, highlighting the intellectual climate and the influence
of reason and rationality on literary works.

ROMANTIC PERIOD

The Romantic period, spanning from the late eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth
century, was a transformative time in literature, marked by the rise of individualism, the
exploration of intense emotions, and the pursuit of the sublime. The Romantics placed a
profound emphasis on the individual, rejecting the rigid character typology of neoclassical drama
and celebrating the unique and eccentric. Writers like William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, and Edmund Burke sought to escape societal constraints and
give voice to their own personal experiences and emotions. This focus on individualism allowed
for a more authentic and subjective expression in their works.
Emotion played a central role in Romantic literature, with writers aiming to evoke intense
feelings in their readers. Trepidation, horror, and the awe inspired by the sublimity of nature
were common themes explored by the Romantics. The emotions of sadness, regret, and longing
for the past were also frequently portrayed, allowing readers to connect with the deep and often
tumultuous human experience. The expression of emotion in Romantic literature has been
extensively studied, highlighting the power of literary works to elicit emotional responses and
impact readers on a profound level.
One of the defining characteristics of the Romantic period was the concept of the sublime, which
was introduced by Edmund Burke in his work "A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our
Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful" published in 1757. The sublime in literature refers to the use
of language and description that surpasses the ordinary limits of human experience, eliciting a
sense of awe, reverence, and even fear. Romantic artists and writers were particularly concerned
with humankind's relationship with the natural world, and they employed the sublime to convey
the overwhelming power and majesty of nature. Through vivid imagery and evocative
descriptions, they sought to evoke a sense of transcendence and an appreciation for the grandeur
of the natural world.
The influence of Romanticism extends beyond literature and can be observed in other artistic
realms. The Romantic period saw the rise of the novel as a popular literary form, with writers
like Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, and Sir Walter Scott exploring themes of individualism,
emotion, and the sublime. In music, composers such as Beethoven, Schubert, and Chopin
embraced the Romantic ideals, infusing their compositions with deep emotion, personal
expression, and a sense of grandeur. The influence of Romanticism continues to resonate in the
cultural landscape today, as the themes of individuality, emotional depth, and the awe-inspiring
power of nature continue to captivate audiences.
The transition from the Enlightenment to the Romantic period was a transformative shift
in cultural and artistic sensibilities, characterized by a departure from the rationality and
scientific progress celebrated during the Enlightenment. Instead, the Romantic period embraced
the power of imagination, emotion, and individual expression. This shift emerged as a reaction
against the strict rationality and restraint of the preceding era, aiming to delve into the depths of
human experience, explore the mysteries of nature, and unravel the complexities of the human
heart. The Romantic period, which emerged in the late 18th century and flourished in the 19th
century, placed a renewed emphasis on the individual, the subjective, and the sublime.
During the Enlightenment, reason and the belief in progress were paramount, exerting a
profound influence on European society and intellectual thought. Thinkers challenged traditional
authority, questioned religious dogma, and advocated for principles such as liberty, equality, and
human rights. Scientific advancements and empirical observation led to a greater understanding
of the natural world, fostering a spirit of skepticism that encouraged critical thinking and rational
inquiry.
However, as the Enlightenment reached its pinnacle, some individuals began to feel
disillusioned by its cold rationality and the perceived loss of human connection and emotional
depth. They sought a new way of engaging with the world, one that celebrated the inner self, the
beauty of nature, and the power of individual imagination. This marked the birth of the Romantic
period.
The Romantic movement emerged as a response to the Enlightenment's emphasis on
reason and logic, seeking to reclaim the power of emotions, intuition, and the sublime.
Romantics rejected the rigid societal structures and norms, yearning to explore the depths of
human experience. They embraced themes such as passion, individualism, and the supernatural,
turning their attention to nature as a source of solace and inspiration due to its inherent beauty
and grandeur. Romantic poets and writers, including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, and Lord Byron, celebrated the sublime in nature and sought to capture the intense
emotions and spiritual essence of human existence.
Moreover, the Romantic period witnessed a notable shift in artistic expression across
various mediums. Landscape painting gained prominence, allowing artists to convey the awe-
inspiring beauty of nature. Gothic literature emerged, delving into the depths of human emotions
and exploring darker aspects of the human psyche. Composers infused their musical
compositions with powerful emotions, seeking to evoke a sense of spiritual transcendence. The
Romantics valued individuality and the expression of personal experience, often drawing
inspiration from folklore, myths, and legends.
In conclusion, the transition from the Enlightenment to the Romantic period represented a
significant change in cultural, intellectual, and artistic sensibilities. The Romantics sought to
counterbalance the cold rationality of the Enlightenment by exploring the depths of human
emotions, unraveling the mysteries of nature, and embracing the power of the individual
imagination. The Romantic movement celebrated individuality, subjective experience, and the
sublime, leaving a profound and lasting impact on literature, art, and philosophy.
Edmund Burke and Longinus are two significant theorists who have made substantial
contributions to the discourse on the sublime. Their works, namely Burke's "A Philosophical
Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful" and Longinus' "On the
Sublime," have had a lasting impact on the understanding and appreciation of the sublime in
literature, art, and aesthetics. By carefully analyzing each theorist's ideas, we can explore their
significance, impact, and contributions to the discourse.
Edmund Burke, an Irish statesman, philosopher, and writer, published his work "A
Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful" in 1757. This
seminal work explores the nature of beauty and the sublime, highlighting their distinct effects on
the human psyche. According to Burke, beauty arouses love and pleasure, while the sublime
elicits fear, tension, and awe. He emphasizes that the sublime transcends the ordinary and brings
forth a sense of transport and transcendence. The feeling of the sublime is a mixture of terror and
astonishment, captivating the mind and suspending all other thoughts.
Burke's concept of the sublime as a powerful aesthetic experience rooted in astonishment,
fear, and awe was groundbreaking. He argued that the sublime has the capacity to overwhelm
and mesmerize individuals, leaving them in a state of suspended animation. By evoking a sense
of astonishment, the sublime captivates the mind and immerses individuals fully in the
experience. Burke's understanding of the sublime as a force that elicits both fear and excitement
has had a profound influence on the appreciation of awe-inspiring natural landscapes, grand
works of art, and other experiences that evoke a sense of overwhelming power and beauty.
One significant contribution of Burke's theory is its impact on the Romantic movement.
The Romantics, who sought to explore the depths of human emotions, the mysteries of nature,
and the power of the individual imagination, were deeply influenced by Burke's ideas. His
understanding of the sublime resonated with their focus on the intense emotions, the awe-
inspiring power of nature, and the yearning for spiritual transcendence. Poets and writers such as
William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Lord Byron incorporated Burke's ideas into
their works, infusing them with a sense of the sublime and emphasizing the transformative
effects of encountering the natural world.
Burke's notion of the sublime also had a lasting impact on the field of aesthetics. He
expanded the understanding of aesthetics beyond the realm of beauty and highlighted the
importance of the sublime in artistic and sensory experiences. His exploration of the sublime as a
source of astonishment and suspended animation challenged conventional notions of aesthetics
and broadened the scope of artistic expression. Burke's ideas opened up new avenues for artists
to evoke powerful emotions, create works that inspire awe, and engage with the profound and
transformative aspects of human experience.
Longinus, a Greek philosopher and rhetorician from the 1st century, also made significant
contributions to the discourse on the sublime with his work "On the Sublime." Longinus' treatise
explores the qualities that make certain literary and artistic works rise above others, transcending
the ordinary and attaining greatness. He argues that the sublime is characterized by five sources:
grandeur of thought, the power of expression, the ability to evoke strong emotions, the use of
rhetorical figures, and the employment of noble diction.
Longinus' ideas on the sublime have had a considerable impact on literary criticism and
rhetoric. His emphasis on the power of expression and the ability to evoke strong emotions has
influenced the understanding of effective communication and the art of persuasion. Longinus'
work provided a framework for analyzing the qualities that elevate certain works of literature,
poetry, and rhetoric to a sublime level, inspiring subsequent generations of writers and orators to
strive for greatness in their own works.
Furthermore, Longinus' treatise on the sublime has played a crucial role in shaping the
Western literary tradition. His ideas have influenced countless writers and poets across different
time periods and cultures, guiding their exploration of themes, styles, and techniques that elevate
their works to the realm of the sublime. The concepts of grandeur, emotional intensity, and
powerful expression, as expounded by Longinus, have become integral to the understanding and
appreciation of literature and the arts.
To sum it up, both Edmund Burke and Longinus have made significant contributions to
the discourse on the sublime. Burke's exploration of the sublime as a powerful aesthetic
experience rooted in astonishment, fear, and awe had a profound impact on the Romantic
movement and the broader understanding of aesthetics. His ideas expanded the scope of artistic
expression, emphasizing the transformative effects of encountering the sublime in nature and art.
Longinus, on the other hand, provided a framework for analyzing the qualities that elevate works
of literature and rhetoric to the sublime level, influencing subsequent generations of writers and
shaping the Western literary tradition. Together, their theories have enriched our understanding
and appreciation of the sublime, inspiring artists, writers, and thinkers to strive for greatness and
to explore the profound and awe-inspiring aspects of human experience.

Literary Theory Focus: The Sublime in Romantic Literature

In the provided paragraph, the literary theory focus is on the concept of the sublime in
Romantic literature. The paragraph discusses how the Romantics embraced the sublime as a
means of conveying the overwhelming power and majesty of nature, and as a way to evoke
intense emotions and spiritual transcendence in their works.
 The sublime is a concept that originated during the Romantic period and was further
developed by theorists like Edmund Burke and Longinus. It refers to the use of language,
imagery, and description that surpasses the ordinary limits of human experience, eliciting a sense
of awe, reverence, and even fear. The Romantics, including writers such as William
Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Lord Byron, sought to capture the sublime in their
works to evoke a profound emotional response from their readers.

The focus on the sublime in Romantic literature reflects a broader shift in cultural and
artistic sensibilities during the period. The Romantics reacted against the rationality and restraint
of the Enlightenment era, embracing the power of emotions, individual imagination, and the
mysteries of nature. By emphasizing the sublime, the Romantics aimed to explore the depths of
human experience and to celebrate the grandeur and beauty of the natural world.

The paragraph also highlights the contributions of two theorists to the discourse on the
sublime: Edmund Burke and Longinus. Burke's work, "A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin
of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful," explores the distinct effects of beauty and the
sublime on the human psyche, with the sublime evoking fear, tension, and awe. His
understanding of the sublime as a force that elicits both fear and excitement greatly influenced
the Romantic movement and the appreciation of awe-inspiring natural landscapes and works of
art.

Longinus, in his treatise "On the Sublime," examines the qualities that elevate certain
literary and artistic works to a sublime level. He emphasizes the power of expression, the ability
to evoke strong emotions, and the use of rhetorical figures and noble diction. Longinus' ideas on
the sublime have influenced literary criticism, rhetoric, and the Western literary tradition,
shaping the exploration of grandeur, emotional intensity, and powerful expression in subsequent
works.

Overall, the focus on the sublime in Romantic literature reveals the Romantics' desire to
evoke intense emotions, capture the power of nature, and explore the depths of human
experience. The theories of Burke and Longinus further enriched the understanding and
appreciation of the sublime, providing frameworks for analyzing its qualities and impact on
literary and artistic works.

VICTORIAN PERIOD
The Victorian period, which lasted from 1837 to 1901, was marked by the rise of realism
and naturalism in literature. Realism and naturalism were literary movements that aimed to
represent society as it is, often with a critical intention. Realism focused on ordinary characters
and everyday life situations, while naturalism claimed to give an even more accurate depiction of
life than realism, presenting subjects with scientific objectivity. The Victorian era was
characterized by a shift in literature towards realism and an atmosphere of moral seriousness.
One of the key figures of the Victorian period is Matthew Arnold, who wrote "Culture
and Anarchy," which explores the relationship between culture and society. Arnold believed that
culture was the key to social progress and that it could help to solve the problems of society. He
argued that culture was a way of achieving a balance between the individual and society, and that
it could help to create a more harmonious and just society. Arnold believed that culture was the
best way to counteract the negative effects of industrialization and urbanization, which he saw as
threats to the traditional values of society.
The rise of realism and naturalism in literature during the Victorian period was
accompanied by a shift in literary criticism towards the analysis of social and political issues.
Literary critics began to focus on the ways in which literature reflected and commented on the
social and political issues of the day. They analyzed the ways in which literature represented
class, gender, and race, and how it reflected the changing social and political landscape of
Victorian England. Literary criticism became more focused on the analysis of social and political
issues, and it played an important role in shaping the literary landscape of the Victorian period.
In conclusion, the Victorian period saw the rise of realism and naturalism in literature,
which aimed to represent society as it is, often with a critical intention. The period was marked
by a shift in literary criticism towards the analysis of social and political issues. Matthew
Arnold's "Culture and Anarchy" is an important work that explores the relationship between
culture and society, and argues that culture is the key to social progress. The Victorian period
was a time of great change and upheaval, and literature played an important role in reflecting and
commenting on the social and political issues of the day.
Two Influential Theorists from the Victorian period: Karl Marx and Charles Darwin
1. Karl Marx: Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and political
theorist whose works laid the foundation for modern socialism and communism. Marx's
theories centered on the critique of capitalism and the class struggle that emerged within
it.
One of Marx's most significant works is "Das Kapital" (Capital), published in multiple
volumes between 1867 and 1894. In this monumental work, Marx analyzes the capitalist mode of
production and its inherent contradictions. He explores the concept of surplus value, arguing that
capitalists extract surplus labor from workers and appropriate the resulting profits. Marx's
analysis highlights the exploitative nature of capitalism and its tendency to generate class
conflict. He presents a theory of historical materialism, suggesting that the development of
society is driven by the struggle between different social classes, ultimately leading to the
overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a communist society.
Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on political and economic thought, inspiring
movements for social change and challenging dominant power structures. His critique of
capitalism and advocacy for workers' rights laid the groundwork for the labor movement and
influenced subsequent socialist and communist ideologies.
2. Charles Darwin: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an English naturalist and biologist
who revolutionized scientific understanding with his theory of evolution. His seminal
work, "On the Origin of Species" (1859), presented a comprehensive account of the
process of natural selection and its implications for the diversity of life on Earth.
In "On the Origin of Species," Darwin proposed that species evolve over time through a
process of variation, selection, and inheritance. He argued that individuals with advantageous
traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to future generations. This
mechanism of natural selection leads to the adaptation and diversification of species. Darwin's
theory challenged prevailing religious and teleological views of creation, providing a naturalistic
explanation for the complexity and diversity of life.
Darwin's theory of evolution sparked significant debates and controversies, particularly in
relation to its implications for religious beliefs. His work had profound implications for fields
beyond biology, including anthropology, psychology, and social sciences, influencing theories of
human nature, culture, and behavior. Darwin's ideas continue to shape scientific inquiry and our
understanding of the natural world.
Both Karl Marx and Charles Darwin made significant contributions to Victorian thought,
albeit in different domains. Marx's critique of capitalism and his vision of a classless society laid
the foundation for socialist movements, challenging prevailing socioeconomic systems. Darwin's
theory of evolution transformed scientific understanding, reshaping our perception of life's
diversity and sparking debates on its theological and societal implications. Their works continue
to shape intellectual discourse and inspire critical engagement with the social, economic, and
natural worlds.
Literary Theory Focus: Realism and Naturalism
This focuses on the literary theory of Realism and Naturalism within the context of the
Victorian period. Realism and Naturalism were predominant literary movements during this era,
aiming to represent society as it is, often with a critical intention. These literary theories sought
to portray everyday life and ordinary characters, presenting subjects with a focus on scientific
objectivity and a desire to depict life in its unembellished reality.
This discusses how the Victorian era witnessed a shift towards realism and naturalism in
literature, reflecting the social and political landscape of the time. Realism emphasized ordinary
characters and everyday situations, while naturalism claimed to provide an even more accurate
depiction of life, often with a critical lens. This focus on realism and naturalism in literature
during the Victorian period was accompanied by a parallel shift in literary criticism towards
analyzing social and political issues.
 This also highlights Matthew Arnold's work, "Culture and Anarchy," which explores the
relationship between culture and society. Arnold believed that culture was instrumental in
achieving social progress and addressing the problems of society. His views align with the realist
and naturalist emphasis on accurately representing society, as he saw culture as a means of
achieving a balance between the individual and society in the face of industrialization and
urbanization.
Overall, the paragraph demonstrates a focus on the literary theory of Realism and
Naturalism within the Victorian period. It discusses the characteristics of these movements, the
shift in literary criticism towards social and political analysis, and references Matthew Arnold's
views on culture and society.

EDWARDIAN/ MODERNIST ERA

The Edwardian era, which spanned from 1901 to 1914, was a time of great change and
transformation in British society and culture. The literature produced during this period reflected
this shift towards experimentation and fragmentation, as writers sought to break away from the
traditional modes of storytelling and explore new forms of expression.
1. Characteristics of the Edwardian Era
 The Edwardian era followed the Victorian era and was a period of great change and
transformation in British society and culture.
 The period is sometimes portrayed as a romantic golden age of long summer afternoons
and garden parties, basking in a sun that never set on the British Empire.
 Edwardian literature is a period of time rather than a movement or style, so the work of
the time is wide-ranging.
 The literature produced during this period reflected the shift towards experimentation and
fragmentation, as writers sought to break away from the traditional modes of storytelling
and explore new forms of expression.
2. The Shift Towards Experimentation and Fragmentation
 The literature produced during the Edwardian era reflected a shift towards
experimentation and fragmentation, as writers sought to break away from the traditional
modes of storytelling and explore new forms of expression.
 This shift was influenced by a number of factors, including the rise of modernism, the
impact of new technologies, and the changing social and political landscape of the time.
 Writers began to experiment with new forms of narration, such as stream of
consciousness and multiple narrators, and to break down the traditional boundaries
between genres.
 They also began to explore new themes and subject matter, such as the inner lives of
characters, the complexities of human relationships, and the impact of social and political
change on individuals and communities.
 This experimentation and fragmentation was reflected in the work of a number of
prominent writers of the time, including Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and D.H.
Lawrence.
3. The Impact of Modernism
 The rise of modernism had a significant impact on the literature produced during the
Edwardian era.
 Modernism was characterized by a rejection of traditional values and a focus on
individual experience and perception.
 This rejection of tradition was reflected in the literature produced during the Edwardian
era, as writers sought to break away from the traditional modes of storytelling and
explore new forms of expression.
 They also began to experiment with new forms of narration, such as stream of
consciousness and multiple narrators, and to break down the traditional boundaries
between genres.
 This experimentation and fragmentation was reflected in the work of a number of
prominent writers of the time, including Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and D.H.
Lawrence.
4. The Impact of New Technologies
 The impact of new technologies also played a role in the shift towards experimentation
and fragmentation in literature during the Edwardian era.
 The development of new technologies, such as the telephone, the automobile, and the
airplane, had a profound impact on society and culture, and this was reflected in the
literature produced during the period.
 Writers began to explore new themes and subject matter, such as the impact of
technology on human relationships and the changing nature of work and leisure.
 They also began to experiment with new forms of narration, such as stream of
consciousness and multiple narrators, and to break down the traditional boundaries
between genres.
5. The Changing Social and Political Landscape
  The changing social and political landscape of the Edwardian era also played a role in the
shift towards experimentation and fragmentation in literature.
 The period was marked by significant social and political change, including the rise of
the suffragette movement, the growth of the labor movement, and the increasing tensions
between different social classes.
 Writers began to explore these themes and subject matter in their work, and to
experiment with new forms of narration and expression.
 They also began to break down the traditional boundaries between genres, and to
challenge the traditional values and beliefs of society.
In conclusion, the Edwardian era was a time of great change and transformation in British
society and culture, and the literature produced during this period reflected this shift towards
experimentation and fragmentation. Writers sought to break away from the traditional modes of
storytelling and explore new forms of expression, influenced by the rise of modernism, the
impact of new technologies, and the changing social and political landscape of the time. This
experimentation and fragmentation were reflected in the work of a number of prominent writers
of the time, including Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence.
Two influential theorists from the Edwardian/Modernist era are T.S. Eliot and Virginia
Woolf. Both of these writers made significant contributions to literary theory and their works
exemplify the spirit of experimentation and fragmentation characteristic of the era.
T.S. Eliot was a British-American poet, critic, and playwright whose work had a
profound impact on modernist literature. His most notable contribution to literary theory is his
essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent," published in 1919. In this essay, Eliot argues for the
importance of tradition in the creation of new works of art. He emphasizes that the artist should
be aware of the literary tradition that precedes them and should engage with it critically. Eliot
believes that the poet's work should be seen as part of an ongoing dialogue with the literary past,
and that the best artists are those who are able to assimilate the tradition and add something new
to it. He introduces the concept of the "objective correlative," which suggests that the artist
should use concrete objects or situations to evoke specific emotions in the reader. Eliot's theories
had a significant influence on modernist poetry and helped shape the direction of literary
experimentation during the Edwardian era.
Virginia Woolf, on the other hand, was a pioneering modernist writer who is known for
her innovative narrative techniques and exploration of the inner lives of her characters. Her work
challenged traditional notions of time, plot, and character development. In her influential essay
"Modern Fiction," published in 1919, Woolf discusses the characteristics of modernist literature
and criticizes the traditional realist novel. She argues that modern fiction should move away
from the linear, plot-driven narratives of the past and instead focus on capturing the fluid and
fragmented nature of human consciousness. Woolf emphasizes the importance of subjective
experience and the exploration of characters' inner thoughts and emotions. She suggests that the
modern writer should be concerned with representing the complexity and ambiguity of life,
rather than adhering to traditional literary conventions. Woolf's experimental novels, such as
"Mrs. Dalloway" (1925) and "To the Lighthouse" (1927), exemplify her theories and showcase
her mastery of stream of consciousness narration and the portrayal of the inner lives of her
characters.
Both Eliot and Woolf contributed significantly to the development of literary theory and
practice during the Edwardian/Modernist era. Their works exemplify the experimentation,
fragmentation, and rejection of traditional forms and structures that were characteristic of the
time. Eliot's ideas on tradition and the role of the poet in relation to the past influenced the
approach of many modernist writers, while Woolf's exploration of subjective experience and her
innovative narrative techniques expanded the possibilities of fiction writing. Their theories and
writings continue to shape and inspire contemporary literature and have left a lasting legacy on
the field of literary criticism and theory.

Literary Theory Focus: Modernism and Experimental Literature

The above paragraph focuses on the literary theory of Modernism and the characteristics
of experimental literature within the Edwardian era. Modernism was a prominent literary
movement during this period, characterized by a rejection of traditional values, a focus on
individual experience and perception, and a departure from conventional modes of storytelling.
The paragraph discusses the shift towards experimentation and fragmentation in literature,
influenced by factors such as the rise of modernism, the impact of new technologies, and the
changing social and political landscape.
This highlights how writers of the Edwardian era sought to break away from traditional
modes of storytelling and explore new forms of expression. They experimented with new forms
of narration, such as stream of consciousness and multiple narrators, and broke down the
traditional boundaries between genres. The literature produced during this time also reflected the
changing social and political landscape, including themes related to the inner lives of characters,
the complexities of human relationships, and the impact of social and political change on
individuals and communities.
The impact of modernism on the literature of the Edwardian era is emphasized in the
paragraph. Modernism challenged traditional values and focused on individual experience and
perception. Writers during this time rejected tradition and explored new forms of expression. The
paragraph also mentions prominent writers such as Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and D.H.
Lawrence, whose works exemplified the experimentation and fragmentation characteristic of the
era.
This also acknowledges the impact of new technologies and the changing social and
political landscape on the shift towards experimentation and fragmentation. The development of
new technologies influenced writers to explore themes such as the impact of technology on
human relationships and the changing nature of work and leisure. The changing social and
political landscape, marked by significant social movements and tensions between different
social classes, provided a backdrop for exploration in literature.
In conclusion, the paragraph focuses on the literary theory of Modernism and the
characteristics of experimental literature during the Edwardian era. It discusses the rejection of
traditional values, the focus on individual experience and perception, and the departure from
conventional modes of storytelling. The paragraph also highlights the influence of new
technologies and the changing social and political landscape on the literature produced during
this period. Overall, it provides an analysis of the literary theory that underlies the works and
themes discussed in relation to the Edwardian/Modernist era.

Throughout history, literary criticism has undergone significant transformations, adapting

to the changing cultural, social, and intellectual contexts of each period. From ancient and
classical times to the contemporary and postmodern era, the field of literary criticism has
evolved, offering diverse perspectives on literature. This essay will explore the main points
discussed in the evolution of literary criticism, highlighting the significance of different periods
and the transformative nature of the field.
In the ancient and classical periods, literary criticism primarily focused on the
interpretation and analysis of literary works. Aristotle's "Poetics" stands as a foundational text,
providing insights into the structure, themes, and effectiveness of tragedy and epic poetry. This
period emphasized the artistic quality and moral purpose of literature, promoting the concept of
mimesis and catharsis. The understanding gained from studying the ancient and classical periods
lays the groundwork for literary criticism.
The Renaissance witnessed a revival of interest in classical literature and the emergence
of humanist ideas. Literary criticism during this period emphasized imitating classical models
and adhering to principles of balance, harmony, and order. Notable critics like Sir Philip Sidney
and John Dryden contributed to the development of the neoclassical approach. Neoclassicism
aimed to establish rules and guidelines for literature, emphasizing reason, clarity, and
universality. The Renaissance and neoclassical periods provided a framework for understanding
the importance of tradition and aesthetic ideals.
The Romantic and Victorian periods brought about a significant shift in literary and
critical sensibilities. Romantic critics emphasized individual expression, imagination, and the
emotional impact of literature. They challenged neoclassical norms and advocated for a more
subjective and personal approach to literary analysis. In contrast, the Victorian period witnessed
the rise of realism and naturalism, with critics like Matthew Arnold exploring the relationship
between culture and society. These periods expanded the range of critical perspectives and
explored the complexities of human experience.
The Edwardian/Modernist era marked a radical transformation in literary criticism. The
rise of modernism, characterized by a rejection of traditional values and an emphasis on
individual experience and perception, had a profound impact on the field. Prominent theorists
such as T.S. Eliot and Virginia Woolf played pivotal roles during this period. Eliot's "Tradition
and the Individual Talent" underscored the connection between tradition and artistic creation,
emphasizing the importance of engaging with literary heritage. Woolf's critical works challenged
gender norms and offered feminist perspectives on literature. The Edwardian/Modernist era
widened the scope of literary criticism, encouraging more diverse and innovative approaches.
In the contemporary and postmodern periods, literary criticism expanded to encompass
diverse approaches and theories. New Criticism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Feminism,
Postcolonialism, and Cultural Studies emerged as influential frameworks for interpreting and
analyzing literature. These approaches focused on issues of power, identity, language, and
cultural context, challenging traditional interpretations and promoting a more inclusive
understanding of literary texts. The contemporary and postmodern periods introduced a
multiplicity of perspectives, enriching the field of literary criticism.
The evolution of literary criticism reflects the dynamic nature of literature and the ever-
changing socio-cultural contexts in which it is produced and analyzed. Each period discussed in
this essay has contributed distinct theories, methods, and perspectives, contributing to the
ongoing development and expansion of the field. As we continue to explore literature and engage
in critical analysis, it is essential to recognize and appreciate the evolving nature of literary
criticism.

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