‘Links: Twentieth Century World History Books ; Series Editor: Robert Wolfson ‘Hitler’s GermanyLinks: Twentieth Century World History Books Series Editor: Robert Wolfson or Hitler’s Germany GCSE Edition J. F. Aylett | Hodder& Stoughton LONDON SYDNEY AUCKLAND TORONTO raAcknowledgements, ‘The author wishes to thank the British Broad- casting Corporation, V. A. G. (United Kingdom) Limited and The German Historical Institute, London, for their assistance. The Publishers wish ‘to thank the following for their permission to use copyright illustrations: Imperial War Museum: pp 3t, 101, 12, 17, 22, 25, 29, 30, 31, 3435; Wiener Library: pp 3b, 41, 5, 9, 10r, 11, 13r, 14, 16, 18r, 33, 47¢; Marquess, of Bath, Longleat House: p 4r; ted News- Papers: p 7,45 (John Frost Historic News Service); Popperfoto: pp 91, 40, 41, 44t; Robert Hunt Library: pp 131, 22b, 36; Bundesarchiv, Koblenz: pp 15, 28, 38; BBC Hulton Picture Libfary pp 181, 21, 42; Auschwitz Museum, Poland: p 20t, 44b; National Archives/David Irving: PP 20b, 26; Keystone Press Agency: p 46—47b; Sir David Low/The Standard: pp 23, 325 Associated Press: p 27; Society for Cultural Relations with the USSR: p 37. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Aylett,J.F. Hitler's Germany —GCSE ed —{Links: twentieth century world history books). 1, Germany—Hlistory—1933-1945 [Title IL Series 943.086 © DD256.5 ISBN 07131 76245 First published 1964 GCSE edition 1987 Reprinted 1990 (©1987 5. F. Aylett Allrights reserved. No part of this publiation may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, fr any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher of under cence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such eences (Tor reprographic reproduction) ‘may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 3-34 Alfred Place, London WCIE 7DP Printed in Great Britain forthe educational publishing, division of Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, Mill Road, Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent by ‘The Bath Press, Avon Series Preface to GCSE Editions ‘The GCSE editions are designed for students following GCSE courses in Modern World History. They have been revised to take account of GCSE syllabuses and assessment objectives. Each topic has been treated in sufficient detail to prepare candidates for the written paper, while also providing appropriate material for coursework assignments. A range of source material is incorporated into each text and the exercises have been devised to develop students’ skills in relation to the following GCSE assessment objectives: 1) to recall, evaluate and select relevant knowledge and deploy it in a clear and coherent form; 2) to use and understand the concepts of cause and consequence, continuity and change, similarity and difference; 3) to look at events and issues from the perspec- tive of people in the past; 4) to use the skills necessary to study a variety of historical evidence by comprehending and extracting information, by interpreting and evaluating (for example, distinguishing between fact, opinion and judgement, detecting bias and identifying gaps in the evidence), and by comparing different types of historical evidence and drawing con- clusions from such comparisons. Robert Wolfson Preface to GCSE edition As I revised this book, one man was on trial in Israel, accused of war crimes; another was awaiting trial in France. And there was a news that Rudolf Hess had been in hospital. Meanwhile, my children came home from school, singing this verse: Land of soap and water, Hitler's having a bath. Churchill’s looking through the keyhole, ‘Trying not to laugh. ‘There are few people in the 20th century who have had quite the impact that Hitler did. I hope this book will help to explain why. John AylettContents Introduction 1 Early Days and World War I 4 On 20 April 1889, a baby boy was born in 2. After the War 6 house number 219 in the little Austrian village 3 The Beer Hall Putsch 8 of Braunau am Inn. His father Alois was a 4 1924-33: The Years of Waiting 10 customs official 5 The Reichstag Fire 12 6 The Night of the Long Knives 14 7 Life in Nazi Germany (1) 16 8 Life in Nazi Germany (2) 18 9 What was Hitler Like? 22 Revision Exercises 23 10 Re-armament and the Rhineland 24 11 German Foreign Policy and Appeasement 26 12 Austria and Anschluss 28 13 Czechoslovakia 30 14 Poland and the Start of World War Il 32 15 1940-41 3 16 Europe Under Nazi Rule 36 His mother Klara had once worked as a 17 The War's Turning-points 37 maid, 18 The 1944 Bomb Plot 38 19 Hitler's Final Days 40 20 Hitler’s Legacy: ‘The Final Solution’ 42 Revision Exercises 44 Afterword 46 47 48 48 Note: The words which appear in bold type in the text are defined in the Glowary on page 48, It was their third child. The first two had died in infancy, but this one survived. They called him Adolf. Adolf Hitler.1 Early Days and World War I Adolf Hitler was an able boy and did well at primary school. At secondary school, it was a different matter. A common comment on his reports was ‘unsatisfactory’. His failure at school may explain why he did not get on with his father, who died when Hitler was 13 Some of the fourth form at the school which Hitler attended, (Hitler is shown by a cross.) He left school at 16 and, two years later, went to Vienna, with high hopes of becoming an artist. But, a month after he arrived, the ‘Academy of Fine Arts turned him down. His sample drawing, they said, was unsatisfactory Tt. was, he later wrote, an ‘abrupt blow’ He described the next five years as ones of hardship and misery, although this was not true at first. After his mother died, he got an orphan’s pension and was better off than most students. 4 Hitler painted this picture of Vienna town hall. Yet he wasa lonely and shy young man with apale face and sunken cheeks. He moved house anumber of times up to 1909, when his money ran out. Then, he moved into a doss-house for a few months, earning money by doing odd jobs or painting postcards and posters. In Vienna, Hitler’s ideas began to develop more fully. He became sure that the Germans were a superior race and was filled with hatred of the Jews. From Vienna, he moved to Munich in Germany. Early in 1914, he failed his medical test for the Austrian army. Yet, on 1 August, Hitler joined the crowds in the streets of Munich to cheer the start of the First World War. Years later, he wrote: To me those hours seemed like a release from the painful feclings of my youth. Even today I am not ashamed to say that I fell down on my knees and thanked Heaven from an overflowing heart Days later, he volunteered for a Bavarian Infantry Regiment. After just ten weeks” training, he found himself in the thick of fighting at the Battle of Ypres.break of war. Is Hitler an crowds cheer the the man shown in close-up? he dur He always said he was h war, although he stayed a lonely figure, as a messenger, He was certainly working brave. He was twice awarded the Iron Cross. In October 1918, he came under heavy gas attack by the British. ‘My eyes turned into lowing coals,’ he wrote. Within hours, he could not sce so he was taken to hospital While he was recovering, German politicians agreed to a cease-fire and the war ended. It was like a body-blow to Hitler who always claimed that the army had been let down. He thought that the politicians had ‘stabbed it in the back’ Exercises 1 Match up each date in list A with the correct event from list B list A ist B 1889 Hitler left school 1905 First World War ended 1907 Hitler was born 1914 Hitler moved to Vienna 1918 First World War began 2 Which of these words describe the young Hitler: lonely; anti-Semitic; pacifist; shy; popular; brave; successful? For each word you choose, write down how you decided. 3 Read the quotation on page 4. Why do you think Hitler was so pleased that war had begun? 4 Hitler later called his Vienna years ‘the hardest school of my life’. Give at least two reasons why they were so hardAfter the War ‘The war was over. So was the rule of the German Kaiser, who had fled to Holland. In January 1919, elections were held for a new ‘Assembly, which met in a little town called Weimar. The new German republic took its name from this town. This new government had to face one early problem. Ithad to make peace with the Allies. Now that the Kaiser had gone, it hoped that the Allies would not be too harsh with Ger- many, but it was soon sadly disappointed. The Germans were not allowed to join in talks about the Peace Treaty — they were just expected to sign it. When the peace terms were known, most Germans were shocked and angry We want to call to account the November Criminals of 1918, Itcannot be that two million Germans should have fallen in vain and that afterwards one should sit down as friends at the same table with traitors. For becrayers of the Fatherland, the gallows is the proper place. ‘The Peace Treaty was not the only problem. ‘The German economy was in a bad state. Prices were rising but wages were falling. The German mark was buying less and less. In 1921, it was announced that the bill for reparations would be £6600 million. The ‘economy grew even worse and Germany simply could not keep up the reparation payments. In January 1923, the French decided to make them. The Treaty of Versailles 28 June 1919 German army reduced to 100 000 men German navy reduced to smaller ships only All planes, submarines and tanks scrapped Germany lost all her colonies {Allied troops to occupy German land to the west of the River Rhine for 15 years. No German troops were allowed in a 50 km zone to the east of the River Rhine, + Germany must pay reparations for the damage done during the war. (The amount was later fixed at £6 600 000 000.) * A War Guilt Clause blamed the German people for starting the war. * Germany lost land to other countries (see map). GERMANY ‘The Germans had no choice but to sign. However, it made the Weimar Republic very ‘unpopular right from the start, Hitler later sai 6 __ Boundary of ‘Germany, 1914 eggentontby IGermany, 1919 Occupied by Aled troops The demilitarised Rhineland Boundary changes after the Treaty of Versailles,French troops moved into the Ruhr in- dustrial area. In reply, the Ruhr workers went on strike and the German government supported them. But it only made things worse. It was like a death blow to the German mark. The mark's value fell rapidly. Paper money became so worthless that shops did not want it. Instead, people went back to bartering goods. If they wanted to go to the cinema, for instance, they might take along a lump of coal. As inflation increased wallets and purses had to be replaced by bigger containers! Wages were paid every day and were spent at once, before they became worthless. People got so many notes that a pay packet was no good. They needed a sack or barrow to cart it all away. (Goods became scarce and some shops even closed down. Meanwhile, people were dying of hunger; others found their pensions had become worthless overnight; some committed suicide. ‘This was the state of Germany as Adolf Hitler was starting his political career. He had not left the army straight after the war. Instead, he became an army lecturer and agent in Munich, In September 1919, his officer had sent him to look into a small group which called itself the German Workers’ Party. Hitler joined about forty other people in a beer cellar to listen to the speeches, After- wards, he could not resist joining in. After hearing Hitler speak, the party leader turned to a friend and whispered, ‘Man, he has a big mouth; we could use him.” Jan 1922 ‘Aug 1922 Jon 1923 ‘Aug 1923 Oct 1923 Nov 1923, Inflation: how many marks there were to a dollar. ‘The more there were, the worse it was. Exercises 1 Read the quotation from Hitler on page 6. (a) Who were the ‘November Criminals’? (b) Why did he think they were traitors? 2 Which of the people listed below do you think suffered most from inflation — and who benefited most? i) An unemployed father with two children; ii) A businessman with large debts; iii) A pair of old people, living on pensions; iv) A man working in a steel works; v) A soldier; vi) Someone living off their savings. Write down your choices, then explain how you made your mind up. 3 Imagine you had fought for Germany in World War 1. Which parts of the Peace Treaty would have upset you most? Give reasons for your choices.TXe & TIMELINE oN These events [MARK the) GaN. AG Wazy 3430 4432 J 40d 1920 3 : The Beer Hall Putsch Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party as member number 555 (but numbers started at 501), He wrote later: ‘There was work to be done and the smaller the party the sooner it could be pulled into shape. How the Nazi Party came about Ithad a new name 1920 NatioNAL | SociaList Geaman , WorKERS | Party. 1920 Ithad a new symbol — the swastika . and India. In 1920, it was already being used by an Austrian party.) and a new flag . . 1920 {for socialism) Black (symbol of the victory) White (for rationalism) Hitler claimed that he designed this flag. In fact, it was invented by « dentist who was a party member. (This was a symbol which had been used in ancient times, for example in Egypt, China struggle for Aryan mans He quickly set about turning it into a party with a big following, and with himself as its leader. Tt was not long before the SA was marching through the streets, parading its swastikas. Soon afterwards, Hitler got a new title . 1921 {| _ DER FUHRER Party members began to call Hitler ‘Der Fuhrer’. It means ‘the Leader’. 1921 And the party started an army . .. The groups of strong-arm men who acted as bouncers at Nazi meetings were called ‘Sports Division’ (SA). Later, they were officially called Sturmabteilung (Stormtroop) and were used to break up other parties’ meetings, (They wore brown shirts because the Nazis bought up a cheap lot of ex-army shirts. They happened to be brown.)Hitler told one meeting: Later, he said The Communists taught — if you will not be my __If Lam not victorious by tomorrow afternoon, I am brother, | will bash your skull in. Our motto shall be a dead man, if you wll not be a true German, Iwill bash your skull in, Por we are convinced that we cannot succeed writhout a sruggle. We have to fight with ideas but In fact, he was neither. The march be; soon after 11 o'clock on the following morning but the police stood their ground. No one is quite sure what happened, but someone fired In 1923, Hitler thought the time for fighting q shot, A minute of gunfire followed. if necessary, also with our fists had come. Inflation was out of control and When it was over, 16 Nazis were dead the government told the Ruhr workers to go Many more were injured, including Hitler, back to work. It also began reparation pay who had hurt his shoulder. He had quickly ments again fled from the scene. The year before, Mussolini had gained The police caught up with him two days power in Italy by his March on Rome. Now, —_Jater and put him in Landsberg prison. His Hitler planned his own March ~ on Berlin revolution had failed but he had gained one On the evening of 8 November 1923, 3000 thing: histrial brought him international fame. people were attending an important political Eyeryone listened to speech after speech in meeting in a beer cellar in Munich. Hitler was which he stated Nazi ideas. already inside when the SA burst in. He leapt on to a table and fired into the ceiling. When the crowd was silent, he cried ‘The national revolution has begun. The hall is ‘occupied by 600 heavily armed men, No one may leave the premises, The Bavarian and Rei have been overthrown, and a provisional national government is being formed. ch governments The Biirgerbriiukeller in Munich. At the time of the putsch, a pot of beer there cost one billion marks! At the end of the trial, he was sentenced to just five years in prison — but he only served nine months of his sentence. Even those nine months he used well. ‘The marchers at their trial. Beside Hitler is Ludendorff, He wrote a book about his life and ideas. First World War hero and the only one to march His publisher gave it the title of Mein straight into police lines. Kampf, which means ‘My Struggle’.4 1924-33: The Years of Waiting Hitler had failed to gain power, but he did not give up. Instead, he decided to use different methods. From prison, he wrote: Instead of working to achieve power by an armed coup, we shall have to hold our noses and enter the Rejchstag against the Catholic and Communist members. If outvoting them takes longer than out- shooting them, at least the result will be guaranteed by their own constitution, But times were changing. A new German currency called the Rentenmark had replaced the old mark and given people faith in Germany again, America lent millions of dollars to Ger- many and German industry began to build up. In forcign affairs, too, Germany was making progress, led by the Foreign Secretary, Gusta Stresemann. In.1924, the problem of 2. Rudolf Hess (1896-1988) was another early party member who went to prison with Hitler after the 1923 putsch. Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to him and Hess may have helped write it. He became deputy to Hitler, who trusted him until he parachuted into Scotland in 1941. He said he wanted to bring peace, but was locked up in the Tower of London. 10 The men around Hitler 1. Hermann Goering (1893-1946) A fighter pilot in World War I, he joined the Nazi Party early on and took part in the Munich putsch, (He fled abroad afterwards.) He became Reichstag President, 1932-9, and founded the Gestapo, the Luftwaffe and the first concentration camps. He became Hitler's powerful right-hand man, but power made him wealthy, and wealth turned him into a fat drug-addict by 1945, reparations was settled when the major powers accepted the Dawes Plan. This reduced the total which Germany had to pay. A year later, Germany signed the Locarno Pact with other European nations, promising not to go to war to change the map of Europe Inreturn, some allied troops left the Rhineland and, in 1926, Germany joined the League of Nations. Finally, in 1929, an American banker called Young thought up yet another plan for reparation payments. His idea was to spread them over 59 years. ‘The Young Plan was unpopular in Germany and Stresemann died before he could persuade the Germans that it was a good one. ‘These were better years for Germany and there was little support for Hitler and his extreme ideas, He spent the time organising the Nazi Party, which was now under his total control. This small party always needed money. ‘The biggest sums came from businessmen who supported Hitler because he attacked the Communists so fiercely. Money alone could not win him elections but, after 1927, the Nazis saw a hopeful sign. Unemployment began to rise.‘Then, in 1929, the slump in America On 30 January 1933, Hitler got the job. happened. Overnight, American loans which People who thought they could control him had helped German industry no longer existed. soon found out how wrong they were. Germany could not pay her own debts. Businesses closed down. (Unemployment suddenly shot up. So did Hitler's popularity In 1933, Edgar Mowrer wrote Germany Puts the Clock Back, in which he said: The depression brought the voters in carloads to Hitler, the wonder-man of Munich, who most loudly condemned the Dawes and Young Plans, and the payment of reparations. The more they believed, the harder Hitler worked. He and his assistants began to smell dinner, 1928, 10,000 1930 6.4 milion July 1932 D187 milion Now 1932 D117 milion Wes 17.3 million | Hitler was not paid for being Nazi leader, but the party did pay for his Mercedes car. This photograph Diagram showing how many people voted for the shows him soon after his release from prison. Ness Exercises PO 1-3 (D Put these events in the order in which they happened and write one sentence about each, The Young Plan; Hitler became Chan- cellor; The American slump began; The Locarno Pact; The Dawes Plan. 2 Read what Edgar Mowrer wrote in 1933 He made plenty of promises. He promised work for the unemployed and more arms for the forces. He would ignore the Treaty of Versailles. The Communists would be crushed and he would make Germany great again Above all, he would deal with what he said was the cause of all Germany's problems — the Jews. x J fie oan oeaerieentiereehalaithe Was he biased for or against Hitler? Write 1930 election, the Nazis became the second down any words or phrases which sup- port your answer. largest political party.Men flocked to join POrUYOU 2 Se ia the SA and its marches often led to street i fights. All of a sudden, power seemed to be to German voters. just around the corner. (b) For each promise, write down a In 1932, Hitler was a candidate in the Particular group of voters who would elections for a new president. The existing support the policy. president was the war hero, old Field Marshal + ON a new page, write the title, LEADING Hindenburg. Hitler did not win, but he came NAZIS. Write down brief notes about second, with 13 million votes. Goering and Hess from page 10, then add Within a year, another election made the to them, using your school or public library. Nazis the biggest single party in the Reichstag. Each time you come across more of the Hindenburg’s advisers persuaded him to make ‘eM around Hitler’ (as on page 14), Hitler the new Chancellor of Germany. The add to your notes. advisers thought that Hitler would simply do what they wanted penne i5 The Reichstag Fire One of Chancellor Hitler’s first actions was, to organise another election. He hoped the Nazis would win enough seats to form a government on their own, rather than leading a coalition with other parties. Then, one week before polling day, a strange thing happened ‘The Reichstag burns in February 1933 terly cold r February 27 1933. A Berlin the Reichstag building 12 A man passing was showered with g saw a figure holding the police That same evening, Hitler was having dinner with another leading Nazi, called Goebbels, when there was a message that the Reichstag was on fire. At first, Goebbels did not believe it but, after more phone calls. ss. Looking inside, he torch, The man called [informed the Fahrer, and we raced downtown at 70 mph. The whole building was in flames. It had already been established that the fire was due to Hitler said. ‘This isa signal from God. If this fire turns out to be the work of the Communists, then there is nothing. that shall stop us from crushing out the murder pest with an iron fist The very next day, Hindenburg signed an emergency decree which took away many of the basic rights of the German people. News papers could be censored and meetings were limited. Even private letters. and phone calls could be checked. This one law was all Hitler needed to cripple his opponents — and it stayed in force until 1945 Hitler himself began a last-minute tour of Germany to warn people that the Communists were planning a revolution. Many people believed him. In the election, the Nazis won 43.9% of the votes, It was h to gi Hitler the chance he wanted Yet the fire itself remains the building, the po mystery. Inside Dutchman, ice found Marinus Van der Lubbe He w naked, but in his pockets were matches and firelighters. He admitted to police that he hy Communist PartyHitler and President Hindenburg ride through Neudeck in 1933. The Field Marshal and the former Corporal Jespised each other election, he was put on trial with four Communists From the start, Van der Lubbe told police one story and stuck to it. He said he had acted alone. He had burned the Reichstag as a protest against the Nazis. The Nazis told a different story. They said the fire was part of a huge Communist plot. It was the signal for a general reign of terror. Others, including the Communists, gave yet another version. They said it was all a Nazi plot so that Hitler had an excuse to blame the Communists. One story went round that, although Van der Lubbe may have started one fire, the SA helped it along by starting others. At his trial, Van der Lubbe acted strangely Mostly, he just stared at the floor; sometimes, he slept; he said very little. After eleven months, the other four were found innocent Van der Lubbe had admitted his guilt all along he was found guilty. Soon afterwards, he was beheaded. Even so, the arguments still go on today There was evidence at the trial that large amounts of petrol and chemicals had been used to start the fire. It began in at least twenty different places at once and was so fierce that firemen could do nothing, However, there has never been any firm evidence to prove that either the Nazis or Communists were involved Van der Lubbe on trial Exercises 1 Write down (a) what the Communists could have gained if they started the fire, and (b) what they had to lose Write down (a) what the Nazis could have gained by starting the fire and (b) what they had to lose. List the reasons for and against believing that Van der Lubbe acted alone. (a) List any details about the fire which seem strange or peculiar (b) What do you think really happened? Explain your answer fully, using the information in this chapter.6 The Night of the Long Knives The men around Hitler 3. Ernst Rochm (18871934) had been Hitler's commander just after the war and joined the German Workers’ Party soon after Hitler. In the 1923 putseh, he captured the War Ministry and was afterwards held in Stadelheim Prison, It was here that he was shot in 1934, The mark on his cheek is a duelling sear, Hitler was now in power, but he still had problems to solve. One of his problems was deciding what to do with the SA. On 1 January 1934, Hitler wrote to the SA leader, Ernst Roehm: I thank you, my dear Ernst Rochm, for the services which you have given to the National Socialist Move- ment and the German people, and to assure you how very grateful lam that I am able to eall such men as you my friends and fellow fighters all was not well between Hitler and Rochm. The SA was really nothing less than the Nazis’ own revolutionary army. By 1934, it had about two million members — twenty times more than the real army! They were mostly working class and many came from among the unemployed. Above all, they 4 Despite that letter were firmly socialist. That was one of the problems As far as Hitler was concerned, the SA had done its job by helping him to gain power. Now, it was no longer useful. In fact, Hitler had good reasons for wanting to get rid of it: * Roehm and many other SA men wanted a second, socialist, revolution. * The SA was unpopular with businessmen. * It was unpopular with the army, who saw the SA asa rival, and Hitler needed the army’s support if he were to take over as president when Hindenburg died. By the summer, Hindenburg was a very sick man, Hitler told the SA to take a month’s leave in July. Roehm told his men Lexpect that on the frst of August, the SA will be once more ready for duty. If the enemies of the SA are hoping that the SA will not return from leave, we are ready to let them enjoy this hope for a short time, The SA is, and remains, Germany's destiny. He could not have been more wrong. ‘A meeting of SA leaders was fixed for 30 June and Hitler had promised to attend. The night of 29-30 June found the SA leaders ata village inn near Munich. There were no sentries on duty and no guards. Just before 7 a.m., a number of cars roared into the village and up to the inn. Hitler, carrying his dog-whip, went in and woke up a sleepy Ernst Rochm. ‘You're under arrest,’ he told him. It was the same story in the other bedrooms. At about 10 a.m., the SS, originally Hitler's bodyguard, began the round-up in Berlin, Some ‘enemies’ were just shot on the doorstep after they answered the bell. Many had no idea what was happening. The Munich police chief told his SS executioners,‘The wedding of Karl Ernst, leader of the Berlin SA. Soon afterwards he was arrested, just before he set out on his honeymoon. He thought it was a practical joke and was still laughing when the SS men put him in a police car. "Heil, Hider,’ he shouted, when they shot him. Behind his wife, you ean see SA Chief, Ernst Rochm, who also died. Gestapo boss Goering, who helped to plan the deaths, stands behind Emst, “Gentlemen, | don’t know what this is all about, but shoot straight.” In Munich, SS men shot a music critic called Willi Schmid. It was a mistake, They had really been after Wilhelm Schmidt, a local SA leader. Roehm himself was shot in his prison cell after he refused to commit suicide. Hitler later said that he was sorry that he had to destroy Rochm. Hitler admitted that 77 people died, but the real figure was probably much higher. Less than half the dead were SA members. Many private quarrels were settled that night, the ‘Night of the Long Knives’. ‘A fortnight later, Hitler told the Reichstag that it had been necessary because the SA had been planning a revolution. It was almost certainly untrue, President Hindenburg had sent Hitler a telegram 1 sce that through your determined intervention and bravely risking your own person, you have nipped all plots in the bud. I express to you my deep thanks Hindenburg himself may not have written it. He may not even have known it was sent. He was so ill that he died just a month later. The big question now was: Who would be the next president? Just one day later, people had the answer. It was Adolf Hitler. Exercises 1 (a) Give at least two reasons why Hitler destroyed the SA. (b) Read what Rochm told his men (on page 14), Do you think he was expecting something to happen? Explain your answer 2 Write down all the evidence you can find to show that the SA was not planning a revolt, 3 Choose from this list the words which you think describe Hitler's actions: weak; friendly; ruthless; cautious; cunning; fair; mild; two-faced; vicious. For each one you choose, writea sentence to explain why you think the word fits, 4 On 13 July Hitler told the Reichstag ‘At one o'clock in the night [30 June} 1 received ‘wo urgent messages from Berlin and Munich ‘concerning the SA. In Berlin, at five o’elock, action was to begin with a surprise attack: the government buildings were to be occupied. That was mutiny. In these circumstances I could make only one decision. Only a ruthless and bloody intervention might still stifle the spread of the revolt. I gave the order to shoot those who were the ringleaders in this treason. (a) Look at the photograph above. Do you think the Berlin SA was about to start a revolution? Give a reason. (b) If Hitler’s orders were to shoot the ringleaders only, why do you think so many others died? Give reasons.a Life in Nazi Germany (1) Long before Hindenburg died, Hitler had much of the power he wanted. In March 1933, soon after winning the General Election, Hitler got the Reichstag to pass an Enabling Law. This enabled Hitler to make laws with- cout getting the Reichstag to agree to them. In effect, it gave up its greatest right — the right to make Germany’s laws. Hitler was well on the way to becoming a dictator — and he did not intend to waste time. The changes began almost at once. April 1933 < Hitler appointed new governors in all German states. They had the power to sack existing officials and judges. Each new governor was a Nazi. ‘The trade unions disappeared, and a new organisation called the ‘Labour Front’ took their place. It was run by the Nazis. Union money was seized; union leaders were beaten up and put in concentration camps; strikes became almost illegal May 1933 July 1933 One by one, the other political parties were banned. The Communist Party had gone first and the Social Democrats went next. The other parties dissolved themselves. A new law said, ‘The only political party in Germany is the National ‘Socialist German Workers’ Party. ‘The Nazis stayed the only party until 1945. 16 One essential step was to make sure that the Germans would think in the way Hitler wanted them to. A Propaganda Ministry was set up at once to influence public opinion. ‘Anyone working in films, radio or news- papers and all actors, painters and musicians had to belong to the Chamber of Culture. If they upset the Nazis they lost their member- ship. Then, they would not get any more work. Many newspapers went out of business; others were bought cheaply by the Nazis. Editors were given strict rules about what they should not print in their papers. In any case, the Nazis soon began censoring all papers. The men around Hit 4 Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945) was the best-educated Nazi leader and another early member. He had polio as a child and always walked with a limp. He became Minister of Propaganda (1933). A superb speaker, ceven his enemies admitted that his use of propaganda ‘was brilliant and ruthless. He had studied under a Jew, but was bitterly anti-Jewish. He almost worshipped Hitler.School textbooks were also checked. Soon after coming to power, the Nazis issued new Nazi textbooks and religious lessons were stopped. Teachers who disagreed with Nazi ideas were sacked. The Nazi Labour Front leader said: We start our work when the child is three. As soon as it begins to think, a little flag is pur into its hand. Then comes school, the Hitler Youth Move- ment, the Stormtroops. We never let a single soul go. Afterwards} there is the Labour Front, which takes them when they are grown up and never lets hold of them whether they like it or not. All youth organisations were taken over by the Nazis. Soon, all boys aged 14 to 18 had to join the Hitler Youth and wear its brown uniform and carry a dagger. Members spent a lot of time getting military training and being taught Nazi ideas. Girls were expected to join the League of German Girls, which also went on marches ‘The Hitler Youth, and sang party songs. More important, they were prepared for becoming mothers. Hitler had very clear ideas about women, Their duties, he said, were Church, Children and Kitchen. Children were especially important. Youth leaders told girls that it was their duty to have children — the more of them, the better. After all, the country needed workers, One day, it might also need fighters. Exercises 1 Match each of the words in list A with the correct answer from list B. List A Labour Front rganisation for teenage boys Nazi union organisation Nazi organisation for teenage girls League of German Law which allowed Girls Hitler to make laws Look at the photograph of the Hitler Youth, then write a few sentences describing what you can see. Why do you think they were dressed like that? What did the Labour Front leader mean by saying, ‘We never let a single soul go"? In 1935, Goebbels said Hitler Youth Enabling Law The [basic aim] of any propaganda is to win people over to an idea in such a way that they become addicted and can never escape from it. (a) Write down at least three ways in which the Nazis tried ‘to win people over’ to their ideas. (There are at least eight examples on these two pages.) (b) Look back over pages 9 to 17. Choose any two photographs which the Nazis could have used for propaganda. Explain how your choices might have persuaded people to support them. 178 Life in Nazi Germany (2) Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that one race of people was better than all others. This was the Aryan race. (The word ‘Arya’ means ‘lord’.) In fact, there is no such thing as an Aryan race, but that didn’t worry Hitler. He said the Aryans were the Master Race. Some Nazi writers went even further and said that one group of Aryans were better than other Aryans. They said the ‘Nordic’ Aryans were best and, of course, the Germans were Nordic Hitler was always telling the Germans that they were special, He wrote in Mein Kampf: All the results of art, science and technology that we see before us today are almost exclusively the product of the Aryan. Soa picture was created of the ideal people. They were tall, blond and blue-eyed. They were strong, brave and intelligent. They were just better than anyone else on earth Nazis believed that the Aryans’ job was to rule over inferior races, such as the Slavs, who lived in the East. Jews and gypsies were con- sidered so inferior that Nazis did not even count them as human beings at all. It was a chilling warning of what was to come. Even dictators have to offer people some- thing if they are to win the sort of blind loyalty which Hitler inspired. What he offered, Hitler setting an example ~ digging an Autobahn. Without unions to protect them, the workers worked long hours for low wages. They could only change jobs if they got permission. But there were advantages. The Nazis offered better welfare services, cheap houses and even cheap holidays abroad. Many foreign visitors were impressed. One of them was Lloyd George, once Britain’s Prime Minister: Whatever one may think of (Hitler's) methods, above all, was work. When he became chancellor there can beno doubt that he has achieved a marvellous in 1933, six million people needed jobs. By 1939, Germany was actually short of workers. ‘Many of the new jobs were linked to the armed forces. Military service became com- pulsory after 1935 and workers were needed to make tanks, planes, ships and arms. Others found work in the Nazi Party itself or on one of the Public Works schemes, such as building the autobahns (motorways). 18 change in the spirit of the people and in their attitude ‘towards each other. One man has accomplished this miracle, However, this ‘miracle’ was bought at a price. Some people in Germany were not benefiting from this new ‘attitude towards each other’, For the Jews, there was nothing on offer. Not even hope for the future.Examining the Evidence: The Berlin Olympics Source 1 (John Toland: Adolf Hitler, 1976) ‘The opening ceremonies on August 1 were blessed by aclear blue sky... The greatest applause came for the French team, whose salute was more Roman than Olympian. The Americans got the least applause, and some stamping of feet, as they passed, without even dipping their flag. Source 2 (Elisabeth von Stahlenberg: Nazi Lady, diary entry) August 1st [1936] We are not far from the Fiihrer’s [box] so I can sec his expressions. He wasn't too pleased today, I have to record, when the Americans marched past! They didn’t salute, and they didn’t dip their flags. This was all the more insulting as the French gave the Hitler salute. The cheers nearly shattered the stadium. The Yanks got boos. August 2nd We heard that yesterday, when the Americans crossed their arms over their chests in the march The Berlin Olympics were planned to show the world how great the Aryans were. Hitler was furious at the success of Jesse Owens (below) who won four {gold medals. past, Hitler said,"Not only do they have Negroes and Jews in their teams, but they spurn us as well, Source 3 (John Toland: Adolf Hitler, 1976) Hitler did not meet Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals. [Owens denied] that the Fuhrer publicly turned his back on him. {He} claimed that Hitler paid him a tribute. ‘When I passed the Chancellor he arose, waved his hand at me, and I waved back at him.” Source 4 (Elisabeth von Stahlenberg: Nazi Lady) August 18:b [Wel saw Jesse Owens win for America. (The people sitting around us said it was unfair to use Negroes.) Still, we white Germans did better than the American blacks. We won hands down ~ 33 gold medals, 26 silver, 30 bronze. Exercises 1 (a) What was the ‘Master Race’? (b) What right did Hitler believe the ‘Master Race’ had? (c) How would this affect his attitude to Jesse Owens? 2 (a) Which sources are primary sources? (b) Which writer do you think supported the Nazi Party? Explain how you decided. (c) How do sources 1 and 2 agree? (d) Why would Hitler object to the Americans having ‘Negroes and Jews’ in their team? (e) Why did some spectators (source 4) think it was ‘unfair to use Negroes’? (f) How reliable is the diary entry for ‘August 2nd (source 2)? Explain your answer, 3 (a) How did the Nazis intend to use the Olympic Games as propaganda? (b) Do you think sport should be used for political ends? Give reasons for your view. (©) You work for the German Ministry of Propaganda in 1936. Write down four ways in which you would use the opening ceremony of the Games for Propaganda purposes. 1D:Webrt Guch! ! Sau nicht bei Juben! enemies Members of the SS stop the public from buying at a Jewish shop. For years before this, Nazis had been chanting songs with lines such as these “Only when Jews lie ble Can we be really free, From the beginning, the Nazi Party had offered __ Jews who had jobs in the civil service or the German people someone to blame and to _ in law all lost them. So did those who worked hate — the Jews. This is what Hitler wrote in _ in the theatre or on radio. Mein Kampf f b a Was there any form of filth or crime without at least one Jew involved in it? If you eut into such a sore, you find — like a maggot in a rotting body —a Jew By defending myself against the Jew, ! am fighting for the work of the Lord Leading Nazis, such as Goebbels, blamed the Jews for just about everything: + for making Germany lose World War I * for causing inflation in the 1920s and + for causing unemployment in the 1930s * for supporting the Communists — and for being capitalists! The men around Hitler Nazi leaders were told 5 Heinrich Himmler (1900-45), shown on the right, took part in the 1923 putsch, His reward was to be made Chief of the SS, aged 28, He was obsessed with the idea of breeding pure, perfect Aryans, and even set up $S ‘bride schools’ to prepare girls good enough to be married to his SS men, He was also head of the would be removed from public life if they Gestapo (Gehcime Stentpolze) che rates seo came to power. Within months of becoming police, Hei talking to Foreign chancellor, Hitler did just that Ribbentrop. The natural hatred of the peasant towards the Jews must be whipped up to a frenzy The Nazis always promised that all Jews 20In 1935, the Nazis went even further when the Nuremberg Laws were passed, The Nurem- berg Laws took away the basic rights of all Jews in Germany: A Jew cannotbe a citizen of the Reich. He cannot vote, He may not hold public office. Any marriages between Jews and citizens of German or similar blood are forbidden, Jews are forbidden to fly the Reich and national flags. Meanwhile, many public places, such as swimming pools, were closed to Jews. Parks even had separate benches for them. SS men turned customers away from Jewish shops. Most Jews found it difficult to get even food and medicine. Later, Jewish firms had to use a special trade mark on their goods and Jewish doctors lost their jobs. All Jews were issued with special identity cards, although many left the country while it was still possible. The worst violence against the Jews came in November 1938. A young Jew had shot a government official and the Nazis hit back almost at once. Jewish newspapers were banned; the Jews were heavily fined; and the SS organised a night of violence against Jews and their homes. They called it ‘Crystal Night’, because of the number of broken windows. Synagogues were burned down and 7500 Jewish shops were looted. Jews were beaten up and their homes destroyed. Up to a hundred were killed and 20 000 taken prisoner. Many of them had no trial. They were loaded on to trains and sent off to concentration camps When Hitler came to power, there were only about 600 000 Jews living in Germany. They had a very low birth-rate and many of them married Christians anyway. Hitler banned these ‘mixed’ marriages. Otherwise, Jews, as a separate race, might have died out in Germany in less than fifty years. It is an odd thought that Hitler, who hated the Jews, helped to keep their race alive, Of course, Hitler actually had quite different plans for them. After ‘Crystal Night’, Goebbels promised that there would be new laws as a “final answer’ to Jewish attacks, The new laws were harsh enough. But the Nazis were soon to come up with an even more horrific ‘answer’. They called it ‘the Final Solution’, ‘The search for Jews: a German having his nose ‘tested’. Exercises 1 List the ways in which Jews were persecuted before 1939. Choose the two ways which you think were worst and explain why you chose them. 2 Do you think, at any point, German Jews could have guessed things would get worse for them? Explain your answer. 3 After ‘Crystal Night’, Goebbels wrote in his diary: Berlin's man in the street, at long last, had an opportunity of filling himself out again. Fur coats, carpets, valuable textiles, were all to be had for nothing. (a) Where did the ‘man in the street’ get these things from? (b) Try to give two reasons why Nazis did Rot try to stop the looting. 4 A Jewish couple are living in Germany in 1938. They own a shop and a good house. Their young children are at school. List the reasons they might have for and against leaving Germany. What do you think they decide? 219 What was Hitler Like? What sort of person was Adolf Hitler? The only real answer is that we simply don’t know. Some Nazis said that he was ‘a man sent by God’. But none of them was his friend. One of his closest advisers wrote years later Never in my life have I met a person who so rarely revealed his feelings. And, if he did so, he instantly locked them away again. His personal success was based on various things * He was a clever speaker and especially good with big audiences * He was quick to sum up who was useful to him — and to use them * People found him an attractive person to meet Women were particularly attracted to him. He was like a film star. Sackloads of fan mail came every week and girls refused to wash a hand that had touched him. He always said that he was attractive to women because he was not married. So his mistress, Eva Braun, stayed a well-kept secret. She was never with him at official events. Hitler's life-style was very simple. He did not eat meat and he did not drink alcohol. He did not smoke and couldn't bear anyone else smoking when he was around. What he did like was going to a coffee-house to drink hot chocolate and eat the stickiest cream cakes. Apart from that, he enjoyed watching American films, often over and over again. He loved fast cars, too. Usually, he used a Mercedes and loved travelling at speed, until he became superstitious in 1939. Then, he imposed a limit of 56 km an hour. Perhaps his greatest pleasure was sitting up till late at night talking with old friends. It was a habit he continued right through the 22 war. It did not affect his work because he hardly ever started before mid-day anyway. Only one thing really seems to have inter ested him and that was power. He wanted power over other people. As soon as he met someone, he was studying them through his cold, blue eyes, and summing them up. He needed clever people if his plans were to succeed. Late in 1936, he said If 1 win, I shall be one of the greatest men in history. 1 | fail, I shall be condemned, despised and damned, ‘Two views of Hitler. Above: what he wanted the public to see — himself, surrounded by admiring young people. Below: as the public never saw him = with his mistress, Eva Braun,THEY ERE wt BeMH HOTS NE Revision Exercises 1 Choose the correct date for cach event 1889; 1923; 1918; 1934; 1935; 1933 (a) Night of the Long Knives; (b) End of World War I; (c) Hitler born; (d) Hitler be- came chancellor; (e) The Beer Hall Putsch; (f) the Nuremberg Laws. 2 Copy the map of Germany on the right. (a) Name each numbered country. (b) Write down the names of the towns shown on the map. Beside each name, write down at least one event which happened there, 3 (a) Look back over the first half of this book. Choose one picture which would have been most useful as propaganda for Hitler's opponents. Explain how you made your choice. (b) Look at the top picture on page 22. You want to publish this in a Nazi newspaper. Write a good caption for the picture, 4 Look at the cartoon above, which was first published in July 1934, then answer these questions: (a) Does it show (i) The Beer Hall Putsch; ii) The Night of the Long Knives or ii) Hitler becoming chancellor? (b) Which of these people are shown on the right: Hess; Hitler; Goering; Hindenberg; Rochm; Goebbels? (©) The armband says ‘The Double Cross’. Who was double-crossed in this event? (d) What does the title mean? 5 (a) Which of these adjectives described the ‘perfect Aryan’: tall; short; weak; blond; brave; blue-eyed; fat; intelligent; skinny. (b) Which of these words described Hitler? 6 Write a conversation between two workers in Berlin in 1933. One is a Nazi Party mem- ber and thinks that only Hitler can solve Germany’s problems. The other has a Jewish wife and does not support Hitler.10 Re-armament and the Rhineland Hitler made no secret that he planned to ignore the Versailles Treaty when he came to power. In fact, German leaders before him had already been ignoring it. The Allies had realised even before 1933 that it was impossible to stop Germany getting more weapons. The best they could hope for was to keep it as slow as possible. Hitler had very different ideas. In 1933, he said: Germany would be ready to disband her whole military establishment and destroy the small amount of arms she had, if neighbouring countries will do the same. But talks to limit arms came to nothing. Later that year, Germany pulled out of disarmament talks in Geneva and left the League of Nations. Now, Germany began re- arming in earnest. |REAT BRITA Paris FRANCE ‘SWITZERLAND In 1935, Hitler announced that military service would be compulsory for all men. He planned to increase the German army from 100 000 men to half a million. Building up the army was just a start. Hitler was already working out plans for what to do with it. Top of his list was a wish to put German troops back on the west bank of the River Rhine. The Versailles Treaty said that a strip of and on each side of the Rhine had to stay demilitarised. There must be no troops or weapons within 50 km of the river. So, if there were a war, France would start with a big advantage. ‘On Saturday, 7 March 1936, German troops marched across the bridges leading to the west bank of the Rhine. The Versailles Treaty had been broken. German leaders held their breath, waiting to see what the Allies would do. [nas 2 Europe in 1936. Hitler achieves his first aim by putting troops back into the Rhineland. 24German troops enter the Rhineland, Hitler later admitted. The 48 hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-racking in my life, If the French had then marched into the Rhineland, we would have had to withdraw with our tails between our legs. Our military resources would not have been adequate for even moderate resistance As it happened, they were not needed be- cause France and Britain did nothing. Few people wanted to risk another war. Many people felt that Germany had every right to put its own troops on its own land, Only Poland showed any signs of taking action, but the French did not support them. Hitler had bluffed the Allies and got away with it. He had banked on their doing nothing and he had been right. It was a lesson he would remember. One British politician said afterwards about Hitler that ‘he had, after all, only walked into his own back-garden’. But it would not be long before he would be walking into other people’s. Exercises 1 Some of the following statements are true and some are false. Copy out the true ones. Then list the false ones and explain in what ways they are wrong. (a) The Versailles Treaty limited Germany's army to 100 000 men. (b) Hitler introduced conscription in 1935. (©) Under the Versailles Treaty, the left bank of the River Seine was demilitarised. 2 (a) Draw the map on page 24 in your book. (b) If you were Hitler, where would you attack next? Write down your choice and explain why you chose it. 3. Why do you think: (a) Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland ona Saturday? (b) Poland was willing to take action? 2511 German Foreign Policy and Appeasement Hitler and Mussolini ‘Other people’s gardens’ were exactly what Hider was after. For a start, he wanted to up’ the Versailles Treaty and get back all the land ny had lost in 1918. However, he wanted to go further than this. He wanted what he called ‘Lebensraum’ — living space. The Nazis argued that Germany did not have enough farmland to feed her people More land was needed to grow more crops so that Germany could produce all the food she needed 26 Hitler knew just where this land was, It was to the east of Germany in Poland and Russia. Germany would simply take it. So, putting troops back into the Rhineland had been an important first step. It meant that France would not be able to launch a surprise attack against Germany if Germany decided to attack Poland If Germany were going to do that, Hitler needed an ally. In fact, he would have liked two — Italy and Britain — but in 1935, the Italian leader, Mussolini, had attacked Abyssinia,Britain and France had been against Italy on this occasion, so Hitler had to choose He decided to support Mussolini. The agree: ment between the two fascist countries was known as the Rome-Berlin Axis Its first real test came in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War. Both countries supported General Franco, the Nationalist leader. Planes, ans and troops were sent to help him and the fighting in Spain became a kind of rehearsal of what might come Few people outside Germany had bothered to read Mein Kampf; many had little idea what Hitler was up to. In any case, there was only one obvious way to stop German ambition and that was to go to war. Yet it was less than twenty years since the horrors of the First World War No one seriously wanted another one Most French and British politicians were willing to bend over backwards to avoid a second World War — and that is just what they kept doing. Their policy involved giving Hitler just about anything he asked for This policy was called appeasement. The British and French followed this policy until 1939, just a few months before war broke People went to great lengths to avoid upsetting the Nazis, In 1938, the England football he Nazi salute when the German national The captain was told by FA officials t There were some grumbles ~ but Eng out. The policy fail these Allied politicians had not understood Hitler. The thought that he only wanted back those lands which Germany had lost at Versailles. They were wrong. There were no limits to what Hitler wanted Exercises 1 Explain what is meant by (a) Lebensraum and (b) appeasement 2. Complete this paragraph Hitler wanted to get back the lands which Germany had lost und He also wanted living space in the —. This meant taking land from Russia or — Germany's ally was —, led by the fascist In 1935, he had attacked — In 1936, they both helped General during the — Civil War. 3 Read the caption of the photograph shown below. Do you think the team was right to give the Nazi salute or should players have refused? Give reasons for your view ind went on to win 6-3,12 Austria and Anschluss Hitler wanted ‘living space’ in the East for his new German empire. He also wanted all Germans, wherever they lived, brought inside Germany’s borders. In other words, he wanted Germany's borders moved — outwards. He especially wanted Austria joined up with Germany, but this was something banned by the Versailles Treaty. Yet nearly seven million people lived in Austria and most of them spoke German. Hitler longed for an Anschluss (union) of Austria and Germany. He had tried once, in 1934, but failed. Now, he was ready to try again. ‘This time, he had an ally. ‘The illegal Austrian Nazi Party spent the winter of 1937-8 organising its own campaign of terror to undermine the government. In February 1938, the Austrian Chancellor, called Schuschnigg, went to talk to Hitler. Schuschnigg joked that Hitler really ought to be seeing a psychiatrist instead! Hitler did not waste time getting to the point. He told Schuschnigg. 1am going to solve the so-called Austrian problem one way or the other. You don’t seriously believe you can stop me for half an hour, do you? Schuschnigg did not. He accepted Hitler's terms for a solution. They were + Ban on Austrian Nazi Party to be lifted. + All Nazis in prison to be released + Nazis to join the Austrian government. Schuschnigg tried to put these changes into effect, but the riots went on. So he tried one last plan to avoid a complete German take- over. He decided to hold a plebiscite ‘The question asked in the plebiscite was, basically, ‘Are you in favour of a free and independent Austria?” It was a clever question 28 Hitler standing at his parents’ grave in Leonding near Linz, March 1938, because most Austrians would vote, ‘Yes’. ‘That was just what Schuschnigg wanted He hoped to prove that Austrians did not want to link up with Germany. News of this made up Hitler’s mind. He decided to invade Austria on 12 March — the day before the plebiscite. To make it look respectable, the Austrian Nazi leader sent Hitler a telegram. It asked for German troops to come to help keep the peace. It was all fixed. Hitler issued the invasion order even before Seyss-Inquart, the Austrian Nazi leader, knew he had asked for help! The telegram was arranged by Goering Seyss-Inquart later tried to stop the German troops, but it was too late. So, Austrian troops were told not to resist and the Germans were greeted with Nazi salutes and flowers. In the afternoon, Hitler himself crossed the frontier in his blue Mercedes. He had come back to his homeland and, the following day, he placed flowers on his parents’ graves. It was two more days before he entered Vienna. By then, he had decided to take over Austria completely. The church bells rang and large swastika banners flew as Hitler drove through huge crowds along the wide main streets of Vienna. Meanwhile, the back streets were also busy as Austrian Nazis violently made up for their years of exile or imprisonment. Himmler and his Gestapo had also arrived and the arrests began. There were 76 000 in the first few weeks.Europe in 1938, Austria is linked to Germany ee DENMARK © h «Warsaw RUSSIA POLAND Paris FRANCE nC ‘SWITZERLAND HUNGARY RUMANIA anaes nia kilometres YUGOSLAVIA S__ [ : Of course, the Jews were the Nazis’ main target. Thousands lost their jobs; many killed themselves. A concentration camp was quickly set up and Goering boasted that there would be no Jews in Vienna within four years. It was another clear warning of what was to come. Days later, two American journalists went into a Viennese bar for a drink. One of them ervous. ‘Let's go to another place,’ was a bit he suggested “Why?” said the other one I was here last night,’ said the first one. A Jewish-looking fellow was standing at that bar. After a while he took an old-fashioned razor from his pocket and slashed his throat.” After the Nazi takeover in Austria, Viennese Jews are forced to scrub pavements, xercises Look at the photograph below. Write two captions for this photograph: (a) one for a Jewish newspaper and (b) one for a Nazi newspaper. 2. (a) What was Schuschnigg’s opinion of Hitler before the 1938 meeting? (b) What do you think his attitude was afterwards? Explain how you decided.13 Czechoslovakia ‘Two weeks after the Anschluss, Hitler’s mind was already elsewhere. He said he would soon be ready to ‘solve’ the Czechoslovakian problem. Czechoslovakia was a new country. It had been formed in 1918 out of parts of Austria- Hungary. About half of the people were Czechs, but other peoples also lived there. Up in the north-west, in the Sudetenland, there were about 3 million Germans These Germans did have some real causes for complaint, although they were not being persecuted. The Czech Nazis, however, claimed that they were, They began to demand the right for the Sudetenland to rule itself. They were encouraged by Hitler, who became very angry with the Czechs By the summer of 1938, his anger seemed to be on the verge of madness, He ordered plans to be made to invade Czechoslovakia on 1 October. (At the same time, some generals planned what to do with Hitler if he did invade. They thought a mental home might be the best place for him!) Meanwhile, other countries decided what to do: * Russia said she would help Czechoslovakia if France would as well. * France wanted to know what Britain would do. ‘The four main leaders at the Munich Conference, French Premier Daladier is second from the left. 3 1 2 * Britain just did not want a war. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, summed up his feelings: How horrible that we should be digging trenches here because of a quarrel in a faraway country between people of whom we know nothing. He decided that appeasement was the only answer. Hitler should be given what he wanted. Germany must have the Sudetenland. 15 September 1938 < Chamberlain met Hitler. He wrote later: 1 knew that his troops, tanks, guns and planes were ready to pounce, and only awaiting his word. It was clear that rapid decisions must be taken if the situation was to be saved, He said if I could assure him that the British government accepted the principle of self- determination, he would discuss ways and means. Chamberlain came back to London to talk it over with the French and Czechs. Hitler went on preparing for war. 22 September 1938 < Chamberlain flew to Germany again to tell Hitler that everyone agreed that Germany could have the Sudetenland, Hitler replied that this was no longer good enough, Germany had to occupy the Sudetenland at once. War now seemed certain. In Britain, gas masks were issued and sandbags were piled round buildings, 29 September 1938 < ‘The leaders of Germany, Italy, Britain and France met at Munich. The Czechs were also there, but not allowed to take part in the talks about their country. Britain and France gave in to Hitler.