Topic1 ST

Drs.
Samuh & Abu Awwad 06 June 2022
Biostatistics for Medicine 19033
Topic 1: Introduction
Instructors: Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad

monjedsamuh@ppu.edu
06 June 2022
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad 06 June 2022
Outline
1 Learning Objectives
2 Introduction
3 Statistics and Biostatistics
4 Data
5 Data Sources
6 Population and Sample
7 Collecting Sample Data
8 Sampling Techniques
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Learning Objectives 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Learning Objectives 06 June 2022
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student will:
Define statistics generally.
Distinguish between statistics and Biostatistics.
Differentiate between the two branches of statistics.
State the meaning of Biostatistics and its application to life sciences.
Differentiate between population and sample data.
Identify types of data and levels of measurement.
Differentiate between experiments and observational studies
Identify the four basic sampling techniques.
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Introduction 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Introduction 06 June 2022
Introduction
Statistics do play an important role in many decision-making processes.
Before a new drug can be marketed, an experimental study involving human

subjects must be conducted. The data from this study must be compiled
and analyzed to determine whether the drug is not only effective, but safe.
One may wish to study whether the radiation therapy or surgery is more
effective in treating a prostate cancer.
Where should a government invest its resources if it wishes to reduce infant

mortality?
Does the use of a seat belt or an air bag decrease the chance of death in a
motor vehicle accident?
Should a mastectomy always be recommended to a patient with breast

cancer?
What factors increase the risk that an individual will develop coronary heart
disease?
⇒ To answer these questions and others, we rely on the methods of

biostatistics.
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Statistics and Biostatistics 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
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What is Statistics?
Statistics is the science of planning studies and experiments; obtaining

data; and organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting
those data and then drawing conclusions based on them.
Statistics has two aspects:
Theoretical/mathematical statistics: deals with the development,

derivation, and proof of statistical theorems, formulas, rules, and laws.
Applied statistics: involves the applications of those theorems, formulas,

rules, and laws to solve real-world problems. Applied statistics can be
divided into two areas:
Descriptive statistics: consists of methods for organizing, displaying, and

describing data by using tables, graphs, and summary measures.
Inferential statistics: consists of methods that use sample results to help make
decisions or predictions about a population.
Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Statistics and Biostatistics 06 June 2022
What is Biostatistics?
Biostatistics
The tools of statistics are employed in many fields—business, education,
psychology, agriculture, and economics, . . .
When the data analyzed are derived from the biological sciences and
medicine, we use the term biostatistics to distinguish this particular
application of statistical tools and concepts.
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Data 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
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Data
Data are collections of observations, such as measurements, or survey

responses. (A single data value is called a datum, a term rarely used. The term
“data” is plural, so it is correct to say “data are. . . ” not “data is. . . ”)
Some Basic Terms:
Element/Member: A specific subject/object (for example, a person,

company, or country) about which the information is collected.
Variable: A characteristic of interest for the elements. It assumes different

values for different elements.
Examples: diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, heights of adult males, ages of
patients seen in a dental clinic, . . .
Random Variable: When the values obtained arise as a result of chance

factors, so that they cannot be exactly predicted in advance, the variable is
called a random variable.
Example: When a child is born, we cannot predict exactly his or her height at
maturity. Attained adult height is the result of numerous genetic and
environmental factors.
Observation/Measurement: The value of a variable for an element.
Data set: All the data collected in a particular study.

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Data, Data Sets, Elements, Variables, and Observations
Example: Patient satisfaction. A hospital administrator wished to study the

relation between patient satisfaction and patient’s age (in years), and severity
of illness (an index). The administrator randomly selected 46 patients and
collected the data presented below, where larger values of patient satisfaction,
and severity of illness are, respectively, associated with more satisfaction, and
increased severity of illness.
The dimension of the data is 46 × 3.

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Levels of Measurement
The level determines the amount of information contained in the data. It

indicates the data summarization and statistical analyses that are most
appropriate.
Levels of measurement include:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
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Nominal Level
The lowest measurement scale.
Categories only. Data cannot be arranged in order.
A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.
Examples: Gender, smoking status, marital status, survey responses (yes,

no, and undecided), . . .
A nonnumeric label could be used for the marital status variable such as
single, married, divorced, and so on. Alternatively, a numeric code could
be used: 
 1, Single,

2, Married

Marital status =

 3, Divorced

..., ...
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Ordinal Level
Data can be arranged in order, but differences either can’t be found or are
meaningless.
A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.
Examples:
Satisfaction: A nonnumeric label can be used such as strongly satisfied,

satisfied, dissatisfied, . . .). Alternatively, a numeric code could be used:

1, Strongly satisfied,

2, Satisfied
Satisfaction =
3,
 Dissatisfied
..., ...
Convalescing patients: may be characterized as unimproved, improved, and

much improved.
The degree of improvement between unimproved and improved is probably not

the same as that between improved and much improved.
Grading: A+,A, A-, B+, . . .

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Interval Level
Differences are meaningful, but there is no natural zero starting point and
ratios are meaningless.
The selected zero point is not necessarily a true zero in that it does not
have to indicate a total absence of the quantity being measured.
Interval data are always numeric/quantitative.
Examples:
Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius)
The unit of measurement is the degree, and the point of comparison is the
arbitrarily chosen “zero degrees,” which does not indicate a lack of heat.
College admission SAT scores
Years
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Ratio Level
The highest level of measurement.
There is a natural zero starting point and ratios make sense.
Ratio data are always numeric/quantitative.
Zero value is included to indicate that nothing exists.
Examples: Age, distance, height, weight, . . .
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Categorical and Quantitative Data/Variables
Data can be further classified as being:
Categorical (or qualitative or attribute)
Consist of names or labels (not numbers that represent counts or

measurements).
Use either the nominal or ordinal scale of measurement.
A categorical variable is a variable with categorical data.
Quantitative (or numerical)
Consist of numbers representing counts or measurements.
Obtained using either the interval or ratio scale of measurement.
A quantitative variable is a variable with quantitative data.
Quantitative variables may be classified as either
discrete variables (e.g., the number of daily admissions to a general hospital)
continuous variables (e.g., height, weight, and skull circumference)
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Categorical and Quantitative Data/Variables
The statistical analysis that is appropriate depends on whether the data

for the variable are categorical or quantitative.
In general, there are more alternatives for statistical analysis when the
data are quantitative.
Figure: Data/variables types.
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Data Sources 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Data Sources 06 June 2022
Data Sources
Routinely Kept Records

Hospital medical records contain immense amounts of information on
patients.
Surveys or Observational Studies (Questionnaires)

If the data needed to answer a question are not available from routinely
kept records.
Administrator of a clinic wishes to obtain information regarding the mode of
transportation used by patients to visit the clinic.
Experiments.
Frequently the data needed to answer a question are available only as the
result of an experiment.
A pharmaceutical company would like to learn about how a new drug it has
developed affects blood pressure. Researchers selected a sample of
individuals. Different groups of individuals are given different dosage levels
of the new drug, and before and after data on blood pressure are collected
for each group. Statistical analysis of the data can help determine how the
new drug affects blood pressure.
External sources.
Published reports, research literature, etc.
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Population and Sample 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
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Population, Sample, and Census
A population is the complete collection of all measurements or data that

are being considered. Typically, the population is the complete collection
of data that we would like to make inferences about.
A sample is a subcollection of members selected from a population.
A census is the collection of data from every member of the population.
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Statistic and Parameter

A statistic is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a
sample.
A parameter is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of

a population.
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Collecting Sample Data 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
25 / 36
Collecting Sample Data
Collecting Sample Data:
Experiments: In an experiment, we apply some treatment and then proceed

to observe its effects on the individuals. (The individuals in experiments are
called experimental units, and they are often called subjects when they are
people.)
Observational Studies: In an observational study, we observe and measure

specific characteristics, but we don’t attempt to modify the individuals
being studied.
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Example1: The Salk Vaccine Experiment
In 1954, an experiment was designed to test the effectiveness of the Salk

vaccine in preventing polio, which had killed or paralyzed thousands of children.
By random selection, 401,974 children were randomly assigned to two groups:
1 200,745 children were given a treatment consisting of Salk vaccine

injections;
2 201,229 children were injected with a placebo that contained no drug.
Children were assigned to the treatment or placebo group through a process of

random selection, equivalent to flipping a coin. Among the children given the
Salk vaccine, 33 later developed paralytic polio, and among the children given a
placebo, 115 later developed paralytic polio.
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Example 2: Ice Cream and Drownings
Observational Study: Observe past data to conclude that ice cream

causes drownings (based on data showing that increases in ice cream sales
are associated with increases in drownings). The mistake is to miss the
lurking variable of temperature and the failure to see that as the
temperature increases, ice cream sales increase and drownings increase
because more people swim.
A lurking variable is one that affects the variables included in the study, but
it is not included in the study.
Experiment: Conduct an experiment with one group treated with ice

cream while another group gets no ice cream. We would see that the rate
of drowning victims is about the same in both groups, so ice cream
consumption has no effect on drownings.
Here, the experiment is clearly better than the observational study.
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Experiments Versus Observational Studies
Ethical, cost, time, and other considerations sometimes prohibit the use of
an experiment.
Example: We would never want to conduct a driving/texting experiment

in which we ask subjects to text while driving - some of them could die. It
would be far better to observe past crash results to understand the effects
of driving while texting.
Experiments are often better than observational studies (Example 2)

because well-planned experiments typically reduce the chance of having
the results affected by some variable that is not part of a study (lurking
variable).
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Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad Sampling Techniques 06 June 2022
Outline
2 Introduction
4 Data
5 Data Sources
30 / 36
Sampling Techniques
Two advantages of sampling:
the cost is lower, and
data collection is faster than measuring the entire population.
Because the sample will be used to draw conclusions about the entire
population, it should be a representative sample, that is, it should reflect
as closely as possible the relevant characteristics of the population under
consideration
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Representative Sample
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Sampling Techniques
Probabilistic Sampling Techniques:
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Non probabilistic Sampling Techniques:
Convenience Sampling
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Summary - Common Sampling Methods
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Difference between Cluster Sampling and Stratified Sampling
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The End
Exercises: 1 - 4 (page 22), 25 - 28 (page 23), 12 - 19 (page 32)
Hint: All data sets from Triola et. al. (2017) can be accessed at Triola et.
al. (2017)
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Drs.

Samuh & Abu Awwad 06 June 2022

Biostatistics for Medicine 19033

Instructors: Drs. Samuh & Abu Awwad

3 Statistics and Biostatistics

6 Population and Sample

7 Collecting Sample Data

3 Statistics and Biostatistics

6 Population and Sample

7 Collecting Sample Data

After studying this chapter, the student will:

Define statistics generally.

Distinguish between statistics and Biostatistics.

Differentiate between the two branches of statistics.

State the meaning of Biostatistics and its application to life sciences.

Differentiate between population and sample data.

Identify types of data and levels of measurement.

Differentiate between experiments and observational studies

Identify the four basic sampling techniques.

3 Statistics and Biostatistics

6 Population and Sample

7 Collecting Sample Data

Statistics do play an important role in many decision-making processes.

Before a new drug can be marketed, an experimental study involving human

Where should a government invest its resources if it wishes to reduce infant

Should a mastectomy always be recommended to a patient with breast

⇒ To answer these questions and others, we rely on the methods of

3 Statistics and Biostatistics

6 Population and Sample

7 Collecting Sample Data

Statistics is the science of planning studies and experiments; obtaining

Statistics has two aspects:

Theoretical/mathematical statistics: deals with the development,

Applied statistics: involves the applications of those theorems, formulas,

Descriptive statistics: consists of methods for organizing, displaying, and

3 Statistics and Biostatistics

6 Population and Sample

7 Collecting Sample Data

Data are collections of observations, such as measurements, or survey

Some Basic Terms:

Element/Member: A specific subject/object (for example, a person,

Variable: A characteristic of interest for the elements. It assumes different

Random Variable: When the values obtained arise as a result of chance

Observation/Measurement: The value of a variable for an element.

Data set: All the data collected in a particular study.

Data, Data Sets, Elements, Variables, and Observations

Example: Patient satisfaction. A hospital administrator wished to study the

The dimension of the data is 46 × 3.

The level determines the amount of information contained in the data. It

Levels of measurement include:

The lowest measurement scale.

Categories only. Data cannot be arranged in order.

A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.

Examples: Gender, smoking status, marital status, survey responses (yes,

A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.

Satisfaction: A nonnumeric label can be used such as strongly satisfied,

Convalescing patients: may be characterized as unimproved, improved, and

The degree of improvement between unimproved and improved is probably not

Grading: A+,A, A-, B+, . . .

Interval data are always numeric/quantitative.

Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius)

College admission SAT scores