HO TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, VOLTA REGION, GHANA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SHORT LECTURE NOTES FOR

CVE 116/BCVE 114: FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS I

Prepared by:
Ing. J. K. Tawiah

January, 2023
 RECOMMENDED READING LIST

Lecture Notes
The notes that you will take in class will cover the basic outline of the necessary ideas. It will be
essential to do some extra reading for this course.
Apparently only topics covered in the notes will be examined. But it often helps understanding to
hear/read different ways of explaining the same topic.

Books
R.K Bansal (2010). A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics of Machines (ninth edition).
R.K. Rajput (2011). A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics of Machines (sixth edition).
Brennen, C. E. (2011). Hydrodynamics of pumps. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press.
Janna, W. S. (2015). Introduction to fluid mechanics. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
Morrison, F. A. (2013). An introduction to fluid mechanics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge

The internet
There are many websites that can assist you with this course. In particular there are pictures and
videos that will aid your understanding of the physical processes behind the theories.

Course Objectives
The objectives are that students will:
1. Have fundamental knowledge of fluids, their properties, basic dimensions and units
2. Know the fundamental laws of fluid mechanics
3. Identify and explain the types of flows in open channel flows
4. Design simple hydraulic structures using fundamental principles
5. Be capable of applying the relevant theories to solve problems

Meetings
• There will be 2 hours of lectures per week.
• The lectures will be on Monday’s 10:00 am – 1:00 pm @ AR 22

Assessment
The marks awarded for this course are assigned as follows:
• 40% for end-of-semester examination
• 15% for mid-semester examination
• 30% for practical task
• 15% for quizzes/assignments/exercises/group work/presentation
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

RECOMMENDED READING LIST..................................................................................................1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................2
UNIT 3: PYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ................................................................................4
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................4

3.2 Density (Mass Density or Specific Mass) .............................................................................5

3.3 Specific Weight (Weight Density) ........................................................................................8

3.4 Specific Gravity (Relative Density) ......................................................................................9

3.4.1 Trial Questions on Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity ............................11

3.5 Viscosity..............................................................................................................................11

3.5.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity .........................................................................................14

3.5.1.1 Derivation of Newton’s law of viscosity .................................................................15

3.5.1.2 Trial Questions .........................................................................................................17

3.6 Surface Tension and Capillarity ..........................................................................................19

3.6.1 Surface tension.............................................................................................................19

3.6.1.1 Factors that influence the value surface tension ...................................................20

3.6.1.2 Pressure inside a Water Droplet, Soap Bubble and a Liquid Jet ..........................20

3.6.1.3 Trial Questions .....................................................................................................23

3.6.2 Capillarity ....................................................................................................................23

3.6.2.1 Expression for capillary rise .................................................................................25

3.6.2.2 Expression for capillary fall or depression ...........................................................26

3.6.2.3 Trial Questions .....................................................................................................28

3.7 Compressibility and Elasticity ............................................................................................29

3.7.1 Elasticity ......................................................................................................................29

3.7.2 Compressibility ............................................................................................................31

3.7.2.1 The Concept of Compressible and Incompressible fluids ....................................31

3.7.3 Determination of Compressibility or Bulk Modulus of Elasticity for Liquids ............33

3.7.3.1 Trial Questions .....................................................................................................34

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3.7.4 Compressibility or Bulk Modulus of Elasticity for Gases ...........................................35

3.7.4.1 Ideal Gas Law .......................................................................................................35

3.7.4.1.1 Ideal Gas Equation Derivation .............................................................................37

3.7.4.1.2 The Value of Universal Gas Constant (R)............................................................39

3.7.4.2 First Law of Thermodynamics .............................................................................40

3.7.4.2.1 Thermodynamic Properties ..................................................................................41

3.7.4.3 Trial Questions .....................................................................................................42

3.7.5 Determination of Compressibility or Bulk Modulus of Elasticity for Gases ..............43

3.7.5.1 Trial Questions .....................................................................................................45

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 UNIT 3: PYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

3.1 Introduction
Fluids have certain characteristics by which its physical condition may be described. Such
characteristics are called properties, which are observable qualities of the fluid. Therefore, we can
definition physical properties of fluids as the observable characteristics that describe the physical
condition of the fluids. Fluid properties are expressed in terms of secondary dimensions and
secondary units, both of which are derived from the primary dimensions and units by applying their
respective physical definitions.

In the development of the fundamental principles of Fluid Mechanics, some fluid properties play
principal roles and others play only minor roles, while some play no role.
For instance;
• In fluid statics, the specific weight is an important fluid property
• Bulk modulus becomes important when compressible fluids are involved
• Surface tension is important in droplets, bubbles, thin films, capillarity, or sheets of fluid
• Viscosity only becomes important when the fluid is no longer in static equilibrium, and
thus, there is a fluid flow.
• In fluid flow, density and viscosity are the predominant properties
We shall consider only the relevant properties of fluids in this unit. The six (6) most important
physical properties of fluid which will be discussed are:
1. Density (Mass Density or Specific Mass)
2. Specific Weight (Weight Density)
3. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
4. Viscosity
5. Surface Tension and Capillarity
6. Compressibility and Elasticity

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3.2 Density (Mass Density or Specific Mass)
Density of a fluid is the mass per unit volume of the fluid. It is a measure of the “heaviness” of a
fluid and is a predominant fluid property in fluid flow (kinematics/dynamics).

Mathematically;
Mass of fluid
Density =
Volume of fluid
m
𝜌=
V

S.I unit: kg/m3 , 𝑘𝑔m−3 or 𝑔/cm3 , 𝑔cm−3

Density is mass dependent, and therefore, it is considered to be an absolute fluid property. This is
so because mass is known to be constant everywhere i.e., it is independent of location (latitude and
elevation above mean sea level). Density can also be called mass density or specific mass.

Typical values of density of some common fluids are:

• Water: 1000 kg/m3

• Mercury: 13546 kg/m3
• Air: 1.23 kg/m3
• Paraffin: 800 kg/m3

Temperature and pressure affect density of fluids to an extent. Since a molecule of a substance has
a certain mass regardless of its state (solid, liquid or gas), it then follows that the density is
proportional to the number of molecules in a unit volume of the fluid. As the molecular activity and
spacing increase with temperature, fewer molecules exist in a given volume of fluid as
temperature rises. Therefore, the density of a fluid decreases with increasing temperature. Further
by application of pressure, a large number of molecules can be forced into a given volume, it is to
be expected that the density of a fluid will increase with increasing pressure.

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The value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for liquids, variations in
temperature and pressure usually have only a small effect on the density value. The density of
liquids may be considered as constant because the density of a liquid is more affected by the
temperature than by the pressure, hence for practical changes in pressure, the density of a liquid is
essentially constant and thus is accurately approximated as an incompressible fluid (i.e., change in
density due to a change in pressure is negligible).

The small change in the density of water with large variations in temperature is illustrated below.

It is important to note that, although liquids can be compressed (resulting in small changes in
density) at very high pressures, they are typically assumed to be incompressible for most practical
engineering applications.

Unlike liquids, the density of a gas is strongly influenced by both pressure and temperature, hence
it is a variable, and gas is classified as compressible fluid (thus, change in density due to a change
in pressure is a measure of the compressibility of the fluid).

The density for water and air at standard sea-level atmospheric pressure are presented as a function
of temperature in the Tables below.

6
Table 3.1: Physical Properties for water at standard sea-level atmospheric pressure as a
function of Temperature.

Table 3.2: Physical Properties for Air at Standard Sea-Level Atmospheric Pressure as a
function of Temperature

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3.3 Specific Weight (Weight Density)
Specific weight of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of the fluid to its volume. In other words,
Specific weight of a fluid is the weight it possesses per unit volume.
Specific weight of a fluid is also called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol 𝜸 (gamma).
As it represents the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid, it has units of force per unit
volume expressed in SI unit as Newton per cubic metre i.e., 𝑁/𝑚3.
Mathematically,

Weight of fluid
𝛾=
Volume of fluid

W
𝛾=
V

SI unit: 𝑁/𝑚3

Specific weight depends on gravitational acceleration and mass density. Since gravitational
acceleration varies from place to place, specific weight will also vary. Thus, unlike density, ρ,
specific weight, 𝛾 is not considered to be an absolute fluid property (rather it is a gravitational fluid
property) because it depends on weight, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔, which is dependent on location (latitude and
elevation above mean sea level), as the acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 varies with location.
Furthermore, the specific weight, is a measure of the “heaviness” of the fluid and is a predominant
fluid property in fluid statics.
Because the weight, W (gravitational force, 𝐹𝐺 ) is related to the mass, m by Newton’s second law of
motion, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔, the specific weight (which characterizes the weight of a fluid system of a unit
volume) is related to mass density by the equation below:
W
𝛾=
V
m×𝑔
𝛾=
V
m
Since 𝜌=
V
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔

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From the above equation, specific weight (weight density), 𝛾 can be defined as a function of the
mass density, ρ; and as stated earlier, mass density changes with temperature and pressure, hence
the specific weight will also vary with temperature and pressure. Specific weight of a gas is
strongly dependent on both temperature and pressure, and it is therefore said to be a variable, and
hence gas flow is modeled as compressible flow. However, the specific weight of a liquid is more
affected by the temperature than by the pressure, and for practical changes in pressure, the specific
weight of a liquid is essentially constant and thus is accurately approximated as an incompressible
flow.
In general, specific weight of a fluid decreases with an increase in temperature, and increases with
an increase in pressure.
The value of specific weight (𝛾) for water is 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟑 or 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑 .

Note:
Specific volume, 𝒗
Specific volume of a fluid is the volume of the fluid per unit weight. Thus, it is the reciprocal of
specific weight (𝛾). It is generally denoted by 𝒗.
V 1
𝑣= =
W 𝛾
SI unit: m3/N

For problems involving gas flow, specific volume is generally defined as the volume of the fluid
per unit mass, in which case it is reciprocal of mass density.
V 1
𝑣= =
m 𝜌
SI unit: m3/kg

Although the specific volume, 𝒗 is not typically applied in fluid mechanics, it is commonly applied
in the field of thermodynamics.

3.4 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

A dimensionless measure of the density of a substance with reference to the density of some
standard substance is what we call specific gravity or relative density. Hence, specific gravity is
defined as the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of a reference fluid at a specified
temperature and pressure. In other words, it is the ratio of the specific weight of a fluid to the
specific weight of a standard fluid. It is denoted by the symbol 𝑺 or 𝑺𝑮.

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Mathematically;

Weight density (density) of fluid 𝜌𝑓

𝑆. 𝐺𝑓 = =
Weight density (density) of a standard fluid 𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

SI unit: It has no unit (dimensionless quantity).

Weight density (density) of lquid γliquid 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆. 𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = = =
Weight density (density) of water γwater 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟@𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝

Weight density (density) of gas 𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑆. 𝐺𝑔𝑎𝑠 = = =
Weight density (density) of air 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

Thus, weight density of a liquid = S. G × Weight density of water

= S. G × 9810 N/m3
The density of a liquid = S. G × Density of water
= S. G × 1000 kg/m3
If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific
gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is
13.6, hence the density of mercury = 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m3.
It is clear that density, specific weight, and specific gravity are all interrelated, and from a
knowledge of any one of the three the others can be calculated.

For liquids, the standard fluid (or reference fluid) chosen for comparison is pure water at 4°C. For
gases, the standard fluid (or reference fluid) chosen is either hydrogen or air at some specified
temperature and pressure.
As specific weight and mass density of a fluid vary with temperature, temperatures must be quoted
when specific gravity is used in precise calculations of specific weight or mass density.
Being a ratio of two quantities with same units, specific gravity is a pure number independent of
the system of units used. The specific gravity of water at the standard temperature (i.e., 4°C), is
therefore, equal to 1.0.

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Note:
It is important to note that because the density, 𝜌 of a fluid varies with temperature and pressure, so
will the corresponding specific gravity, 𝑆. 𝐺. Furthermore, similar to the density, 𝜌, the specific
gravity, 𝑆. 𝐺 of a fluid is considered to be an absolute fluid property because it depends on mass, M,
which is independent of location (latitude and elevation above mean sea level). Furthermore, the
specific gravity, 𝑆. 𝐺 is a measure of the relative “heaviness” of the fluid with respect to water (or
hydrogen or air in the case of gasses). As such, the specific gravity, 𝑆. 𝐺 is primarily useful in
identifying a particular fluid and may also be used to relate the property of one fluid to another.

3.4.1 Trial Questions on Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

1. A 12 m3 volume of saltwater weighs about 768 N. Determine the;
(i) specific weight of the saltwater
(ii) density of the saltwater
(iii) specific gravity of the saltwater
2. The specific gravity of a liquid is 1.6.
a. Determine the density of the liquid
b. Determine the specific weight of the liquid.
3. Calculate the specific weight, density, specific gravity of 1 L of liquid which weighs 7 N.
4. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of 1 L of petrol of specific gravity 0.7.
5. 1 L of crude oil weighs 9.6 N, calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity.
6. If 5 m3 of certain oil weighs 40 kN. Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific
gravity of oil.
7. If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 kN, find its specific weight, density, and relative density.
8. Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and specific gravity of a
liquid having a volume of 6 m3 and weight of 44 kN.

3.5 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid determines the amount of resistance to shear force. Therefore, viscosity can
be defined as the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. In other
words, viscosity is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of
fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
Viscosity is actually a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow. For
fluids in motion, viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance (“fluidity” or “internal stickiness”)
to shear or angular deformation (caused by tangential or shearing forces) that is displayed by the
fluid as a layer of fluid is moved relative to another layer of fluid or a solid boundary.

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Viscosity can be measured with an instrument called viscometer.

There are two (2) factors that produce viscosity and they are:
• molecular cohesion
• rate of transfer of molecular momentum between fluid layers (interaction between
particles).
Although both temperature and pressure govern these two factors, temperature is the most
dominant and the effect of pressure is usually ignored. Furthermore, viscosity is very sensitive to
temperature; it is much more sensitive to temperature than the mass density, 𝝆 is.
The viscosity for a liquid decrease with an increase in temperature, while the viscosity for a gas
increase with an increase in temperature as illustrated in Figure 3.1 below. This is so because of
their fundamentally different intermolecular characteristics.

Figure 3.1: Variation of fluid viscosity (dynamic, μ and kinematic, υ) with temperature

In liquids the viscosity is governed by the cohesive forces between the molecules of the liquid,
whereas in gases the molecular activity plays a dominant role. Thus, for liquids, the cohesive
forces predominate over the inertial forces (caused by changes in momentum), due to the closely
packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decrease with the
result of decreasing viscosity. But with the gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular
momentum transfer predominates, so with the increase in temperature, molecular momentum
transfer increases and hence viscosity increases.

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When two layers of a fluid at a distance 𝒅𝒚 apart, move one over the other at different velocities,
say 𝒖 and 𝒖 + 𝒅𝒖 as shown in Figure 3.2, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a
shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent
lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is
proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to 𝑦. Shear stress is denoted by the
symbol 𝝉 (called Tau).

Figure 3.2: Velocity variation near a solid boundary

Mathematically,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 ∝
𝑑𝑦

𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚
The above equation is called Newton’s equation of viscosity, and in the transposed form it serves
to define the proportionality constant, 𝝁: 𝝉
𝝁 =
𝒅𝒖
(𝒅𝒚 )

Where;
𝝁 is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of viscosity or dynamic
viscosity (since it involves force) or absolute viscosity or simply viscosity of the fluid.
𝒅𝒖
represent the rate of shear strain or shear deformation or velocity gradient.
𝒅𝒚
From the relation above, dynamic viscosity can be defined as the shear stress needed to produce a
unit rate of shear strain. The dimensions and units for the absolute or dynamic viscosity, 𝝁 are
based on its physical definition, which is given by Newton’s law of viscosity, 𝜏 = 𝜇(𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦).
SI unit : Ns/m2 or kg/m. s or Pa. s
Other unit of viscosity is poise (after Jean Leonard Marie Poiseuille).
[1 Ns/m2 = 10 poise]
At 20oC water has a viscosity of 0.001 Ns/m2 or 0.01 poise or 1.0 centipoise.

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Note:
In many problems involving viscosity there frequently appears a term dynamic viscosity 𝝁 divided
by mass density 𝝆. The ratio of the dynamic viscosity 𝝁 and the mass density 𝝆 is known as
kinematic viscosity and is denoted by the symbol 𝝊 (Greek ‘nu’).
Mathematically,
Dynamic viscosity of fluid
𝝊=
Density of fluid

𝝁
𝝊=
𝝆
On analyzing the dimensions of the kinematic viscosity, it will be observed that it involves only the
magnitudes of length and time. The name kinematic viscosity has been given to the ratio (𝝁/𝝆)
because kinematics is defined as the study of motion without regard to the force causing the motion
and hence it is concerned with length and time only.

SI unit : m2 /s or cm2 /s. The unit cm2 /s is termed as ‘stoke’

Hence, other unit of kinematic viscosity is stokes (after Sir George Gabriel Stokes).
[1 𝑚2 /𝑠 = 104 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠 = 104 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠]
The kinematic viscosity of liquids and of gases at a given pressure, is essentially a function of
temperature as explained earlier.

3.5.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress (𝜏) on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of
viscosity.
Mathematically, Newton’s law of viscosity is expressed as:
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟏)
𝒅𝒚
Common fluids such as air, water, glycerin, kerosene etc., follow Newton’s law of viscosity. There
are certain fluids which, however, do not follow Newton’s law of viscosity. Based on this, fluids
may be classified as Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids.
In a Newtonian fluid there is a linear relation between the magnitude of shear stress and the
resulting rate of deformation i.e., the constant of proportionality µ in eqn (1) does not change with
rate of deformation. In a non-Newtonian fluid, there is a non-linear relation between the magnitude
of the applied shear stress and the rate of deformation.

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Figure 3.3: Relation between the magnitude of shear stress and the rate of deformation for
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

3.5.1.1 Derivation of Newton’s law of viscosity

The derivation of Newton’s law of viscosity for laminar flow may be illustrated by an experimental
procedure as seen in Figure 3.3, using what is known as Couette flow. Couette flow is a flow in
which one plate is moving with respect to the other plate and that relative motion drives the
shearing action in the fluid between the plates.

Figure 3.4 shows that the space between the two very long parallel plates separated by distance, 𝑫

is filled with a fluid of constant viscosity, μ. The lower plate is held stationary. However, a

continuous tangential (shear) force, 𝑭 is applied to the upper plate (with a cross-sectional area, 𝑨),

thus moving the plate with a constant velocity, 𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 and continuously deforming the fluid at a
rate of 𝒅𝒖/𝒅𝒚. The fluid layers continuously deform due to the effect of shear stress. The shear
stress of the fluid that is in contact with the moving plate is computed as follows:

𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚

𝐅
𝝉=
𝐀

Due to the “no-slip” condition, the fluid sticks to the solid boundaries, where the velocity of the
fluid at the stationary plate is zero, increasing linearly to a maximum velocity where the fluid is in

contact with the moving plate, and thus moves with the plate velocity, 𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 as illustrated in

Figure 3.4a.

15
 ⇒ 𝐷 → 𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑦 → 𝒖𝒚

Thus, the velocity profile is given as follows:

𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒖𝒚 = ×𝒚
𝑫
where the velocity gradient (which is the shear deformation or strain) is given as follows:
𝒅𝒖 𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
= 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟐)
𝒅𝒚 𝑫

Figure 3.4: Laminar Couette flow between two very long parallel plates. (a) linear velocity
distribution. (b) constant shear stress distribution.

If the tangential (shear) force, 𝑭 is increased, then the shear stress of the fluid that is in contact with
the moving plate, τ = (F/A) will also increase; thus, the constant velocity of the plate, 𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

will also increase. Thus,

𝑭 𝒅𝒖
𝝉= ∝
𝑨 𝒅𝒚
where the fluid is continuously deforming at a rate of 𝒅𝒖/𝒅𝒚, and the constant of proportionality is
defined as the absolute or dynamic viscosity, μ of the fluid; hence, Newton’s law of viscosity is
stated as follows:
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟑)
𝒅𝒚
Furthermore, substituting the velocity gradient given by eqn (2) into Newton’s law of viscosity,
eqn (3), yields the shear stress distribution or profile across the cross section as illustrated in
Figure 3.4b. Thus,
𝒅𝒖 𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝝉=𝝁 = 𝝉=𝝁 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝐞𝐪𝐧(𝟒)
𝒅𝒚 𝑫

16
3.5.1.2 Trial Questions
1. The space between two very long parallel plates separated by distance 0.35 m is filled with
glycerin at room temperature (20oC), as illustrated in the figure below. The lower plate is
held stationary, while a continuous tangential (shear) force, 𝐹𝑉 is applied to the upper plate,
thus moving the plate with a constant velocity of 0.25 m/s. The dimensions of the upper
plate are 2 m by 1 m.
(a) Determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent.
(b) Graphically illustrate the velocity profile at the cross section of flow.
(c) Graphically illustrate the shear stress at the cross section of flow.
(d) Determine the magnitude of the shear force required to keep the plate moving at
the given constant velocity.
(Take 𝜌 of glycerin = 1258 kg/m3, viscosity, 𝜇 =1494 × 10−3 Ns/m2 )

2
2. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by 𝑢 = 3 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 in which 𝑢 is the velocity
in metre per second at a distance 𝑦 metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at 𝑦 =
0 and 𝑦 = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity as 8.63 poises.

3. A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2 N
per unit area to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates.

4. A flat plate of area 1.5 × 106 mm2 is pulled with a speed of 0.4 m/s relative to another
plate located at a distance of 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required to
maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise.

5. Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity of 1 poise. The oil is used for
lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm and its journal bearing. The
clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotate at 150 rpm.
6. Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m3. The shear stress at a point
in oil is 0.2452 N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second.

7. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity
0.035 stokes.
8. Determine the viscosity of a fluid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity
1.9.

17
9. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square
plate of size 0.8 m × 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30o as shown
below. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with
uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm.

10. Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil
of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in the oil if the upper plate is moved with a
velocity of 2.5 m/s.

11. The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is
60 cm. The thickness of the oil is 12.5 mm. The upper plate which moves at 2.5 m/s
requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine:
i. the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise and
ii. the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95.

3
12. The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by 𝑢 = 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 in which 𝑢 is
4
the velocity in metre per second at a distance 𝑦 metre above the plate. Determine the shear
stress at 𝑦 = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity as 8.6 poise.

13. The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poises.
The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the
bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.

14. If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from the
plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/s. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a
distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise.

18
3.6 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Due to molecular attraction, liquids possess certain properties such as cohesion and adhesion.
Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. It enables a liquid
to resist small amount of tensile stress. Cohesion is a tendency of the liquid to remain as one
assemblage of particles. Surface tension is due to cohesion between particles at the free surface.

Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of a solid
boundary surface in contact with the liquid. This property enables a liquid to stick to another body.
Capillarity is due to both cohesion and adhesion.

3.6.1 Surface tension

Is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a fluid in contact with a gas or the tensile
force on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension. In other words, the property of the liquid surface film to exert a tension is
called the surface tension. It is denoted by 𝝈 (Greek ‘sigma’) and it is the force required to maintain
unit length of the film in equilibrium.

Mathematically, surface tension is expressed as:

𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝝈=
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡
SI unit: N/m
𝒆𝒒𝒏 (𝟑)
Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface.

A liquid molecule in the interior of the liquid body has other molecules on all sides of it, so that
the forces of attraction are in equilibrium and the molecule is equally attracted on all the sides, as
shown in the figure above. On the other hand, a liquid molecule at the surface of the liquid, (i.e., at
the interface between a liquid and a gas), does not have any liquid molecule above it, and
consequently there is a net downward force on the molecule due to the attraction of the molecules
below it.
19
This force on the molecules at the liquid surface, is normal to the liquid surface. Apparently owing
to the attraction of liquid molecules below the surface, a film or a special layer seems to form on
the liquid at the surface, which is in tension and small loads can be supported over it. For example,
a small needle placed gently upon the water surface will not sink but will be supported by the
tension at the water surface.

3.6.1.1 Factors that influence the value surface tension

As surface tension is directly dependent upon inter-molecular cohesive forces, its magnitude for all
liquids decreases as the temperature rises. It is also dependent on the fluid in contact with the liquid
surface; thus, surface tensions are usually quoted in contact with air. The surface tension of water in
contact with air varies from 0.0736 N/m at 19°C to 0.0589 N/m at 100°C. Mercury has a value of
about 0.4944 N/m at normal temperature being in contact with air.

In summary, the value of surface tension depends on:

(a) Nature of the liquid
(b) Nature of the surrounding matter (e.g., solid, liquid or gas), and
(c) Kinetic energy (and hence the temperature of the liquid molecules)
Some important examples of phenomenon of surface tension are as follows:
i. Rain drops (A falling rain drop becomes spherical due to cohesion and surface
tension)
ii. Collection of dust particles on water surface
iii. Rise of sap in a tree
iv. Bird can drink water from ponds
v. Capillary rise and capillary siphoning
3.6.1.2 Pressure inside a Water Droplet, Soap Bubble and a Liquid Jet
Case 1: Water droplet
Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid (e.g., water) as shown below. On the entire surface of
the droplet, the tensile force due surface tension will be acting.

20
Let, 𝐩 = pressure inside the droplet (is above outside pressure, i.e., ∆p = p – 0 = p above
atmospheric pressure)
𝒅 = diameter of the droplet and
𝝈 = surface tension of the liquid.
From the free body diagram, we have:

1. 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = pressure inside the droplet × area of the water droplet

𝜋𝑑2
Pressure force = p ×
4
2. 𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 acting on the surface or around the circumference

Surface tension force = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

Surface tension force = 𝜎 × πd

Under equilibrium conditions these two forces (pressure force and surface tension force) will be
equal and opposite, i.e.

𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = 𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞

πd2
p × = 𝜎 × πd
4
𝜎 × πd
p=
πd2
4

𝟒𝛔
𝐩=
𝐝
The equation above shows that with a decrease in size of the droplet (diameter), the pressure
𝒆𝒒𝒏 (𝟑)
intensity inside the droplet increases.
Case 2: Hollow bubble (Soap bubble)
A hollow bubble-like soap bubble in air has two (2) surfaces in contact with air: one inside and
other outside. Thus, surface tension 𝜎 acts on the two surfaces.

21
From the free body diagram, we have:

πd2
𝟏. 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = p ×
4
𝟐. 𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = 2 × 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
Under equilibrium conditions;

πd2
p × = 2 × (𝜎 × πd)
4
2 × 𝜎 × πd
p=
πd2
4

𝟖𝝈
𝐩=
𝐝

𝒆𝒒𝒏 (𝟑)
Case 3: A Liquid jet

Let us consider a cylindrical liquid jet of diameter 𝑑 and length 𝐿 as shown below.

𝟏. 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = p × 𝐿 × d

𝟐. 𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = 𝜎 × 2 L

Under equilibrium conditions;

p × L×d=σ × 2L
𝜎 × 2𝐿
p=
𝐿×d

𝟐𝛔
𝐩=
𝐝

𝒆𝒒𝒏 (𝟑)22
3.6.1.3 Trial Questions
1. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20oC is 0.0725 N/m. The pressure inside
a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the
diameter of the droplet of water. Ans: 1.45 mm
2. If the surface tension at air-water interface is 0.069 N/m, what is the pressure difference
between inside and outside of an air bubble of diameter 0.009 mm? Ans: 30.667 kPa
3. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm2 (atmospheric
pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m
of water. Ans: 11.045 N/cm2
4. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5
N/m2 above atmospheric pressure. Ans: 0.00125 N/m
5. If the surface tension at the soap-air interface is 0.09 N/m, calculate the internal pressure in
a soap bubble of 28 mm diameter. Ans: 25.71 N/m2
6. In order to form a stream of bubbles, air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of water
at 20°C. If the process requires 3.0 mm diameter bubbles to be formed, by how much of the
air pressure at the nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water? What would be the
absolute pressure inside the bubble if the surrounding water is at 100.3 kN/m2? Take surface
tension of water at 20°C = 0.0735 N/m.
Ans: p = 98 N/m2, pabs = 100.398 kN/m2
7. A soap bubble 62.5 mm diameter has an internal pressure in excess of the outside pressure
of 20 N/m2. What is tension in the soap film? Ans:
0.156 N/m
8. What do you mean by surface tension? If the pressure difference between the inside and
outside of the air bubble of diameter 0.01 mm is 29.2 kPa, what will be the surface tension
at air-water interface? Ans: 0.073 N/m

3.6.2 Capillarity
If molecules of certain liquid possess relatively greater affinity for solid molecules, or in other
words the liquid has greater adhesion than cohesion, then it will wet a solid surface with which it is
in contact and will tend to rise at the point of contact, with the result that the liquid surface is
concave upward and the angle of contact θ is less than 90° as shown in Figure 3.5a.

For example, if a glass tube of small diameter is partially immersed in water, the water will wet the
surface of the tube and it will rise in the tube to some height, above the normal water surface, with
the angle of contact θ, being zero.

23
The wetting of solid boundary by liquid results in creating decrease of pressure within the liquid,
and hence the rise in the liquid surface takes place, so that the pressure within the column at the
elevation of the surrounding liquid surface is the same as the pressure at this elevation outside the
column.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.5: Effect of capillarity
On the other hand, if for any liquid there is less attraction for solid molecule or in other words the
cohesion predominates, then the liquid will not wet the solid surface and the liquid surface will be
depressed at the point of contact, with the result that the liquid surface is concave downward and
the angle of contact θ is greater than 90° as shown in Figure 3.5b.

Capillarity is defined as a rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent
general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. OR Capillarity is a
phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific gravity) rises into a thin glass tube
above or below its general level. This phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and
adhesion of liquid particles. Rise of liquid surface is known as known as capillary rise, while the
fall of liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of
liquid.

The capillary rise or depression can be determined by considering the conditions of equilibrium in
a circular tube of small diameter inserted in a liquid. It is supposed that the level of liquid has risen
or fallen by 𝐡 above (or below) the general liquid surface when a tube of diameter 𝐝 is inserted in
the liquid, see Figure 3.5. For the equilibrium of vertical forces acting on the mass of liquid lying
above (or below) the general liquid level, the weight of liquid column 𝐡 (or the total internal
pressure in the case of capillary depression) must be balanced by the force at surface of the liquid,
due to surface tension 𝛔.
24
3.6.2.1 Expression for capillary rise
Consider a glass tube of diameter 𝒅 open at both ends and it is inserted in a liquid (e.g., water).

The liquid will rise in the tube above the general level as seen in the diagram above

Under a state of equilibrium, weight of the liquid of height 𝐡 is balanced by force at the surface of
liquid in tube.

Weight of liquid of height 𝐡 = Surface tension force around circumference of tube

𝛾 × volume = component of surface tensile force

𝜌𝑔 × (Area of tube × h) = (σ × circumference) × cosθ

πd2
𝜌𝑔 × × h = σ × πd cosθ
4
σ × πd cosθ
h=
πd2
𝜌𝑔 × 4

4σ cosθ
h=
𝜌𝑔d

The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
is equal to unity. Then the rise of water is given by:

θ = 00 (For water)

𝟒𝝈
𝐡=
𝝆𝒈𝒅

25
3.6.2.2 Expression for capillary fall or depression
If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the
general level of the outside liquid i.e., a capillary depression as shown below.

Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. They are;
1. Hydrostatic force acting upward
2. Surface tension force acting downward
Therefore,

Hydrostatic force = surface tension force

p × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜎 × πd cosθ

πd2
𝜌𝑔ℎ × = σ × πd cosθ
4
𝜎 × πd cosθ
h=
πd2
𝜌𝑔 × 4

𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h=
1 θ = angle of contact with mercury and glass tube (varies between
ρ𝑔𝑑
4 130o to 150o

𝟒 𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 (It may be noted that here cos θ = cos 130° = cos (180 – 50°) = –
𝐡= cos 50°, therefore, h is negative indicating capillary depression)
𝝆𝒈𝒅

26
Note
The above expressions for the capillary rise (or depression) are based on the following
assumptions:
• The meniscus or the curved liquid surface is a section of a sphere.
This is, however, true only in case of the tubes of small diameters (𝐫 < 𝟐. 𝟓 𝐦𝐦) and as
the size of the tube becomes larger, the meniscus becomes less spherical and also
gravitational forces become more appreciable. Hence such simplified solution for
computing the capillary rise (or depression) is possible only for the tubes of small
diameters. However, with increasing diameter of tube, the capillary rise (or depression)
becomes much less. It has been observed that for tubes of diameters 6 mm or more the
capillary rise (or depression) is negligible. Hence in order to avoid a correction for the
effects of capillarity in manometers, used for measuring pressures, a tube of diameter 6 mm
or more should be used.
• The liquids and tube surfaces are extremely clean.
In practice, however, such cleanliness is virtually never encountered and 𝐡 will be found to
be considerably smaller than that given by the equations. In respect of this, the equations
will provide a conservative estimate of capillary rise (or depression).

The following points are also very critical and are worth noting:
1. The smaller the diameter of the capillary tube, the greater the capillary rise or depression.
2. The measurement of liquid level in laboratory capillary (glass) tubes should not be smaller
than 8 mm.
3. Capillary effects are negligible for tubes longer than 12 mm.
4. For wetting liquid (water): θ < 90o. For water, θ = 0o when pure water is in contact with
clean glass. But θ becomes as high as 25° when water is slightly contaminated.
For non-wetting liquid (mercury): θ > 90o. (For mercury: θ varies between 130° to 150°)
5. The effects of surface tension are negligible in many flow problems except those involving.
• capillary rise
• formation of drops and bubbles
• the break-up of liquid jets, and
• hydraulic model studies where the model or flow depth is small

27
3.6.2.3 Trial Questions
1. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in
(a) water
(b) mercury
Take surface tensions 𝜎 = 0.0725 𝑁/𝑚 for water and 𝜎 = 0.52 𝑁/𝑚 for mercury in
contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact is
130o. Ans: 1.18 cm, -0.4 cm
2. Calculate the capillary effect in mm in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in
(i) water
(ii) mercury
The temperature of the liquids is 20oC and the values of the surface tension of water and
mercury at 20oC in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively.
The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130oC. Take specific weight of
water at 20°C as equal to 9790 N/m3. Ans: 7.51 mm, -2.46 mm
3. The capillary rise in a glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its minimum
size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air is 0.0725 N/m.
Ans: 14.8 cm
4. Determine the minimum size of glass tubing that can be used to measure water level, if the
capillary rise in the tube is not to exceed 0.3 mm. Take surface tension of water in contact
with air as 0.0735 N/m. Ans: 100 mm
5. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water level if the
capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in
contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. Ans: 1.5 cm
6. A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid with coefficient of surface tension
of 0.4 N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid with the glass can be assumed to be 135°. The
density of the liquid = 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of the liquid in the tube
relative to the free surface of the liquid inside the tube. Ans: -3.39 mm

7. Assuming that the interstices in a clay are of size equal to one tenth the mean diameter of
the grain, estimate the height to which water will rise in a clay soil of average grain
diameter of 0.048 mm. Assume surface tension at air-water interface as 0.074 N/m.
Ans: 6.286 m
8. A U-tube is made up of two capillaries of bores 1.2 m and 2.4 mm respectively. The tube is
held vertical and partially filled with liquid of surface tension 0.06 N/m and zero contact
angle. If the estimated difference in the level of two menisci is 15 mm, determine the mass
density of the liquid. Ans: 679.45 kg/m3

9. A single column U-tube manometer, made of glass tubing having a nominal inside diameter
of 2.4 mm, has been used to measure pressure in a pipe or vessel containing air. If the limb
opened to atmosphere is 10 percent oversize, find the error in mm of mercury in the
measurement of air pressure due to surface tension effects. It is stated that mercury is the
manometric fluid for which surface tension σ = 0.52 N/m and angle of contact α = 140°.
Ans: 0.45 mm

28
3.7 Compressibility and Elasticity
An important question to answer when considering the behaviour of a particular fluid is how easily
can the volume (and thus the density) of a given mass of the fluid be changed when there is a
change in pressure. That is, how compressible the fluid is. A property that is commonly used to
characterize compressibility is the bulk modulus (also referred to as the bulk modulus of
elasticity). The elastic force, 𝑭𝑬 plays an important role in both fluid statics and fluid dynamics
(flow) when compressible fluids are involved. When the fluid is either a gas or a liquid (static or
dynamic), a significant change in pressure introduces the fluid property, elasticity (bulk modulus
of elasticity) or compressibility.

For a given temperature, a change in density of a given fluid mass that is due to a change in
pressure is a measure of the compressibility of the fluid. Although all fluids have a certain degree
of compressibility, some fluids are assumed to be incompressible when the change in density due
to a change in pressure is negligible. So, for compressible fluids, the fluid density is assumed to
vary with pressure, while for incompressible fluids, the fluid density is assumed to be a constant
with respect to pressure.

All fluids may be compressed by the application of external force, and when the external force is
removed the compressed volumes of fluids expand to their original volumes. Thus, fluids also
possess elastic characteristics like elastic solids. When pressure is applied to a given fluid mass, it
will contract in volume (or increase in density), and when the pressure is released, it will expand in
volume (or decrease in density). Furthermore, the amount of volume (or density) change is different
for different fluids. Thus, the property that relates volume (or density) changes to the change in
pressure is the elasticity or the compressibility of the fluid, which is also called the bulk
modulus of elasticity, and is denoted by 𝐸𝑣 or 𝐾.

3.7.1 Elasticity
Elasticity of fluids is measured in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity which is defined as the ratio
of compressive stress to volumetric strain. In other words, it is defined as the ratio of the change
in unit pressure to the corresponding change per unit volume (or unit density) for a given
temperature.

Let consider a cylinder containing a fluid of volume 𝐕, which is being compressed by a piston.
Now if the piston is moved so that the volume 𝐕 decreases by a small amount 𝐝𝐕, then the pressure
will increase by amount 𝐝𝐩, the magnitude of which depends upon the bulk modulus of elasticity
𝑲 of the fluid, as expressed in the equations below.

29
When the pressure is increased to (𝐩 + 𝐝𝐩) , the volume of fluid decreases from 𝐕 to (𝐕 – 𝐝𝐕).
If 𝐝𝐩 is the differential change in pressure needed to create a differential change in volume, 𝐝𝐕
then the strain (volumetric strain) and bulk modulus of elasticity is calculated as:
Change in volume 𝐝𝐕
Strain (volumetric strain) = =−
Original volume 𝐕
(Negative sign indicates decrease in volume with increase of pressure).
Change in pressure
Bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝑲=
Volumetric strain

𝐝𝐩 𝐝𝐩 𝐝𝐩
𝑲= = − = − 𝐕 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟓𝐚)
𝐝𝐕 𝐝𝐕 𝐝𝐕
− 𝐕 (𝐕)

Because a decrease in volume of a given mass, 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 will result in an increase in density,

equation (5) can also be expressed as:

𝐝𝐩
𝑲= 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟓𝐛)
𝐝𝝆
( )
𝝆

SI unit : N/m2 𝑜𝑟 Pa

Where;
𝐕 = volume of fluid enclosed in the cylinder, and
𝐩 = pressure of fluid when volume is 𝐕
𝐝𝐩 = change (increase) in pressure
𝐝𝐕 = change (decrease) in volume
𝝆 = density of the fluid mass
𝐝𝝆 = the incremental change in density

Conclusively, bulk modulus of elasticity 𝑲 is a measure of the incremental change in pressure 𝐝𝐩

which takes place when a volume 𝐕 of the fluid is changed by an incremental amount 𝐝𝐕. Since a
rise in pressure always causes a decrease in volume, 𝐝𝐕 is always negative, and the minus sign is
included in equation (5a) to give a positive value of 𝑲.

30
3.7.2 Compressibility
The property by which fluids undergo a change in volume under the action of external pressure is
known as compressibility.

Mathematically;

Change in volume
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
Stress

𝐝𝐕
(− 𝐕 )
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐞𝐪𝐧(𝟔𝐚)
𝐝𝐩

From equation (5a) and equation (6a), it can be seen that compressibility is reciprocal of bulk
modulus of elasticity. Thus, compressibility of a fluid is quantitatively expressed as inverse of the
bulk modulus of elasticity 𝑲 of the fluid.

𝟏
Hence, 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐭𝐲 can be calculated as = 𝐞𝐪𝐧 (𝟔𝐛)
𝑲

Compressibility decreases with the increases in pressure of fluid as the volume (bulk) modulus
increases with the increase of pressure.

SI unit : m2 /N

3.7.2.1 The Concept of Compressible and Incompressible fluids

Steepening of the curve above with increasing pressure shows that, as fluids are compressed it
becomes increasingly difficult to compress them further (because the fluid molecules get close
together and offer resistance to further compression). In other words, the value of 𝑲 increases with
increase of pressure. Large values for the bulk modulus 𝑲 indicate that the fluid is relatively
incompressible – that is, it takes a large pressure change to create a small change in volume. Since
such large pressures are required to effect a change in volume, we conclude that liquids can be
considered as incompressible for most practical engineering applications.

31
For instance, the variation in volume of water, with variation of pressure, is so small that for all
practical purposes it is neglected. Thus, water is considered to be an incompressible liquid. But, in
the case of water flowing through pipes when sudden or large changes in pressure occur, the
compressibility cannot be neglected. A typical example of such phenomenon is water hammer.
Water hammer in a pipe flow provides evidence of the compressibility or the elasticity of liquids.

One may note that although the bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝑲 can be determined for both liquids
and gases, it is usually tabulated only for liquids (see Table 3.1). Determination of the bulk
modulus of elasticity, 𝑲 for gases involves the applications of the ideal gas law and the first law of
thermodynamics, which would be discussed in subsequent headings. The bulk modulus of elasticity
𝑲 for water at standard sea-level atmospheric pressure is presented as a function of temperature in
Table 3.1. Although the bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝑲 for some common liquids will vary with
temperature, for practical applications, their bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝐾 at standard sea-level
atmospheric pressure (and usually at room temperature, 20oC) are the one of interest in most
engineering applications. Furthermore, even though liquids are typically viewed as incompressible
for most practical engineering applications, they can be compressed at very high pressures; thus,
the values of 𝑲 for common liquids are large. Hence, a large value of 𝑲 for a liquid indicates that a
large change in pressure is needed to cause a small fractional change in volume. Thus, in
comparison to a compressible gas, a liquid with a large 𝐾 is essentially incompressible and acts
like an elastic solid with respect to pressure.

Summary

• At normal temperature and pressure (NTP), the bulk modulus of air is about 𝐊 𝐚𝐢𝐫 ≅
𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐏𝐚 (assuming isothermal conditions, 𝐾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = p, where p is the absolute pressure of
the gas), for water, 𝐊 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 ≅ 𝟐𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐏𝐚, for 𝐊 𝐦𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐲 ≅ 𝟐𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐏𝐚 and for steel
(elastic solid) 𝐊 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐥 ≅ 𝟐𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐏𝐚.
Thus, while water is about 100 times more compressible than steel, in comparison to air, it
behaves as an incompressible fluid (elastic solid), since air is about 20,000 times more
compressible than water. Furthermore, in comparison to mercury water is about 10 times more
compressible than mercury. If a fluid were truly incompressible, it would have a 𝑲 = ∞.

STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure

NTP = Normal Temperature and Pressure
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
At STP: Temperature = 0oC or 273 K or 32oF
1 atm = 76.0 cm
Pressure = 101.325 kPa or 1 atm or 14.504 psi
1 atm = 0.760 m
At NTP: Temperature = 20oC or 293 K or 68oF
Pressure = 101.325 kPa or 1 atm or 14.696 psi

32
• The bulk modulus of elasticity (𝑲) of a fluid is not constant, it is affected by pressure and
temperature. For both liquids and gases K increases with increase in pressure. This is so
because when a fluid mass is compressed its molecules become close together and its resistance
to further compression increases i.e., 𝑲 increases. (e.g., the value of 𝑲 of water roughly doubles
as the pressure is raised from 101.325 kPa to 354.6375 MPa).
• The bulk modulus of elasticity (𝑲) of a fluid is also affected by the temperature of the fluid. In
the case of liquids there is a decrease of 𝑲 with increase of temperature. However, for gases
since pressure and temperature are inter-related, so as temperature increases, pressure also
increases, and an increase in temperature results in an increase in the value of 𝑲.
• For liquids since the bulk modulus of elasticity is very high, the change of density with increase
of pressure is very small even with the largest pressure change encountered. Accordingly, in the
case of liquids the effects of compressibility can be neglected in most of the problems involving
the flow of liquids. However, in some special problems such as rapid closure of valve or water
hammer, where the changes of pressure are either very large or very sudden, it is necessary to
consider the effect of compressibility of liquids.
• On the other hand, gases are easily compressible and with the change in pressure the mass
density of gases changes considerably and hence the effects of compressibility cannot ordinarily
be neglected in the problems involving the flow of gases. However, in a few cases where there
is not much change in pressure and so gases undergo only very small changes of density, the
effects of compressibility may be disregarded e.g., the flow of air in a ventilating system is a
case where air may be treated as incompressible.

3.7.3 Determination of Compressibility or Bulk Modulus of Elasticity for Liquids

Compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity for liquids is determined using the equations
discussed earlier.
Thus;

𝐝𝐩 𝐝𝐩 𝐝𝐩
𝑲𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = = − = − 𝐕
𝐝𝐕 𝐝𝐕 𝐝𝐕
− 𝐕 (𝐕)

𝐝𝐩
𝑲𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 =
𝐝𝝆
( )
𝝆

The terms in the equations have their usual meaning.

33
3.7.3.1 Trial Questions
1. When the pressure of liquid is increased from 3.5 MN/m2 to 6.5 MN/m2 its volume is found
to decrease by 0.08 percent. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid?
Ans: K = 3.75 GN/m2
2. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased
from 70 N/cm2 to 130 N/cm2. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 %.
Ans: K = 4 × 104 N/cm2.
3. When a pressure of 20.7 MN/m2 is applied to 100 litres of a liquid its volume decreases by
1 litre. Find the bulk modulus of the liquid and identify this liquid.

Ans: K = 2.07 GN/m2; the liquid is water

4. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder from a
volume of 0.0125 m3 at 80 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m3 at 150 N/cm2
pressure? Ans: K = 8.75 × 103 N/cm2.
5. A container with 719.2 litres of water at 4oC and under an atmospheric pressure of
101.325 kPa is compressed until the pressure is 20,684 kPa.
(a) Determine the change in volume of the water.
(b) Determine the change in density of the water
(Take 𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2.027 × 109 𝑃𝑎).
6. At a depth of 2 kilometers in the ocean the pressure is 840 N/cm2. Assume the specific
weight at surface as 1025 N/m3 and that the average bulk modulus of elasticity is 24 × 103
N/cm2 for that pressure range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c) What will be the specific weight at that depth?

34
3.7.4 Compressibility or Bulk Modulus of Elasticity for Gases
The compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝑲 for gases involves application of the ideal gas
law and the first law of thermodynamics.
Application of the ideal gas law results in the introduction of two (2) gas properties, which are:
• gas constant, 𝐑 and
• molar mass (molecular weight), 𝐌
Furthermore, applications of the first law of thermodynamics introduce three (3) additional gas
properties, which include the:
• ideal specific heat at constant pressure, 𝐜𝐩
• ideal specific heat at constant volume, 𝐜𝐯 and
• specific heat ratio, 𝒌 = 𝐜𝐩 /𝐜𝐯 which are related to the gas constant, 𝐑

3.7.4.1 Ideal Gas Law

Gaseous phase is one of the three major phases matter can exist. It is the most compressible state
out of three states of matter. Gas molecules are capable of free motion throughout the space since
they are very light molecules. Forces between gas molecules are weak Van Der Waal attraction
forces. However, in order to explain the behavior of a gas, scientists have derived theories using a
hypothetical gas known as Ideal gas. They have also derived a law regarding this ideal gas, which
is known as the Ideal gas law.

What is an ideal gas?

An ideal gas is defined as a hypothetical perfect gas that obeys the ideal gas law. In other words, it
is a hypothetical gas which would show the following properties if it was a real gas. These are only
assumptions.
• An ideal gas is composed of a large number of small gas molecules.
• The volume of those gas molecules is negligible.
• There are no attractions between gas molecules.
• The motion of these gas molecules obeys the Newton’s law of motion.
• Collisions of molecules are completely elastic.
What is a real gas?
Real gas refers to a gas that does not behave like an ideal gas and therefore do not obey the ideal
gas law. The properties of real gases that are different from an ideal gas can be listed as below.
• Real gases are composed of distinguishable large molecules compared to ideal gases.
• These gas molecules bear a certain volume.
• There are weak Van Der Waal forces between gas molecules.
• Collisions are not completely elastic.
By looking at these properties, it is understandable that none of the real gases are ideal.

35
As indicated above, in comparison to liquids, gases are highly compressible, resulting in significant
changes in density, 𝝆 at very high pressures for a given temperature. Generally, the density, ρ of a
fluid decrease with an increase in temperature, while it increases with an increase in pressure.
Moreover, any equation that relates the pressure, 𝐩; temperature, 𝐓; and density, 𝝆 of a fluid mass
is defined as an “equation of state.” The simplest and most commonly applied equation of state for
fluids in the gas phase is the ideal gas equation.

A real gas at a low density closely approximates an ideal gas. Specifically, at low pressures and
high temperatures, the density of a real gas decreases and behaves like an ideal gas. Therefore,
although the ideal gas law is defined for hypothetical perfect or ideal gases, it closely approximates
the behavior of real gases when the conditions of the real gases are far removed from the liquid
phase (state of saturation), where the density is low. As such, it is typical to assume that most real
gases are perfect/ideal and are represented by the ideal gas law.

The ideal gas law states that the product of the pressure and the volume of one gram molecule of an
ideal gas is equal to the product of the absolute temperature of the gas and the universal gas constant.

The empirical form of ideal gas law is given by:

𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓

where;
p = pressure of the ideal gas
V = volume of the ideal gas
n = amount of substance (number of moles of the ideal gas)
R = universal gas constant (ideal gas constant)
T = temperature
The ideal gas law indicates the state of an ideal gas and is explained by the ideal gas equation.

36
3.7.4.1.1 Ideal Gas Equation Derivation
The ideal gas law is derived from the experimental work of Robert Boyle, Gay-Lussac (Jacques
Charles) and Amedeo Avogadro. Combining their equations into a single expression, we arrive at
the Ideal gas equation, which is also referred to as the general gas law.

According to Boyle’s Law:

1
V∝ (𝐓, 𝐧 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)
p

According to Charle’s Law:

V∝T (𝐩, 𝐧 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭) Ideal Gas Law

According to Avagadro’s Law:

V∝n (𝐩, 𝐓 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)

Combining these three equations, we get:

𝟏
𝐕 ∝ 𝐓𝐧
𝐩
The above equation shows that volume is proportional to the number of moles and the
temperature while inversely proportional to the pressure.

1
V=𝐑 Tn
p

This equation can be re-written as: 𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓

The above equation is known as the ideal gas law/general gas equation or combined gas equation.
Therefore, the ideal gas law is simply the combination of all simple gas laws (Boyle's Law, Charles'
Law, and Avogadro's Law), and so learning this means that you have learned them all.

37
Important concepts of ideal gas equation
From pV = nRT

pV 𝐑 = universal gas constant

= 𝐑 = constant
nT (This value remains the same for all gases)
We know about Boyle’s Law
1
V∝
p
pV = k = constant
So, we write;
p1 V1 = p2 V2
pV
Similarly, from = 𝐑, 𝐑 is constant, so we can also write;
nT

p1 V1 p2 V2
=
n1 T1 n2 T2
But we usually use 𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓

Remember that:
There are 4 variables: 1 constant
• pressure R (universal gas constant)
• volume
• number of moles
• temperature
Out of the 4 variables, the value of 3 variables will be given and
we have to find the value of 1 variable.

The simple gas laws can always be derived from the ideal gas equation. Thus;

We can derive Boyle’s Law We can derive Charle’s Law We can derive Avogadro’s Law
from the Ideal Gas Equation from the Ideal Gas Equation from the Ideal Gas Equation
p1 V1 p2 V2 p1 V1 p2 V2 p1 V1 p2 V2
= = =
n1 T1 n2 T2 n1 T1 n2 T2 n1 T1 n2 T2
(T, n=constant) (p, n=constant) (T, p=constant)
p1 V1 p2 V2 p1 V1 p2 V2 p1 V1 p2 V2
= = =
n1 T1 n2 T2 n1 T1 n2 T2 n1 T1 n2 T2

V1 V2 V1 V2
p1 V1 = p2 V2 = =
T1 T2 n1 n2

38
3.7.4.1.2 The Value of Universal Gas Constant (R)
From the ideal gas equation:
pV = n 𝐑 T
pV
𝐑=
nT

Let consider this ideal gas in a closed cylinder at STP.

At STP: 1 mole of gas will take up 22.4 L of the volume of the container.
T = 273 K P = 1 atm = 101325 Pa
V = 22.4 L = 0.0224 m3 n = 1 mol.
Using the SI units
101325 Pa × 0.0224 m3
𝐑=
1 mol × 273 K
𝐑 = 8.314 Pa. m3 /mol. K
𝐑 = 8.314 Nm/mol. K
𝐑 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝐉/𝐦𝐨𝐥. 𝐊

The value of R will change when dealing with different unit of pressure and volume (temperature
factor is overlooked because temperature will always be in Kelvin instead of Celsius when using
the Ideal Gas equation). Only appropriate value of R will give correct solution to a problem. It is
simply a constant, and the different values of R correlates accordingly with the units given. When
choosing a value of R, choose the one with the appropriate units of the given information
(sometimes given units must be converted accordingly).
Here are some commonly used values of R.
8314 Pa. L/mol. K
0.0821 atm. L/ mol. K
0.083 bar. L/mol. K
1.987 Cal/mol. K
62.364 Torr L/mol. K
39
The ideal gas law is formed to explain the behavior of an ideal gas and therefore cannot be applied
directly to a real gas. However, in using this equation on real gases, it must be modified by
applying characteristic gas constant other than universal gas constant. That is because none of the
real gases behave as an ideal gas. The main difference between universal gas constant and
characteristic gas constant is that universal gas constant is applicable only to ideal gases whereas
characteristic gas constant is applicable to real gases. The characteristic gas constant is also
referred to as specific gas constant because its value depends on a particular gas.

To apply the ideal gas equation to real gases a simple modification is done; the universal gas
constant is divided by the molar mass of the gas to obtain the specific (characteristics) gas
constant before applying it in the equation. Thus, If M is the molar mass of a particular gas, then;
𝐑 𝐑 = 𝐌 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜
𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 = or
𝐌

The ideal gas equation is modified as follows:

𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧 𝐑 𝐓

𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧 𝐌 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓

𝐩 = 𝐦 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓

𝐩 = 𝝆 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓

There, the equation 𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧 𝐌 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓 or 𝐩 = 𝐦 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓 or 𝐩 = 𝝆 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓 is

used for real gases. This can be used even for a mixture of gases.
3.7.4.2 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that “the energy of a system undergoing change can neither
be created nor destroyed, it can only change forms.” Application of the first law of thermodynamics
introduces enthalpy which is a composite energy property of a fluid and this present three (3)
additional gas properties which are:
• ideal specific heat at constant pressure, 𝐜𝐩
• ideal specific heat at constant volume, 𝐜𝐯 and
• specific heat ratio, 𝒌 = ( 𝐜𝐩 / 𝐜𝐯 )
The two specific heats are related to the gas constant, 𝐑, by the equation 𝐑 = 𝐜𝐩 − 𝐜𝐯

However, application of the first law of thermodynamics for incompressible fluids (liquids)
introduces the definition for the specific heat, 𝐜 of the liquid.

40
Values of 𝒌 for some common gases are given in the table below.

3.7.4.2.1 Thermodynamic Properties

Gases undergo marked variation in density with changes in pressure and/or temperature. The
relationship that exists between pressure, density and temperature of a gas is given by the equation
of state (𝐩 = 𝝆 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐓 or 𝐩𝐕 = 𝐧 𝐑 𝐓 ). The thermodynamic properties need to be
considered when a fluid (gas) is influenced by change of pressure or temperature. Thermodynamic
properties play a key role in fluids since it specifies or define the state of the fluid system.

• When the change in the state of the fluid system is affected at constant temperature the
process is known as isothermal process.
p p
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Boyle’s law) ; or pV = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 𝜌

• When the change in the state of the fluid system is affected at constant pressure the
process is known as isobaric or constant pressure process. Hence,
V V 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Charle’s law) ; or = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
T T 𝜌T

• When no heat is transferred to or from the fluid during the change in the state of fluid
system, the process is called adiabatic (isentropic) process.
p
pV k = = constant
𝜌𝑘

where 𝑘 is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure, cp to the specific heat at constant
volume, cv (i. e. , 𝑘 = cp / cv ). The value of 𝑘 depends upon the molecular structure of the
gas. For air 𝑘 = 1.4
41
3.7.4.3 Trial Questions
1. The pressure and temperature of carbon-dioxide in a vessel are 600 kN/m2 abs. and 30°C
respectively. Find its
a. mass density
b. specific weight and
c. specific volume.
(Ans.: ρ = 10.14 kg/m3; 𝜸 = 99.47 N/m3; 𝝊 = 0.0986 m3/kg)
2. A gas weighs 16 N/m3 at 25oC and at absolute pressure of 0.25 N/mm2. Determine
i. the gas constant
ii. density of the gas
(Ans.: 𝐑 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 = 532.55 Nm/kg K; ρ = 1.63 kg/m3)
3. Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10oC if the volume is
0.4 m3. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume ideal gas laws are applicable.
(Ans.: p = 1050283.7 N/m2 = 1.05 N/mm2)
4. A 69-m3 helium tank is compressed under a pressure of 800 kN/m2 abs and at a temperature of
10oC.
a. Determine the density of the helium in the tank.
b. Determine the weight of the helium in the tank.
(Ans.: ρ = 1.36 kg/m3; 𝐖 = 𝟗𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟒 𝐍)
5. A cylinder of 0.6 m3 in volume contains air at 50oC and 0.3 N/mm2 absolute pressure. The air is
compressed to 0.3 m3. Find:
i. Pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process
ii. Pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take 𝑘 = 1.4.
(Ans.: 𝐩𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐍/𝐦𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ; 𝐩𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐍/𝐦𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟏 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ; 𝐓𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐𝟔. 𝟐 𝐊 )

42
3.7.5 Determination of Compressibility or Bulk Modulus of Elasticity for Gases
Determination of the bulk modulus of elasticity 𝑲 for gases involves the use of ideal gas law and
first law of thermodynamics as presented above. Beginning with the definition of bulk modulus of
elasticity 𝑲 for a given temperature, it is summarized as follows:

dp dp
𝑲= =
dV d𝜌
− V
𝜌

where 𝑲 and 𝐩 are expressed as absolute pressure (sum of atmospheric and gauge pressure).

It is important to note that in accordance with the various laws of thermodynamics, when gases are
compressed or expanded, the relationship between the pressure, 𝐩 and the density, 𝝆 will depend
upon the nature of the compression or expansion process.

Specifically, there are two types of compression or expansion processes:

(1) isothermal (constant temperature), and

(2) isentropic/adiabatic (frictionless and no heat exchange with the surroundings).

Thus, the value of the bulk modulus of elasticity 𝑲 for an ideal gas will depend upon the type of
compression or expansion process involved (isothermal or isentropic).

If the compression or expansion of the gas takes place under isothermal conditions (constant
temperature), then in accordance to ideal gas law: 𝐩 = 𝝆𝐑𝐓

p
= constant
𝜌
p = constant × 𝜌
𝐩=𝐂𝝆

However, if the compression or expansion of the gas takes place under isentropic (adiabatic)
conditions (frictionless and no heat exchange with the surroundings), then:

p
= constant
𝜌k

p = constant × 𝜌k

𝐩 = 𝐂 𝝆𝒌

𝒌 is called an adiabatic exponent or the ideal specific heat ratio 𝑘 = cp / cv

43
 1. Under isothermal conditions
Assuming that the compression or expansion of the gas takes place under isothermal conditions
(constant temperature), then bulk modulus of elasticity 𝑲 for an ideal gas at a given temperature, 𝑻
can be determined by substituting the expression for the pressure, 𝐩 in the equation for 𝑲.
dp dp
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = =
dV d𝜌
− V
𝜌
dp
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝜌
d𝜌
d(C𝜌)
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝜌
d𝜌
d𝜌
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = C𝜌
d𝜌

𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = C𝜌

𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 =𝐩
Hence under isothermal conditions, 𝑲 for an ideal gas at a given temperature, 𝑻 is equal to the
absolute pressure, 𝐩, and 𝑲 for the gas varies directly with the absolute pressure, 𝐩.
It is clear that in dealing with gases greater attention will need to be given to the effect of
compressibility on fluid behavior.

2. Under isentropic (adiabatic) conditions

Assuming that the compression/expansion of the gas takes place under isentropic (adiabatic), the
bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝑲 for an ideal gas at a given temperature, 𝑻 is determined as follows.
dp dp
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = =
dV 𝑑𝜌
− V
𝜌
dp
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝜌
𝑑𝜌

𝑑(𝐶𝜌𝑘 )
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝜌
𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝜌
𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝜌𝑘𝐶𝜌𝑘−1
𝑑𝜌

𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝑘𝐶𝜌𝑘

𝑲𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝒌𝐩

Therefore, under isentropic (adiabatic) conditions, 𝑲 for an ideal gas at a given temperature, 𝑻 is
equal to the product of the absolute pressure p and the ideal specific heat ratio, 𝒌.

44
3.7.5.1 Trial Questions
1. A 300 m3 oxygen tank compressed under a pressure of 500 kPa and at a temperature of 4.4oC,
the density of the oxygen in the tank was determined to be 0.093 kg/m3, and the weight of the
oxygen in the tank was determined to be 897.4 N. The oxygen in the tank is further compressed
under isothermal conditions to a volume of 100 m3.
a. Determine the resulting density of the oxygen in the tank
b. Determine the resulting pressure of the oxygen in the tank
c. Determine the resulting bulk modulus of elasticity of the oxygen in the tank

2. A 69 m3 helium tank compressed under a pressure of 800 kN/m2 abs and at a temperature of
10oC, the density of the helium in the tank was determined to be 1.36 kg/m3, and the weight of
the helium in the tank was determined to be 920.804 N. The helium in the tank is further
compressed under isentropic to a volume of 35 m3.
i. Determine the resulting density of the helium in the tank
ii. Determine the resulting pressure of the helium in the tank
iii. Determine the resulting bulk modulus of elasticity of the helium in the tank
(Ans.: 𝝆 = 2.682 kg/m3; p = 2.47 × 106 N/m2; K = 4.1 × 106 N/m2)

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