References

Smith and McCabe, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th ed., 2004,
Coulson and Richardson, 2002 - Chemical Engineering Vol. 2.

filtration

1
 INTRODUCTION

Filtration is defined as the separation of solid from fluid by means of a porous medium that retains the solid but
allows the fluid to pass.

Clarification: when solid are present in very low concentration, i.e., not exceeding 1% w/v, the process of its
separation from liquid is called clarification

2
Terms used in filtration
• The suspension of solid and liquid to be filtered is known as the slurry.

• The porous medium used to retain the solids is described as the filter medium.

• The accumulation of solids on the filter is referred to as the filter cake.

• The clear liquid passing through the filter is the filtrate.

Type of Filtration systems

Batch Filtration
• Usually performed under constant pressure with a pump that moves the liquor through the filter.
• Filter cake will build-up as filtration proceeds and resistance to liquor flow will increase.
Continuous Filtration
• Continuous filtration gives higher throughput while operating at lower pressure differential.
• In large –scale operation, continuous operation is sometimes desirable and it may be necessary to filter slurries
containing a high proportion of solids. 3
 Types of filtration
1. Surface filters
Used for cake filtration in which the solids are deposited in the form of a cake on the up-stream side of a relatively
thin filter medium.

2. Depth filters

Used for deep bed filtration in which particle deposition takes place inside the medium and cake deposition on the
surface is undesirable.

4
Substituting for l in equation 4, we get

1 dV − ∆P
= 1 dV − ∆PA
A dt r μ υV A dt = r μ υV …………(7)
A

dV − ∆PA2
OR: dt = r μ υV …………(8)

There are two modes of operation:

1. Filtration at constant rate:

dV V
= = constant
dt t
V − ∆PA2
= …………(9)
t r μ υV

5
2. Filtration at constant pressure difference

This is the most common mode for filtration. In constant pressure filtration mode:
• Equation is useful because it covers a situation that is frequently found in a practical filtration plant.
• We could predict the performance of filtration plant on the basis of experimental results.
• If a test is carried out using constant pressure, collecting and measuring the filtrate at measured time intervals

Integration of equation 8 gives:

V2 − ∆PA2t
= r μ υ …………(10)
2

There is linear relation between V2 and t

t rμυ
OR: V 2A2 (−∆P) V
= …………(11)

6
If the integration of equation 8 is performed between t1 , t and V1, V we get:

1 (− ∆P)A2
(V 2 - V12) = (t −t1) …………(12)
2 rμυ

t −t1 rμυ r μ υV1

OR: = 2 (V − V1) + 2 …………(13)
V − V1 2A (−∆P) A (−∆P)

t −t1
Which is a linear relation between and (V − V1)
V − V1

Some filter cake resistances were measured experimentally by many researchers.

Flow of filtrate through the cloth and cake combined

To consider the filter cloth resistance, we assume that the filter cloth has equivalent cake thickness of L.

Using equation 4,

1 dV − ∆P 1 dV − ∆P
………..(14)
A dt = r μ l we get A dt
=
r μ (l +L)
7
 dV A(− ∆P) A2(−∆P)
= = ………..(15)
dt r μ (Vυ + L ) LA
r μυ (V+ υ )
A

For constant rate of filtration: Integration Eq.15, t = 0, V = 0 and t = t1, V = V1 gives

LA A2(−∆P )
V1 2+ V =
υ 1 r μυ
t1 ………..(16)

For constant pressure drop: Integration Eq.15, t = t1, V = V1 and t = t, V = V gives

1 LA A2(− ∆P )
(V 2− V12)+ (V − V1) = (t − t1)………..(17)
2 υ r μυ
t−t r μυ r μυ rμL
OR: V −V1 = 2 A2(− ∆P ) (V −V1) + A2(− ∆P ) V1+ A(− ∆P ) ………..(18)
1

t−t
Linear relation between V −V1 and V −V1 as shown in the figure below. The slope depends on the specific resistance.
1

8
 Optimum time cycle
To find the total cycle time of the filter press which is carried at constant pressure, a rearrangement equation 18
(where V1 = 0 at t1 = 0) gives

t r μυ rμL
= V + ………..(19)
V 2 A2(− ∆P ) A(− ∆P )

9
Example 1
A laboratory filter has an area of 0.1 m2 , operates at a constant pressure drop of 400 kPa and produces the following
results during a test on filtration of slurry:

Volume of filtrate collected (liter) 19 31 41 49 56 63

Time (sec) 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800

Calculate the time required to collect 1.5 m3 of filtrate during filtration of the same slurry at a constant pressure drop
of 300 kPa on a similar full-scale filter with and area of 2 m2 .

Solution:
For filtration at constant pressure drop we use Eq. 19, which indicates that if we plot t/V versus V a straight line will

r μυ rμL
have a gradient (slope) and an intercept on the t/V axis.
2 A2(− ∆P ) A(−∆P )

10
Using the data given

V (m3) 0.019 0.031 0.041 0.049 0.056 0.063

t /V (sec/m3) 15789 19355 21951 24490 26786 28571

11
 ∆(t/V)
Slope = = 2.904 x 105 s/m3
∆V

Intercept = 10300 s/m3 [at 0 volume)

r μυ rμL
Hence 2 A2(− ∆P ) = 2.904 x 105 And
A(−∆P )
= 10300

r μυ
2 (0.1) (400 x 103)
2 = 2.904 x 105 rμυ =2.323x 109 Pas/ m2

rμL
And
(0.1)(400 x 103)
= 10300 r μ L = 4.12 x 108

a. For A = 2 m2, ∆ P = 300 kPa

t r μυ rμL
= 2 A2(−∆P ) V + A(−∆P ) ………..(19)
V

t 2.323x 109 4.12 x108

= x1.5 +
1.5 2 (2)2(300 x 103) 2 (300 x103)

t = 3208 sec = 53.5 min 12

 Classification of filtration equipment
Based on application of external force Based on operation of filtration

Based on nature of filtration

13
Ex1. Constant pressure
Filtration area = 0.01 m2 A
Solution density = 1,062 kg/m2 
Solution viscosity = 1.610-3 Pa.s 
Filtration pressure = 200 kPa P
Solid concentration = 3 kg/m3 Cs
Determine specific filter cake resistance and filter medium
resistance
Time (sec) Volume (cm3)
0 0
14 400
32 800
55 1200
80 1600
107 2000
The solution

Y = aX + C
Y axis = tA/V
X axis = V/A
Slope = Cs/2P
Y intercept = Rm/P
Time (sec) Volume (cm3) Volume (m3) tA/V V/A
0 0 0 0 0
14 400 0.0004 350 0.04
32 800 0.0008 400 0.08
55 1200 0.0012 458.33 0.12
80 1600 0.0016 500 0.16
107 2000 0.0020 535 0.20

600

500

400
y = 1175x + 307.67
tA/V

300 R 2 = 0.9912
200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
V/A
 Cs
Slope = = 1175
2P
(1.6 10 −3 ) (3)
= 1175
2  (200 103 )
 = 9.792 1010 m / kg

Rm
y int ercept = = 307.67
P
(1.6 10 −3 ) Rm
= 307.67
200 10 3

Rm = 3.845 1010 1/ m
Filter Selection
The most common types of filters are:
1. Filter press
2. Leaf filters
3. Continuous rotary filters.
The most important factors in filter selection are the specific resistance of the filter cake, the quantity to be
filtered, and the solids concentration.
Filter Press
The filter press is one of two main types, the plate and frame press and the recessed plate or chamber press.
The Plate and Frame Filter Press
This filter consists of plates and frames arranged alternately and supported on a pair of rails. The frames are
usually square and may be 100 mm–2.5 m across and 10 mm–75 mm thick.
1. Used if the specific resistance is high (high positive pressure is required)
2. Preferred if the solid content is not high (less periodic dismantling)
18
This press is made up of two units, known respectively as plates and frames, with a filter medium, usually filter cloth,
between the two. The frame is open, with an inlet for the slurry, while the plate has grooved surface to support the filter
cloth, and with an outlet for the filtrate.
The operation
The slurry enters the frame from the feed channel, the filtrate passes through the filter medium on to the surface of the
plate while the solids form a filter cake in the frame. The filtrate then drained down the surface of the plate, between
the projections on the surface and escapes from the outlet. Filtration is continued until the frame is filled with filter
cake, when the process is stopped, the frame emptied, and the cycle re-started

19
Advantages of the filter press
(a) Because of its basic simplicity the filter press is versatile and may be used for a wide range of materials under
varying operating conditions of cake thickness and pressure.
(b) Maintenance cost is low.
(c) It provides a large filtering area on a small floor space and few additional associated units are needed.
(d) Most joints are external and leakage is easily detected.
(e) High pressure operation is usually possible.
(f) It is equally suitable whether the cake or the liquid is the main product.

Disadvantages of the filter press

(a) It is intermittent in operation and continual dismantling.
(b) Despite the improvements mentioned previously, it is fairly heavy on labor.

20
The recessed plate filter press
The recessed type of press is similar to the plate and frame type except that the use of frames is obviated by
recessing the ribbed surface of the plates so that the individual filter chambers are formed between successive
plates. In this type of press the thickness of the cake cannot be varied and it is equal to twice the depth of the
recess on individual plates.

Continuous Rotary Filter

1. Used for high capacity filtration
2. Does not require any significant manual attention
3. Preferred if the cake has to be washed
4. Not used when the specific resistance is high
5. Not used when efficient washing is required
6. Not used when only very small quantities of solids are present in the liquid

21
Bag filters
1. A number of long thin bags are attached to a horizontal feed tray and the liquid flows under the action of gravity
so that the rate of filtration per unit area is very low.
2. used for the removal of dust particles from gases

Bed filter
It is a deep bed filtration in which the slurry penetrates the filter and the particles are trapped on the surface of
the bed material. This filter is normally used in the water and waste water treatment when the solid
concentration is less than 10 g/m3 .

22
Example 2
A slurry is filtered in a plate and frame press containing 12 frames, each 0.3 m2 and 25 mm thick. During the first
180 s the pressure difference for filtration is slowly raised to the final value of 400 kN/m2 and, during this period, the
rate of filtration is maintained constant. After the initial period, filtration is carried out at constant pressure and the
cakes are completely formed in a further 900 s. The cakes are then washed with a pressure difference of 275 kN/m2
for 600 s using thorough washing. What is the volume of filtrate collected per cycle and how much wash water is
used? A sample of the slurry had previously been tested with a leaf filter of 0.05 m2 filtering surface using a vacuum
giving a pressure difference of 71.3 kN/m2 . The volume of filtrate collected in the first 300 s, was 250 cm3 and, after
a further 300 s, an additional 150 cm3 was collected. It may be assumed that the cake is incompressible and that the
cloth resistance is the same in the leaf as in the filter press.

23
 Solution: In the leaf filter, filtration is at constant pressure from the start.
AL A2(− ∆P )
(V 2− V12) +2 (V − V1) = 2 (t − t1)………..(17)
υ r μυ

Thus: AL A2(− ∆P )
V +2 2 V =2 t
υ r μυ
When t = 300 s, V = 250 cm3 = 2.5×10−4 m3
and when t = 600 s, V = 400 cm3 = 4×10−4 m3 ,
A = 0.05 m2 and -ΔP = 71.3 kN/m2 or 7.13×104 N/m2 .

→ at t = 300 s: (2.5×10−4 ) 2 + 2(0.05L/υ) 2.5 ×10−4 = 2(7.13×10 4 ×0.052 /rμυ) 300

→ 6.25×10 −8 + 2.5×10 −5 L/υ= 1.07×10 5 rμυ ……..(1)

And for t = 600 s : (4×10 −4 ) 2 + 2(0.05 L/υ) 4×10 −4 = 2(7.13×10 4 ×0.052 /rμυ) 600

→ 16×10 −8 + 4×10 −5 L/υ = 2.14×10 5 /rμυ ………..(2)

Hence: L/υ = 3.5×10 −3 and rμυ = 7.13 × 10 11

24
For the filter press A = (12×2×0.3 2 ) = 2.16 m 2 , -ΔP = 400 kN/m 2 = 4 × 10 5 N/m 2 , t = 180 s.

The volume of filtrate V1 collected during the constant rate period on the filter press is given by:

AL A2(− ∆P )
V12 +2 V= t1
υ 1 r μυ

→ V12 + (2.16 × 3.5 × 10 −3 V1) = [(4×10 5 ×2.16 2 )/(7.13 × 10 11)]180

V12 + (7.56 × 10 −3 V1) − (4.711 × 10 −4) = 0

−b ∓ √ b 2 − 4ac
Using the Eq. x = → V1 = 1.825×10 −2 m 3
2a

For the constant pressure period: (t − t1) = 900 s

The total volume of filtrate collected is therefore given by:

AL A2(− ∆P )
(V 2− V12) +2 (V − V1) = 2 (t − t1)………..(17)
υ r μυ
25
(V 2− 3.33 × 10 −4) + (1.512 × 10 −2) (V − 1.825× 10 −2) = 5.235× 10−6 × 900

→ V 2 + (1.512×10 −2 V) − (4.712 × 10 −3 ) = 0

→ V = 6.15×10 −2 m 3 or 0.062 m 3

The final rate of filtration is given by:

dV A2(−∆P)
= LA ………..(15)
dt r μυ V+ υ

dV −∆P A2 4 × 10 5 × 2.162
→ = = = 3.79 × 10−5 m 3/s
dt r μυ (V+ AυL ) ( 7.13 × 10 11 × 6.15×10 −2 + 2.16 × 3.5 × 10 −3

If the viscosity of the filtrate is the same as that of the wash-water, then:
Rate of washing at 400 kN/m 2 = 1/4× 3.79 × 10−5 = 9.5 × 10 −6 m 3 /s
Rate of washing at 275 kN/m 2 = 9.5 × 10 −6 × (275/400) = 6.5 × 10 −6 m 3 /s
Thus the amount of wash-water passing in 600 s = (600×6.5×10 −6 ) = 3.9×10−3 m 3 or 0.004 m 3
26