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Bone remodeling replaces old and damaged bone with new bone through a sequence of cellular events occurring on the same
surface without any change in bone shape. It was initially thought that the basic multicellular unit (BMU) responsible for bone
remodeling consists of osteoclasts and osteoblasts functioning through a hierarchical sequence of events organized into distinct
stages. However, recent discoveries have indicated that all bone cells participate in BMU formation by interacting both
simultaneously and at different differentiation stages with their progenitors, other cells, and bone matrix constituents. Therefore,
bone remodeling is currently considered a physiological outcome of continuous cellular operational processes optimized to
confer a survival advantage. Bone remodeling defines the primary activities that BMUs need to perform to renew successfully
bone structural units. Hence, this review summarizes the current understanding of bone remodeling and future research
directions with the aim of providing a clinically relevant biological background with which to identify targets for therapeutic
strategies in osteoporosis.
; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41413-022-00219-8
1
Osteoporosis and Bone and Mineral Metabolism Unit, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milano, Italy
Correspondence: Alessandro Rubinacci (rubinacci.alessandro@hsr.it)
Fig. 1 The cutting cone. The cutting cone originates in close proximity to neurovascular axial bundles and is generated by the propagation of
the basic multicellular unit (BMU). The cutting cone consists of a set of osteoclasts, followed by a set of osteoblasts, reversal cells and
secondary osteoclasts that cover the so-called reversal zone. At the end of the reversal zone, a set of osteocytes generate the closing zone. A
line of symmetry divides in half the representation of a complete BMU in the cortex moving toward the longitudinal axis of the long bone.
One-half of cortical BMU is similar to the BMU at the cancellous surface, although in cancellous bone, the BMU is separated from the marrow
by a specific cell structure called the canopy
profound implications for the understanding of all aspects of bone process couples the events necessary to remove and replace bone
pharmacology and physiopathology,8 particularly in the osteo- units under a hierarchy of time and space, independent of their
porotic context.9 A remarkable idea of the early sixties that is in focal balance; in fact, focal remodeling imbalance does not imply
line with the modern theory that quantum biological phenomena “uncoupling”. At each remodeling site, coupling indicates that the
can lead to evolutionary advantages.10 receptors on the osteoclast membrane as well as the regulatory
Frost recognized that the change in bone mass caused by the factors released by osteoclasts are coupled with the sequential
focal balance in each remodeling cycle of resorbed bone and recruitment and differentiation of osteoblast lineage cells toward
formed bone is not an outcome of isolated “working” cell packets the mature phenotype, laying down the bone matrix and inducing
but is derived from the interacting parts of the whole BMU, which mineralization. Coupling therefore implies that a commensurate
endures longer (9 months) than the lifespan of each single change in bone formation follows any pathology- or therapy-
component.4 This implies a continuous and ordered cell supply related modification of bone resorption.
that depends on the division frequency of each progenitor cell At each remodeling site, coupling is asynchronous: at any given
and the lifespan of each differentiated cell. A tightly maintained time, bone is being resorbed at some sites, while it is being formed
equilibrium between genesis and apoptosis is therefore critical for or is in the reversal phase from bone resorption to bone formation
a properly functioning BMU.11 Recent advances have added at other site. This implies that there is continuous focal transient
complexity to the original BMU description. The number of cells loss of bone that is fully reversed in balanced remodeling; as the
considered to constitute a BMU has expanded to include all bone number of activated remodeling sites increases, the transient loss
cells at all differentiation stages, interacting with their progenitors, of bone, which is defined as the “virtual space” of bone remodeling,
T cells and bone matrix components. The BMU includes, in increases. As coupling takes place in different locations at different
particular, a set of osteoclasts localized in the “cutting cone” times, it requires local regulatory factors to transfer information
followed by a set of cells, including reversal cells and osteoblasts, among cells and tissue locations according to bone remodeling
localized at the reversal zone; and a set of osteocytes localized in needs. Therefore, remodeling is defined as a dynamic physiological
the closing zone. These cell sets constitute a secondary osteon process executed through the coupled activity of osteoclasts and
around the neurovascular bundle wich is axially located with the osteoblasts belonging to a BMU. Conversely, bone turnover is the
connective matrix in the Haversian canal. A visualization of a outcome of bone remodeling that defines the amount of bone
complete BMU can be acquired only with a longitudinal section of removed and formed within a given volume in a given time and is
cortical bone, where Haversian canals run parallel to the sectional determined by the number of BMUs and by the focal balance
plane (Fig. 1). Notably, the 3D trabecular network prevents the within each BMU. As Parfitt said “Bone turnover refers to proportional
proper visualization of a complete BMU in cancellous bone.12 bone volume replacement per unit time, and is usually expressed as
In bone remodeling, osteoblast–osteoclast interactions are percent/year […]. If bone turnover is 10%/year, then the mean lifetime
necessary and must be coordinated in time and space to maintain of each moiety of bone is 10 years”.13
the focal bone remodeling balance; this balance refers to the net
amount of tissue resorbed and formed at each remodeling site
(i.e., focal point) to maintain the structural integrity of the tissue. OSTEOCYTES: TUNING, INITIATION AND TERMINATION OF
At maturity, the focal balance (neutral) in bone remodeling is BONE REMODELING
determined by equal bone aliquots, which are removed and Osteocytes are a relatively permanent phenotype of bone cells that
synthetized. In other periods in life or as a consequence of Frost estimated to have a lifespan of ~25 years1 and play a master
metabolic diseases, the focal balance can be negative (bone mass role in bone remodeling. Osteocytes represent more than 90% of
is lost) or positive (bone mass is gained). Focal coupling in bone bone cells in the adult skeleton14 with a average cell density highly
remodeling strictly refers to the transfer of the information within dependent on the specie, bone anatomical site, and subiect
the cell pool responsible for bone remodeling. This operational analyzed.15 Recent studies performed using new imaging
RANK RANK
Bcl-2
RANKL
P2Y2
RANKL
ATP ATP
P2Y2
ATP
P2X7
P2Y2
ATP
Apoptotic
P2Y2
P2X7 osteocyte
Extracellular Panx1
matrix
Fig. 2 The “find me” message from apoptotic osteocytes. Under fatigue failure, osteocytes undergo apoptosis, whereas the osteocytes
surrounding the apoptotic osteocytes, the “bystander osteocytes”, show upregulation of the antiapoptotic protein BcL-2, which protects them
from death. Apoptotic osteocytes activate the Panx1/P2XR pathway to induce the release of ATP into the extracellular compartment as a
specific “find me” signal. ATP binds P2Y2 receptors on bystander osteocytes, which in turn produce and release RANKL at the interface with
the bone marrow. RANKL promotes the recruitment of osteoclast progenitors and osteoclastogenesis
precursors supported osteoclastogenesis, but their conditioned soluble form is necessary to sustain bone remodeling under
media alone did not have a similar effect,55 suggesting that certain conditions.59 In support of this hypothesis, mice over-
cell–cell interactions between osteocytes and osteoclasts are expressing sRANKL only in the liver, and therefore also in blood
needed for osteoclastogenesis. In a different study, the condi- circulation, displayed a significant decrease in bone mass with an
tioned media of apoptotic MLO-Y4 cells increased osteoclast increase in the number of osteoclasts on cancellous bone surfaces
formation, osteoclast size and osteoclast precursor migration. during aging.60
Interestingly, in apoptotic MLO-Y4 cells, both RANKL mRNA and In vivo, osteocyte apoptosis is fundamental for initiating bone
protein expression were upregulated, suggesting that the condi- remodeling,61 independent of the stimulus causing osteocyte
tioned media of this cell culture might contain sRANKL.56 On the death such as estrogen loss,62 fatigue,63 or unloading.64 An in vivo
other hand, the conditioned media of a non apoptotic MLO-Y4 immunohistochemical analysis showed that the RANKL signal in
culture did not alter any of these aforementioned cell para- bone tissue was stronger in an area around 150–200 μm from the
meters.56 In another in vitro study, primary osteocytes were apopototc osteocytes.65 Interestingly, inhibiting apoptosis pre-
cocultured on a 3D collagen scaffold with osteoclast precursors vented the RANKL production by neighboring osteocytes,
separated by a porous membrane. Again, the osteocytes suggesting that “bone remodeling follows a common paradigm
supported osteoclast formation, but the efficiency of their effect for localized tissue repair”, with different response-induced factor
decreased with a decrease in the pore size of the membrane. released from apoptotic osteocytes near the damage site and
Confocal microscopy showed that large pore membranes allow “bystander” osteocytes.63 MLO-Y4 cell apoptosis generated ATP
osteocyte dendrites to touch osteoclast precursors through the release from cells via Pannexin 1 channels (PANX1) opening.66
pores, but this contact was not observed when small-pore The same phenotype was observed in mice treated with an
membranes were used.57 Therefore, the authors of this study inhibitor of the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R), which is a coactivator
hypothesized that under specific conditions, such as when of PANX1.67 In periodontal ligament cells, ATP induced the
osteocytes cannot physically touch OC precursors, osteocytes upregulation of RANKL expression via a P2Y1 receptor-
might support osteoclastogenesis by secreting EVs containing cyclooxygenase-dependent pathway.68 Since the release of ATP
RANKL.58 Distinguish the exact localization and form of RANKL from apoptotic cells functions as a specific “find me” message for
produced by osteocytes in vivo is particularly complicated, as the phagocytic cells,69 ATP release during osteocyte apoptosis might
antibodies used for immunohistochemical analyses do not be a specific “find me” signal directed to neighboring osteocytes.
distinguish between the soluble and membrane forms. Therefore, Indeed, ATP from apoptotic osteocytes might bind P2Y2 receptors
to evaluate the form of RANKL that induces osteoclastogenesis, a expressed on bystander osteocytes, which in turn might activate
mouse model was generated with a sheddase-resistant form of RANKL production and release67 (Fig. 2). Moreover, bystander
RANKL with no detectable sRANKL levels in the circulation. osteocytes (in 1–2-mm proximity to the focal damage site)
During growth, this lack of sRANKL did not cause bone mass expressed the antiapoptotic protein BcL-2. This defense mechan-
alteration, but in the adult model mice, the number of osteoclasts ism might be necessary to prevent osteoclastogenic signal
was reduced with an increase in cancellous bone mass.59 damaging viable osteocytes70 (Fig. 2).
However, mice lacking sRANKL expression and ovariectomized As osteocytes are deeply embedded in the bone matrix,
still displayed bone loss because of the lack of estrogen, indicating osteocyte apoptosis or autophagic death causes secondary
that, although mRANKL can support most RANKL functions, the necrosis due to inhibited phagocytosis by scavenger cells.
PTH Life-Span Sclerostin, DKK1, FGF23, DMP1, Phex, MEPE, • Bone Remodeling Balance
Estrogens Network formation Sema 3A RANKL, OPG SASPs, TGF-β1 OCN • Matrix Mineralization
1,25(OH)2D3 Secretome • Perilacunocanalicular Remodeling
Irisin Mechanotrasduction • Errors correction in Ca2+/P homeostasis
Calcitonin • Energy metabolism
Senescence • Myogenesis
TGF-β1 • Oxidative stress
Pi
pO2
Major systemic and local stimuli that influence osteocyte activity, the functions affected, the factors released upon exposure to the stimuli, and the impact on
the system
Necrotic osteocytes release damage-associated molecular pattern osteocytes accompanied by compensatory mineral deposition
(DAMP) proteins after the cell membrane is disrupted.61 DAMP has been observed.82 The same outcome was observed in cases
proteins flow through the canalicular network and reach the of excess PTH concentrations both in rats83 and humans84 and
bone/marrow interface, where they bind to pattern recognition under PTH modulation after exercise.85 This process is mediated
receptors (PRRs) on bone marrow cells.71 When activated by by osteocytes and is called perilacunar remodeling (i.e.,
DAMP–PRR binding, monocytes and macrophages produce “osteocytic osteolysis”); it was initially recognized during lacta-
proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNFα, IL-6, and IL-1.72 These tion. Perilacunar remodeling has been associated with the
cytokines in turn stimulate the expression of RANKL in osteo- activation of PTH-related peptide (PTHrP)–PTHR1 signaling, which
blasts,73 enhancing the osteoclastogenesis previously activated by induces matrix resorptive activity in osteocytes similar to that in
the release of ATP by apoptotic osteocytes.66 DAMPs can directly osteoclasts.86 Perilacunar remodeling integrated with bone
regulate osteoclast formation by activating the membrane-bound remodeling contributes to the maintenance of bone quality.
C-type lectin receptor Mincle. Mincle activation triggers calcium Perilacunar remodeling is an additional component of the long-
signaling and oxidative phosphorylation in osteoclasts, inducing term error correction mechanism to maintain plasma calcium
osteoclast differentiation.74 levels, in addition to the homeostatic regulatory mechanism in
Under physiological conditions, osteocytes exert an inhibitory osteoclasts (RANKL-mediated). The efficiency of this additional
effect on osteoclasts by contributing to the osteoblast production and independent component of bone remodeling in calcium
of OPG via Wnt signaling.75,38 OPG functions as a soluble decoy homeostasis under PTH regulation remains unclear because of
receptor that binds RANKL, preventing its interaction with RANK the lack of a relationship between serum PTH and osteocyte
expressed by osteoclast progenitors. The major cell source of OPG lacuna characteristics.87
is still debated, as it depends on the bone compartment and on Nevertheless, as has been recently discussed,88 osteocytes per
the age of the subject considered. In addition to osteocytes, other sé function independently of associated endocrine loops and
cells can be sources of OPG or RANKL; these cells are exhibit an evolutionary advantage in mineral homeostasis, which
osteoprogenitors, osteoblasts49 or cells of the immune system is particularly highlighted in the rapid minute-to-minute regula-
(B and T cells),76 which are all simultaneously present in a BMU. tion of the BEF-[Ca2+] in teleosts,89 as well as in mammals.26,90
Nevertheless, OPG released by mature osteoblasts and/or Osteocytes, through PTHR1 activation, might counteract age-
osteocytes may constitute the termination signal of the resorp- related bone mass loss. In fact, during aging, as well as under the
tion phase in the remodeling cycle.77 action of several stressors [see Farr et al.91 for a review], senescent
In addition to microcrack-induced signals to activate the healing osteocytes accumulate in the bone microenvironment and acquire
of microdamage foci through targeted remodeling, osteocytes a distinctive proinflammatory secretome, termed the senescence-
sense systemic and local stimuli that affect their functions and associated secretory phenotype (SASP),92 which leads to imbal-
survival. When exposed to a stimulus, osteocytes release several anced bone remodeling with increased resorption and decreased
factors affecting (1) bone remodeling at stochastic loci, (2) matrix formation. When PTHR1 was deleted in mouse osteocytes in vivo
mineralization, (3) lacunocanalicular remodeling, (4) mineral (Dmp1-PPRKO), the affected mice displayed age-dependent
homeostasis, and (5) fat metabolism and myogenesis (Table 1). osteopenia related to a decrease in osteoblast activity with a
parallel rise in osteoclast number and activity. The imbalanced
PTH/PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) bone remodeling in these animals was partially due to a
Under physiological conditions, osteocytes integrate the sclerostin-dependent decrease in osteoblast activity and the lack
responses of bone to mechanical loading and PTH, since the of osteocyte protection from oxidative stress.93
mechanotransduction process requires PTH receptor 1 (PTHR1)
activation to downregulate SOST expression. SOST expression Estrogen
downregulation positively fine-tunes the bone remodeling bal- Osteocytes respond to estrogen by producing the protein
ance by promoting osteoblast expansion.78 When PTHR1 on semaphorin 3A (Sema3A). Sema3A released into the bone
osteocytes is activated by chronically high PTH concentrations or microenvironment binds to its receptor on osteocytes and
when PTHR1 is constitutively active, osteocytes initiate bone promotes their survival. The autocrine loop initiated via Sema3A
remodeling by expanding the osteoclast pool through the release is mainly triggered in the mature cell stage, which is the dominant
of RANKL,79 particularly within the bone cortex.80 In contrast, characteristic of cells in the adult skeleton and is critical in bone
when PTHR1 is deleted, RANKL release and subsequent osteo- remodeling balance, counteracting age-related bone loss. Auto-
clastogenesis do not occur.81 crine loop impairment caused by estrogen deficiency induces an
Interestingly, in addition to BMU activation, three hours after osteoporosis phenotype.94 In addition to its effects on bone
PTH exposure, demineralization of the bone matrix surrounding remodeling, estrogen regulates mechanotransduction in osteocytes
Pericyte
Bone lining cells
Can
opy
Osteoblast
Monocyte / Macrophage precursor
Microcrack
Primary Remodeling
ts
Osteomorph
as
osteoclast compartment
bl
eo
st
O
Secondary
Re osteoclast
so
id
rb
eo
ed
st
EC
O
M
Reversal cells, RvCs
Pericyte Can
opy
Bone lining cells
1. Glucocorticoids
Monocyte/Macrophage 2. Myeloma
Microcrack 3. PostM osteoporosis
Primary 4. Alendronate
osteoclast Osteomorph 5. Aging
Secondary
osteoclast No transition to osteoblasts
Re
so
rb
ed
Reversal cells
M
Fig. 3 The bone remodeling compartment (BRC). a The BRC provides the correct microenvironment to link bone formation and resorption
through local signaling. The bone marrow envelope (BME) is a layer of cells of mesenchymal origin and a reservoir for osteoprogenitors that
covers the layer of bone lining cells (BLCs). Once remodeling is initiated, osteoclasts lift the BME from the BLC, inducing BME cells to form a
structure called the canopy. The canopy separates the remodeling site from the remainder of the bone marrow to allow osteoclast and
osteoblast precursors to enter the blood compartment. After resorption, osteoclasts either undergo apoptosis or dedifferentiate into
osteomorphs. The resorbed surface is then colonized by secondary osteoclasts and reversal cells. Reversal cells are osteoblast progenitors that
digest fibrillar collagen remnants, similar to BLCs. Secondary osteoclasts and reversal cells provide the basis for the recruitment and expansion
of osteoblastic pools (b) except under certain counteracting conditions, such as glucocorticoid or alendronate treatment, myeloma, or
postmenopausal osteoporosis
TGF-β1
IGF-1
MIGRATION
Wnt1
TGF-β1
Wnt1 DIFFERENTIATION BMP2, Wnt10b
RUNX2,
OPN, DMP1,
IGF-1 PHEX, SOST
TGF-β1 receptor
IGF-1 receptor
Osteoblasts
Osteoclast
Wnt receptor
Resorption lacuna
MINERALIZATION
ECM Wnt10b
Fig. 4 Released extracellular matrix (ECM) factors. Two major factors are released by the ECM upon bone resorption and cooperate to regulate
bone remodeling and BMU activity: TGF-β1 and IGF-1. After release from the matrix, active TGF-β1 acts both on osteoblasts and osteoclasts to
induce osteoblast precursor migration to the site of resorption and osteoclast production of Wnt1, which promotes osteoblast recruitment
and/or differentiation at sites of bone resorption, and Wint10b, which promotes matrix mineralization. IGF-1 supports the recruitment of
osteoblast progenitors and promotes osteoblast differentiation and matrix mineralization by inducing the transcription of osteogenesis‐
related genes such as DMP1, PHEX, SOST, BMP2, RUNX2, OPN, and OCN
WNT5a expression increases, leading to the subsequent enhance- also providers of multiple coupling signals196 for osteoblast
ment of osteoclast fusion and activity. In later stages, WNT5a formation.
production by mature osteoclasts fosters osteoblastogenesis
because WNT5a cooperates with canonical Wnt signaling. The Resorbing osteoclasts: the release of bone matrix factors
subsequent expansion of the osteoblast pool might therefore The bone ECM resorbed by osteoclasts contains inorganic and
fulfill the resorption cavity at the proper time and space, organic compounds. A growing body of evidence in ECM biology
suggesting that Wnt5a is a clastokine that maintains suggests that several organic proteins of the matrix regulate the
osteoclast–osteoblast coupling in physiological bone remodeling. quantum of BMU activity. While the only inorganic components
The cytoskeletal and membrane organization of osteoclasts of the ECM are apatite and trace elements, proteomic analysis
characterizes their differentiation state. Mature osteoclasts are have led to the identification of more than 100 organic ECM
polarized cells with an apical membrane facing bone and an proteins,197 with collagen type I (Coll-1) and noncollagenous
opposite basolateral membrane facing plasma. Both apical and proteins (NCPs) being the major constituents. NCPs can bind
basolateral membrane domains are essential structures for growth factors, membrane receptors, and adhesion molecules,
resorbing osteoclasts.185 Critical functional features of the apical forming an intrinsic biochemical signaling network within each
membrane domain are the sealing zone and the ruffled border. BMU. NCPs comprise several Gla proteins, including bone-Gla
The sealing zone establishes contact with the bone surface and protein (i.e., Osteocalcin, OCN), matrix-Gla protein (MGP),
delimits the resorption lacunae (i.e., Howship’s lacunae). The protein-S, Gla-rich protein (GRP), periostin, and periostin-like
ruffled border membrane allows large vesicle transport, the factor (PLF), as reviewed elsewhere.198 In addition to OCN, whose
delivery of hydrochloric acid (by vacuolar-type H + ATPase186) hormonal effects were previously established in animal mod-
and chloride ion channel-7 (CLC-7),187 and the release of several els,199 Gla proteins exhibit several functions supporting bone
lysosomal proteases, such as cathepsin K, TRAP, and MMPs.188 metabolism through γ-carboxylation-dependent and γ-carbox-
After endocytosis, the products derived from matrix degradation ylation-independent mechanisms, ranging from the regulation
are transported through the cell within vesicles for further of cell adhesion and activity to the modulation of calcium
intracellular degradation and exocytosed on the opposite site concentrations in the extracellular space. Gla proteins act in
through the secretory domain at the basolateral membrane.189 concert with glycoproteins such as osteonectin, thrombospon-
Thus, the osteoclasts never lose their tight attachment to the bone dins and R-spondins, sialoprotein and matrix extracellular
surface when resorption occurs. The interaction with the matrix is phosphoglycoprotein (MEPE) and DMP1 to control mineraliza-
mediated by the integrin complex α5β3, which recognizes RGD tion, synergistically with FGF23 and PHEX produced by
motifs in proteins such as fibronectin,190 osteopontin (OPN)191 and osteocytes (see Lin et al.200 for review).
bone sialoprotein.192 By binding to RGD motifs, the α5β3 complex Two major factors released by the ECM influence bone
is activated and clusters at the ruffled border,193 thus allowing the remodeling and BMU activity: transforming growth factor-β
activation of focal adhesion complexes and the formation of the (TGF-β) and insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1). Together, TGF-β and
sealing zone during resorption.194 It has been hypothesized that IGF-1 influence the recruitment and differentiation of osteoblast
integrin β3 contains two motifs with different affinities (high and lineage cells (Fig. 4), favor bone matrix mineralization, and
low) for Ca2+ concentrations. A normal Ca2+ concentration in BEF regulate osteoclast activity. For these reasons, they are acknowl-
maintains low-affinity domain activation, which does not maintain edged as “coupling factors”.
a strong attachment between β3 and RGD. When Ca2+
concentrations diminish, such as when osteocytes are injured, TGF-β. TGF-β1 is one of the most abundant cytokines in the
the high affinity site is the only one activated; this motif induces bone matrix.201 TGF-β1, which is a member of the TGF superfamily
αvβ3 clustering, which allows osteoclasts to strongly adhere to the that includes bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), binds to
matrix and initiate bone resorption.195 specific TGF receptors (TGFR1-2) in osteoblasts, where it activates
The overall fate of osteoclasts (i.e., recruitment, differentiation, the synthesis of collagen and the expression of RUNX2, a master
fusion and apoptosis, see below), is tightly controlled by the transcription factor regulating osteoblast proliferation and differ-
process coordinating bone remodeling, in which osteoclasts are entiation. TGF-β1 release and activation, resulting from the activity