J. Earth Syst. Sci.

(2022)131:209 Ó Indian Academy of Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-022-01945-7 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789(
).,-volV)

Mapping shoreline changes of the pocket beaches using

Remote Sensing and GIS – A study in the north Konkan
sector, west coast of India

PADMINI GUNASEKARAN, R S KANKARA* and S CHENTHAMIL SELVAN

National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India,
NIOT-Campus, Velachery, Chennai 600 100, India.
*Corresponding author. e-mail: rs.kankara@gov.in
MS received 20 October 2021; revised 9 April 2022; accepted 14 April 2022

Shoreline changes along the north of the Konkan coast (Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and Raigad) are studied
using integrated remote sensing and geographic information systems techniques. The shorelines from 1990
to 2018 (28 yrs) and statistical methods like weighted linear regression (WLR) and end point rate (EPR)
were used in estimating the shoreline changes. About 262 km of the study area is rocky with numerous
headlands, rocky terraces and cliAs. In the analysis, notable shoreline changes of more than ±0.5 my1 are
witnessed in the 34 headland-bound pocket beaches of the study area. From 1990 to 2018, the pocket
beaches of Sindhudurg district in the south exhibit an accretion trend while beaches of Ratnagiri and
Raigad district in the north show erosion trends. The erosion percentage along these beaches increased
from 5% in Sindhudurg district to 14% and 32% in Ratnagiri and Raigad districts.On some of the beaches
like Vengurla, Mirya, Harihareshwar and Srivardhan, erosion at the rate of 0.5 to 3 my1 is witnessed.
To understand the decadal and quaternary shoreline changes in the pocket beaches, a short term shoreline
change analysis was performed at different time frames like 1990–2000, 2000–2006, 2006–2012 and
2012–2018. From 1990 to 2000, accretion and stable conditions are seen dominant in the study area. But
from 2000 to 2006, erosion is seen to increase along the beaches. In the years 2006–2012 and 2012–2018,
alternating pockets of erosion, accretion and stable conditions are seen on the beaches. The erosion trend
has been dominant on the beaches of the Sindhudurg district from 2012 to 2018. Erosion trend is observed
continuously on a few pocket beaches like Vetye, Mirya, Anjarle, Srivardhan and Aravi. In this study, it is
understood that headlands largely control the shoreline changes along the study area and wave dynamics
prevalent in the stretch and recent developments along the coast like port, harbour, and groin cause
shoreline changes.
Keywords. Remote sensing; geographic information system; shoreline change; pocket beach and
headland.

1. Introduction Blter stabilising soil and carves a perfect niche

for marine organisms to thrive. The coastline
The shoreline is one of the 27 features recognised also supports several economically important
by the International Geographic Data Committee infrastructures such as oil and gas, power plants,
(IGDC) as the contact line between the land and a ports and harbours, aquaculture, agriculture,
body of water (Karsli et al. 2011). Shoreline act as a marine Bshing, tourism, mining and reclamation.
209 Page 2 of 21
The vivid importance of the coastal stretch is home
to billions of people worldwide. About 14.2%
(http://iomenvis.nic.in) of the Indian population
lives in the coastal districts. The coastal area
changes are cyclic or permanent, like the loss of
habitual land due to coastal erosion and random
processes like natural calamities. Recently a
national level shoreline changes assessment report
published by National Centre for Coastal Research
highlights the erosion and accretion trend along the
Indian mainland coast in the past 26 years since
1990. It is reported that about 34% of the Indian
coast is eroding with pockets of erosion along the
west coast (Kankara et al. 2018).
Generally, coastal morphological changes reCect
the transformation due to the pressure exerted by
the natural and anthropogenic intervention on the
coast. In some episodic events like storm surges and
tsunamis, the pressure exerted is multiple folds
higher than normal wave activity, catalysing rapid
shoreline changes. Additionally, the coastal process
prevalent along the coast plays a crucial part in the
cyclic changes of shoreline spatially and temporally.
Rising and falling tides, waves, associated tidal
currents, and littoral drift control the shoreline
conBguration (Albert and Jorge 1998; Morton et al.
2005). The book on coastal geomorphology by Bird
(2011) briefs the relation between shoreline, geol-
ogy and topography in coastal areas. Geomorphol-
ogy plays a pivotal role in the Konkan sector
(Maharashtra and Goa) of the Indian coast. The
pocket beaches found in the region are controlled by
headlands and promontories bounding them. There
are about 32 pocket beaches in coastal Maharashtra
(Gole 1997), with their presence highly conBned to
the south, where Sahyadri hill extends into the sea
as headlands and promontories. These beaches are
structurally controlled by headlands, having a
planform classiBed as either crenulated (logarith-
mic spiral) or spiral (parabolic) (Karlekar 2015).
Their orientation and shape are associated with the
refraction of approaching waves on the bounding
headlands (Short and Masselink 1999). For
instance, headland control leading to a crenulated
equilibrium beach planform is considered a natu-
rally functioning and preferable means of shore
protection (Silvester 1960). Though these beaches’
plan form mentioned above remains constant, they
tend to expand according to a time function (Wind
1994) and undergo morphological changes due to
coastal infrastructure developments.
The coastal population can also be interpreted as
a direct ‘erosion-inducing’ variable (McLaughlin
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
et al. 2002; Vittal Hegde and Radhakrishnan Reju
2007). Anthropogenic activities like sand mining,
construction of the barrage, port, harbour, groin
and breakwater significantly alter the sediment
Cow along the beach (Murthy et al. 2008; Rao et al.
2009; Pratap et al. 2015). Particularly in the case
of pocket beaches, the construction of artiBcial
structures changes the refraction angle made by
the approaching wave. With alteration in the
dominant wave crest, the planform of the beach
changes accordingly parallel to it (Karlekar 2015).
Migration in erosion hotspots can also be witnessed
after constructing coastal protection structures
(Selvan et al. 2016).
In the last decade, the Konkan region has
undergone drastic development due to tourism and
industrialisation. The coast is dotted with many
ports, pipelines and Bshing harbours to facilitate
import and export. The rapid urbanisation of the
narrow coastal stretch with well-established con-
nectivity by road and rail is seen. Alteration of hill
slopes for mining, hotels, motels, and resorts has
increased the sedimentation of creeks and estuar-
ies. These coastal ecosystems are now highly dis-
turbed and very much threatened to encounter the
problems of pollution, siltation, erosion, Cooding,
saltwater intrusion, storm surge and other activi-
ties due to ever-expanding human settlement.
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report (Change et al. 2014), a
global sea-level rise of 0.52–0.98 m is expected by
2100. This could further aAect the coastal areas
and result in submergence of the low-lying coast
indicated by the retreating shoreline.
Depending on regional and local factors, the
shoreline changes vary with time and scale from
place to place. Erosion can be natural, human-in-
duced or naturally slow aggravated by human
interference. This non-uniformity and dynamicity
of shoreline changes need to be studied in detail for
sustainable coastal development and management.
In general, many methods like surveying using
GPS, chain, aerial photos, remote sensing (RS) and
geographic information system (GIS) are adopted
by researchers to monitor shoreline changes.
However, methods oAered by GIS have served as
one of the best tools for shoreline studies, as
satellite images are cost-effective, having a wide
coverage with relatively good spatial and temporal
accuracy to capture shoreline changes. In addition,
shorelines from old map sheets, aerial photos,
satellite images and shorelines tracked using a
global positioning system (GPS) can be integrated
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
into the GIS platform, making it a highly interop-
erable platform. In a GIS environment, shoreline
change can be quantiBed either by geoprocessing
techniques or by statistical analysis. End point rate
(EPR), linear regression (LRR), weighted linear
regression (WLR), net shoreline movement (NSM),
and least mean square (LMS) are few of the statis-
tical methods (Dolan et al. 1991; Maiti and Bhat-
tacharya 2009; Kuleli et al. 2011; Natesan et al. 2013;
Kankara et al. 2014, 2015; Selvan et al. 2016). The
study’s main objective is to monitor the shoreline
changes in the past 28 years along the Maharashtra
coast from Sindhudurg to Raigad and the shoreline
condition of the pocket beaches in the region.
2. Study area
The study area constitutes the coastal length of the
Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and Raigad districts in
Maharashtra, which includes the north of the
Konkan sector on the western coast of India
(Bgure 1). The shoreline is oriented more or less
N–S, bound by the Arabian Sea in the west and the
Western Ghats in the east. The region has a trop-
ical climate with the maximum rainfall experienced
from the southwest monsoon from September to
June. The coastal track is relatively broader in the
north, but narrows down to 30–40 km as we move
to the south. Highly dissected coastal topography
forms the principal governing feature along the
area of study with numerous faults. Headland,
pocket beach, rocky coast, marine terrace, cuspate
bar, sea caves, submerged shoals and oAshore
islands are the coastal geomorphic features of the
region. Around 34 pocket beaches can be identiBed
along the study region, with their lengths varying
from a minimum of 0.4–6.7 km, having a standard
deviation of 1.57 km. Bhiv Bunder, found in the
Ratnagiri district, is the smallest pocket beach in
the region, having a length of 0.4 km. The length of
the pocket beach is proportional to the headlands
bounding the beach. The pocket beach of Guhagar
in Ratnagiri is the longest in the study region,
having a length of 6.7 km, bound by headlands that
are 8.7 km apart.
As the coastal tract falls in a transitional envi-
ronment, it is subjected to Cuvial and marine fac-
tors, producing both coastal and Coodplain
geomorphic features (Sukhtankar 1995). This
coastal track is of much interest to mineralogists
due to placer minerals like chromite and Ilmenites
(Gujar et al. 2010). Mineral exploration is reported
Page 3 of 21 209
in about 18 villages along the Sindhudurg district.
Rivers like Kundalika, Savithri, Shastri, Vashishti,
Terekhol, Amba, Karli and other small streams
originate in western Ghats Cow west to meet the
shoreline where they drain into the sea. Estuaries
Kundalika, Savitri, Shastri, and Karli are highly
productive and support rich biodiversity, including
ecologically and economically important man-
groves. Local communities depend on these
resources for their needs, like Bshing and medicine.
The tidal range of the region increases from 2 m in
Mormagao to 5 m in Mumbai along the coast
(Unnikrishnan 2010). Tide along the stretch plays
a crucial role in supporting biodiversity. Tidal
pools of the rocky shores in Ratnagiri harbour are a
rich diversity of life in high density. Corals are also
seen as patchy reefs along the shoreline in places
like Malvan during low tide. As many as 12 species
of corals and 15 species of mangrove and associates
are recorded so far.
Well-established road and rail connectivity has
increased tourism and port activities in recent
years, promoting rapid development. Minor ports
along some 10 locations with further proposed
ports, structures and pipelines facilitate trade and
economic prosperity. The impact of coastal struc-
tures on the shoreline trend of pocket beaches
needs to be assessed. Mapping and monitoring the
shoreline helps in better management of the pocket
beaches.
3. Methodology
3.1 Data used
The 28 yrs of shoreline details since 1990 were
obtained from satellite images of multiple sensors,
as mentioned in table 1. Satellite images of the
years 1990 and 2000 are of thematic mapper (TM),
and enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+)
sensors downloaded from the United States Geo-
logical Survey (USGS) web portal earth explorer –
https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. Images for 2006,
2008 and 2012–2018 were procured from the
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC). Data is
chosen such that it is cloud-free and preferably of
the same season in all years. NRSC provides level
1, i.e., both geometrically and radiometrically
corrected data. Though the data are geometrically
corrected once again, rectiBcation is performed
using ground control points (GCP) collected from
the Beld to overcome possible edge matching errors
209 Page 4 of 21
Figure 1. Study area map.
and shifts in images which highly aAect the accu-
racy of the shoreline change study.
3.2 Image rectiBcation
Permanent points (road intersection, bridge corner
and building corner) which were locatable both in
satellite image and Beld were taken as GCPs, and
their position (longitude and latitude) was col-
lected using a handheld Trimble geoexplorer global
positioning system (Projection type-WGS 1984,
geographic, accuracy \5 m). In this study, poly-
nomial functions of the 2nd order as shown in
equation (1) with six terms for correction to
translation in Cartesian axes, rotation, scaling,
torsion and convexity (Mohammed and Eisa 2013)
were used in rectiBcation. First, 2013 year images
were considered as base images and rectiBed by
second-order polynomial equations with at least
8–12 well-distributed GCP in Erdas imagine 2014
software. RectiBed images were quality checked
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
(QC) for edge matching, and root mean square
errors (RMSE), as shown in equation (2).
pðx; yÞ ¼ a 1 þ a2 x þ a3 y þ a4 x 2 þ a 5 xy þ a6 y2 ;
with six coefficients a k ; k ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; 6: ð1Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X 2
RMSE ¼ ½ðx s  x r Þ2 þ ðx s  x r Þ2  ;
r ¼ 1; 2; :::; n; ð2Þ
where as and ys are geospatial coordinates of the
GCPs collected using GPS, xr and yr are coor-
dinates of the same point on the rectiBed
satellite images. A minimum of six points was
used for each image for RMSE calculation. The
total error was maintained below 1 pixel, * 5 m
for LISS-IV and 25 m for Landsat and LISS-III
images. Upon passing QC, the base year images
were taken as a reference for rectifying the rest
of the images by image-to-image registration
technique.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209 Page 5 of 21 209

Table 1. Details of images used in the study.

No. of Resolution E (uncertainty)

Satellite data sensor Year image Date of acquisition (m) (m)
TM (Landsat-4,5) 1990 3 25/10/1989; 09/11/1992 30 23
ETM+ (Landsat-7) 2000 3 25/10/2001; 14/11/1999 30 23
Pan (Cartosat-1) 2006 13 01/07/2006 2.5 5.8
LISS III 2008 4 04/01/2008; 11/03/2008; 28/04/2008 23.5 20
(Resourcesat-1)
LISS IV 2012 7 12/02/2012; 07/03/2012; 26/03/2012; 31/03/2012 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2)
LISS IV 2013 7 25/02/2013; 26/03/2013; 14/04/2013; 19/04/2013; 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2) 13/05/2013
LISS IV 2014 7 01/02/2014; 04/03/2014; 16/03/2014; 14/04/2014 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2)
LISS IV 2015 7 22/01/2015; 20/02/2015; 16/03/2015; 04/04/2015; 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2) 09/04/2015
LISS IV 2016 7 15/02/2016; 05/03/2016; 10/03/2016 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2)
LISS IV 2017 7 24/03/2017; 05/03/2017; 09/02/2017 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2)
LISS IV 2018 7 06/01/2018; 11/01/2018; 04/02/2018 5.8 6.1
(Resourcesat-2)

3.3 Shoreline delineation along a homogenous with sandy coast by using

Coastal researchers across the countries have used
many techniques to extract the shoreline based on
the area of study and its applicability to the coast.
These techniques have thier strength and limita-
tions depending upon the geomorphology of the
region and required accuracy levels according to
the scope of the study. Hence, it depends on the
individual researcher to present suitable methods
for the corresponding study. Several coastal cliAs,
creek sand different geomorphic features dissect
the 530 km long study area, with sandy beaches
occurring as pockets randomly between the head-
lands. Band ratioing, normalised difference water
index (NDWI), principal component analysis
(PCA) and machine learning are a few of the
shoreline extraction methods followed by
researchers worldwide. Kuleli et al. (2011),
Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012) and Yasir et al. (2020)
applied object-oriented, edge detection and
thresholding techniques on NDWI for shoreline
extraction. Hossain et al. (2021) have used NDWI
in combination with edge detection Blters to
extract shorelines along the uniform sandy coast of
Bangladesh. Ciritci and T€ urk (2019) have used the
image rating method by thresholding band ratioed
images in shoreline identiBcation along the Goksu
delta of Turkey. These studies were carried out
uniform wet-dry line as a proxy. McAllister et al.
(2022) have highlighted the fact that there is no
single technique to monitor different shoreline
types and indicators globally, and they have also
opined that machine learning can reduce the
number of options for shoreline extraction for all
temporal and spatial scales. Abdelhady et al.
(2022) have developed a new algorithm (direct
difference water index – DDWI) for water and land
separation.
In the present study, the region of study has
a non-homogenous geomorphological setting like
sandy pocket beaches and rocky outcrops and man-
made structures along the coast. Therefore using a
single shoreline proxy is not appropriate for the
entire coast and no single extraction technique can
be applied uniformly to the coast. Selvan et al.
(2020) have studied the shoreline change of Kerala
coast using different shoreline proxies such as wet/
dry line, vegetative line, rocky coast edge, cliA
edge, etc. He has emphasised the importance of
different proxies for long coastal stretches with
different geomorphic settings. Kankara et al.
(2018) have studied the shoreline change for the
Indian coast using different shoreline proxies
according to the coastal geomorphic conditions
prevailing along the coast. To maintain the con-
sistency in shoreline proxy (wet line seen on the
209 Page 6 of 21
shore) along the 530-km long study area having
the different geomorphological settings, manual
extraction of shoreline was preferred over auto-
matic extraction.
The shoreline was delineated from false colour
composite (FCC) images with NIR, red and green
bands as combinations (Selvan et al. 2016). In
general, dune line, bluA-top/cliA top, vegetation
line, high water line, debris line and berm line are
the set of shoreline differentiators. Any one can
be followed uniformly throughout the study to
demarcate shoreline and shoreline change. Sus-
pended sediments inCuence the interpretation of
the shoreline; hence images were chosen in the fair
weather season having lower suspended sediment
concentration load (Sathish et al. 2021).
The stretching techniques like maximum–mini-
mum and standard deviation, etc., were found very
eAective in identifying shoreline proxy in the pan
band of Cartosat data and adopted to digitise the
high-water line visible in the satellite image. The
high water line is used as a shoreline proxy to
reduce errors associated with tidal range (Kankara
et al. 2014, 2015; Selvan et al. 2016). The shoreline
corresponding to 2014 (Resourcesat-2, LISS-IV)
was validated from Beld data collected using
handheld GPS of 5 m accuracy (Selvan et al. 2020).
The Beld visit is planned for the same day as the
satellite pass and time.
3.4 Approach to estimating shoreline changes
The shoreline change analysis was carried out using
a digital shoreline analysis system (DSAS) and
added to the ArcGIS environment (Thieler et al.
2009). A baseline (onshore) was created parallel to
the shoreline to generate transects intersecting the
shoreline at every 20-m interval using DSAS.
Shoreline change rate was estimated by statistical
methods, viz., EPR and WLR. A short-term
analysis that quantiBes decadal and quadrennial
changes was carried out using the end point rate
(EPR) method. EPR at most supports two shore-
lines, with the rate of shoreline change being esti-
mated in m/years by dividing shoreline movement
along a transect and the time duration, is taken for
the change (equation 3).
EPR ¼ Distance between sy and so =
ð3Þ
time duration between sy and so ;
where sy is the youngest shoreline, and so is the
oldest shoreline.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
Long-term shoreline change rates were calculated
using the WLR method. The WLR method is similar
to the linear regression (LR) method, which involves
Btting a least-squares regression line to all shoreline
points for a particular transect so that the sum of
residuals is minimised. The slope of such a regression
line is the required shoreline change rate. The main
difference between LR and WLR is the weightage
value assigned to overcome errors that could incur
due to the reliability of shoreline data. While assign-
ing weightage, higher resolution datasets are given
greater emphasis or weightage towards determining
the best-Bt line compared to unreliable datasets. The
weight is deBned as a function of the variance in the
uncertainty of the measurement (equation 4).
1
w¼ ; ð4Þ
e2
where w is the weightage and e is the shoreline
uncertainty value.
Uncertainty in shoreline position (e): Several
sources of errors aAect the accuracy of shoreline
positions. In the present study, two positional errors,
viz., season (Es) and tide (Etd), along with three
measurement errors, viz., digitisation (Ed), rectiBca-
tion (Er) and satellite resolution (Ep), are considered
while determining the uncertainty value. Uncer-
tainty value is the root mean square of shoreline
positional errors mentioned before (equation 5).
p 2 
e¼ E s þ E td 2 þ E d 2 þ E p 2 þ E r 2 : ð5Þ
Accordingly, along the study area, uncertainty
values for shoreline obtained from Landsat, Cartosat,
Resourcesat 1 and 2 are determined to be 23, 5.8, 20
and 6.1 m, respectively (table 1). Shoreline change
rates arrived in DSAS by WLR method for long-term
change analysis were classiBed into seven classes,
viz., high erosion (\5 my1), moderate erosion
(5 to 3 my1), low erosion (3 to 0.5 my1),
stable (0.5 to 0.5 my1), low accretion (0.5 to 3
my1), moderate accretion (3 to 5 my1) and high
accretion ([5 my1). In short-term analysis, EPR
values in the range of 0.5 to 0.5 my1 were
characterised as stable coast. The shoreline changes
[+0.5 my1 were considered accretion, while
changes\0.5 my1 were categorised as erosion.
4. Results
In the present study, quantiBcation of shoreline
change is attempted along the study area consti-
tuting the districts of Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
Raigad districts in Maharashtra. The study area’s
coastal length is estimated to be about 530.77 km.
It is observed that Ratnagiri district has the long-
est shoreline length (258.93 km) in comparison to
Sindhudurg and Raigad. Figure 2 elucidates the
district-wise presence of rocky coast along the
study area. It can be inferred that about 262.31 km
of the shoreline of the study areas is rocky with
headlands and promontories. Pocket beaches are a
remarkable feature of the rocky coast found in the
study area. In the Sindhudurg district, around 13
pocket beaches are noted. The beach at Devgad is
the smallest, measuring 0.5 km, while the maxi-
mum beach length is seen in Shiroda, measuring 5.7
km. Along Ratnagiri district, the pocket beach at
Guhagar is the longest, with 6.7 km Canked by
headlands at the end, which are 8.7 km apart. Of
the 14 pocket beaches in the district, Bhiv Bunder
is the smallest (0.4 km). In Raigad, the beach at
Adgaon (0.8 km) and Diveagar (4.1 km) are the
shortest and longest beaches in the district,
respectively. The average beach length of the nine
beaches of the Raigad district is 2.5 km, which is
relatively more than the other two districts (2 km).
The detailed results of the shoreline change anal-
ysis performed along the beaches are elaborated in
the further sections below.
4.1 Long-term shoreline change analysis
Shoreline change assessed for almost three decades
since 1990 along 530.77 km of the Konkan sector
Figure 2. District-wise shoreline length along the study area.
Page 7 of 21 209
highlighted the coast’s stable nature with pockets
of accretion and erosion. Long-term analysis
showed more than 50% coastal length of the
Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and Raigad districts to be
least altered in the 28 years (Bgures 3 and 4).
Further in the analysis, it can be inferred that
about 91.38 km of the study area’s coastal length is
eroding, while 72.28 km shows accretion. The
Ratnagiri district is relatively stable, with 203.39
km of its coast showing the least shoreline changes
in the range of 0.5 to +0.5 mty1, followed by
Sindhudurg (82.00 km). Shoreline changes are
prominently observed along sandy pocket beach
regions of the study area Canked by headlands and
promontories. The erosion and accretion trend of
these pocket beaches spatially vary from south to
north in these districts. The erosion trend in the
pocket beaches increases from 5% in the Sind-
hudurg district in the south to 32% in the Raigad
district in the north.
Accretion can be seen prevalent in the pocket
beaches of Sindhudurg district in the order of +0.5
to +3 my1 (table 2), with few exceptions like the
beach of Shiroda and Shriramadi, which are found
to be stable. From table 2, mean shoreline change
rates from +0.84 to 1.94 my1 can be observed
along the pocket beaches of Malvan, Munage,
Tambaldeg, Kunkehwar, Devgad, Padavane, Hur-
shi, Girye, Rameshvar and Vijaydurg. The Ven-
gurla pocketbeach in the south is 5 km long and
Canked by headlands 4.9 km apart. The beach’s
north and south end near the headlands is seen
209 Page 8 of 21
Figure 3. Long-term shoreline change map along the study area.
accreting at 0.91 my1, while the central portion
is eroding at 0.85 my1. Rubble mounds can be
seen for about 850 and 750 m in the south and
north of the beach, respectively.
From the long-term analysis, it can be noted
that in the Sindhudurg district, 34% (46.58 km) of
its shoreline is accreting. High ([+5 my1) to
moderate (+3 to +5 my1) accretion is noticed for
a km to the south of Karli River in the Sindhudurg
district. The southern end of the Karli–Devbag spit
showed considerable erosion with a mean rate of
1.5 my1. The width of the beach spit is not
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
uniform and narrows along its length. The central
portion of the 2.5 km spit is stable, while its
northern end connecting the mainland near Tar-
karli shows accretion at the rate of +1.3 my1.
Coastal protection measures like concrete sea walls
or Rubble mounds can be seen in the district’s
other pocket beaches like Shiroda, Shriramadi,
Malvan, Tambaldeg and the Karli–Devbag spit.
As per the statistics given by the Central Water
Commission (CWC), 33.51 km of the Sindhudurg
district’s coast is protected artiBcially (Directorate
et al. 2014).
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
Figure 4. Shoreline change along the districts of (a) Sindhudurg, (b) Ratnagiri, and (c) Raigad.
From the long-term shoreline change results in
the Ratnagiri district, it can be inferred that about
79% of the district’s coast is stable with 7% of
accretion and 14% of erosion. Shoreline changes are
least in the rocky segment of the coast, while con-
siderable changes are evident along the pocket
beaches and sandy regions. Beaches of Ganeshgle,
Undi, Bhatye and Velshwarand Bhivbunder are
stable with minimal changes in the range of 0.5 to
+0.5 my1. Low erosion of 0.5 to 3.0 my1 is
seen along the pocket beaches of Bhandarwada,
Muslondi, Palshet and Anjerle, as mentioned in
table 2. Beaches of Ratnagiri, Are, Ganapatipule
and Murud are also found to erode at a mean rate
of 0.3, 1.5, 0.7 and 1.6 my1, respectively. It
can be noted that both stable and erosion condi-
tions are dominant along the pocket beaches of
Ratnagiri, which is in deviation from the accretion
trend seen in the Sindhudurg district to the south.
The Mirya beach near Ratnagiri Bshing harbour
is eroding at the rate of 0.62 my1 with few
pockets of stable conditions, as shown in Bgure 5.
Further, it can be observed that the southern end of
the beach has a Bshing harbour bound by break-
waters. The breakwaters have been structurally
modiBed since 2017. In Bgure 6, between 2015 and
2016, only one breakwater can be seen from the
google earth satellite imagery, but after 2016
another breakwater construction was started and
completed by 2018. Accretion is noted along 100 m
immediately north of the breakwater, and a rubble
mound is seen on the beach for about 2.3 km.
A high erosion of 8.9 my1 is noticed at Dabhol
near the northern bank of the Vashishti river. The
cuspate bar in the bank significantly reduced in
length and width due to the interaction of river
and sea. Similarly, drastic shoreline changes are
observed on the banks of the Savitri river too. From
the analysis, the northern bank of the Savitri river
is seen eroding, while Velas beach at the southern
Page 9 of 21 209
bank is accreting at the rate of +4.7 my1.
According to CWC statistics, 45.35 km of Ratnagiri
district’s coast is protected by rubble mounds and
concrete walls (Directorate et al. 2014).
From the long-term analysis, it can be deci-
phered that in the Raigad district, 61% of the coast
is stable, with changes in the range of 0.5 to +0.5
my1 to be prevalent. Here the erosion trend is six-
fold more than that of the Sindhudurg district.
About 46.46 km (34%) of the coast is seen to erode.
Erosion is observed along the beaches of Arvai,
Diveagar and Kihim at the mean rate of 1.41,
1.86 and 1.0 my1, respectively. The pocket
beach at Srivardhan, which is 3.4 km long, is
eroding at a mean low erosion rate of 1.6 my1.
Beaches of Nagaon and Thal are also found to
erode at a mean erosion rate of 1.06 and 3.6
my1, respectively. Shoreline change rates of a few
other pocket beaches in the district are tabulated
in table 2. From CWC statistics, it can be noted
that around 50.93 km of the Raigad district’s coast
is artiBcially protected by coastal protection
structures.
However, accretion is observed in the Raigad
district at few places as one moves north to Reva-
danda, Akshi, Alibaug and Varsoli. In Revadanda,
accretion of about +4.7 my1 is observed on the
north bank of the Kundalika river. Rivers Cowing
act as the main source of sediment for accretion. In
the north of Revadanda at Akshi, considerable
accretion at mean rates of +6.2 my1 is observed for
about 2 km of the coast. Regions of Alibaug and
Varsoliare also accreting at a mean accretion rate of
+0.90 and +2.2 my1, respectively.
While comparing the long-term shoreline results
of the Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and Raigad districts,
it can be observed that the district’s shore is nat-
urally protected by rocky headlands and promon-
tories occurring in the region. Notable shoreline
changes occur in the small and narrow sandy
209 Page 10 of 21 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209

Table 2. Shoreline change rate along the pocket beaches in the study area.

WLR
Sl. Beach length Head land 1990–2018
no. District Pocket beach (km) distance (km) Shoreline status (my1)
1 Sindhudurg Shiroda 5.7 6.54 Stable +0.10
2 Vengurla 5 4.9 North and south end – low accretion +0.91
Central part – low erosion 0.85
3 Shriramadi 1.8 2 Stable 0.12
4 Malvan 1.5 0.99 Low accretion +0.84
5 Munage 2.9 3.12 Low accretion +1.41
6 Tambaldeg 2.9 3.12 Low accretion +1.64
7 Kunkehwar 1.8 2.31 Low accretion +1.94
8 Devgad 0.5 1.35 Low accretion +1.81
9 Padavane 1.2 1.31 Low accretion +1.53
10 Hurshi 0.9 1.2 Low accretion +1.34
11 Girye 2 1.92 Low accretion +1.45
12 Rameshvar 0.7 0.97 Low accretion +1.40
13 Vijaydurg 0.5 0.72 Low accretion +1.23

14 Ratnagiri Ambolgad 1.5 1.30 Low accretion +1.02

15 Vetye 5.2 5.5 Low erosion 1.13
16 Ganeshgle 1.6 1.44 Northern part – stable 0.20
Southern part – low erosion 0.75
17 Mirya 3 2.9 Low erosion 0.62
18 Bhandarwada 3.2 – Low erosion 1.48
19 Undi 1.3 1.76 North and central part – stable +0.17
Southern part – low accretion +0.61
20 Sandkhol 0.9 1.11 Stable +0.18
21 Muslondi 0.7 1.03 Low erosion 0.80
22 Velshwar 1.4 1.7 North and central part – stable 0.05
Southern end – low erosion 0.72
23 Palshet 0.9 1.32 Low erosion 0.76
24 Guhagar 6.7 8.7 North end – low erosion 1.19
Central part – stable 0.16
Southern end – low erosion 0.64

25 Bhiv Bunder 0.4 0.43 Stable 0.38

26 Kolthare 1.6 2.1 Low erosion 0.77
27 Anjarle 2.3 2.3 Low erosion 1.85
28 Raigad Harihareshwar 2.4 2.30 North end and central part – low 0.98
erosion
South end – stable 0.03
29 Srivardhan 3.4 3.26 Low erosion 1.43
30 Aravi 3.5 4.22 Low erosion 1.41
31 Diveagar 4.1 5.63 Low erosion 1.86
32 Adgaon 0.8 0.81 Low erosion 0.57
33 Murud 2.3 – North end and central part – 4.18
moderate erosion
South end – low erosion 1.57

34 Nandgaon 2.3 2.50 Low erosion 1.06

35 Sarve 0.9 1.00 North end – low erosion 0.68
South end – stable +0.09
36 Kashid 3.3 3.16 North end – stable +0.01
South end – low erosion 0.95
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209 Page 11 of 21 209

Figure 5. Long-term shoreline change along the pocket beach of Mirya.

Figure 6. Breakwater construction from 2015 to 2018 at Mirya beach.

209 Page 12 of 21
Figure 7. Shoreline status at different time frames in the Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and Raigad districts.
pocket beaches Canked by the headlands. Some of
the pocket beaches are observed to erode, while few
others are seen accreting in the long-term analysis
from 1990 to 2018. Further, to understand the
nature of the beaches short-term analysis was
performed, as detailed in the section below.
4.2 Short-term shoreline analysis
Short-term analysis was carried out at different
time scales like decadal and quaternary (1990–
2000, 2000–2006, 2006–2012 and 2012–2018) based
on the end point rate statistics method in DSAS. It
helped in a better understanding of the erosion and
accretion pattern along the study area, especially
on the pocket beaches. From Bgures 7 and 8, it can
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
be conBrmed that the study area’s coast, which is
rocky has exhibited stable conditions in all the time
frames. Significant shoreline changes were noted
along the sandy regions and pocket beaches.
Some of the pocket beaches are observed to
exhibit erosion trends continuously, as shown in
table 3. The Malvan beach in Sindhudurg district
has been eroding since 2006, with an increase in
mean erosion rate to 1.89 my1 from 2012 to
2018. But, the beach was found accreting from
1990 to 2000 and 2000–2006 at a mean rate of
+2.20 and +3.74 my1, respectively, and in long-
term analysis from 1990 to 2018. The low erosion is
observed to be prevalent in recent years only, this
was not reCected in the long-term shoreline anal-
ysis as it considered 28 years. In that long period,
 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209

Figure 8. Short-term shoreline changes of different time frames along the study area.
Page 13 of 21 209
Table 3. Beaches erode continuously in the short-term analysis.
209

Shoreline change rate (m/yr)

Sl.
no. District Pocket beach 1990–2000 2000–2006 2006–2012 2012–2018
1 Sindhudurg Malvan Accretion of +2.20 Accretion of +3.74 Erosion of 1.88 in the south Erosion of 1.89
and central regions. Accretion
of +0.72 in the north
2 Ratnagiri Ambolgad Accretion of +4.45 Erosion of 2.17 Accretion of +4.64 in the south. Erosion of 3.16
Page 14 of 21

Erosion of 1.13 in the north

3 Vetye Accretion of +1.35
4 Ganeshgle Erosion of 1.82 is observed in
north and accretion of +1.85
in the south
5 Mirya Accretion of +0.57 with few
pockets of erosion
6 Bhandarwada Accretion of +2.11
7 Velshwar Alternating pockets of accretion
and erosion
8 Palshet Alternating pockets of accretion,
erosion and stable condition
9 Guhagar Accretion of +1.36 is observed
with few pockets of erosion
10 Anjarle Alternating pockets of erosion
and accretion
11 Raigad Harihareshwar Accretion of +8.07
12 Srivardhan Accretion at a mean rate of
+5.55. Erosion in the south
near the creek mouth at 7.17
13 Aravi Accretion of +3.96
Erosion of 2.38 Erosion of 3.52 Erosion of 4.01
Erosion of 1.19 is Erosion of 1.71 Erosion of 1.51
predominant with pockets
of accretion
Erosion of 1.04 is Erosion of 2.64 Erosion of 1.58 is predominant
predominant with few
pockets of accretion
Erosion of 6.04 Accretion of +2.08 Erosion of 5.19
Erosion of 1.34 is Erosion of 1.78 in the south Erosion of 1.31 is dominant
dominant with the and accretion of +2.35 in the
accretion of +1.13 in the north
centre
In the north, erosion of Erosion of 3.45 Erosion of 1.49 is dominant
1.95 and south accretion
of +1.96 is seen
Erosion of 2.08 is seen Mean erosion of 2.12 with few Erosion of 5.26
with few pockets of pockets of accretion
accretion
Erosion at 3.01 is Erosion of 1.41 Erosion of 4.57
prominent
Erosion of 13.27 Alternating pockets of accretion, Erosion of 4.46
erosion and stable conditions
Erosion of 10.55 Erosion of 3.47 is dominant Erosion of 4.20 is dominant
Erosion of 10.38 Erosion of 2.54 with few Erosion of 3.00
pockets of accretion
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209

14 Diveagar Accretion at +5.41 Erosion of 11.96 Erosion of 3.29 is predominant Alternating pockets of accretion
and erosion at +0.98 and
4.70, respectively
15 Murud Accretion of +6.47 Erosion of 18.93 Erosion of 4.65 Erosion of 6.64
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
the Malvan beach has accreted at a relatively high
accretion rate of more than +2.00 my1 for 16
years from 1990 to 2006. After 2006, low erosion at
mean rates of less than 2.00 my1 is noted for 12
years up to 2018. Thus, in Malvan, despite the
increasing erosion trend in recent years, the long-
term shoreline change showed a low accretion trend
of +0.84 my1 because of the high accretion rates
from 1990 to 2006.
Similarly, an increased mean erosion rate of
more than 3.00 my1 has been noted along the
beaches of Ambolgad, Vetye, Bhandarwada,
Guhagar and Anjarle of Ratnagiri district in recent
years from 2012 to 2018. On the beaches of Vetye,
Ganeshgle, Mirya, Velshwar, Guhagar and Anjarle
erosion trend is observed since 2000 in all three-
time frames, viz., 2000–2006, 2006–2012 and 2012–
2018. These beaches are continuously eroding at
mean erosion rates, as shown in table 4. In Raigad
district, the pocket beaches of Harihareshwar,
Srivardhan, Aravi, Divegar and the sandy beach at
Murud are seen to erode at the mean rate of more
than 3.00 my1 from 2012 to 2018. The short-
term analysis from 2012 to 2018 elucidates the
overall increase in erosion trend in the study area.
A continuous accretion trend is observed in the
pocket beaches of Sindhudurg district more com-
pared to the districts of Ratnagiri and Raigad. The
beach at Munage, Kunkehwar, Devgad, Padavane,
Hurshi, Girye, and Rameshvar are seen accreting
in almost all the time frames. Mean accretion rates
of more than +2.00 my1 are observed along the
beaches of Munage and Kunkehwar in recent years
from 2012 to 2018. The pocket beach of Sandkhol
in the Ratnagiri district is also seen to accrete
continuously with few pockets of erosion in some of
the time frames.
While few beaches exhibit either continuous
erosion or accretion trend in the short-term anal-
ysis, some 13 beaches, as listed in table 5, showed
alternating patterns of accretion and erosion at
different time frames. This reCects the dynamic
nature of the shoreline in those sections of the
study area. In the Sindhudurg district, the beach at
Shiroda, Vengurla, Shriramadi, Tambaldeg and
Vijaydurg showed alternate accretion and erosion
patterns in subsequent years. Similar trends are
observed in the beaches of Undi, Muslondi, Bhiv
Bunder and Kolthare found in the Ratnagiri dis-
trict. In the Raigad sector of the study area, pocket
beaches of Nandgaon, Sarve and Kashid are seen to
exhibit both accretion and erosion conditions in all
the time frames, as observed in table 5.
Page 15 of 21 209
The short-term shoreline change analysis from
1990 to 2000, 2000 to 2006, 2006 to 2012 and 2012
to 2018 gave a clear insight into the dynamic nat-
ure of the shoreline at varying time scales. Further,
the shoreline changes assessed during the recent
past from 2012 to 2018, helped in identifying the
beaches which are under erosion threat. The reason
for the erosion can be due to either natural or
anthropogenic causes. The reasons for shoreline
changes in the study area are detailed in the
discussion section.
5. Discussion
Continuous monitoring and assessment of shore-
lines are required to quantify the management
measures for sustainability. The physical and eco-
logical characteristics of the coast change with
time, owing to natural and anthropogenic pro-
cesses. From the shoreline change analysis results,
it is seen that the coastal sector of the study area
has undergone maximum changes along the sandy
pocket beaches relative to its rocky counterpart.
Possible causes for such significant shoreline
changes observed in the study can be attributed to
the following: (1) inCuence of rocky outcrops and
headlands, (2) river inCuence, and (3) infrastruc-
tures developed along the coast.
The Konkan sector along the west coast of India
is highly discontinuous with numerous headlands,
rocky outcrop sand small rivers. Almost 69% of the
study area’s coastal length, which is rocky, has
undergone the least shoreline changes in the range
of 0.5 to +0.5 my1, as observed in the shoreline
change analysis. However, these outcrops and
headlands are independent of formative beach
processes, and they largely inCuence the adjacent
beach planform (Short and Masselink 1999).
Guhagar in the Ratnagiri district is the longest
beach in the sector with a length of 6.7 km, while
Bhivbunderfound north of the Vashishti river is
only 0.4 km long. The lengths of these beaches are
seen to be relative to the distance between the
headlands Canking their ends (Silvester 1960).
From Bgure 9, a direct linear proportionality can
be observed between the lengths of the pocket
beaches occurring in the study region and the dis-
tance between headland bounding the beaches.
While the length of beaches is directly propor-
tional to the distance between headlands bounding,
the angle made by the approaching waves with
the headland (diAraction point) controls the
 209
Page 16 of 21

Table 4. Beaches accrete significantly in the short-term analysis.

Shoreline change rate (m/yr)

Sl. Pocket
no. District beach 1990–2000 2000–2006 2006–2012 2012–2018
1 Sindhudurg Munage The southern part is seen accreting In the north and central regions, In the north, erosion of 0.76 Accretion at +2.08
at +1.49, while the north’s erosion accretion of +3.98 is observed is seen, and in the south,
of 1.30 is seen accretion of +1.67 is noted
2 Kunkehwar Accretion at 1.20 Accretion at 2.28 Accretion at +3.10 is Accretion at +2.27
prominent
3 Devgad Accretion at +1.79 Alternating pockets of accretion Accretion at +4.23 Stable condition is prominent
and erosion
4 Padavane Alternating pockets of accretion Alternating pockets of accretion Accretion at +2.84 Accretion at +1.95
and erosion and erosion
5 Hurshi Accretion at +2.10 Stable condition is dominant Accretion at +3.42 The north end accreting at +0.84
6 Girye Accretion at +2.70 Alternating pockets of accretion Accretion at +2.74 Accretion at +0.74 is prominent,
at +1.4 and erosion at 0.8 with the north end eroding at
0.88
7 Rameshvar Accretion of +1.46 is dominant Accretion at +1.26 South accreting at +5.17, Stable and erosion of 2.27 in the
while in the north, erosion south
at 1.52
8 Ratnagiri Sandkhol Erosion of 1.78 and accretion In the north, accretion of +1.55 Accretion of +0.78 Accretion of +0.77 is dominant
of +2.00 is seen in the north and
south parts, respectively
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
Table 5. Beaches dynamic in the short-term analysis.

Shoreline change rate (m/yr)

Sl. Pocket
no. District beach 1990–2000 2000–2006 2006–2012 2012–2018
1 Sindhudurg Shiroda Erosion at 1.31 Accretion at +1.58 Accretion at +1.59 Erosion at 1.95
2 Vengurla Erosion at 3.74 Accretion at +4.30 Accretion at +1.70 Erosion at 1.66
3 Shriramadi Accretion at +1.24 is dominant Erosion at 1.07 Accretion at +1.76 Erosion at 1.97
4 Tambaldeg In the north, erosion at 0.98 is In the north, accretion of +5.24 is Alternating pockets of accretion Accretion at +2.91 in the
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209

observed, with the south part seen with the erosion of 1.09 in and erosion north bank of the creek
accreting at +4.29 the south
5 Vijaydurg Accretion at +4.97 Erosion at 2.19 Accretion at +2.79 Erosion at 2.20
6 Ratnagiri Undi Accretion at +2.13 Erosion at 2.58 Accretion at +1.80 Erosion at 2.54
7 Muslondi Alternating pockets of accretion, Erosion of 2.29 is prominent Erosion at 3.38 Accretion at +2.44
erosion and stable coast
8 Bhiv Accretion at +0.96 Erosion at 1.93 Stable Erosion at 1.06
Bunder
9 Kolthare Accretion of +0.87 is dominant, Erosion at 2.87 Accretion at +3.36 Erosion at rate of 3.99
with erosion of 1.20 in the
centre
10 Raigad Adgaon Alternating pockets of accretion, Erosion at 6.3 Accretion at +1.99 Accretion at +1.77
erosion and stable coast
11 Nandgaon Accretion at +1.78 Erosion at 8.88 Alternating pockets of accretion, Alternating pockets of
erosion and stable coast accretion, erosion and
stable coast
12 Sarve Accretion at +1.46 Erosion at 4.83 Accretion at +1.69 Accretion at the rate of +0.71
in the north. Erosion at
1.39 in the south
13 Kashid Erosion of 2.08 Alternating pockets of accretion Alternating pockets of accretion Alternating pockets of
and erosion at rates of +1.84 and and erosion at rates of +1.55 and accretion and erosion
3.54, respectively 1.38, respectively
Page 17 of 21 209
209 Page 18 of 21
Figure 9. Relation between the length of the pocket beach and the headland distance.
orientation and planform of the pocket beaches
(Karlekar 2015). According to a study made by
Karlekar (2015), the angle made by approaching
waves with the headland along the Konkan coast
varies from 10 to 50°. Orientation of the pocket
beaches in the study region is either N–S or
NW–SE following the interaction of approaching
waves and headlands. Deep embayment with less
indention and less littoral drift makes each of these
pocket beaches a closed system of sediment circu-
lation cells. So the headland-bound pocket beaches’
shape remains constant with time. However, the
entire planform form changes at a rate according to
a time function (Wind 1994) as observed in the
shoreline change study.
In the long-term shoreline change analysis, the
beaches show either low erosion or low accretion
trend along the study area. From 1990 to 2018
increasing trend in erosion along the study area’s
pocket beaches from Sindhudurg to Raigad can
be observed. This can be evident from the mean
shoreline change rates observed along the bea-
ches, as shown in table 2. The mean erosion rates
are seen to increase as we move towards the
beaches in the Raigad district. Further, short
term shoreline change analysis elucidates the
variations incurred within the closed system of
the beaches at different periods. From 1990 to
2000, most of the pocket beaches in the study
area were seen to accrete and expand. But from
2000 to 2006, erosion is seen dominating the
beaches of Ratnagiri and Raigad, while accretion
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
is observed in the pocket beaches of Sindhudurg.
Though the rate of erosion is relatively low in the
range of 0.5 to 3 my1, continuous erosion at
this rate could result in the vanishing of the
narrow beaches in this stretch. From 2006 to
2012 alternating bands of stable, accretion and
erosion conditions were seen along the beaches.
In the recent past from 2012 to 2018 increased
erosion trends in the districts of Sindhudurg,
Ratnagiri and Raigad can be noted.
Hence, it can be inferred that the pocket beaches
in the study area are structurally controlled by the
headlands bounding them and these beaches tend
to change with time. Changes in the closed pocket
beach system occur because of natural reasons like
the dominant wave’s direction and height, tide and
river discharge. In the study area, at places near
Dabhol, Velas, Revadanda and Karli, both river
and headland inCuence have shaped the shoreline.
From 1990 to 2018, a cuspate bar seen near Dab-
holon on the northern bank of the Vashishti river
has significantly reduced in length and width.
Here, the interaction of river discharge and the sea
plays a major role in shoreline change. Similarly,
shoreline changes are observed north of Velas on
the banks of the Savitri river and Gaonkhadi beach
at the southern end of the Muchkundi river.
Another example of river inCuence can be observed
at Revadanda (Bgure 10a). The Kundalika river
Cowing east–west, before draining into the Arabian
Sea is seen to be obstructed by the Korlai fort
promontory. As a result, the river discharge gets
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
Figure 10. (a) Accretion observed along Revadanda and (b) accretion at the north of breakwater in Mirya.
diverted towards the right and results in the
formation of a small cuspate bar.
Anthropogenic interferences in the form of
coastal structures like breakwaters and groins
are seen to induce shoreline changes (Selvan
et al. 2016). The growing population pressure
and infrastructural development along the study
area increase the stress on the shoreline.
According to Karlekar (2015), for headland
Canking beaches, the distance between headlands
Page 19 of 21 209
and approaching wave angle plays a sensitive
parameter in controlling the beach morphology.
When the wave angle is altered due to coastal
constructions, the natural equilibrium of pocket
beaches is aAected, resulting in shoreline chan-
ges. So the construction of breakwater, groin and
seawall needs to be carried out considering the
approaching wave direction, as it might help
determine the stretch, which might be accreted
and eroded in future.
209 Page 20 of 21
In the case of pocket beach at Mirya in Ratnagiri
district, shoreline change can be noted after the
recently constructed breakwater in the Bshing
harbour in the south. The Bshing harbour had a
breakwater of 300 m in length since 2005 and the
breakwater was further modiBed in 2017. In the
same year, another breakwater is seen to be con-
structed as shown in Bgure 10(b). The Bshing
harbour and the breakwaters are located on the
southern headland bounding the Mirya beach.
Waves approaching the shore are diAracted at both
headland and breakwaters, thereby inCuencing the
planform of the beach (Karlekar 2015). After the
construction, accretion is observed immediately
near the breakwater for about 100 m. A 140-wide
beach is noticed for a small stretch. Subsequent
changes in the beach near the breakwater can be
well distinguished in the satellite imagery. The
total length of the Mirya beach is 3 km and as per
the statistics provided by CWC (Directorate et al.
2014), 2.3 km is protected by a rubble mound
constructed between 2001 and 2009. The beach is
observed to be eroding in the long-term analysis at
a mean rate of 0.62 my1. During the short-term
analysis, the beach is observed to accrete from 1990
to 2000 at a mean rate of +0.57 my1, but after
2000 erosion trend is observed continuously till
2018. Erosion at Mirya beach was recorded by
other researchers like Sandip et al. (2014) as well.
Priority needs to be given to mitigate the
increase in erosion due to anthropogenic activities,
infrastructure development, mining, and tourism.
So coastal structures need to be planned consider-
ing how they could inCuence the approaching wave
angle of the pocket beaches (Karlekar 2015). In
addition, a recent global climatic change projection
(Change et al. 2014) shows the increasing vulner-
ability of the coast to sea-level rise. Sea level rise
can be witnessed with retreating shoreline and
submergence of coastal areas. In that case, scien-
tiBc studies are required by decision-makers for the
eAective management of coastal areas. The method
developed in this study can serve as a baseline
information for eAective assessment of shoreline
changes and help coastal managers in planning.
6. Conclusion
The use of remote sensing and GIS is proven to be
an eAective method for continuous monitoring and
change assessment of naturally and anthro-
pogenically evolved shoreline of the Konkan
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2022)131:209
region on the west coast of India. The long-term
shoreline change analysis (1990–2018) shows that
the coast is stable with either low erosion or
accretion along the pocket beaches. The erosion
trend in the pocket beaches is observed to have
increased from south to north along the study
area. Further, short-term shoreline change analy-
sis performed for decadal and quaternary changes
indicates a relative increase in erosion at certain
places in the recent past (2012–2018). Headlands
and prevalent wave dynamics largely control
shoreline changes along the north Konkan coast.
This study is a useful tool in identifying the eAect
of natural headlands along the coast on adjacent
beaches, thereby devising suitable sustainable
management plans.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of Coastal Processes & Shoreline
Management (CP&SM), NCCR. The authors
would like to thank the Secretary, Ministry of
Earth Sciences, Government of India. The authors
sincerely thank Director NCCR and CP&SM team
members for their keen interest and encouragement
in this work.
Author statement
Padmini Gunasekaran: Conceptualisation, method-
ology, writing original draft and interpretation of
the results. R S Kankara: Overall supervision, con-
ceptualisation and interpretation of the results.
Chenthamil Selvan Sekar: Reviewing, interpreta-
tion of the results and editing.
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