On Methodology: Research in Social Sciences

A social scientist should use a number of research methods in the study of social
reality. It may contain questionnaires, social surveys, participant observations, interviews,
schedule etc. All these methods form a research methodology. Methodology is associated with
the philosophy of Social Science.

The term ‘methodology’ is derived from two words: method means (systematic) manner
and logic means study or science. Thus, methodology means study of methods. According to
Ramakrishna Mukherjee methodology is ‘the science for the application of theoretical
propositions for understanding and finding causality of social reality’. The main concern of
methodology is wider philosophy of science issues in social science. It studies how the social
scientists conduct research and how they decide the truth and false in obtained information.

The term ‘methodology’ comprises of:

 ‘Technology’ of data collection namely tools and ‘methods’ of research such as

questionnaire, case study, survey, participant observation and content analysis
 Analytical tools such as statistical tests and methods
 Philosophy, theory and epistemology of social science guiding the conduct of research.

Michael Haralambas and R M Heald defined methodology as ‘ the study of research

methods, with the nature and quality of the data produced by various methods and the logic
and rationale behind the use to which those data are put in sociological research’.

Apart from the study of interview, survey and observation methods, methodology is
concerned also with the analysing the nature of the secondary data sources such as news
papers, articles, official statistical and non-statistical records produced by government bodies,
films, magazines, historical documents, novels etc. In simple words, methodology refers to the
methods and general approach to empirical research of a particular discipline.

Methodology of social science involves both explanation and understanding. Social

research is based ultimately upon the researcher’s assumptions about the man and society.

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These assumptions influence his entire research operation including the research methods he
applies and the data gets from the investigation. Thus methodology concerned with the entire
process of social research and logic and assumptions on which it is based.

Quantitative Methodology

Quantitative methodology is the study of objective measurement and statistical or

mathematical analysis of data collected through surveys, questionnaires, schedules, polls etc.
Quantitative researches will be conduct on the basis of objectivity, empiricism and logic.
Quantitative methods have been mainly used by sociologists studying urban society, especially
in the West.

Generally speaking, quantitative methodology is identified with the positivistic tradition

of research which uses the survey and the experimental methods. Many social scientists
argued that the logic, methods and procedures of the natural sciences are applicable to the
study of man and society. According to quantitative methodologists, if it is assumed that
behaviour in natural and social worlds is governed by the same principles, then natural science
methodology is appropriate for the study of human society. Positivistic methodology is mainly
based on this assumption. Important exponents of positivistic perspective of social research in
the early times are Roger Bacon and William of Ockham.

The major preoccupations of quantitative research are identified with:

1) Concepts and their measurements

2) Establishment of causal relationships between independent and dependent variables

3) Generalization of phenomena

4) Replicability

5) Methodological individualism

6) Objectivity (it means the researcher should maintain a value-neutral, unbiased relationship
with the object of research).

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 The methods generally associated with quantitative methodology are sampling, social
surveys, schedule, the experimental method, structured interviews, questionnaire, schedules
etc.

Qualitative Methodology

In Qualitative methodology, the researcher will not be depended on any statistical or

numerical data sources such as survey, questionnaire etc. On the other hand, they understand
social phenomena through direct observations and experiences. The qualitative researchers
always seek first hand information for their study. If in quantitative research the participants will
be aware of the researcher’s aims and they know they are a part or the object of the study,
while in a qualitative research, the participant may not be know that they are the object of
research. Qualitative methodology has been mostly used by anthropologists to study primitive
and simple societies. Participant observation is the most widely used method in qualitative
research.

Qualitative methodology is identified with phenomenological perspective of social

research which is a critique of positivist tradition. From this perspective, there is a fundamental
difference between the subject matter of natural science and social science and so they reject
the applicability of scientific methods of natural sciences in social research. Unlike the natural
world, social world should study with observation, experience and then interpret them.

The main features of qualitative methodology are:

1) An ‘emic’ perspective viewing events, actions, norms, values, etc from the point of view of
the people who are being studied.

2) Detailed description faithful to the perspectives of the participants in the naturalistic setting

3) Contextualizing behaviour, events within a holistic frames

4) An inductive, open and flexible approach

5) A definite preference for theory generation rather than theory testing.

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 Important methods in qualitative research are ethnography, unstructured open-ended
interview, participant observation, case study, focused interview, conversational analysis,
discourse analysis, analytic induction, grounded theory etc.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is the recently emerged method in qualitative research, which is

introduced by Barney Glaser of Columbia University and Anselm Strauss of University of
Chicago. Grounded theory may be defined as ‘one that is inductively derived from the study of
the phenomena it represents.’ That is, the phenomena is discovered, developed and
scientifically verified through systematic data collection. In this kind of qualitative method, the
researcher collects data from various sources (especially from interviews and questionnaires),
they apply analytic or interpretive procedures to arrive at findings or theories, and prepare
written or verbal reports. The proponents of grounded theory defined qualitative methodology
as ‘any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures
or other means of quantification.’

Grounded theory advocates the use of quantitative data for secondary analysis.
According to Strauss and Corbin, the prime emphasize of grounded theory is on procedures
which are not discipline bound. Thus, grounded theory emerges as the discipline-neutral,
theory-neutral method of research and it becomes equivalent to scientific methods. Eventhough
the grounded theory is prepared for the qualitative research, today, this method is used for
qualitative as well as quantitative researches alike.

After two decades, quantitative researchers seem dissatisfied with purely quantified
results and they turned towards qualitative method of analysis, and, qualitative researchers
have become less defensive about their modes of analysis and now, they are actively working
with quantitative researchers for their studies. Today, sometimes the researchers combine the
quantitative and qualitative methodologies in social research.

Research Methods in Social Science

Major research methods using in social science are the following:

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a) Social Surveys:
Surveys A social survey involves the collection of standardized information
through questionnaires and structured interviews from a sample selected as being
representative of a particular group or population. Survey may be divided into
descriptive and analytical. C A Moser mentioned three basic objectives of surveys:
informative, descriptive and explanatory. There are many types of surveys such as
sample survey, census survey, regular and hoc survey, qualitative and quantitative
survey, public or secret survey, final or repetitive surveys.
b) Participant Observation:
Observation In this method the researcher tries to take part in the lives of
the group members being studied. If he is trying to know a community, he goes to live in
the habitation, take part in the community life.
c) Ethnography:
Ethnography It is a research process in which the researcher closely observes records
and engages in the daily life of another culture. Then he writes account of the culture in
descriptive detail. Ethnography is mostly used by anthropologists.
d) Case Study:
Study It is the most important method in qualitative research. In the case study,
the entire population of the unit is surveyed. Participant observation technique is used in
the case study method for data collection. Several personal documents (dairy, letters,
autobiographies etc.) are utilized in the case study.
e) Interview:
Interview In this method, the researcher asking the participant a series of questions
from the interview schedule or interview guide. Interviews may be divided into
structured (formal interview) and unstructured (informal interview). In structured
interview the wording of the questions and the order which they are asked will be pre-
prepared. In unstructured interview, the questions will not be pre-prepared, but, the
researcher asking questions as he likes.
f) Questionnaire:
Questionnaire A questionnaire consists of a list of preset questions to which
respondents are asked to give answers. This is comparatively cheap, fast and efficient
methods for obtaining large amounts of quantifiable data.
g) Content Analysis:
Analysis The researcher analyses the content of written documents such as
books, news papers, articles, magazines, and even that of lectures. Under the content
analysis, systematic analysis is made that of the subject or the theme being
communicated by the mass media.

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References

Haralambas, Michael., Heald, R M., Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, Oxford University
Press, 2007

Mukherji, Partha Nath (ed.)., Methodology in Social Research: Dilemmas and Perspectives,
Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2000

Singh, R A P., Methods in Social Research, Printwell Publishers, Jaipur, 1990