Some basic definitions

4. dB  20log10 (ratio of voltage or currents)

1. dBW  10 log10 ( Power (power expressed in watts))
or  10 log10 (ratio of power quantities)
So 1 watt of power  0 dBW
10 watt of power  10 dBW
5. Neper(Np)  ln (ratio of voltage or currents)
2. dBm  10 log10 ( Power (power expressed in milliwatts)) x 
Np  ln 1 
So 1 mW of power  0 dBm  x2 
10 mW of power  10 dBm  x12 
1dB  10 log10  2 
1000 mW (1 Watt)  30 dBm  x2 
x  x
 20log10  1   1  101 / 20 
3. dBV  20 log10 ( voltage expressed in volts)
 x2  x2
So 1 V  0 dBV x x
10 V  20 dBV Again, 1  e L where L is the Np value of 1
x2 x2
1000V  60 dBV
Hence, 101 / 20   e L  L  ln(101 / 20  )  0.115 Np
Non Linearity and Time Variance

This system is linear if for :

x1 (t )  y1 (t )
x2 ( t )  y 2 ( t )

then we have :

x(t) y(t) a1 x1 (t )  a2 x2 (t )  a1 y1 (t )  a2 y2 (t )

This system is time invariant if for

x (t )  y ( t )

we have

x (t  τ )  y ( t  τ )
Impulse Response of a Linear System
The impulse response for a linear system is obtained from:

δ(t-τ) h(t,τ)
The output y(t) for a general input x(t) can be expressed in terms of h(t,τ ):

y (t )  h(t )  x(t )   x( ) h( t ,  ) d  for time variant system o/p may be different at different times for same i/p
 time time
of of
observation input

For a time-invarying and causal system:

t t
y (t )  h(t )  x(t )   x( ) h(t   ) d   x(t   ) h(t ) d  o/p is same at all times for same i/p
 

In the frequency domain this gives:

Y ( j )  H ( j ) X ( j )
with H ( j )   h(t )  , X ( j )    x (t )  , Y ( j )    y (t ) ,
where   x  is the Fourier transform:

  x(t )    x(t ) exp( jt ) dt

Memoryless Non-Linear System
A system is called memoryless if its output does not depend on the past values of the input:
y (t )  f  x(t )

For discrete signals

y ( n )  f  x ( n) 

Example:

y (t )   0  1 x(t )   2 x(t )2   3 x(t )3

Example: A Differential Pair at low Frequency
This is a memoryless circuit if the transistor capacitances are neglected.
 V in 
V out  α R I EE tanh  
 2V T 

• Odd symmetry

• Differential or “balanced”
Implementation of a Mixer with a Differential Pair

saturation

IEE IEE

  Vin 2 (t )  
Vout   RI S  exp    sign Vin1 (t ) 
 V
 T 
V (t )
  RI S in 2 sign Vin1 (t )   for small Vin 2 
VT linear linear

  Vin 2 (t )  
I EE  I S  exp  
V
 T  Type of linearity is different. Hence time variant

Effect of Non-Linearity: Harmonics
Consider a memoryless system given by :
y ( t )  α 0  α1 x ( t )  α 2 x ( t ) 2  α 3 x ( t ) 3
For x(t)  Ain cos ωt the output y(t) is :
α 2 Ain2  3α 3 Ain3  α 2 Ain2 α 3 Ain3
y (t )  α0    α1 Ain   cos ωt  cos 2 ωt  cos 3ωt
2  4  2 4
Harmonics are generated.
At the fundamenta l frequency the output amplitude is :
3α 3 Ain3
Aout  α1 Ain 
4
and the gain at the fundamenta l frequency varies (decreases
since α 3 is usually negative) with the input signal amplitude :
3α 3 Ain2
G(A in )  α1 
4
Gain Compression
The 1 dB compression point is defined as the point (Ain,1dB , Aout,1dB ) where the gain G(Ain ) drops by 1 dB:
20 log G(Ain,1dB )  20 log  α1   1dB o/p cannot decrease - It flatlines
or ’saturates’
 3    
 20 log  1   3 Ain2 ,1dB   20 log  α1   20 log10(1/ 20)  20 log  (1/120) 
 4   10 
3 1 3
 1   3 Ain2 ,1dB  (1/20)   3 Ain2 ,1dB  0.10871
4 10 4
1
 Ain2 ,1dB  0.145  1 and  3 are usually of opposite signs  3 
3 20 log  1 Ain ,1dB   3 Ain3 ,1dB 
 4 
1
 Ain ,1dB  0.145
3

α1
The input amplitude at the 1dB compressio n point is then : Ain,1dB  0.145
α3
Harmonics
 α2 Ain2  α2
Aout ( 2 ω ) dB  20 log Aout ( 2 ω )   20 log     2 * Ain dB
 2  2 dB

 α3 Ain3  α3
Aout ( 3ω ) dB  20 log Aout ( 3ω )   20 log     3 * Ain dB
 4  4 dB
Desensitization and Blocking
If at the input we have a weak desired signal (A1, ω1 ) in the presence of a strong interferer
(A2 , ω2 ) with ω1  ω2 :

x(t)  A 1 cos ω1t  A 2 cos ω2 t

the output y(t ) is then : high
 3 3 
y(t)   α1A 1  α3 A13  α3 A1 A22  cos ω1t  .....
 4 2 
 3 
  α1  α3 A22  A 1cos ω1t  ..... for A 1  A 2 .
 2 

For α3 negative, the strong interferer signal (A 2 , ω2 ) can completely cancel or block the desired
weak signal (A 1 , ω1 ) :
3
α1  α3 A22  0
2
A receiver may need to withstand blocking signal 60 to 70 dB greater.
Cross Modulation

If together with the weak desired signal (A 1 , ω1 ) we have a strong interferer which
is modulated at the input (A 2 , ω2 )
x(t)  A 1 cos ω1 t  A 2 (1  m cos ωm t) cos ω2 t
the output y(t ) is then : high

 3 2
y(t)   α1  α3 A22 1  m cos ωm t   A 1 cos ω1t  ....
 2 
The desired signal (A 1 , ω1 ) contains at the output the modulation of the interferer
signal (A 2 , ω2 ).
Intermodulation
If at the input we have two signals (A 1 , ω1 ) and (A 2 , ω 2 )
x(t)  A 1 cos ω1 t  A 2 cos ω 2 t

the output contains terms of frequencie s n ω1  m ω 2 . Undesired terms appear at

2 ω1 - ω 2 and 2 ω 2 - ω1 frequencie s :
y  α1A 1  ...  cos ω1 t  α1A 2  ...  cos ω 2 t
3 3
 α 3 A12 A2 cos 2 ω1 - ω 2   α 3 A1 A22 cos 2 ω 2 - ω1 
4 4
Undesirable Impacts of Intermodulation
Scenario 1: Two strong interferers perturbs a weak desired channel (LNA)

Scenario 2: Two channels blending (PA)

IP3: 3rd Order Intercept Point
That i/p power wher e the o/p power of fundamenta l  o/p power of 3rd order IM products
3 4 1
 1 Ain , IP 3   3 Ain3 , IP 3  0  Ain2 , IP 3     1 and  3 are of opposite signs 
4 3 3
4 1
 Ain , IP 3 
3 3

A out, IP3 A 4/3

 in, IP3   10 dB
A out,1dB A in,1dB 0 .145
Quick IP3 Calculation
Let P be the IMD (intermodu lation distortion measured in dB or - dBc). From the graph below :
IIP 3 dBV  ΔP dB
/ 2  Ain dBV
IIP 3 dBm  ΔP dB
/ 2  Pin dBm

Note : Pin  10 log Pin

 A
 10 log 
in , rms V2

  Ain ,rms  13 dB
3
dBm mW
 50   10  dBV
 

Pin  10 log Pin W

 A
 10 log 

in , rms V    A
2

 17 dB
in , rms dBV
dBW
 50  
 

Pin
IP3 of Cascaded Non-Linear Stages

y 1  α1 x  α 3 x 3 y 2  β1 y1  β 2 y13  α1 β1 x  α 3 β1  α13 β 3 x 3  ....

The total IP3 is then :

3 α 3 β1  α13 β 3  3 α 3 β1  α1 β 3
3
1 1 α12
2
   2 
A in, IP3, total 4 α1 β1 4 α1 β1 Ain , IP 3 ,1 Ain2 , IP 3 , 2
In terms of power P  A in2 / 2 R  and power gain G  α 2 this is written (using also
POIP3  PIIP3 * G and G total  G 1G 2 )
1 1 G1 1 1 1
  or  
PIIP 3 ,total PIIP 3 ,1 PIIP 3 , 2 POIP 3 ,total G 2 POIP 3 ,1 POIP 3, 2
α 2 and β 2 are neglected because they contribute via higher harmonics which are filtered out.
IP2: 2nd Order Intercept Point
Let x(t)  A cos ω1t  A cos ω2t
y(t)  1x(t)   2 x 2 (t)
10log(Aout)
 1Acos ω1t  cos ω2t    2 A 2 cosω1  ω2  t
2A2 2A2
  2 A cosω1  ω2  t 
2
cos2ω1  t  cos2ω2  t
2 2
1
1 1  2  , 1  2  Power at these harmonics is half that at (ω1-ω2) or (ω1-ω2)
1, 2 2 1 AIIP 2   2 A 2
IIP 2

1 
 AIIP 2  1
2
AIIP 2 10log(Ain ) In practice, the 1 - 2  terms may originate from some
other part of the circuit (feed through, leakage). In that case the
eqn above is modified as follows,

1 AIIP 2  
k  2 AIIP
2
2
coupling
factor

1
 AIIP 2 
k 2
Linearity of degenerated CS stage
I D  1Vin   2Vin2   3Vin3 Here Vin refers to the ac component
 ID 1 2 ID 1 3 ID
1  , 2  , 3 
 Vin V
2  Vin2 Vin0
6  Vin3 Vin0
in0

 ID
I D  K VGS  VTH  , g m   2 K VGS 0  VTH   2 K   RS I D 0  VTH 
2

 VGS Vin0

where Vin 0 and I D 0 are the dc bias values

VGS  Vin  RS I D  I D  K Vin  RS I D  VTH 
2

I D  I D  I D  I 
  2 K Vin  RS I D  VTH  1  RS   2 K   RS I D 0  VTH   1  RS D 
Vin  Vin  Vin     Vin 
Vin0 gm  Vin0 

I D gm
 1   ,
Vin Vin 0
1  g m RS
Similarly, we can find,
1 2ID K 1 3 I D 2 K 2 RS
2   , 3  
2 Vin2 1  g m RS  6 Vin3 1  g m RS 
3 5
Vin 0 Vin 0

From these equations, IIP3 and IIP2 can be obtained as

4 α1 ( 1  g m RS )2 2 gm  g
AIIP 3   , AIIP 2  1  m 1  g m RS 
3 α3 K 3 RS 2 K
Multitone excitation: Multisine

Input and Output Multisine

Spectral Regrowth

Low input power High input power

Intersymbol Interference
The problem:
Distortion of a signal can also arise from insufficient bandwidth. For digital signals this leads
to intersymbol interference" (ISI) (see next slide).

The solutions:
• Equalization in the receiver

• Pulse shaping (Nyquist signaling)

 If BW is limited ISI arises. However if ISI is to be
removed then BW has to be increased.

How to resolve this?

Pulses rectangular
Equalization of distorted signal could be done.

Band limited signal (distorted but no ISI)

Band limited signal (distorted and intersymbol interference)

Nyquist Signaling
In Nyquist signaling, each pulse p(t) is allowed to overlap with past and future pulses but the shape is selected such
that the pulse is zero at the sampled time t = kTS so that no ISI exists:

1 if k  0
p ( kTS )    Nyquist signalling criteria
 0 if k  0
Example #1: sinc function (rectangular spectrum calls for complex filter):

Example #2 : raised - cosine pulse (smoother but trunca ted spectrum) :

sin π t/TS  cos πα t / T S 
p(t) 
π t/TS 1  4 α 2 t 2 / T S2
Dynamic Nonlinearity (’s change dynamically in the
circuit - Systems with Memory)
 
Vout (t )   an cosn1t   n    bn cosn2t  n 
n 1 n 1
 
  c m ,n cosn1t  m2t  n ,m 
n   m  

Assuming weak non linearity,

Vout (t )  a1 cos1t  1   b1 cos2t  2   c1 cos1  2 t  3 
C1  C0 (1   Vout )  c2 cos1  2 t  4 

dVout Only these non linear

R1C0 (1   Vout )  Vout  Vin effects have been considered
dt
Substitute here and equate
LHS and RHS frequency wise
to find a’s, b’s and c’s.
Dynamic Nonlinearity
• The number of equations will equal the number of unknowns.
• Problem is that there are too many equations to solve.
• A better method is using Volterra series.
• Modeling using memory polynomials is standard nowadays.
Memory Polynomials

A typical i/p - o/p curve of a PA

Memory Polynomials ..Contd
Polynomial order
Memory depth

y(n)
Here all bkm are taken as ‘1’
N=1000, K=5, M=5

x(n) is taken randomly between 0 and 8

x(n)
Models using memoryless and with memory
polynomials

With memory polynomial

K 1
K=5, M=5 y (n)   ck x k ( n)
k 0
Memoryless polynomial (a normal polynomial)

Memoryless polynomial cannot provide multiple o/p’s

For single i/p
Id (uA)

Vgs (V)