CARBOHYDRATES

AND LIPIDS

RUT KLINGER
MIS IB DP
BIOMOLECULES RECAP

Organic molecules of interest:

◼ Proteins
◼ Nucleic Acids
◼ Carbohydrates
◼ Lipids
CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are
Carbohydrates are made of These monosaccharides
composed of recurring
C, H and O (‘carbo’ – may be linked together via
monomers called
contains carbon condensation reactions
monosaccharides (which
; ‘hydrate’ – contains H and (water is formed as a
typically form ring
O) by-product)
structures)

Two monosaccharide Many monosaccharide

monomers may be joined monomers may be joined
via a glycosidic linkage to via glycosidic linkages to
form a disaccharide form polysaccharides
SACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

◼ Glucose ◼ Starch:
◼ Maltose
◼ Galactose Amylose &
◼ Lactose Amylopectin
◼ Fructose
◼ Sucrose ◼ Cellulose
◼ Ribose &
Deoxiribose ◼ Glycogen
MONOSASCHARRIDE # 1 🡪 GLUCOSE

◼ Glucose has the formula C6H12O6

◼ It forms a hexagonal ring (hexose)
◼ Glucose is the form of sugar that fuels
respiration 🡪 broken down in cell
respiration to gain energy
◼ Easily dissolved
◼ Forms the base unit for many polymers
◼ 5 of the carbons form corners on the
ring with the 6th corner taken by oxygen
MONOSASCHARRIDE # 2 🡪 GALACTOSE

◼ The molecular formula of galactose is

C6H12O6.
◼ Galactose is a monosaccharide and
epimer of glucose.
◼ The property values of hydrogen bond
donor and hydrogen bond acceptor
are 5 and 6 respectively.
◼ Most commonly found in milk, but also
found in cereals
MONOSASCHARRIDE # 3 🡪 FRUCTOSE

◼ Pentose, Chemical formula: C6H12O6

◼ It is the sweetest naturally occurring
carbohydrate
◼ ommonly found in fruits and honey
◼ Used by plants to form sucrose
MONOSASCHARRIDE # 4 & 5 🡪 RIBOSE & DEOXIRIBOSE

◼ Ribose is a pentose sugar, it

has a pentagonal ring
◼ It forms the backbone of
RNA
◼ Deoxyribose differs as shown
in the diagram, and forms the
backbone of DNA
MONOSACCHARIDE MONOMERS ARE
LINKED TOGETHER BY CONDENSATION
REACTIONS TO FORM DISACCHARIDES ◼ E.g. Glucose + Glucose 🡪 Maltose + water
AND POLYSACCHARIDE POLYMERS
 ◼ Maltose (C12H22O11) is a dimer of glucose
◼ Prepared from starch by diastase
DISASCHARRIDE ◼ Most of the sugar available to yeast is maltose, derived from
# 1 🡪 MALTOSE starch.
◼ Maltose behaves like an early product of photosynthesis, rather
than a storage product such as starch and its degradation
products.
 ◼ Lactose (C12H22O11) is most commonly found in milk
DISACHARRIDE # ◼ main energy source delivered to a baby with breast milk
2 🡪 LACTOSE ◼ digested by enzyme lactase
◼ production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity
 Sugar Sweetness

fructose 173%

sucrose 100%

glucose 74%
RELATIVE
SWEETNESS OF maltose 33%

SUGARS galactose 33%

lactose 16%
DISACHARRIDE # 3
🡪 SUCROSE

◼ Sucrose (C12H22O11) is
also known as table sugar
◼ glucose + fructose
◼ high solubility, low reactivity
◼ main sugar transported in
plants
◼ dissolved in water --> plant
sap
POLYSACHARIDES

Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers comprised of many (hundreds

to thousands) monosaccharide monomers

The type of polymer formed depends on the monosaccharide subunits

involved and the bonding arrangement between them

Three key polymers can be made from glucose monosaccharides –

cellulose, starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals)
POLYSACHARRIDE #1 🡪 CELLULOSE

◼ Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide that is found in

the cell wall of plants
◼ It is a linear molecule composed of β-glucose subunits
(bound in a 1-4 arrangement)
◼ Because it is composed of β-glucose, it is indigestible
for most animals (lack the enzyme required to break it
down)
◼ Ruminants (e.g. cows) may digest cellulose due to the
presence of helpful bacteria in a specialised stomach
◼ Caecotrophs (e.g. rabbits) will re-ingest specialised
faeces that contain digested cellulose (broken down in
the caecum)
◼ Jmol model
 ◼ Starch is an energy storage polysaccharide found in plants
◼ It is composed of α-glucose subunits (bound in a 1-4 arrangement) and exists in
POLYSACHARRIDE # one of two forms – amylose or amylopectin
◼ Amylose is a linear (helical) molecule while amylopectin is branched (contains
2 🡪 STARCH additional 1-6 linkages)
◼ Amylose is harder to digest and less soluble, however, as it takes up less space, is
the preferred storage form in plants
◼ jMol model Amylose
◼ jMol model Amylopectin
 ◼ Potatoes are used to produce adhesives
STICKY POTATO ◼ Amylopectin is much more useful than starch
CASE ◼ Amflora, Prevalent – GMO potato varieties rich in amylopectin (up to
98%)
POLYSACHARRIDE #3 🡪
GLYCOGEN

◼ Glycogen is an energy storage

polysaccharide formed in the liver in animals
◼ It is composed of α-glucose subunits linked
together by both 1-4 linkages and 1-6
linkages (branching)
◼ It is akin to amylopectin in plants, but is
more highly branched (1-6 linkages occur
every ~10 subunits as opposed to ~20)
◼ Jmol Model glycogen
 Respiration, building block for
Glucose
polysaccharides and cell feeding

Monosaccharides
Fructose Fruit sugar, important in plant metabolism

Galactose Component of nucleic acids

Sucrose
Table sugar; transport sugar in plants
(glucose + fructose)
Maltose
Disaccharides Found in certain vegetables and in beer.
(glucose + glucose)
Lactose
Milk sugar (baby feeding)
(glucose + galactose)
Cellulose
Main plant component (paper)
(made of glucose subunits)
Glycogen
(made of glucose subunits, but linked Animal glucose storage
Polysaccharides
differently from cellulose)
Starch
(made of glucose subunits, but linked Plant glucose storage
differently from glycogen)
KEY

◼ 1. one enzyme catalyses the formation of 1,4 bonds; the other enzyme catalyses the formation of 1,6
bonds;
◼ 2. once the 1,6 bond is formed, then this starts a new chain that can be extended by the enzyme that
makes 1,4 bonds; in other words the substrate for this enzyme is doubled;
◼ 3. heat-treatment denatures enzyme; curve A shows no enzyme activity/no enzyme mediated
conversion;
◼ 4. a) increasing rate of conversion earlier/until 35 minutes; rate of conversion levels off;
◼ b) every bond formed can either be creating a new glycogen molecule or adding to an existing one;
the former leads to an exponential increase in number of glycogen molecules/substrate molecules;
until growth in new glycogen molecules slows and available enzyme becomes limiting;
THERE ARE Triglycerides

DIFFERENT TYPES
OF LIPIDS
Phospholipids

Steroids

Hydrophobic lipids are fully

What they have in common hydrophobic
are hydrophobic parts Amphiphilic lipids possess
hydrophobic and hydrophilic part
LIPIDS

Hydrophobic

Hydrophilic
 ◼ Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains that are found in
FATTY ACIDS CAN BE certain types of lipids (triglycerides & phospholipids)

SATURATED, ◼ Fatty acids may differ in the length of the hydrocarbon

chain (typically 4 – 24 carbons) and in the number of
MONOUNSATURATED double bonds
OR ◼
Fatty acids that possess no double bonds
POLYUNSATURATED are saturated (have maximum number of H atoms)
◼ Saturated fatty acids are linear in structure, originate
from animal sources (i.e. fats) and are typically solid at
room temperatures
◼
Fatty acids with double bonds are unsaturated – either
monounsaturated (1 double bond) or polyunsaturated
(>1 double bond)
◼ Unsaturated fatty acids are bent in structure, originate
from plant sources (i.e. oils) and are typically liquid at
room temperatures
SATURATED, MONOUNSATURATED OR POLYUNSATURATED?
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS CAN BE CIS OR TRANS ISOMERS
FATTY ACIDS CONFIGURATIONS

TRIGLYCERIDES ARE FORMED BY
CONDENSATION FROM THREE
FATTY ACIDS AND ONE
GLYCEROL
Triglycerides are the largest class of lipids and
function primarily as long-term energy storage
molecules
◼ Animals tend to store triglycerides as fats
(solid), while plants tend to store
triglycerides as oils (liquid)
◼
Triglycerides are formed when
condensation reactions occur between one
glycerol and three fatty acids
◼ The hydroxyl groups of glycerol combine
with the carboxyl groups of the fatty acids
to form an ester linkage
◼ This condensation reaction results in the
formation of three molecules of water
◼
Triglycerides can be either saturated or
unsaturated, depending on the composition
of the fatty acid chains
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

STORAGE OF HORMONAL INSULATION – PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL

ENERGY FOR ROLES (E.G. BOTH THERMAL INTERNAL COMPONENTS
LONG-TERM USE STEROIDS SUCH AS (TRIGLYCERIDES) ORGANS (E.G. OF CELLS (E.G.
(E.G. OESTROGEN AND AND ELECTRICAL TRIGLYCERIDES PHOSPHOLIPIDS
TRIGLYCERIDES) TESTOSTERONE) (SPHINGOLIPIDS) AND WAXES) AND
CHOLESTEROL)
 Triglycerides in animals

Complete breakdown of triglycerides gives twice as

much of energy as from proteins or carbohydrates
ENERGY Stored in adipose (fat) tissue
STORAGE IN FATS
Thick layer of fat creates thermal insulation for the
animal organism
Animals inhabiting cold regions tend to have thick fat
layer under their skin to protect inner organs
ENERGY STORAGE IN HUMANS

◼ Carbohydrates
◼ Short-term storage
◼ Easy to digest - it’s easier to gain energy from them
◼ Soluble in water – easy to transport
◼ Lipids
◼ Long-term energy storage
◼ High energy content per gram
◼ Lighter to store

◼ Insoluble in water
◼ Do not interfere with osmosis
ENERGY STORAGE BY LIPIDS AND CARBOHYDRATES

◼ Reasons for using lipids for long-term Energy storage:

◼ The amount of energy released in cel espiration per gram of lipids is double that for carbohydrates (and
protein)
◼ Lipids add 1/6 as much to body mass as carbohydrates: fats are stored as pure droplets whereas when 1g
glycogen is stored it is associated with 2g of water. This is especially critical for active animals as energy stores have to
be carried.

(energy contained in) 1g lipids = Mass used for storage / [(energy contained in) 2g carbohydrate + 4g associated water]
=1/6
ENERGY STORAGE BY LIPIDS AND CARBOHYDRATES
 ENERGY STORAGE
BY LIPIDS AND
CARBOHYDRATES

◼ Glycogen is the medium-term energy

storage molecule in animals. It is stored in the
liver and muscles. The energy stored in
glycogen is more readily available than the
energy stored in fat.
◼ Glucose in the bloodstream is for immediate
use and will either be used in respiration to
yield ATP or converted to glycogen or fat
WHY IS FAT SO TASTY?

◼ Our ancestors evolved in the environment where energetic

food was scarce
◼ Fats are very energetic
◼ Our organisms tend to perceive fats as important component
of food

www.kettlebrand.com
 ◼ a) (i) wild birds 13.3 kg;
◼ (ii) captive birds 16.2 kg;
◼ b) both groups lose most of their lipid; captive
KEY birds lose more of their lipids than wild ones; 11.2
versus 9.6 kg/93% lost versus 81%/other valid
figures comparing the change;
◼ c) insulation/source of waste heat when
metabolized/source of metabolic water;
BODY MASS INDEX

◼ Body Mass Index (BMI) is used as a screening tool to

identify possible weight problems, however, BMI is not a
diagnostic tool. To determine if excess weight is a health risk
further assessments are needed such as:
◼ • skinfold thickness measurements
◼ • evaluations of diet
◼ • physical activity
◼ • and family history
◼ BMI ranges from underweight to obese, according to
predetermined values based on an average adult population
◼ BMI values are not a valid indicator for pregnant women or
professional athletes with atypical muscle / fat ratios
BMI
NOMOGRAM
FOR TYPICAL
ADULT
 ◼ 1. a) BMI 34;
◼ b) obese;
◼ 2. a) 100 kg;
◼ b) BMI is 24, so status is normal weight;
KEY ◼ 3. a) current weight is 104 kg; needs to reach 57
kg; 104-57 kg = 47 kg;
◼ b) increased exercise; reduced energy intake;
◼ 4. as height increases, BMI decreases; at an
increasing rate/exponential rate;
RESOURCES

TEXTBOOK CHAPTER 2.3 PAGES 43-86

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