AMSLab BSC Sem5 AY2023 24 Draft2 23aug2023

BSc Physics, Semester-5
Department of Physics, MSRUAS
1 1
11Equa
tion
Chapte
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Section
Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy
Laboratory Manual
B. Sc. Physics (Hons.)
5th Semester (2021 batch)
Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy Laboratory manual (2021batch) (Dr. KJM) Page 1 of 58
Department: Physics
Name of the student

University Reg. No
Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences
Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
University House, New BEL Road, MSR Nagar, Bangalore – 560054
www.msruas.ac.in
LABORATORY REPORT
Course Code : 18MPL312A

Course Name : Atomic & Molecular Spectroscopy and Laboratory
Programme : B. Sc. (Hons) – Physics
Department : Physics
Faculty : Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences
Name of the Student :

Register Number :
Semester / Year : 5th / 3rd
Course Leaders : Dr. K. J. Mallikarjunaiah
Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Ramaiah Technology Campus , # 470 P, IV phase, Peenya Industrial Area,
Bengaluru, Karnataka,
INDIA - 560 058
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. This practical course is a part of the physics course (Atomic and Molecular Physics and
Laboratory). You will be performing about ten experiments, one experiment in every
practical class/session.
2. Prior to coming to the class you are expected to know which experiments you are
going to perform and do come prepared for the same (with relevant questions).
3. You are expected to go through the details of the relevant experiments described in
the manual and try to understand as much as you can. You ought to know the aim of
the experiment, the principle on which it is based and also how to carry out the
experiment.
4. Your teacher will help you to the extent needed. But it is better to do things on your
own without expecting much help. This will make you confident and self-reliant.
5. You have to bring one dedicated lab note book and are expected to show the
observations while performing the experiment and show calculations/results before
leaving the lab. If the teacher is satisfied, you can complete the calculations and same
can be get it corrected on the same day. Otherwise, you may have to repeat the
experiment. The experimental data analysis and viva should be completed before
continuing to the next experiment, unless it has to be repeated for unforeseen
reasons.
6. At the end of the course, you will have a test. The performance in the test will also be
taken into account for your assessment.
7. There are two components for assessment in this course:

Component ‐ 1: 50 % weight (CE)
Conduction of laboratory exercises and submission of report will be evaluated for a
maximum of 25 marks.
Component ‐ 2: 50 % weight
A semester end laboratory examination will be conducted for maximum marks of 25.
8. You have to score a minimum of 10 marks (40%) in the internal assessment, otherwise
you will be detained.
9. Handle the apparatus with care. You are responsible for the apparatus that you have
borrowed/used. You will be fined for any loss or breakage of the apparatus. Make
sure that the apparatus is in good condition both while borrowing/using and returning
it.
Special note:
For all optical experiments, please refer to the technical details of required component/s
in the given optics kit (given in the end). Be careful, all laser sources look alike!
Index Sheet
Name: 5th Semester
Registration No:
Date of Total
Exp. A B C
Experiment Name perfor Marks
No. (12) (5) (8)
mance (25)
01 Study of characteristic properties of a given diode laser.
02 Analyse the temperature dependent 1H NMR T1
relaxation data to identify the phase transition
temperatures and estimate the activation energies (Ea)
at different phase regions.
03 Analysis of Rotation-Vibration spectrum of diatomic
molecule (HBr)
04 To determine the value of e/m by (a) magnetic focusing
or (b) Bar magnet.
05 To determine the wavelengths of Cu/Fe/CN arc
spectrum.
06 To determine the absorption lines in the rotational
spectrum of Iodine vapour.
07 To determine the wavelength of Hydrogen spectrum
and hence to determine the value of Rydberg’s
constant.
08 To determine the different wavelengths of Helium
spectrum.
09 Analysis of Rotational Raman spectra of N2 molecule.
10 To determine value of the Bohr Magneton from Zeeman

Effect setup.
Lab Internal Test

Grand Total
Component 1 Marks
Lab Internal Test
Date of Write up Performance Calculation Viva voce Total

performance (5) (10) and Result (5) (5) Marks (25)
Staff in-charge: A-Performance, B-Calculation and graph and C-Viva

Date:
Declaration sheet
Student Name
Register Number
Programme BSc (Physics) Semester/Batch 5 / 2021
Course Code 18MPL312A
Course Title Atomic & Molecular Spectroscopy and Laboratory
Course Leaders
Declaration
The laboratory report submitted herewith is a result of my own investigations and that I have
conformed to the guidelines against plagiarism as laid out in the Student Handbook. All sections
of the text and results, which have been obtained from other source, are fully referenced. I
understand that cheating and plagiarism constitute a breach of university regulations and will
be dealt with accordingly.
Signature of the Student Date
Submission date stamp
Signature of the Course Leader and date
Remarks
Final Marks Obtained
BSc Physics, Semester 5
CONTENTS
Expt.
Aim of the experiment Page No.
No
-- General instructions 05
01 Study of characteristic properties of a given diode laser.
09
02 Analyse the temperature dependent 1H NMR T1 relaxation data
to identify the phase transition temperatures and estimate the 13
activation energies (Ea) at different phase regions.
03 Analysis of Rotation-Vibration spectrum of diatomic molecule
19
(HBr)
04 To determine the value of e/m by (a) magnetic focusing or (b)
23
Bar magnet.
05 To determine the wavelengths of Cu/Fe/CN arc spectrum.
29
06 To determine the absorption lines in the rotational spectrum of
33
Iodine vapour.
07 To determine the wavelength of Hydrogen spectrum and hence
37
to determine the value of Rydberg’s constant.
08 To determine the different wavelengths of Helium spectrum.
39
09 Analysis of Rotational Raman spectra pf N2 molecule.
43
10 To determine the Bohr Magneton value from Zeeman Effect
45
setup.
Atomic & Molecular Physics and Laboratory - Lab manual (AY: 2022-23) (Dr. KJM) 7
Experimental set-up
1. Fix the laser mount on the bread board and mount the diode laser.
2. Fix the XYZ translation stage in front of the laser using thump screws.
3. Mount the pinhole photo detector in the XYZ translation stage. Connect the output pin
of the detector to the measurement unit.
Experimental set-up for Spot size
Experiment # 1:
Study of characteristic properties of a given diode laser
Aim: To set up the optical instruments and study the following characteristics of a given diode
laser.
1. To study the Gaussian nature of laser beam.
2. To evaluate the diameter of laser beam (beam spot size).
3. To measure the divergence angle of laser beam.
Apparatus:
Optical Bread board, Diode Laser with Power Supply (without lens), Kinematic Laser mount
Polarizer rotator, XYZ translation stage, Pinhole detector with o/p measurement unit
Brief procedure:
To study gaussian nature of the laser beam: Study the intensity distribution of laser in X and Y
direction (any one of them) using the corresponding micrometer of XYZ stage. The beam is
scanned linearly using the micrometer noting down the output current of the detector at close
intervals. Plot the detector current Vs distance graph and can study the gaussian nature of the
laser beam.
To find diameter (beam spot size) of the laser beam: The 'Beam Diameter' is defined as "The
distance across the center of the beam for which the irradiance (E) equals (1 / e² = 0.135)". The
'Spot Size' (ω) of the beam is "The radial distance (radius) from the center point of maximum
irradiance to the 1 / e² point". These definitions provide standard measures of laser beam size.
To determine divergence of the laser beam: Divergence angle θ is given by,
θ=tan
(
−1 |w 2−w 1|
|z 2−z 1| )
, where w 1 and w 2 are the beam spot sizes at two different positions say z 1
and z 2 respectively.
Theory: The ‘Beam Diameter’ is defined as “The distance across the center of the beam
for which the irradiance (E) equals (1/e²=0.135)”. The ‘Spot Size’ (ω) of the beam is “The
radial distance (radius) from the center point of maximum irradiance to the 1/e² point”.
These definitions provide standard measures of laser beam size.
Emax
1 /e² points
output current
(mA)
Emax /e² 0.135 * Emax

d
diameter (mm)
Representative plot of output current (mA) as a function of distance along x-axis
Experimental set-up for Divergence
Measurements
Wave length of the laser λ = ……..
Least count of the micrometer = ………
Distance Output Distance Output Distance Output Distance Output

traveled Current traveled Current traveled Current traveled Current
in X (mA) in X (mA) in X (mA) in X (mA)
direction direction direction direction
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Z1 = Z2 =
Procedure
1. To find the Gaussian nature and beam spot
1. Switch on the laser and detector. Make sure that the center of the laser beam falls exactly on
the pinhole detector. Using the X-direction (perpendicular to the direction of the laser
beam) of the micrometer, move the detector to the right or left extreme end of the laser
beam (till the output of the detector reading shows minimum value-zero). Record the laser
detector’s (kept in mA range) output current readings in small steps (say 0.25 mm, half turn)
and scan the entire beam from one extreme to the other.
2. Plot the detector current Vs distance graph for both directions (preferably using software).
Calculate the maximum current on the graph and find its (1/e²=0.135) value on the curve.
From this you can find the beam spot size (ω1) as shown in the figure.
2. Divergence angle
1. We have to evaluate the beam spot size at two different positions. First find the beam spot size
at one position say Z1 (previous part of this experiment). This is the reading of the
micrometer at the back side of the detector (Z micrometer). Let us denote the beam spot
size as ω1 (as mentioned earlier). Then move the detector backward or forward using the Z
micrometer. This is the Z2 position (Ex: 5 complete rotation to the micrometer knob). Find
the beam spot at this position which is denoted by ω2.
2. Then “d” is given by d=|Z 2−Z 1| .
3. The Beam Divergence Angle θ=tan −1 ( d )

|w2−w1|
Gaussian nature, Beam spot, and Angle of divergence evaluation tabulation table
From Graph: Laser beam spot size in X direction ωz=1 = ……….

From Graph: Laser beam spot size in X direction ωz=2 = ……….
Result:
1. The average diameter of the given laser beam (source) is given byω avg=¿
2. The Beam divergence angle of the given laser source is given by θ=¿
NMR Theory
Table (given data): Temperature dependent spin-lattice relaxation data (NMR) for Trimethylammonium
trichloro Germanate (CH3)3NHGeCl3
Sl. Remarks
No. error in 1/T 1 ln ( 1/T 1 )
Temper 1000/T SLR
ature SLR time (∆T ¿¿ 1) ¿
T (K) T 1 (ms) time (ms)
1 392 2179 89
2 376 1891 129
3 339 1728 90
4 329 1653 56
5 314 1288 59
6 309 1017 92
7 304 920 50
8 299 791 15
9 299 788 35
10 298 796 64
11 292 653 20
12 279 567 14
13 276 382 10
14 272 377 11
15 270 300 5
16 266 262 5
17 260 190 5
18 255 145 3
19 251 98 2
20 235 48 1
Experiment # 2:
Analyse the temperature dependent 1H NMR T1 relaxation data to identify the
phase transition temperatures and estimate the activation energies (Ea) in
(CH3)3NHGeCl3
Aim: Identification of phase transition temperatures and estimation of activation energies (Ea)
from solid-state NMR data of Trimethyl ammonium trichloro Germanate (CH 3)3NHGeCl3
Requirements: 1H NMR relaxation rates and Differential Scanning Calorimetry data as a

function of temperature, data analysis software.
Principle: The hindered motions in certain systems/compounds can be probed using the

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) technique. The NMR relaxation rate studies, such as spin-
lattice relaxation or spin-spin relaxation rates, are used to probe the characteristic properties
of the associated motions. Thermally activated motions, of different time scales, are
characterised using temperature as well as frequency dependent NMR relaxation data and
temperature dependent DSC measurements.
Introduction/Theory: NMR is a resonance phenomenon occurs when the right frequency of

electromagnetic spectrum interacts with the given material/compound, which is under the
influence of Internal or external magnetic field. Nuclear energy level, corresponding to the
nuclear quantum number I, split in to 2I+1 energy levels, thereby distributing atoms
themselves according to Boltzman distribution, in the presence of magnetic field. The
transitions among these energy levels lead to NMR signal. Depending on the nature of the
sorroundings/lattice and bonding with neighboring atoms, nuclei, take their own time to settle
down in their energy levels. The time taken by nuclei to distribute among energy levels is
generally referred as spin-lattice relaxation time (T1) and the time taken for spins to diphase in
the individual state is referred as spin-spin relaxation time (T2). The T2 relaxation can be
calculated, with reasonable approximations, using full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the
recorded NMR spectrum. The motions associated with the molecule can be charecterized by
measuring T1 as a function of temperature as well as frequency. Further, If the given
compound/molecule undergoes phase transition/s, temperature dependent NMR T1 data can
quantify the phase transition temperatures. Further, the change in the slope of the relaxation
data yields activation energies associated with different phases at different temperature
intervals using arrhenius relation (since thermally activated motions follow arrhenius
behaviour).
*Differential scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements are based on the principle that,
compounds do lose weight, when the given material undergoes a phase transition and can be
quantified with enthalpy peaks in the DSC data.*
In the present experiment, we have to analyse temperature dependent NMR relaxation data
for identification of possible phase transitions and compare its characteristics with that of DSC
data for the same compound. Estimate the activation energies of the compound in different
temperature regions (in all different phases).
Data for the analysis (for Instructors reference only)
Your data/plots should look like these!
a)
a)
a)
a)
a)
a)
a)
a) For the entire temperature region b) one temperature region (replicate it to

other two regions)
Theory
The T1 behaviour in tetramethylammonium compounds can be explained using a modified
Bloembergen-Purcell-Pound approach, as given by Albert et al. Albert et al have studied the 1H
T1 in several tetramethylammonium halides and the experimental results have been analyzed
by considering the tetramethylammonium(TMA) ion and methyl group reorientations about
their C3 axes. They modulate the intra-methyl and inter methyl dipole-dipole interactions and
facilitate the spin lattice relaxation.
The simplified mathematical expression for the spin-lattice relaxation time can be written as
in which, γ = 2.675 x 104 G-1 s-1 is the nuclear gyromagnetic ratio of protons, r is the inter
proton distance within the methyl group and ω is the larmour frequency (frequency at which
experiment was performed for a specific field strength). For thermally activated random
processes, the temperature dependence of the correlation time ( c) is given any the arrhenius
equation
Ea
τ c =τ c 0 e .
KT
Where τ c0 is called as pre-exponential factor, which gives the time scale of the motion and Ea is
called activation energy of the respective motion (ex: CH 3), which basically refers to energy
required to move from one equivalent configuration to the other equivalent configuration.
In the present experiment, we have to analyse temperature dependent NMR relaxation data
for possible phase transitions and compare its characteristics with that of DSC data for the
same compound. Estimate the activation energies of the compound in different temperature
regions.
At high temperature region, when ωτ <<1, the equation becomes larmour frequency
independent and reduces to
The internal reorientation motion/s for a molecule is characterized by correlation time τ c and
one can measure the motional parameters of the symmetric group/s in a given molecule by
analyzing the temperature dependent spin-lattice relaxation time data.
E
1
a
KT
=5 C τ c0 e
T1
In the present case, we are dealing with motions of methyl and trimethylammonium groups.
Graph: Differential Calorimetry thermogram for Trimethylammonium trichloro Germanate

(CH3)3NHGeCl3 (The identified peaks represent phase transition temperatures)
Results:
Phase Phase Activation Pre- Remarks/comparison

transition transition energy Ea in exponential
temperatures temperatures kJ mol factor
(NMR) in K (DSC) in K
Procedure:
 With the given NMR data of spin-lattice relaxation times as function of temperature,
plot relaxation rate ( 1/T 1 ) as a function of 1000/T which should tend to show linear
tendency (along with error bar!) with different slopes.
 Identify the range of temperatures over which data look linear (in logarithmic scale).
 Plot ln ( 1/T 1 ) as a function of 1000/T for these regions separately and calculate the
slopes and intercepts by fitting the data (software) with linear equation for each
temperature range (You can also do these calculations with manual plot).
1 Ea Ea 1000
ln ( )=ln ( 5 C τ c 0 ) + =ln ( 5 C τ c 0 ) + ( )
T1 KT K T
 Calculate the corresponding slopes and intercepts

with linear equation (by selecting few points) for each temperature range.
Activation energy (in kJ mol1), Ea = K * NA * slope = (1.38 * 6.022) = 8.316 * slope
 Intercept = ln ( 5 C τ c 0 ) Calculate τ c0 by refereeing to the reference material and equation given
above
 Identify the temperatures, at which slope/linearity changes and make a note of them as
phase transition temperatures.
 Tabulate the findings like phase transition temperatures, activation energies and pre-
exponential factors.
 With the given DSC data, plot heat flow as a function of temperature OR with the given
DSC graph, identify the phase transition temperatures.
 Identify the enthalpy peaks (major deviations from smooth line) and note down their
temperatures (centers of the peaks) and tabulate them.
Reference:
1. C. N. R. Rao and K. J. Rao, Phase Transitions in Solids (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978), p.
43
2. Slichter CP. Principles of Magnetic Resonance (Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelburg,
New York, 1978).
3. Abragam A. The Principles of Nuclear Magnetism (Oxford University Press, Oxford,
UK, 1961).
4. K. J. Mallikarjunaiah and Ramakrishna Damle, Solid-state NMR and its implications in
molecular dynamics study (Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany, 2011) Chap- 1, 5
5. K. J. Mallikarjunaiah, K. P. Ramesh and R. Damle, phys. stat. sol. (b) 244, 3819-3816 DOI
10.1002/pssb.200743104
Compare these temperatures with that of NMR, and comment on their correlation, if any OR
if not, give reasons.
Error analysis: Both instrumental and data (computational) errors to be discussed
Diagram:
4
3
2
1
0 (cm1)
4
3 P
2 3 P R Rstd (cm)
1 2 2
P R Calibration Graph
1 R 1
0 0 :
Observations:
Mass of hydrogen atom = m1 =1.008 x 1.66 x 1027 kg
Mass of bromide atom = m2 =79.916 x 1.66 x 1027 kg
h = Planck’s constant (6.64 x 1034 Js)
Rj -Pj
c = velocity of light (3 x 108 m s1)
energy Wave number Scale reading

1
❑ (cm ) Rstd (cm)
2j+1
0.300 2420
0.310 2500
0.320 2581
0.330 2662
0.340 2742
Experiment # 3:
Analysis of Rotation-Vibration spectrum of diatomic molecule (HBr)
Aim:
To analyze the given rotation-vibration spectrum of HBr molecule and to estimate the inter
nuclear distance in V = 1 state.
Apparatus:
Meter scale, table lamp and rotation-vibration spectrum of HBr gas.
Principle:
When transition takes place from V=0 to V=1 state, then transitions among different
rotational levels present between these two states follows the selection rule. The
absorption peaks obtained on higher wave number side of the spectrum corresponding to
transitions are called R branch peaks and absorption peaks obtained on lower wave
number side of the spectrum corresponding to transitions are called P=branch peaks.
The distance between the two consecutive peaks is 2B, where B is the rotational constant
from which inter nuclear distance can be estimated.
Formula:
Where,
m1 = mass of hydrogen atom (Kg)
m2 = mass of Bromine atom (kg)
h = Planck’s constant (6.64 x 10-34Js)

c = velocity of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
 = reduced mass of the molecule (kg)
Procedure:
I = MI of the molecule (kgm2)
1. The readings (Rstd) is noted down corresponding to the standard wave numbers ( ❑
B = the rotational constant
(cm1)) and the graph of Rstd / ❑ (cm1)) is plotted.
2. Now without disturbing the meter scale readings corresponding R-branch and P-branch
peaks are noted down.
3. Wave numbers for these peaks are noted down from the calibration graph. The graph
of (Rj - Pj) versus (2j + 1) is plotted. The slope of the straight line obtained gives 2B.
4. On substituting the value of B in the formula given above, inter nuclear distance “r0“ of
HBr molecule in V = 1 state is calculated.
P R
Sketch of the vibration-rotation spectrum of HBr
P3 R3
P2 R2
P1 R1
Scale readings of R Scale readings of P wave number wave number

Rj – Pj cm-1 2j+ 1
branch peaks (cm) branch peaks (cm) Rj (cm-1) Pj (cm-1)
R1 = P1 =
R2 = P2 =
R3 = P3 =
R4 = P4 =
R5 = P5 =
R6 = P6 =
R7 = P7 =
R8 = P8 =
R9 = P9 =
R10 = P10 =
Result:
The inter-nuclear distance r0 of HBr molecule was found to be ……………..….m
Experimental set-up to determine e/m
(front view)
(top view)
Fig. The compass

placed in the
magnetometer to
measure B
Experiment # 4:
Measurement of Specific charge of an electron (e/m) by Thomson’s Method
Aim:
To measure the charge to mass ratio of the electron.
Apparatus:
1000 V power supply with deflection voltage ± 25 V, X-shift, focus and intensity controls. A
deflection magnetometer with U-shaped stand and a set of bar magnets
Theory:
If an electric field, E, is applied between the two plates perpendicular to the direction of
electron beam passing through the space between the plates, the force acting on an electron in
the upward direction of motion is given by [2,3]
F= eE
where F is the force acting on an electron, e is the electronic charge =1.6x10 -19 coulomb, and E is
the applied electric field. Because of the applied electric field, electrons travel in a semicircular
path and strike the screen at the point M1. By reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to
the plate, electrons can be moved in the downward direction in a semicircular path as shown in
Figure.
++++++ ------
P P
Q Q
------ +++++ +
Deflecting plates Deflecting plates
Deflection of electron beam by an electric filed

Instead of electric field if we apply a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of electron
flow, similar deflection of the beam takes place by reversing the magnetic field in which case
also the direction of the beam gets reversed similar to the deflection caused by the electric
field. If r is the radius of the semicircular path traversed by an electron in the magnetic field,
e v
the force acting on the electron is given by 2
Bev=m v /r ; ¿
m Br
Where B is the applied magnetic field, v is the velocity of the electron at the point where it enters
the magnetic field, and r is the radius of the circular path traversed by the electron.
In order to determine the ratio e/m, one needs to know the value of the magnetic field applied,
the velocity of the electron, and radius of semicircular path traced by the electron.
Observations:
Deflection of the Applied voltage

Tri Magnetometer deflection
spot (mm) (V) Mean
al Yavg *Vavg tan2 

No. Y1 Y2 Yavg V1 V2 Vavg
Formula
k = Cathode ray tube constant (1.06 x 10 -4 m3)
BH = Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field (0.35 x 10 -4 T)
Slope = Slope (AB/BC) obtained from YV v/s tan2 graph
A
YV
C B
Representative graph
tan2
Experimental procedure
1. The magnetic meridian, giving the direction of earth’s North-South magnetic field, is
marked on the center of a study table.
2. The U-shaped stand is placed on the table and its two arms are made perpendicular to
the magnetic meridian.
3. The CRT is now placed in the arms of the U-shaped stand. In this position the axis of the
CRT is parallel to the earth’s magnetic field.
4. The CRT is now connected to the power supply kept away from the CRT and is switched
on. The brightness and focus knobs are adjusted to get a bright spot on the CRT screen.
Keep Y- deflection voltage knob turned to the minimum position and adjust X-deflection
knob to bring the position of the spot on the screen to the center (scale) on the screen
along x-axis. Initial position of the spot along Y-axis is recorded as reference point (say
Yref = -0.4 cm or +0.6 cm).
5. The two bar magnets are placed on either side with opposite poles and at equal
distance from the tube on the two arms of the U-shaped deflection magnetometer
stand. The distance, D, is read from the scale. D = 3 cm on the left arm and 3 cm on the
right arm.
6. The spot moves up or down (Y-direction) depending on how the bar magnets are
placed.
7. The distance moved by the spot on the screen, with respect to reference point, noted.
This is the ‘y’ deflection y = cm
8. The Y-deflection voltage is now applied so that the spot comes back to its reference
position (Yref). The required voltage is read from the digital meter. This gives the value
of V as V1= Volt
9. This completes the first trial (all values are labelled as subscript 1). Remove the
magnets. The Y-deflection (by turning the voltage knob) is now brought back to Yref.
Now the magnets are positioned at 4 cm on both the arms to repeat the experiment.
Note the distance moved by the spot, y = cm and its corresponding voltage (to bring it
back to reference point) V1= V.
10. The trial is repeated by keeping the two magnets at different distances on the arms and
applying voltage to bring the spot back to Yref position. The readings obtained are
tabulated.
11. In the second part of the experiment the position of the magnets is reversed so that the
deflection of the spot is on the opposite side. The polarity of the deflecting voltage is
also reversed by turning the switch to the reverse position. The readings of deflection
y2, and voltage V2 for different positions of the magnet are recorded in Table. All these
values are labelled with subscript 2. Complete the calculations by taking yavg and Vavg.
Background theory (qualitative)

Determination of electron velocity (v)
With the application of electric field, the electron beam moves to position M1 as shown in
Figure-2. Now the magnetic field is applied so that the beam deflects back to its original
position at O. When the magnetic force is equal to the electric force, the beam comes back to
its original position. Hence one can write
e E
Bev = eE or v=¿ E /B or ¿ 2
m B r
Thus the electron velocity is equal to the ratio of the two applied fields which is known. Hence
v can be determined.
Determination of radius (r) of the semicircular path traced by the electron beam (needs fine
tuning, qualitative analysis)
In order to determine the radius, r, one needs to consider the geometry of electron path as
shown in Figure given below. An electron entering between the pair of plates PQ at O will trace
an arc and leave the plates at R and then move in a straight line path and strike the screen at
the point M2. OA is the path traced by the electron when there is no applied field. The line
joining the electron path after leaving the plates is extrapolated to meet the OA line at T. Two
perpendicular lines OC and RC are drawn to meet at C which forms the circle of radius r. OC
and CR are two perpendicular lines drawn to meet at C.
From the geometry one can write
angle (OCR) =angle (ATM2) = θ, then tan θ=¿ ?
If L is distance between the screen and center of the two
parallel plates, AT= L, OX is the length of the parallel plates
OX= l
LM2 = y is the distance the spot moves on the screen, which
can be measured on the graduated screen of the CRT.
Substituting for radius and velocity, e/m is given by
Where d L l is the CRT constant k
12. The CRT is now removed without disturbing the arms and a compass is placed in its
place with its pointer reading 90 0-900 along the magnetic meridian and 0 0-00
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian, as shown in Figure-2.
13. The magnets are reversed in their positions and the deflection angle, θ, of the compass
needle is noted for various positions of the magnet and recorded in the table. 1 and 2
for opposite directions of the needle and 3 and 4 for opposite directions of the
needle when magnetic field directions were reversed.
14. A graph is drawn with Tan 2θ on X-axis and the product ‘Vy’ on Y-axis. The slope of the
straight line is determined as
e vy
=
m K B 2H tan 2 θ
Slope = Vy/tan2θ
e slope
=
m K B2H
Where k = Cathode ray tube constant
Result: The ratio e/m is found to be
Circuit diagram and experimental setup
Material: Wavelength (nm) Spectral

Copper Observed Standard sensitivity
(%)
Violet-1 400.3
Violet-2 405.0
Blue-1 425.8
Blue-2 467.4
Green-1 511.1
Green-2 514.4
Green-3 520.0
Green-4 535.2
Yellow-1 573.2
Experiment # 5:
Arc Spectrum
Objectives:
1. To observe the arc spectrum of different metals and measure the corresponding
emission wavelengths
2. To calculate spectral sensitivity of the spectrometer
Apparatus:
Pairs of copper, iron and Aluminium electrodes, arc stand, choke, power supply
Choke
Arc spectrum apparatus
Theory:
When a large current is passed through two closely held metal electrodes, it produces
arc light which can be analyzed using a digital constant deviation spectrometer. The
spectral signatures of copper, iron and Aluminium and compare them with the
corresponding standard wavelengths. The wavelengths determined differ from their
corresponding standard values due to problems of CDS calibration, impurities present
in the metal electrodes etc. To account for these discrepancies, a parameter, called
spectral sensitivity, is defined as
∆
Spectral sensitivity, Ss = λ x100% …1
λ
where ∆λ is the change in the wavelength; and λ is the corresponding

standard wavelength which is known from literature. Smaller the magnitudes of this
parameter, more accurate are the measurements.
Material Wavelength (nm) Spectral

Iron Observed Standard sensitivity (%)
Violet-1 415.6
Violet-2 417.5
Violet-3 422.7
Violet-4 425.3
Violet-5 428.3
Violet-6 430.0
Violet-7 435.0
Violet-8 437.0
Green-1 490.8
Green-2 495.7
Green-3 520.2
Green-4 522.6
Green-5 526.6
Green-6 532.4
Material Wavelength (nm) Spectral sensitivity

Aluminium Observed Standard (%)
Violet-1 396.1
Violet-2 NA -
Violet-1 NA -
Violet-1 NA -
Violet-1 NA -
Violet-1 NA -
Blue NA -
Green NA -
Yellow NA -
Procedure:
1. A pair of zinc electrodes is selected and one end of these is cleaned and made pointed
by sharpening with the help of a grinder.
2. The electrodes are fixed on to the stand as shown in Figure and electrical connections are
made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. The upper electrode is moved down so that it touches the lower electrode and current
starts flowing by adjusting the height using the rack and pinion arrangement provided on
the electrode stand.
4. The ‘Set-voltage’ knob of the power supply is adjusted such that continuous light is
obtained which illuminates the slit of the DCDS.
5. The spectrum produced by the arc light is observed through the eye piece. The
wavelength of each of the lines is recorded by coinciding with the respective spectral
lines with the cross wire of the DCDS
Result: The spectra for different metals are observed and its sensitivity is
monitored
Schematic energy level diagram of iodine
Experiment # 6:
Absorption spectrum of Iodine vapour using digital constant deviation spectrometer
Objective:
To study the absorption spectrum of iodine vapour with Digital Constant Deviation spectrometer and
then to determine:
(a) the energy level diagram of iodine molecule
(b) the electronic energy gap and vibrational energies
(c) bond dissociation limit and anhormonicity
(d) force constant for the excited state
Apparatus : Digital Constant deviation spectrometer, an incandescent bulb of 60 to 100 watts, a long
glass tube with plane windows to hold the iodine vapour.
Theory:
According to Schrödinger equation every bound system of particles can have only discrete energy levels
and any transition between two such levels results in absorption or emission of a photon with energy
equal to energy difference of the two levels. In this experiment, a white light source with a continuous
spectrum is used to excite the molecules of iodine vapour. When the spectrum of light after passing
through the iodine vapour is analysed by a spectrometer, it is observed that specific wavelengths are
absorbed. Each absorbed wavelength will appear as a dark line in the spectrum corresponding to the
difference of different energy states of iodine molecule. The characteristics of the iodine molecule can
be determined from this spectrum. The absorption lines will appear as narrow bands due to
superposition of hot bands and rotational bands which remain unresolved in this set up. Thus, one can
estimate the approximate values of highest and lowest energy levels due to absorption.
The potential energy experienced by the electrons in a molecule in any "bound state" is described by
the anharmonic Morse potential.
2
U ( r )=D e [ 1−exp ⁡−a (r−r e ) ] …………………….. (1)
where De is the depth of the potential well, r e is the internuclear distance between the atoms at the
energy minimum (also called the bond length), a is the constant for a particular molecule given as:
a=ν e
√ 2 π 2 cμ
h De
……………….(2)
where ν e is the wavenumber corresponding to the harmonic vibrational frequency (in cm -1) in the given
electronic state and µ is the reduced mass of the system. Solving the Schrodinger equation with Morse
potential the vibrational energy states can be obtained as follows
( )
E ( ν ) =ν e ν+
1
2 ( )
−ν e χ e ν +
1 2
2
where χ e =ν e /4 D e is the anharmonicity constant
Vibronic transition in iodine:
Molecular iodine is purple in colour because it absorbs light in the visible (yellow) region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The absorption involves the following transition
(X, 𝛎′′)→ (B, 𝛎′). where X represents the ground state and B is the first excited electronic energy state.
ν′′ (=0, 1, 2 etc) and ν′ (=0, 1, 2, etc) represent the vibrational quantum numbers in the ground and
excited electronic states, respectively.
The representative continuous and absorption spectrum observed for Iodine molecule.
Observations (Iodine vapour)
Difference in
Sl. Wavenumber Energy
wave number
No.  (nm) νe (eV)
∆ νe
Figure shows a schematic energy level diagram of iodine with ground and first excited electronic state
along with the vibrational states. At room temperature most of the molecules of iodine reside in
ground state ν′′ =0. When a beam of light having continuous spectrum is made to pass through the
iodine vapour the first transition corresponds to ν′′ =0 to ν′ = 0 which is labelled as 0←0 absorption line.
The next peak corresponds to the 1←0 transition, the third, 2←0 and so on. However, according to
Franck-Condon principle, only those transition will be much more probable for which the wave
functions of the two states overlap effectively. For iodine molecule the wave functions don't
significantly overlap with the ground state wave function. So the transitions are usually in the range 20
to 50← 0.
Usually a series of narrow bands are observed in the absorption spectrum instead of sharp lines. This is
due to transitions involving excited vibrational levels in the ground state (hot bands, ν′′≠0) and
rotational levels. At the upper edge of the well (ν′à ∞, let us denote it as ν′ max), the vibrational energy
spacing decreases to 0, which means that the energies form a continuum rather than being quantized. It
is at this limit where bond dissociation occurs.
From Fig. 1 the bond dissociation energy in the excited state (D 0’) is the difference in energy values at ν
′= 0 and ν′max : D o = E (ν′= ν′max) – E (ν′=0) ……………….(3)
During testing of the setup, it is observed that the vibrionic energy levels are coarsely equi-spaced
whereas the difference of the levels should decrease towards higher levels.
We can calculate the energy values (put 𝑥e=0 in Eq. 3) and force constant etc. If ∆ ν e avg is the average
value of change in wave number of two consecutive states, then the force constant, f, of iodine
2
molecule in excited state is given as: 𝑓 = 4𝜋2𝜇( c ∆ ν eavg ) ………………………….(4)
Procedure:
1. Place the tube filled with iodine specks in between the incandescent lamp and the slit of the
collimator. Wait till the tube becomes filled with iodine vapour which will look purple in colour.
2. Observe the spectrum through the telescope adjusting the focus. You will observe narrow dark
bands in the continuous spectrum as shown in Fig.
3. Note down the wavelength readings of each dark band and calculate the corresponding
wavenumber.
4. The approximate energy gap is determined from the highest wavelength.
5. Determine the bond dissociation energy ( De ) from eqn. (3) (from wavelengths of two extreme
lines of the whole observed spectrum).
6. Also calculate the difference between two consecutive vibronic levels in terms of wave number
and determine the average difference in the wave number ∆ ν e avg
7. Calculate the force constant from eqn. (4) with  being the reduced mass of the Iodine
molecule ( = m*m/2m, m= Mass of Iodine atom )
8. Anhormonicity constant can be calculated using the following formula χ e =ν e /4 De .
Result:
1. The force constant (f) for the Iodine molecule is found to be =

2. The Anharmoniciy constant ( χ e ¿ for the Iodine molecule is found to be =
3. The bond dissociation energy ( D e ) for the Iodine molecule is found to be =
Observations with digital constant deviation spectrometer
( )
color Measured Intensity Standard n1 n2 1 1
− 2
wavelength wavelength 2
n 1 n2
λ (nm) (nm)
Red 656 2 3
Cyan 486 2 4
violet 434 2 5
violet 410 2 6
2 7
Nature of graph:
A
Atomic & Molecular Physics and Laboratory - Lab
1/ λmanual (AY: 2022-23) (Dr. KJM) 40
C B
Experiment # 7:
Determination of Rydberg’s constant from the Hydrogen Spectrum
Objectives:
1. Measure the wavelengths of Balmer series spectral lines of Hydrogen spectrum and
calculate the Rydberg’s constant.
Apparatus
Digital constant deviation spectrometer, Power supply, hydrogen discharge tube and stand
Theory
In the 19th century, much before the advent of Quantum Mechanics, physicists devoted a
considerable effort to spectroscopy trying to deduce some physical properties of atoms and
molecules by investigating the electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by them. Many
spectra have been studied in detail and amongst them, the hydrogen emission spectrum which
is relatively simple and shows regularity, was most intensely studied. According to Bohr's
model of hydrogen atom, the wavelengths of Balmer series spectral lines are given by
1
λ (
1 1
=R y 2 − 2
n 1 n2 )
For Balmer series corresponding to the visible region n1 =2 and n2 =3, 4, 5, 6 etc.
4
me
R y = 2 3 is the Rydberg’s constant
8 ε0 h c
Procedure:
1. Fix the hydrogen discharge tube on the stand and connect the power supply.
2. Align the collimator of the digital constant deviation spectrometer to the discharge
tube and observe the hydrogen spectrum and measure the wavelengths in the
visible region and tabulate in table.
(
1 1
3. Calculate the Rydberg’s constant from the graph of 2 − 2 vs 1/ λ
n1 n2 )
Result:
The value of Rydberg’s constant is found to be
A diagram of the energy levels of

the helium atom. The two circled
levels represent the metastable
energy levels which are quantum
mechanically forbidden from
decaying to the ground state
energy due to the conservation of
angular momentum.
Experiment # 8:
Helium Emission Spectrum
Objective
1. To observe the emission spectrum of Helium using Digital constant Deviation
Spectrometer
2. Calculate the energies and draw the energy level diagram and compare to standard
data
Apparatus
DCDS, power supply and Helium discharge tube
Theory
Emission spectra can be a unique fingerprint of an atom or molecule. The photon energies and
wavelengths are directly related to the allowed quantum energy states of the system.
Helium wavelengths in nm through a grating

(in nm)
438.793 weak
443.755 weak
447.148 strong
471.341 medium
492.193 medium
501.567 strong
504.774 weak
581.562 strong
667.815 medium
(source: Hyperphysics )
Observations:
Sl. color Intensity Wavenumber Energy

No. Wavelength
νe eV
Λ (nm)
Explanation of the spectrum:

The emission spectrum of helium consists of a number of series in the visible region of the spectrum, as
well as in the near and far ultraviolet regions. There are two series of S terms, two series of P terms, and
so on. In the energy level diagram of above figure the terms are distinguished by
and so on. The splitting into two schemes is due to the interaction between the two electrons in Helium
which can give rise to a symmetric or antisymmetric wave functions. The potential energy of the system
is given by
2 2 2
−2 e 2 e e
V= - +
r1 r 2 r 12
r1 and r2 are the distances of the electrons from the nucleus and r 12 is the distance between the two
electrons. We can treat it like a perturbed system and the wavefunctions are:
Ψ s=φ1 (1)φn (2)+φn (1) φ1(2) ; Ψ A =φ 1 ( 1 ) φn ( 2 )−φ n (1)φ1
Ψ s is the symmetric wavefunction and Ψ A is antisymmetric wavefunction.
φ 1 ( 1 ) φn (2) represents electron1 in ground state and electron 2 in the state with principal quantum
number n (excited state). Similarly, φ n (1)φ1 (2) represents electron 1 in excited state corresponding to
principal quantum number n and electron 2 in ground state.
The above considerations show that, to every one excited state of the hydrogen atom with certain n
and I values, there correspond, in the system with two electrons (He), two excited states with
somewhat different energies, due to Heisenberg's resonance. One of these states is always symmetric;
the other, antisymmetric. For the ground state, the resonance degeneracy does not exist.
Procedure:
1. Fix the Helium tube on the stand
2. Switch on the power supply and observe the glow of the discharge tube
3. Focus the digital spectrometer to get the spectrum and note down the wavelengths and the
intensities.
4. Tabulate the observations.
5. Identify the transitions.
Results:
Diagram:
Experiment # 9:
Analysis of Rotational Raman Spectrum

Aim:
To determine the rotational constants and bond length of molecule by studying its
rotational Raman spectrum
Principle:
When light from a monochromatic source is passed through a gas or liquid or a transparent
solid crystalline, it gets scattered in all directions. The scattered light consists of lines having
longer and shorter wavelengths called Raman lines besides the line with original wavelength
called Rayleigh line.
The energy which is absorbed or given up by the molecule may be the electronic energy,
vibrational energy or the rotational energy. Thus, there may be electronic, vibrational or
rotational Raman effects. The rotational Raman spectrum arises from transitions involving
gives Rayleigh line

gives series of longer wavelength lines (Stoke’s lines),the S branch lines.
gives series of shorter wavelength lines (antistoke’s lines) the O branch lines.
Formula:
(1) Rotational Constant B: Where (m-1)
m-1
(2) Moment of Inertia of the molecule (I)
(3) Mean bond length of the molecule (r0)
Procedure:
The positions of the peaks in the S-Branch corresponding to different J-values are noted with
respect to a reference line using an ordinary scale. The given spectrum has 4 calibration
points marked The positions of these calibration points are noted for S-
branch with respect to the same reference line using a scale.
The calibration graph of against the scale reading is plotted. The wave number of
different S(J) are obtained from the calibration graph. The readings are tabulated. Graph of
against J is plotted. The slope of the straight line obtained gives -4B.The value of B is
calculated. Thus the moment of inertia and the bond length of the molecule are calculated
using the formulae (2) and (3).
Calibration data set and Graph:
(cm-1) Scale reading (cm)

2200
2250
Scale reading (cm)

2300
2350
2400
2450
(cm-1)
Stoke’s lines (S branch)
J Scale reading (cm) (cm-1)

0
1
2
3
4
(cm-1)
5 C
6 A B
7 Slope = BC / AB
8
J
9
10
11
12
Result:
slope
(i) Rotational constant of N 2 molecule, B= =………………………
4
(ii) Mean Bond length of N 2molecule, r 0 =………………
Schematic representation (analogous information)
Block diagram of Zeeman effect experimental setup
PRECAUTIONS
1. Each individual unit (camera, etalon housing, filter, polarizer and focusing lens) should be
covered immediately after the experiment to avoid dust settling over them.
2. The room should be never dusted without the dust-covers on the instrument.
3. The etalon glass surface should NEVER be touched by bare hand or with any metallic object.
Experiment # 10:
Zeeman Effect setup
Aim:
To determine the value of the Bohr Magneton from Zeeman Effect setup.
Principle:
Procedure:
(I) Calibration of EMU-50V
1. Adjust spacing between pole pieces using space
provided.
2. The space between the pole piece should be centered
along the electromagnet center line marked in white.
3. Take out the Hall Probe of the Gaussmeter from its
casing and switch ON the unit, keeping the probe away from electromagnet or any other
magnetic
Energy material.
level diagram: Adjustofthe
Structure theGaussmeter reading to Zero by “Zero
Zeeman multiplet Adj.”and
Reflected knob.
transmitted rays at the
arising in a transition from a 3S1 to a 3P2 level; the mercury two parallel surface
4. Place the DGM-102 Hall Probe along the centre of EMU-50 using the Probe Holder provided.
green line at 5461A is an example of such a transition. (1) and (2) of a Fabry Perot etalon. The
The alignment of probe should be parallel to the face of the pole pieces, i.e. perpendicular to
etalon spacing is t.
the magnetic field.
5. Check the sign in Gaussmeter. In case it shows -ve sign, turn the direction of Hall Probe by 180 o.
6. Take the reading of Gaussmeter at zero current. It corresponds to the residual magnetic field of
electromagnet.
7. Now slowly increase the DPS-50 current in small steps and make a table of current vs. magnetic
field upto a maximum current of 4A.
8. Plot a graph between the current and the magnetic field. It will be used later in the calculation.
A. Measurement of Bohr Magneton:

The setup is arranged in transverse geometry, that is, the light beam is perpendicular to the
magnetic field direction.
Thickness of air gap for Etalon t = 5 mm = 0.5 cm
Magnetic Field H = 11.70 k Gauss
Micrometer initial reading Ri = 7.81 mm
(Representative values are given exclusively for cross reference purposes)
(II) Setting up of Experiment
1. Remove the gauss meter probe from electromagnet.

2. Place Mercury Discharge Tube using the Holder provided, aligning the same with the center of
electromagnet. The position of light emitting hole should face the narrow band filter on the
optical bench.
3. Place the set of converging lens and polarizer as near to the filter as possible.
4. Set the distance between Etalon plate holder to near 8 mm (using the spacer provided). This will
make the effective distance between the Etalon plates as 4 mm, which is a part of calculation.
5. To obtain fringes
a) Place the components on the optical bench as shown in Fig
b) Adjust the height of all the components as is done in other optical experiments e.g.
Nodal Slide/ Bi-prism so that the overall optical axis lies in the same straight line.
c) Move No. 6 and No. 7 further away so that it becomes convenient to peep through etalon
with naked eye.
d) While observing through the etalon you may see multiple images of the slit as shown in Fig.
6.
e) While observing the slit images, adjust the two screws provided on the etalon VERY
CAREFULLY so that the images collapse to a single slit.
f) As soon as it is achieved, the fringes will be seen even with naked eye.
g) Bring No. 6 and No. 7 closer now and adjust No. 7 by moving back and forth to get clear
fringes on the TV (monitor) screen.
h) h) Adjust the two screws on the etalon further (VERY CAREFULLY) to obtain the fringes in
the centre of the TV screen.
(III) Taking observations
1. Set the center of the specified line at the cross section as marked on your TV screen.
2. Apply maximum magnetic field. Visible splitting of spectrum lines will appear on the TV screen.
3. Adjust the polarizer to focus the fringes.
4. Bring the inner most splitting of the 1st spectrum line at the cross section and note the
micrometer reading. This position is Ri.
5. Now move the micrometer to adjust the second spectral splitting of the 1st line at the cross wire
and note its reading.
6. Similarly take readings of splittings in different spectral lines.
7. Complete the observation table as given.
(contd..)
REFERENCES
1. A. C. Melissinos, ‘Experiments in Modern Physics’, Academic Press, N. Y. (1966).
RESULTS
Calculated Value of Bohr Magneton b = amp m2

(Standard Value of Bohr Magneton is 0.927X10-23 amp m2)
Graph sheets
Scale:
X-axis
10 divs =
1 div =?
Y axis
10 divs =
1 div =?

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BSc Physics, Semester-5

Department of Physics, MSRUAS

Name of the student

Course Code : 18MPL312A

Name of the Student :

Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

7. There are two components for assessment in this course:

09 Analysis of Rotational Raman spectra of N2 molecule.

10 To determine value of the Bohr Magneton from Zeeman

Lab Internal Test

Date of Write up Performance Calculation Viva voce Total

Staff in-charge: A-Performance, B-Calculation and graph and C-Viva

Programme BSc (Physics) Semester/Batch 5 / 2021

Course Code 18MPL312A

Course Title Atomic & Molecular Spectroscopy and Laboratory

be dealt with accordingly.

Signature of the Student Date

Submission date stamp

Signature of the Course Leader and date

Experimental set-up for Spot size

Emax /e² 0.135 * Emax

Experimental set-up for Divergence

Distance Output Distance Output Distance Output Distance Output

3. The Beam Divergence Angle θ=tan −1 ( d )

From Graph: Laser beam spot size in X direction ωz=1 = ……….

Requirements: 1H NMR relaxation rates and Differential Scanning Calorimetry data as a

Principle: The hindered motions in certain systems/compounds can be probed using the

Introduction/Theory: NMR is a resonance phenomenon occurs when the right frequency of

Data for the analysis (for Instructors reference only)

Your data/plots should look like these!

a) For the entire temperature region b) one temperature region (replicate it to

Graph: Differential Calorimetry thermogram for Trimethylammonium trichloro Germanate

Phase Phase Activation Pre- Remarks/comparison

 Calculate the corresponding slopes and intercepts

Error analysis: Both instrumental and data (computational) errors to be discussed

h = Planck’s constant (6.64 x 1034 Js)

energy Wave number Scale reading

h = Planck’s constant (6.64 x 10-34Js)

Scale readings of R Scale readings of P wave number wave number

Experimental set-up to determine e/m

Fig. The compass

Deflection of electron beam by an electric filed

Deflection of the Applied voltage

k = Cathode ray tube constant (1.06 x 10 -4 m3)

BH = Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field (0.35 x 10 -4 T)

Slope = Slope (AB/BC) obtained from YV v/s tan2 graph

Background theory (qualitative)

Result: The ratio e/m is found to be

Circuit diagram and experimental setup

Material: Wavelength (nm) Spectral

where ∆λ is the change in the wavelength; and λ is the corresponding

Material Wavelength (nm) Spectral

Material Wavelength (nm) Spectral sensitivity

Schematic energy level diagram of iodine

Vibronic transition in iodine:

Observations (Iodine vapour)

1. The force constant (f) for the Iodine molecule is found to be =

Observations with digital constant deviation spectrometer

A diagram of the energy levels of

Helium wavelengths in nm through a grating

Sl. color Intensity Wavenumber Energy

Explanation of the spectrum:

Analysis of Rotational Raman Spectrum