{THE NATURE OF STRESS-STRATN BEHAVIOR FOR SOILS by Bobby 0. Hardin’, M., ASCE assrRact Studies in colt dynanies have made unique contributions to the understanding of sofl behavior for saall, nearly elastic, strains, while studies in soil statics have shed Light oa the plastic behavior and strength of soils. This paper attenpts to synthesize information from soil dynamics and statics into a comprehensive three-dimensionsl ef fec~ tive stress-strain relation for soils, that vill apply to static and dynamic, single or cyclic loadings of cohestonlese or cohesive softs, accounting for inherent and stress induced anisotropy. A set of equa tons 1s presented that provide the general framework. Many of the detatis have been worked out, but others require further investigation. Sone of the interrelationships betueen stress-dtlatancy, critical state soil mechantes, work-hardening plastictty, empirical equations for ‘nodulus and tho hyperbolic stress-strain relation are demonstrated. Although an effective stress-strain relation ie formulated, 4t 48 be Afeved that it will wleinately be applfed to undrained and partially drained solls. "Te is believed that the ultinate solution to these prob- lens lies in effective stress analyeis. Of course, thia does not din rRopucTioN Current analysis procedures for soil dynanies problems generally require values of soil modulus and damping. For aany problems these two paraneters adequately define the stress-strain relation for the soll, when their dependence on strain level and state of effective stress 1s considered. Such analyses are essentially one-dimensional Multi~dinensional analyses are sonetines made by assuning the soil to bbe incrementally elaatic. when this is done Poisson's ratio aust be defined. However, 1t is not possible to accurately describe the three Aisensional stress-strain behavior of go{ls in the framework of an in- remental Wooke's lav. Research in soll dynamics is now moving toward the development of thrce-dimenatonal stress-strain relations based on principles of plasticity as well as elasticity. The use of work-hardening plasticity theories in soll mechanics has been developing for about tventy years, since publication of the classi cel paper by Drucker, Gibson and Henkel (13). "Most of the research has been conducted by engineers working in the area of soil statics. The time has cone to make use of these developnants in soil dynanies. The Tprofessor of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lex., KV.4 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING objective of this paper 4s co set forth the state-of-the art with re- spect to elasto-plastic stress-strain behavior of soils. In doing this ‘a'nev threo-dimensional atress-strain relation is proposed. To the 1, is Breater than ata, uhere OCR = 1, Because of this the dashed integrated curves in Fig. 4c are different for loading and unloading. The three ‘inensional relationship between effective stress and elastic strain proposed herein defines this "son-slip” elastic or nonplastic stress~ Strain relation. Conceptual Models for Purely Elastic Strain ‘ne can imagine the nature of this effective stress ~ elastic strain relationship by visualizing an element of so{l ander stress and imagining that the particle material ts continuous across the contacts a8 iltustrated in Pig.'5- hen real sofl particles are in contact, the contact area vill increase with increasing normal contact force, One should inagine that the area of the connecting material in Fig. 5 is reater hen the model represents an elenent of s0{1 subject to higher ‘effective normal stresses. This leads to the conclusion that the elas tic strain resulting from an increnent of effective stress vill depend fon the current state of effective stress, and will be less for h{gher ambient effective stress, The fact that elastic stiftness decreases With increasing votd ratio seems consistent with this conceptual model, DEFINITION AND NATURE OF PLASTIC STRAIN Having defined purely elastic strain in some detail, the definition2 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING B&B Ae Gay Fig. 5 - Models of an Elastic Soil Skeleton dP Elastic Deformation Due To dPx / 7%. Direction OF Slip Elastic Deformation Due To dPx Pig. 6 ~ Model Iiuetrating Elastic and Plastic Strain Increnent Direct ions ‘STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR B of plastic strain 1s simplified. Since all other strains involve slip at particle concacts, they vill be crested as plastic strains, This Wit be dose even though these strains are somtines motivated by Stored elastic strain energy. In this statement the term particle con tact ts loosely defined to Luclude interaction between clay particles where mineral to mineral contact may not exist. With this definition Of plastic straing, moet recoverable straine are partially plastic. Nenee, for soils a’ plasticity theory that {ncludes plastic strains on unloading 4s required. Classical plasticity treats plastic strains as being independent of the rate of loading. ‘Time dependence 1s usually introduced through visco-plasticity (56, 79). For ost soils, not subject to failure Stresses, some vltiaste equilibrium condition can be assuned to exist, where deformation vill cease if the state of effective stress reanins Constant. When such an ultimate equilibrien condition exists, the Viscous behavior of the soil 4a in parallel with the elasto-plastic be- havior. In this ease soll viscosity simply retards the elasto-plastic strains. The vitimate mgnitude of the elasto-plastic strain is inde= Pendent of rate of loading. If the parancters in the elasto-plastic Stress-strain relation are chosen to predict the ultimate equilibrium Strains, viscous behavior must be added to represent the time dependence Of soit deformation. In the final analysis a viseo-elasto-plastic stress-strain relation for soils 1s needed. Movever, tine dependence ‘can be taken 1nto account spproxinacely by using parameters in the elasto-plastic stress-strain relation that are measured for rates of Strain approximating those for the soil insitu. This 1s equivalent to the current practice of messuring so1l strength and modull at. repr tative strain rates of using strain rate correction factors (54). There is a fundanental difference between elastic and plastic strains Ih thefr relationship to state of effective stress and effective Stress inerenent. The plastic strain increnent ratios or components of the plastic strain inereneat vector, for certain classes of loading, fare dependent on the state of effective stress and independent of the ctfective stress inerenent; whereas, the elastic atrain increnent vec~ tor depends on the effective stress increment. This i {llestrated’ (76) din Fig. € where a disk 19 resting on a plane horizontal surface under ts om welght, Wo There are horizontal forces Py and Py acting ae the top of the Gist 42 the x and y directions, respectively.” The resultant P= (rit F212 acts at the angle, 6, ion the wattection. Pfs just alighel} lesa than f, uhere f ds the coeffictent of friction, 20 thet the disk does not lip.” Now suppose a small increneat of force, Py, 1s applied in the x-drection making P > #W. Sliding Vill occur, bet che dick will slide ia the direction of the Tesultant Pand sot in the Gfrection of the force increnent, dy, that inietated sliding. On the other hand the elastic defornacion of the disk due eo dPy would be in the dixection of dy. Because of ehis fundaneatal difference in elastic and plastic stfatns, they should be separated in the formulation fof a general stress-strain relation for soils4 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING SOTL ELASTICITY ‘The three-dinensional relationship between effective stress and elastic strain presented in this section ie useful in defining the peo agation velocities, or corresponding moduli, of various kinds of small ‘Strain vaves propagating in soils, It aleo provides means of separa- Elng the total strains in soils {nto elastic and plastic couponents. The relationship 1s formulated to account for effects of inherent and stress induced elastic anisotropy. The formulation involves the com bination of elements from the elastic stress-strain relation by Rowe (Gi) with the empirical equations for initial tangent sodulus by Janbu (33) and Hardin and Black (21). Based on the latter equation (Eq. 6) the effects of votd ratio, e, and OCR are isolated. Hence the elastic parameters should be essentially independent of e and OCR ‘The three-dinensional stress-strain relation ts first presented in 4itferential form. The general equations are then reduced to equations for the various elastic modult and elastic dilataney. The differential ‘equations are intograted for the specific stress path: triaxial com pression and extension, simple shear, and one dimensional elastic strain. Finally, the equations are compered to laboratory and field data to ‘eueas their validity and establish the range of variation of the elas~ tie paraneters. Discussion of the Equations by Rove, Janbu, and Hardin and Black fazed on the Herts equation for elastic spheres in cgneact (44), ove (64) assumed thot che component of elastic strain, ef, in the Girection of effective principal streas, 3y, due to 3, 18 ae af e whore E = Young's modulus of the particle naterial, the three Cy are Stnenstontese elastic compressibility coefficients and n tea congeant. ie further suggested that the otal elastic strain increment, def, in the direction of 8, 1a given by at = acty—y with evo addtional equations by permutation of subscripts, vhere the gy are elastic Poisson's ratios. {iis analysis of the elastic strains An’ several cohesionless materials showed that the elastic Poisson's Fatio could be considered isotropic, vz; =V, even vhen the total trains euitbited inherent) anisotropy. Pig. 7 shows the relationshép between volumetric and axial strains measured by Rove for tsotropic compression loading and unlosding of @ STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 1s ‘sand. Tests were conducted for four different inftial void ratios. The volumetric strain would be three tines the axial strain for isotropic Dehavior. For loading, vere both elastic and plastic strains are in~ Volved, these sand samples had greater stiffness in the axial than in the lateral airection. But for unloading, where the strains are pri- urily clastic, the behavior vas neatly isotropic. Note that the’ Length Sf the loosest sample actually increased due to the cycle of Loading These data indfeate that the major part of the inherent anisotropy of sends 1 derived fron the plastic strains. Soile with overall inherent anisotropy may be elastically isotropic. This phenonenon has also been Observed for clays. Krizek (35) conducted static unconfined compression tests on sedinented samples of Kaolin vith different degrees of inherent aniaocropy. He states that "in general, particle ortentation had Little Influence on the initial tangent modulus, but did exert some effect on the strength and secant modulus at a few percent strain.” Wong. and Néeehel! (75) fomd the elastic stress-strain relation for sensitive Canadian clay to be nearly deotropic while the plastic stress-strain relation was anisotropic. Differentiating fq. 1 and substituting into eqs. 2 with vy) ~v sives vot oy JJonbu, (33) suggested the following equation for the intttal tan gent Young's modulus, fqqx, seasured in triaxial compression, where the axial load is applied tovan initial dsocrople atate of stress, 7, @ In this equation p, f# ataospheric pressure, m fs a constant and Ky fx a dinensionless elietic stiffness coefficient. Eq. 4 can be compar to Eq. } by substituting the infeial ambient iaotrapie atresa condition fino tq. 3 with dy = do, = 0. This gives . bes. 4 and 5 consist of thee sinilar parse. Each contains 2 éisenston- Kens eciffones quantity, Wy in By @ and 1/i@a}ey) aa Eq. 30 the atteasy toy te taleed to arpower'a # 1 in each equation, and bccaure 2'7°TT cath equatdgnsconcatne 8 quantity that satioftes the dinenetoas Or” tho equntfeny pein Bf snd BE" aq 8g. 3, Tho eotses the ques™ Chon ae towhetbertit is beiter to ure pq or't co anctofy the dinenstons Sethe equattone The ests theory tnaitives ehee fie eoeraces Tt the distorences in B for different migorale are ceflected by diffecences ta the nodule of the aggregate of partictesy ie would theseet cay be Stteer to see 'than'heot Thus weld reface the wardabiliey of the6 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING . 0 eae L 3eo 0 Se Re © 4éo¢ | §3 @ “ { 1 [== . ° 8 8 8 8 8 ° 8 8 8 8 8 8 e& 2 ¢& o(2d),400] 49 ° 6 8 3 * ° 3 2 ™ 2 8 3 « 3 S 3 ° ° qusoied ul UIDs. o;eUIN|OA, Void Ratio Axial strain in percent Hig. 8 - Conpartson of Two Functions for the Effect Uvota Racio on the Elastic Stress-Strain Relation Axial Strains from 7 = Volunetric verss Testropie Compression Teste on Sand by Rowe (64) STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 7 stiffness coefficient. However, beacuse of the practical difficulty in establishing the value of B for'a given soil, it is better t0 we 9. ‘The ehéed equation on which the given by Hardin and Black (21). It 4 an empirical equation for the Shear modulus of soils, Gayy, determined from wave propagation veloct~ tes and from onal ampiteide cyclic simple shear tests. resent formulation is based vas 2 1230 ocr 2:973 = 2) max ire) o Beperinents have show (19, 20) that this equation can be used for an- isotropic states of stress by caking 09 = (1 +32 + 53)/3, the effec tive mean principal stress. The parameter ky given in Table 1, 1s re- lated to the plasticity index, FI. Eq. 6 can be expressed in’ the sane form as Eqs. 4 and 5 az follove : can BET ® By introducing pg, the paraneter A 1e dimensionless, whereas Jy and Snax in &q. Gare in pat and the constant 1240 has the dimensions (Ssi)0-2 1€ 42 also desirable to change the form of the votd ratio function in By. 6 by Jetting le) = 0.3 + 0,762 @ in Bq. 7. The function, P(e), {# lees complicated than the void ratio function in Bq. 6 but gives about the same effect of « in the range 0.4 dee Compression, 3 oe = 0 Js ve ey) See ‘Tetaxtal a8, = cf ve Compression 4.” : ae 3, $= -G-we rev) §--a-we v= 20-29 Teiaxial y= > 0 ef = Gove Extension an toa Loading 3 fo Gove cm) oes v= 20-2. Tetaxtal a fev Untoading «= 3 dove a0) San v= -a-me For simple shear, following consolidation under ssotropic stress ~ Bor integration of Eqs. 9 gives a) fs] ow Taking v = 0.12, n = 0.5 and § = 1400, the relationship between +, fi and YEy(pq/%)3°8 18 shown in Fig. 10b for afferent values of Integration of Eqs. 9 for one-dimensional elastic strain gives a) = fe. dma re [3] 1 a=) 3aeay | 3, Cy he change in vod ratio, be = (1+ e)efy te plotted versus Gy/p,) tn Fig. 10e for different values of the’inftial void ratio = eg. ‘The clastic stifine: coefficient, S, and the elastic Poisson's” EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ratio can now be discussed in nore detail by using the equations derived Sn this section. Studies of small strain vave propagation in soils provide the most abundant source of information on the elastic stiffness covfficient, 8 ‘The modulus corresponding to a particular type of elastic vave is the product of the square of wave velocity and the masa density of the soll, p- Assuming inherent elastic isotropy, max V4 a4) Bae 7 oy aa) ue) where Vg, Vey and Vp are the S-wave, rod-wave, and P-vave velocities, respectively. Inspection of Eqs. 10, 11, 12 and 24 show that values for Ps vse) OCK, PI and state of stress are’ generally needed to convert Mave velocity to stiffness coefficient. Tt is usually accurate enough to asoune a valve for ¥ and the values of the other peraneters are ust ally controlled in the laboratory. But accurate determination of some Of these parameters in the {eld ie more difficult. Values of OCR and coefficient of Isteral atzesa, Ky, are often unknown. Values of py & Gnd FE are sometime wat published with save velocity data mcaoured $n the f1eld, although they are probably known. Results fron two field Studies ave presented in Pig. 11. Im order to plot these data, OCR - 1 was used, Values assumed for Fy may be subject to error. Fig. 11 sum arizes the results of hundreds of wave velocity measurements in the Taboratory (Including resonant colum tests) and includes data from the field studses by SWAA (71) and Anderson, et al. (2). Approximate ranges of laboratory test resulta for four different soil catagories fire shown by different shadings and the approxinate ranges for the field studies are shom by the dashed boundaries. Values of § Measured in the Laboratory ‘The value of § for clean sands (Fig. 11, shading 2) is most nearly constant, varying Fron 1200 to 1300 (1, 18, 26, 77). This includes sands with different gradations, particle shape, and mineral content. One inportant finding ia that elastic soil modulus is a function of € Anstead of rolative density, Dp. This cannot be shown from tects on & ‘Single sand vhere Dy ie proportional toe. But in Pig. 11 the data fer = 0.6, for example, will include loose round grained sands and dense ‘angular sande, having about the saxe modulus. In contrast, plastic strains in eoile are strongly influenced by Dy. It 1s appropriate to correlate strength of cohestonless materials with Dr, but e 1s the appro- priate parameter for correlation of elastic eodulus end vave velocities Shading 1 shove the approximate range of S determined in the Labor~ tory for ailty sands, silts and clays (1, 21, 29 39, 77). This in- cludes undieturbed samples of lov to high’ plasticity cohesive soils, STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 2s 3000 ° ° 05 Lo SE 20) 25 Void Ratio Fig. 11 - Elastic Stiffness from Laboratory and Field Measurements: L='Lab, Silty Sands, Silts and Clays; 2 - Lab, Clean Sands; 3 ~ Lab, Dense Well-Graded Gravel-Sand with Sone Fines; "4 - Lab, Relatively Usiforn Clean Cravels; Fl - Field, Siley Sands, Sitts and Clays at Ferndale, Cholane and El Centro Sites by SW-AA'(71); F2- Field, Sands, Silts and Clays at Anderson, et al. (2) Sites A, 8 and C26 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING sensitive clays, and renolded samples of pure silt, kaolinite and bentonite. The value of § varies roughly fron 700 co 2000. For these Solis § increases with tine, vhile subjected to constant effective Stress, This tine varied fiom a few algutes to one day for nost of the data sed and nay account for as much ar 30 percent variation in 8. ‘This catagory seems to include all sofls with sore than a few percent passing the No. 200 sieve. Shading 1 may actually extend to shading 3, here data for dense well graded gravel-nands with some fines (26) 12 Shova. The sofls included in shading 3 had as much as 30 percent great~ fer than the 13 maize with s mxinum particle size of about 25 to 35 mn. Shading 4 {8 based on tests of cleas, relatively untfora river gravel and crushed limestone vith particle size up co about 25 am (26). ‘These gravels vere sieved to produce the desired gradation. For clean uniform gravels there is a systematic increase in elastic stiffaeas vith Sncreasing particle size. Field Values of § The Held daca by SW-AA, FL in Fig. 11, includes silty sands, silts and clays at the Ferndale, Cholane and £1 Contro sites. Values of S at these sites are somevhat higher than the laboratory values in Fig. 11 The difference may be explained by the effect of tine under constant effective stress. Sintlar findings have been reported by Stokoe and Richart (12). In contrast, the fleld values of 8 by Anderson, ct als, F2in Pig. li, for sands, silts and claya at sites A, B and C are about 2 to's tines the lab values. ‘Three factors may contribute co this Gifference! the tine effects sone of the sofls may have been overcon~ Ssolidated and they nay have been veakly cemented. Arango and Nerivakt G) measured velocities in the fleld that vere about tvo times the val- lies measured for undisturbed samples in the laboratory. The possible variations in S shom in Fig. 11 indicate that for critical projects $ Should be determined by measuring vave velocities {a-situ, Values of § from Teiaxial and Isotropic Compression Tests Valves of 5 for clean sands determined from the initial tangent wodulus tn triaetel compression teste by then (@) and ffoa unloading £9 Tlotropte conpraseton teste by Reve (64) will nov fw prasented. Chen Heperved atrenscetfatn neasurenents Lite those in Figs 3 for two adéi~ Elona densteieas the values of lggy for ail 13 teat. are: shoen io Table. 3+" "the covreaponding vaites"S? § obtained fron Be. 15" oie no0s5, are aso plvege The average value of & 1s 12230) Rowe reported The valuce of mand Of/(ogi-®0y0) for three cokesiontens materials in the Tovse and dense stated an dhom in Table 4." Aevuning doherent olae~ Efe tsvcropy and’ v= Oridy the values of 3 in Table 4 were obtatned fon Ee, Lbsieh Rave = 10" The average value of 8 is 186s, These values of S'ior clean cohestonicso naterialo obtained from static tristial and {ootropie coupresoion teste compare favorably with chose show in Fig. Liteon S-wave velocities,” Tate shove that the value of for such siverisie is essentially independent of ettesn path and rate of loading. Relationship Between $ and the Janbu Stiffness Coefficient Pioally, comparison of Eqs. 4 and 15 shows that the stiffness STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR Table 3 - Values of § from Triaxtal Tests on Sand by Chen (1948), Harvard University Initial Void Taotropse ax Table 4 ~ Stiffness Coefficient from Isotropic Conpression Tests by Rove Material Void s Mersey 0.776 0.39 19291058 River Sond 01600 0.35 2038 uso 192 2993 Clase 0.692 0.35 27 sis Balloeins 015920133 3039 1268 coeffictent, Kg, in the Janbu equation 4s related to § by soce* “Fey n (25a)8 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING A similar coefficient for shear modulus ss s oca* Tare sd) The variation of Kp and Kg with ¢ for $= 1400, v = 0.12 and ocn* = 1 4a shom in Pig. 12. TINWERENT AND STRESS INDUCED ELASTIC ANISOTROPY Schmertnann (69) has recently reported the results of wave props gation teste in sand under inotropic and anisotropic aublent streas con- Aitions. The sand was placed by pluviation in a large cylindrical tank ‘approximately 70 ea in diaseter with 120 em axial length. The axial sijor principal stress and the redial ainor principal stress were indo: Pendently controlled. S~waves and P-vaves vere propagated in various ‘trections through the sand, vhile subjected either to isotropic snbient stress, X= 1, oF antsorropic ambient stress, R~ 3. The sand exhibited inherent and Stress induced elastic anisotropy, and the data provide a neans of arsensing the accuracy with which Eqs. 9 will represeat aniso~ tropy. Tests were conducted for thrge values of effective mean principal stress, Gq = 3, 69, and 138 ki/n? for loose and dense sand. There was Soaldcrabte aeatter in the test reaulte,” in order to obtain wore sta bie values for checking effects of agisacropy, the velocities were ai SJusced to correspond £0 % = 69 iW/ae and e 0.7, using Eqs. 7 and 8 with n= 0.5. Ae shown in Table 5, ehis gave 6'eo 14 values that vere Sveraged for each combination of Rand propagation direction. the sver- fge adjusted values of velocity afe plotted versus propagation direction in Figs 13- Table 5. Average Adjusted Wave Velocity Std tum Velocity Std Nom Ble __Dev 2s. Propagation 190 2 aie aly 2 1s 60 (incl 64) 2900 7k 24 30 287 ey 2 ae ° = = =m BO8 3 90 289 528 7B 60 (ined 64) 301 3 12 iso Bo ie er) x OR ‘The P-wave and Swwave velocities for R~ 1 were greatest in the Jy direction because of the inherent elastic anisotropy. For = 3, there ‘was an approxinately uniform increase in S-wave velocities in ali di- Fections of about 6 percent. In contrast, the P-wave velocity increased [STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 00 3 s000 E2000 i je ° a Void. Ratio Pig. 12 ~ Variation of Janbu Stiffuess Coeffictents with Void Ratio = #0 EE 40 zs 82 x0 3B x0 280 novos 9 3 Fy Orton Propagation Ovecton Pig. 13 ~ Bffects of Inherent and Strese-Induced Anisotropy on S-ave and P-Vave Velocities Measured by Schnertmann (69)30 BARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING by about 27 percent in the J, direction and decreased by 10 percent in the 03 direction. These are the effects of stress induced anisotropy. Prom Ege. 12 and 2c, eye ae ae v sn 8, wm -(S) -|AS) -/ a) ee eo lg) ola zi The ratio §)/5) in ty, 26 defines the effect of saherent anisotropy om Vz, and the Factor 8°72 shows the effect of stress Induced anisotropy. Uiing the average adjusted P-vave velocities in Table 5 for R= 1, Ba. 26 gives an Ya) 2 47. oe - | ot Ws a 5 3 rot for $1 = 0.7955, Kith the snherent elastic anisotropy defined by $1/S3- 10,791 Eq. 26 dan be used co predict the effects of stress Induced anisom ropy. For this sand, £9. 26 gives ¥, gt = 0.89 a? 3 For n= 0.5 and R= 3, the predfeted Vp;/Vpg = 1-17. This compares to Vpq/Mp3 = 528/424 = 1125 from Table 5. ‘The’ enall shear stresses due to the S-wave propagating ia the 3 ‘are applied to planes of ambient principal stresses For thia case, as discussed earlicr, the shear nodulus given by Ea. 10 4 dndependent of R. Therefore, the elastic shear stress-strain relation as currently formulated does not predict the 6 percent increase in shear wave velocity resulting from stress. induced anisotropy. Using the resonant colunm test Hardia and Black (13) wea~ sured the shear modulus for saall vibratory shear stresses applied to the anblent principal stress planes as in Pig. 9a.” AS shown in Fig. Lda, 83 appears co increase slightly with increasing R. Extrepolating the’ dashed Line to R= 3 gives S13 = 1340 which is about 4 percent greater than Sy) = 1292 for R= 1. This {8 approximately 1/3 of the Increase in stiffness indicated by the Schnertmann data. Until this indicated increase in stiffness haa been more accurately established, igs. 9 have been formulated to show zero effect of streas induced aniso- trojy for the case in Fig. Ja. Thie 4a done by ueing the effective mean Princépal stress instead of individual seresses fn Eqs. 9b. When the nature of this effect Is better established, it nay becone desirable to replace jp by some function of Ror of the normal stresses in the x, ¥ and direction ‘STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 1400) TS Rees oo Fig. 14 ~ Effects of Streas~Indsced Anisotropy on the Elastic Shear Stress-Strain Relation for Ambient Stress Produced by: (a) Triaxial Compression; (b) Simple Shear os, Ratio & (© Highly Orienteg Poisson's Co 4 Intermediate 18 Highly Rondon “ ° =n 4 6 eae0 iol Strain In Parcent ‘Fig. 15 - Poisson's Ratio from Unconfined Compression Tests by Ketek (35) 32 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING ardin and Black also presented the results of static torsional simple shear tests by Richart et al (53) and by Pinson (50) show in Figs Iéb. For these tests the anblent state of stress vas produced by Htaple sliear as shown Sa Fig, 9. The cyclic cheat stress, tay, ¥ Gpplied statically by a snall eyclfe change ia the torque.” The ratio oP /omay defined by £4. 19 te plotted in Pig. 14 along with the me silcs"@diues. "The measured modulus ratio appears to decrease vith R at a conevhat faster rate than given by Eq. 19. ‘THE HLASTIC POISSON'S RATIO ‘the value of Poisson's ratio for a face-centered packing of elastic spheres (14) is in the range 0 t0 0.1, depending on how it 1s determined nd on the Poleson's ratio of the aphere material. Chen (8) states that Potssoa's ratio was Less chan 0.1, for small axial strains, for the Gende that he tested, Lade and Duncan (36) use zero for the elastic Poisson's ratto in theit three dimensional elasto-plastic stress-strain relation for sands. Krizek (35) recently reported the variation of Poteson's ratio with strain, measured in unconfined compression teste. He tested sedinented samples of Kaolin with different degrees in inher~ Gat anisotropy. His data are shown in Fig. 15. The Line in Pig. 15 Shoving # velve of v= 0.1 for sero strain is a reasonable ropresenta~ Elon of the data, Drained triaxial and plane strain tests of a sensi- tive Canadian clay by Wong and Mitchell (75) gave values of Poisson's Fatio of about 0-1 to 0.15 for the First deviation of stress from the initial isotropic state. values of v from ave Velucity Measurements ‘the elastic Poisson's ratio can also be determined from wave ropa: gacion velocities, For exanple, Eqs. 16, 15 and 26 give 2 y, ,, ec). Fux 2 oe) en (| ae = 20s | 27 t1tustrates the stfftculty in doteratning accurate values of ¥. No'che value of Up/¥y increases from In48 0 1-33, increases from 0.2 25 o'5.°"%°S percent’ increase in Vy/¥g Ancreasea y by 100 percent. Toc Seanitivity of aot! behovior to the valle of v aakes {t difficult to Scthure aczuracely, but sls0 weane that lees accuracy is required. Sielyets of naeteus Sowove and sod-vave velocities in Ottave sand, Schaured by resonant colum teats (17), yields Values of 9 dn the Tange ot te ots. ‘mese values of v were obtained for saturated as vell ae dry sands ‘this indicates the Lack of coupling betveen the sand particles and pore Waters The soil skeleton did change volue as the rod~wave propagated. Te contrast, the resonant colum tests by Saada (65) on reaolded kaolin~ ite indicate complete coupling between the particles and pore water. He measured Caay and Engy by Propagating S-waves and rod-waves in the Sane specinen. "These sedaurenenta give values of v of approxinately Orb. But ehis Le not the effective stress value of v for the clay. The rod-wave velocity is affected by the coupling between soil skeleton and ‘STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 3 Pore water, The soil cannot change volune, as saturated sand docs, during propagation of the rod-vave, This ie equivalent to measuring the fluid P-vave identified by Biot (5). Biot showed that two Powaves Propagate in saturated porous elastic medta. One of these waves, called the fluid wave, travels at a velocity near the P-vave velocity in waters ‘The second Pevave, called the frame wave, 12 influenced primetly by the effective elastic compressibility of the soil skeleton. Tt is doubebul that the frame P-vave ia ever detected in saturated clays. In fact it say not exist in such soils. According to the analysis of Blots theory by Tshihara (31) the frase Powave should not be detected for aves with frequencies up to about 300 Hz propagating in mediun sends and finer soils (55). Comparison of Povave or rod-wave velocities to S-wave velocities in saturated clays should slvays yield v close to 0-5- ‘This value of v merely reflects the undrained condition (coupling be- tween particles and pore vater).. The analysts by Imai (J0) of tnmdreds of Povave and S-wave Velocities meagured in-situ in Japan shows a clus ter of Povave velocities around 1700 to 1600 n/aee for actis with Nm values varying from 5 to 200. These must be fluid P-vaves, oven though laany of them Were measured in sands. The fluid Powave velocity ts ai= sost unrelated co the stiffacss of the soil skeleton and 1s therefore fot of such ust sstinate of the elastic Poisson's ratio can be made fron the and S-wave velocities in Table 5. Dividing £4. 12 by Ea. 10, Sma. - we, Gy 5 2 Prom Table 5, Vp) = 417 and Vg ~ 272. Assuming 5) ~ 5,35 Fa. 2 ol s + Ea. 28 gives v= 0.13. If 8f5 = (5) + 55)72, aubsettution of the previously deter ‘mined relationship 51 + 0.7983 gives Sy = 1-138) and V ~ 0.20. Velues of v from Measured Elastic Dilatancy Values of dv®/de$ from the unloading atress-atrain relation for constant K, F testa od aand also provide an estinate of the elastic Poisson's fatio (Eqs. 17 and 15). Assuming inherent elastic isotropy, with r= Rand q «0.5, the relationship between dv®/def and R, defined by Eq. 17, ts shown in'Fig. 16 for various values of ¥.\ The shaded area in Fig. 16 shows the approxinate range of results from constant Ry r tests by Rove (64). These data, for tvo sands with the initial «vary Ang from 0.55 to 0.84, correspond to values of ¥ between U-1 and 0.2, In sumary, the value of v ies somewhere between 0 and 0.2. Any value within this range is accurate enough for most purposes. The author's favorite value 48 0.12. ‘MEASUREMENT OF ELASTIC PARAMETERS The elastic parameters required for use of the proposed stress7 4 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Value of Vv : 2 3 4 5 Value of R ig, 16,~ nelationshtp Atong Elastic Rate of Dilation, Flastic Potsson's Ratio, aad &, for Constant X, r Loading 08, cr weer dey rection of the Blastic Pig. 17 - Elast{e Potential Function and Direction of the Strain Increment Vector STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 3 strain relation are ky a, » and 8. or most purposes te will suffice to'ue vin 0-12, a= O.s'and valuce of'k ia Tavis te) the foie aes 1G tose cettical.” in view of the possible variations shown ae ne tt, S should be determined fon S-wuve velocities nessered tetaites or preliminary anaiyate Fig. 11 con be uned ane poise, “Shull it become eceanary, che best wy to nensure'n and i for‘a given motte be sepen~ ane colum testing of tndiovurbed semples, The abana Io costertanees Snder successively increasing and then decreasiag ealees oF Penta value Of Guay oF gay iu measured for each value of Plottisn the Pelase(as Spates ees soreeestert cusses eae Blot to the"RSraail)"SonsoLidated range defines a, ‘The"aigee in the overconsolidated range defines 9 = tn som. PiasticrTy rvrnonvertox The elements required for definition of the three dimenstonal re~ Aationahtp between effective stress and plastic serain presented in this section are: a plastie potential fetion, a hardening, function, and 4 definition of loading. "The presentation begins with an anslosy between elasticity and plasticiey that may help persons not familise vith vorkchardentng plasticity theories, to understand the ature oF Plastic potential and hardening functions. In preparation for defias— tion of the plastic potential function, Rove's stress dilatancy. theory (58) fs reviewed and'a stress 4ilstancy wedel to proposed that con te ‘sod to define the three dimensional strength envelope for soils. After discussion of the existence of a yield surface for soils, the plastic Potential function, hardening function, and definition of losding are Presented, The relationship between the proposed stress-strain felation and stress-dilatancy, critical state soil mechanics, and measured soil Behavior are discussed. ANALOGY BETWEEN ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY ‘The stress-strain behavior of an isotropic Linearly clastic mater tat is defined by Hooke's law, with two material constants, E and 0: Consider the vay in which these constants are related eo the strains resulting from an increnent of stress, A plane state of stress vith principal stresses oy and cy is shown in Fig. 17. Suppose the strecs increments doy and 0 are added to the principal stresses. The wl ie strain inerementa by Hooke's law (04) are 4 3 uo, ae =F (do, - vdo,) (298) 1 and dey =F oy ~ va) (298) Now define the potential functton 2 (ao)? (aay o- Se .S = vds,doy (30)36 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING and note that ham c,h ay" Flea s #2 ~ E Hao, ey ‘The curve defined by Y= constant, shown in Fig. 17 for v= 0.5, 18 an ellipse. The shape of this curve is completely determined by the value ory Let the coordinate axes in Fig. 17 represent atrain increment as Well at stress increment. If the Vector at point A, normal to the elas tic potential curve, is a strain increment vector, its components will define the relative magnitudes of de and dep. AL point A'uhere do = 263/2, the normal 49 vertical. This "means that dep shovld be zero. Substicuting do = do,/2 into Bq. 29b with v = 0.5 gives dep = 0. once the components of the vector at A are proportional to the elastic strain increments. This normality condition canbe shown co hold for all points on che curve, in three dinenstons the elastic potential function Gefines a surface, an ellipsoid of revolution about the isotropic stress Line (see Pig. 274). #q. 30 shows that the shape of the elastic poten tial surface is defined by v and te independent of £. Therefore, v Gefines the direction of the strain increment vector and the relative magnitudes of the strain increments. Eq. 31 shows that E ts a scaling Tactor that determines the length of the strain incresent vector, and therefore, the absolute magnitudes of the elastic strains, for a given ‘stress increment. ‘The definition of plastic strains { analogous to chic. There ts ‘a plastic potential fmetion that defines the direction of the plastic Strain increment vector anda hardening function that defines the abso~ lute magnitude of the plastic strain increments. The plastic potential function of vork-hardening plasticity 1s analogous co Poisson's ratio and the hardening fuetion {2 anelogous to Young's wodulus. An inpor~ tant difference between elasticity end plasticity 1a that the elastic potential surface is a fuction of the stress increment, do (Bq. 30), Whereas the plastte potential surface depends on the state of stress, © (see Fig. 26). OWE'S STRESS-DILATANCY THEORY The stress-dilatancy theory (27, 28, 59, 64) relates the principal tress ratio, Ry to the plastic atrain increment vector, by the equa thon Reo 3) here the dilatancy factor, D, 1s given by ee os ae def are plastic strain increnents in the principal stress directions. ‘STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR 37 The value of p = 2 for triaxial compression (TC, 3p = 33), p= 1 for Plane plastic strain (PPS, dcB - 0), and p= 1/2 for erfaxial extension Att, ap = 33). The stressndifatancy coefficient, X, ts an enerny ratio. The’ pldstic work, Wis, produced by the major principal stress te def for TC and PPS and Joydel for TE. A part of thio enersy 4s diselpated faternally by che soll, ahd the rest, iy, vorks against the sinor and sntermediate principal stresses. Wp'= “20y4e} for TC and W, = Dyck for PPS and TE. Yorning the ratio /W, fortheae three cass and coi paring to Eqs. 32 and 33 shows that ae a St rae oH) The value of the energy ratio, K, depends on the percentage of Wy that is dissipated. ‘This in turn depends on the kinematics of particle ovement as the soil deforas. For energy dissipated by aliding at par= ticle contacts, the velue of K depends on the average orientation of sliding contacts, vith respect to the principal stress directions, and on the mineral ffietion angle, $,- When deformation takes place in the way that dissipates the snailest’ percentage of Wg, the stress-dilatancy coeffictent K has its minimum valve, G+ sin) cy - ame If deformation takes place in any other way K>K,. The maxinun value of K is approximately (50) Gt sin) ew" owing) oo hore dey is the angle of shearing resistance that ie approached as shear deformation becones large and the material ceases to change vol- ‘ue as it deforas. ‘This {s called the critical state, The value of Hes approxinately within the rather narrow range sk sky (38) Home (26) has derived a relationship between dey and fy which is given approximately by ay "Aston, = 0.00592 + 0.0007552 o» where ¢y and gcy are in degrees. For additional discussion of che theory the reads ia referted to Rove, et als (10, 27, 28; 52, 57, 58,58, 61, 63). Bxperimental evidence co support the applicability of 4.32 to cohesionless materials is extensive. In the fey eases checkedy38 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING stress-dilatancy also appears to describe the behavior of cohesive sotis (61). qs. 22 and 33 relate the ratios of plastie strain components (the plastic strain inerenent vector) to the state of stress. Therefore, the stress-dllatency equations define s plastic potential funetion.” As shown by Barden and Khyatt (4) and Rowe (64) the plastic potential funetion ok ay 8) defines the stress-dilatancy relationship for PPS. ‘The plastic strain ncrenents, dey, are given by Pe a Oe ats og a) siece 2 40 php hardening function., Substiputige Bo. 38 sate Ba. 39, Gefe Gh Hoe /oy dcB'= Oy and e§ = -aaUG Vase. Tote gives ~aeS/acP = Gian ayK, dhich Sa Mdentical to Eqs. 32 and 39 with p= 1 CPS). Stnce the stress-dilatancy relationships define a plastic potential function they are analogous to eoisson's ratio for Iwvtivpic elasticity. Experience with the theory of elasticity shovs that the elastic strains for many boundary value probleas are not greatly affected by the value Of Poisson's ratio. By analogy, one expects the plastic strains in Soils, for field boundary conditions, to be relatively insensitive to Precige definition of the plastic potential function. The hardening Function is the more critical parameter. This insensitivity of soil Feaponse to the plastic potential function leads to the same measure ent difficalties encomtered wich Poisson's ratio. Because of this Special testing techniques are often required for accurate measurenent OF stross-dilatancy relationships, especially for values of R < 1.5. Yo obtain accurate stress-dilatancy relationships, it 1s desirable and 4h sone eases absolutely necessary, to provide frictionless boundaries for cest samples, to accurately assess and subtract elastic strains, to wie natural strains, and to measure the load and strain inside the pressure chanber. ‘This explains why data obtained by conventional tests often deviate from the straight Line defined by €q. 32, when R fs plotted versus D. igs. 32 and 33 define the plastic potential function for three spe~ cial eases of intermediate principal stress, An empirical stress-d{la~ fancy model that extends chese equattons to all conditions of interned~ ate principal stress will now be presented. PROPOSED STRESS-DILATANCY MODEL. ‘Three strese-dilatancy Aiagrans (R versus D) for three tests by King and Dickin (34) are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. The two diagrans in ‘STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR p ae 5 Ey q Bo e be 2 Be ao i 7 4 eh §Ol'0=4 ‘ondy ssexjs jpdibuug © 0204 05 08 10 12 14 16 1820 ative Porosity 100: Teo 416 12 Triaxial Compression Stonecourt Sand Relative Porosity=! 0408 08 10 0: Eqilpsa ‘onoy ssauig jodouug Dilatency Factor, D Dictancy Factor, D Fig. 18 ~ Stress-Diletavcy Diegrans for Trlaxtal Compression Tests on Dense and Hediun Dense Sand by King and Dickin (34) Sand by King and Dickin (34) Fig. 19 ~ Steess-Dilatancy Diagram for Plone Strain Test on Den40 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fig. 18 are for evo samples of sand tested in TC. The samples had relative densities, De, of approxinately 50 and 100 percent, respectively. _(Re- lative porosity which fe similar to Dy 4s shown in’ Fig. 18.) The dia gran in’ Fig. 19 is for a PS test oF a'dense sand. Two questions need fo be ansvered. For a given test, vhat determines the saxinun value of the dilatancy factor, Dagys and vhat ts the value of K? Maximum Dilatancy Factor ‘The data for the TC kest with Dy = 100 percent, given in Fig. 18, axe shom achenstseally tn the more Conventional form of #g. 20. Fig. 20'also represents, achenatically, the Tesules for TE and PS tests on dense sands. The clastic steaina have been subtracted gnd Fig. 20 shova Rveraus axial plastic straig, ef (ef for TC and P5, ch for Ti), and Wolunetric plastic strain, vw; vérsut ef. The rate of Plastic Gilation, 2, fs defined by the slope, avP/del, of the latter curve. The value of'd? ts related co D, using 4. 33, a9 follower for To (p=2) and FS @=, Ps oa? . deh + pa ae oe SS Lp Ste (40a) ac? ack ack i i and for 1 (@ = 1/2), bjpy eaek . (acB/p) +e! a etree eer erat 40) a ace _- * 3 3 3 ‘Te initial value of 4? is negative, corresponding to initially de~ creasing volume. With increasing deformation d increases to tte seximun value, JB,_, approxinately as R reaches ite maximum Value, Ragx-, The 'fesults for an overconsolidated clay vould be similac to the reauite for dense sand in Fig. 20. The value of dBqx depends on Dy for sands and will depend on OCR for Clay soils. ‘Ac fatture the change i elastic strains {9 small and the oyersi xate of dilation, a he approximately equal to dP. Values of © nea sureg by Comforth (3) for sand, tested in TC, TE and PS vith v3 = 276 Lint are: shown in Fig. 21.” Coraforth did not test with frictionless boindaries. Therefore, hs measured values of day are probably a few percent lov, The data in Fig. 21 are for relatively low effective Stresses, festa with higher effective stresses (74) show that che val~ ter of diy decrease vith increasing effective mean principal stress, qr and fot very High values of Bg, dbyy = 0, for initially dense a2 Wil a5 loose, samples. Conaiderilg eheke efects {e ia postulated thet for Jp = 0; day varies fron 0 tol as Dy varies from 0 £0 100 percent for TE and PSy"and yy varies from 0 t0°0.5 as Dz varies from 0 to 100 percent for TE. Note'that a value of D= 2 gives' dP = 1 for TC and PS (ea. M0) and gives @? = 0.5 for TE (Eq. 40b)- A value of D = 1 pives #'0 in both of qe. 40. Hence for alii three cases the value Of Dyay ‘varies fron 1 to 2'aa Dy varies fron 0 to 100 percent for Sy = 0. FO very high values of 89," Dgaz = 1 £0 all Saitial values of By. besides STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR a lune ‘Sepa ire Fig. 20 - Definition of Rate of Plastic Dilation + Col pressure constant, axial ost © stress increased to falure. As above, out plane strain end amp omitted from test. + Anal stress constant, cell 3 Dressure reduced to fature = » Cal pressure constant, axial ey ‘ siress decreased to falure § . (exe extension tests) 3 é Dad it a) aad 35. ag Initial Porosity (Percent) Fig. 21 - effect of Density on Maxima Hates of Dilation for ‘Teiexial Compression and Extension and Plane Strain Tests of Sand by Coraforth (9)2 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING the effects of Jy and Dy on Daggy there are Less important effects due to particle size distribution aid particle shape. The variation of Dyay with initial relative porosity as presented by Rowe (63) is shown sn'Figs, 22 and 23, Fig. 22 shows values measured in TC for different conesionless materiale with different particle shapes. Values for dif- ferent intermediate principal stress conditions (TC, PS and TE) are shown tn Fig. 23. The available data indicate that Dy, 18 given approximately by a, fe ore) a) Dz is a decimal in fq. Gla. Preliminary analysis indicates chat my = S'1's"and kp = 25 aay be used. More detailed analysis vill probably show some variation of these paraneters with particle size distribution and particle shape, A similar relationship for cohesive sols will Likely develop with OCK replacing Dy as an Smportant paranecer Variation of K Roferting to Fig. 18 for TC, the sand in the densest state, Dy = oo percent, deforms such that K'= K, uneil the peak principal stress ratio, Rqgx, is reached. Beyond the'peak, K increases t0 Key a8 K Gecreases, with deformation proceeding to the critical state. For the ind with mediun density, deformation prior to peak R occura euch chat Kis midway between Ky and Key. In contrast, Fig. 19 shows that PS deformation of a dense sand i such thet K'* Kyy at all stages of de- Formation. These data agree with the rules developed and stated by Rove (64). Maximum Principal Stress Ratto Based on these findings an equation for Eygy can be formulated. This will be a definition of soil strength, since the effective angie of shearing resistance, $, 18 given by Naan sng = PBS a #1 For Jp = 0 and Dy = 100 percent, from Eq. 41a, Dgge * 2 and from Bq. 32, 22K, where'K = Ky, for TC and k= Key for PS” The intermediate pElfeipal stress conditton con be defined by the paraneter b= (2~a3)/ (G83). ‘Uaing the functional notation, Rqjx (zy Ups b)» co show the dependence of Rag on these theee parauecers, the value of Rage for Dy= 200 percent and" 8 = 0 is, STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOR e © Glass ballotini @ Bronze balls 6 Quartz Sub angular x Crushed glass Angular Rounded a = I2psi. Pore fluid water ny ° Envelope of resultz a Value of Dmox 0! 110} 20.6) 0.6 0-4 a Olei=0) Initial Relative Porosity Fig. 22 ~ Effect of Density on Maxinua Dilatancy Factor for Triaxtal Compression Tests of Coheafonless Materials by Rowe (63) + Plane strain (Wightman) * Triaxial extension © Triaxial compression (Khayatt) Quartz. Sub angular i i _River Welland sana) ~ie — Value of Dmax test results 10 08 8 30a Oz Initial Relative Porosity Fig. 22 ~ Bffect of Density on Maxinun Dilatancy Factor for Triaxtal Coapression and Extension and Plane Strain Testa of Sand by Rowe (63)EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Fggy(lOD. OB) = 2K = BOK, + POD, KD] 3) where F(b) 4s chosen to define the effect of intemediate principal Stress on strength. For TC, (b = 0), F(0) = 0 and K= Ky, while for PS. (b= byq)s Pbpg) = 1 and K'= Key. Bq. 43 defines Rage for Dy = 100 percent and Jy = 0. The varte~ tion of Byax with Dy and Up vill now be defined by ooing Eq. Al for Daax: In Fig. 24, the valle of Ryqx(100,0,b) is shown at point e, For b'="0 (Tc), point'e would coincide vith point f vhere R= 2y, and for b= bg (PS), point @ vould coincide with point g where R= 2K. Point € Les'on the Line ae and its location is determined by the valve of Dygx- The stress-dilatancy behavior of the sand for arbitrary valves of'be, Ty, and b is assumed to be defined by the lines Oce. This ap- proxinates the behavior shown in Figs. 18 and 19, The value of (zs Ga, b) 18 dafined by the location of point ¢. Using siatlar fzi- angles’ abe and ade, R Byars Bop BD = Key + Ogay = 91g (100,050) -K,) we Substituting Bq. 43 into Bq. 46 Ryan ” Koy* Oggy WD (2K, = Ky +208, -K, IFC) « ‘The relatively staple Bye. 41 and 45 define the strength of cohestontess soils, accounting for the effects of 3p, D., and b. With further analy~ sis the effects of particle size distriburlon and particle shape can be incorporated through my, m7 and kp. Similar equations with OCR replac. ing Dp should be useful in defining the effective strength of cohesive soils. For many practical probleus it will suffice to take F(b) = 4b(1-b), assuming bps = 0.5 ac failure. This P(b) gives identical strengths for BC and TE,"Since F(O) = FG) = 0. Taking m= my = 1.5, kp = 25, Go = 200 lla, toy = 33 degrees and ising 4. 3) to deteraine t, from toys the varfation of F with Dy for TC and PS, shown in Fig. 25s "was computed from Eqs. 41, 42, and 43. The Value of K Besides defining the strength, Eqs. 41 and 45 define the value of K for deforeation up to the peak, © Moa!aay wy ‘This value of K will be used in defining the plastic potential function. STRAIN BEHAVIOR 4s Valve of R Value of O Fig. 24 - Formulation of Hupiricel ihreo-vimenstonal sere Node &= 200 kum? F in degees 0 (25 a= ro 0] Felotive Density Fig. 25 ~ €fect of Density on Peak Effective Angle of Shearing Resistance for Triaxisl Coupression and Plane Strain from Stre Dilataney Model