THERMODYNAMICS 2

2nd Semester, SY 2022 - 2023

Instructor: Antonio-Abdu Sami M. Magomnang, D.Eng.

Topic Coverage
Midterm Topics:
1. Irreversibility and Availability
2. Vapor Power Cycles
3. Reciprocating Engine Power Cycles

Final Term Topics:

1. Air-Standard Power Cycles
2. Refrigeration Systems
3. Gas Mixtures
4. Chemical Reactions
Major Examination:
• Cheating Policy
• Any student caught cheating in any forms (cellphone, micro notes,
asking answers, passing papers, seeing other papers, giraffe head)
will received a score of zero, and student doing the same act more
than twice leads to a Final Grade of 5.0.

• Major Examinations and Quizzes

• During Quizzes and Exams, the examinee are NOT allowed to go
outside the classroom premises regardless of the reason.
• Cellphones, calculator cover, extra papers (during exams) are not
allowed. Solution sheet must be STAPLED TWICE beforehand.
• Bags shall be placed outside the room beside the ME faculty office
glass door.
• Erasures are not allowed during exams/quizzes. You may use pencil
on answering the exam.
• If the student arrive late (even 1 minute) are not allowed to take the
quiz/exam.
• No special exam or quizzes be given unless the he/she can present
a medical certificate issued by the General Hospital and validated by
our University Physician.
Grades and Removal Exam:
• Grading System:
• Typical USTP Grading System: 10% AAS, 40% Quiz, 30% Exam, 20%
PIT.
• Final Grade Computation: 50% MT + 50% FT
• 70 % Passing percentage

• Removal Examination:
• As much as possible NO Removal Examination be given. If removal
exam cannot be avoided, the consideration above will be invalidated.
• If removal exam is unavoidable, it will be subjected to university
removal exam policy on passing grades, which is 70%.
• Removal Exam is a Privilege not a RIGHT. Therefore, there are no
such thing as UNLI REMOVAL.
• After the removal exam, the faculty concerned will post the final grade
outside the ME faculty office. If time permits, a consultation will be
given to discuss his/her removal exam scores.
Removal Examination:
• Removal Exam Guidelines
• Based on the Student handbook, only Computed Final Grades
(50% MT Grades + 50% FT Grade) of 3.25, and 3.50 are qualified
for removal. Thus, grades beyond 3.50 (i.e. 3.75 or 4.0) will be
automatically be given a final grade of 5.0.
• Students caught cheating in quizzes and exam are automatically
be included for removal examination.

• Removal Exam Coverage

• Coverage will be comprehensive (MT and Final Topics) in nature.

• Removal Exam Passing

• Student must get 70% of the total scores in order to be given a
passing final grade of 3.0. Otherwise, his/her grades will be giving
a failing grade of 5.0.
Performance Task
• Group Assignment of Task
• Performance task is grouped with 5 students ME Students. If any
member does not cooperate in the creation and finalization of
performance task, he/she cannot receive the PT grade. Cooperation is
a MUST.
• Grade of the Performance Task will be rated using rubrics.

• Midterm Period Performance Task:

• Working Miniature of Vapor Power Cycle and Reciprocating Power
Cycle using indigenous materials. (Carnot, Rankine, Reheat,
Regenerative, Reheat-Regenerative, Cogeneration, Otto, Diesel, Dual,
Stirling, Ericsson, Air Standard/Brayton) – 1 miniature per group.

• Final Term Period Performance Task:

• Working Miniature of Refrigeration System, Gas Mixtures and
Combustion Systems using indigenous materials.
 TOPIC 1:
IRREVERSIBILITY AND
AVAILABILITY
IRREVERSIBILITY AND
AVAILABILITY
Topic 1 | Thermodynamics 2
Available Energy, Reversible Work, and
Irreversibility

To convert the maximum fraction of Q to work requires that heat engine be

completely reversible, that is, a Carnot cycle, and that the lower-temperature
reservoir be at the lowest temperature possible, often, but not necessarily, at the
ambient temperature.
From the first and second laws for the Carnot cycle and the usual consideration of all
the Q’s as positive quantities, we find
T

Available energy

To

Unavailable energy

S
T-S diagram for constant-temperature
energy source

Constant pressure
Available energy

To
Fluid Fluid
Heat Exchanger Unavailable energy
in out

Q Changing-temperature energy source

The Control Mass

Consider the real process in which a control mass receives an amount of heat 1Q2 from
a reservoir at temperature TH undergoes a change of state 1-2, and does an amount of
work 1W2.
• The first law is, assuming no change in kinetic or potential
energies,

• This real process is irreversible, such that

• The second law for the reversible process is

• The above equation can be rewritten as

• The first law for the reversible process is

• The difference between this reversible work 1W2rev and
that done in the first case, 1W2, when irreversible process
occur is called the irreversibility, which is designated I.

• The irreversibility 1I2 of the real process can also be

expressed in another form
The Steady-State Steady-Flow Process
• Reversible work per unit mass, neglecting kinetic and
potential energies is

• with the irreversibility of the real process for the same

state i and e and the same q with reservoir TH and
environment To being
• The irreversibility of the real process can also be
expressed as
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1
Find the specific reversible work for a steam turbine with
inlet 4 MPa, 500°C and an actual exit state of 100 kPa, x =
1.0 with a 25°C ambient.
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 2
A constant pressure piston/cylinder contains 2 kg of water
at 5 MPa and 100oC.Heat is added from a reservoir at
700oC to the water until it reaches 700oC. We want to find
the total irreversibility in the process.
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
C.V. Piston cylinder out to the reservoir (incl. the walls).
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 3
A supply of steam at 100 kPa, 150°C is needed in a
hospital for cleaning purposes at a rate of 15 kg/s. A supply
of steam at 150 kPa, 250°C is available from a boiler and
tap water at 100 kPa, 15°C is also available. The two
sources are then mixed in a mixing chamber to generate
the desired state as output. Determine the rate of
irreversibility of the mixing process.
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
A 2-kg/s flow of steam at 1 MPa, 700°C should be brought
to 500°C by spraying in liquid water at 1 MPa, 20°C in an
steady flow. Find the rate of irreversibility, assuming that
surroundings are at 20°C.
THE UNIFORM-STATE
UNIFORM-FLOW PROCESS
The Uniform-State Uniform-Flow
Process
• The reversible work, neglecting potential and kinetic
energies is

• This expression can also be grouped as

• The irreversibility for a USUF process is found from the
general definition,

• By substitution the above equation and the first law, can

also be expressed as
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 4
A mass-loaded piston/cylinder as shown below, containing
air is at 300 kPa, 17°C with a volume of 0.25 m3, while at
the stops V= 1 m3. An air line, 500 kPa, 600 K, is
connected by a valve that is then opened until a final inside
pressure of 400 kPa is reached, at which point T = 350 K.
Calculate the irreversibility for the process, assuming that
heat transfer is with the surroundings at 17°C.
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
AVAILABILITY AND THE
SECOND LAW EFFICIENCY
Availability and the Second Law
Efficiency
• The steady-state reversible work will be maximum,
relative to the surroundings, when the mass leaving the
control volume is in equilibrium with the surroundings with
subscript 0, the reversible work will maximum when he =
ho, se = so, ve = 0, and ze = 0.
• Designating this maximum reversible work per unit mass
as the availability or exergy per unit mass flow, and
assigning the symbol ψ, we have Exergy, flow availability

Note: The subscripts “0” refers to the ambient state with zero kinetic energy, the dead state, from which
we take our reference.
• If the final state is in equilibrium with the surroundings u2
= uo and s2 = so.
• In this case the reversible work is a maximum. If we
designate this maximum reversible work as (wrev)max, and
write it without to indicate a general state, we have

• The availability per unit mass for a system is equal to this

maximum reversible work minus the work done against
the surroundings.
• This work done against the surroundings, wsurr, is
• The availability per unit mass for a system in the absence
of kinetic and potential energy changes is designated :
• The second-law efficiency for a process maybe defined
as
THREE TYPES OF
PROCESSES:
power consuming, power producing, and heat transfer.
Power Consuming: pump or compressor
Power Producer: Turbine
Heat transfer

High –Temperature

Low -Temperature
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 5
Air enters a compressor at ambient conditions, 100 kPa,
300 K, and exits at 800 kPa. If the isentropic compressor
efficiency is 85%, what is the second-law efficiency of the
compressor process?
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 6
• The condenser in a refrigerator receives R-134a at 700
kPa, 50°C and it exits as saturated liquid at 25°C. The
flow rate is 0.1 kg/s and the condenser has air flowing in
at ambient 15°C and leaving at 35°C. Find the minimum
flow rate of air and the heat exchanger second-law
efficiency.
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 7
Steam is supplied in a line at 3 MPa, 700°C. A turbine with
an isentropic efficiency of 85% is connected to the line by a
valve and it exhausts to the atmosphere at 100 kPa. If the
steam is throttled down to 2 MPa before entering the
turbine find the actual turbine specific work. Find the
change in availability through the valve and the second law
efficiency of the turbine.
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. A steam turbine inlet is at 1200 kPa, 500oC. The actual
exit is at 300 kPa with an actual work of 407 kJ/kg.
What is its second law efficiency?
2. A heat exchanger increases the availability of 3 kg/s
water by 1650 kJ/kg using 10 kg/s air coming in at 1400
K and leaving with 600 kJ/kg less availability. What are
the irreversibility and the second law efficiency?