REFLECTION When a light wave strike S smooth i and glass or glass and w, Interface separati 188 OF ater). tl ing two trans; (transmitted) into the second pa Wave is in general partly volecied See from the street, you see a reflecti "ial. For example when you look ps Sees look out through the window ate son nse Scene but a person inside the restaurant can at the same scene as ight bal 2 patton inside es restaurant can y refraction. The directions of the incident, reflected an optical materials is described in terms of tno neues 319,24 8 south surface between two las aunecs Tet ae 0 angles they make with the normal f incidence. If the i efor anata a p If the interface is rough, reflected Rete ys directions, and there is no single ange a tansmission iG reflection. Reflection ata efinite angle from a very smooth surface is called specular reflection; ion from a rough surface is called diffuse reflection. a Incident N_ Reflecte q ted Nn Laws of Reflection Laws of reflection are obeyed at every reflecting surface, i.e. 1. Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection, 2i= 4r 2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in one plane. SPHERICAL MIRRORS ; Mirrors which are part of a symmetrical curved surface like sphere, ellipsoid, cylindrical ete. are called curved mirrors and that which are from spheres are called spherical mirrors. They are of two types: (i) convex (ii) concave lection takes plac flection takes pla ir in .e at the bulged surface are called convex mirrors ma te oe which a pe dopressed suface are called concave mirrors.formed by a concave mirror Images ject position | Image Nati ee | Oblect P position Ure of Image (a) $ , 8 At infinity Atthe focus F | Real and { Point-sizeq i 8 a é r infty Between infinity | Between F and | Real, smaller tan and the centre of | C the object, inverte curvature C re AtC AtC Real, same size, 8 inverted (d) Between C and F | Between C and | Real, enlarged, infinity inverted e) ) AUF At infinity = Less CORA eaws eeLeeroy Im @ Between the pole PandF Behind the mirror. Virtual, enlarge, erect ‘ages formed by a convex mirror Object position Image position Nature of Image Between infinity Between the Virtual, smaller and and the pole focus andthe | erect pole At infinity Atthe focus F | Virtual, point-sizedREFRACTION When a light ray passes from such that it undergoes a chang takes place. Hence, wavelength of light changes, but frequency remains the same. For non-normal rays, the refracted ray bends towards the normal on entering an optically denser medium from a rarer one. The deviation is, 8 = |i- rl. one medium to another fe in velocity, refraction Laws of refraction 1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface separating the two media 0 all lie in one plane. 2. Snell's law : For any two media the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a light beam of a particular frequency, i.e. sin = 1 _ Velocity of light in medium 1 = yup = Ste sinr ™?~ G,~ Velocity of light in medium 2THN thin consider a thin lens shown here wi surfaces having radii of cunvatne® aa ‘etractng respectively. The refractive indices tld i : medium and of the material of the le respectively. “ < N Now using the result that we Obtai ve te dea a @INed for refraction at i For first surface, nd R, Is Surrounding ae hy and i, Me = ny --(1) For second surface, !1_ Ha _Mi~ny i voy OR, (2) ; are Adding (1) and (2), Pt = (y, 9) 1 See yas My ue BRR +) Lensmaker’s formula In the above equation if the object is at infinity and image is formed at the focus. Then uso, -Vv=f, 2-2-2] 2 (4) flay LR, Re, Thin lens formula Now, comparing equations (3) and (4) we have, 144 Lateral Magnification of a thin lens v_-(0A’) u~ (AO) m=Power of alens _ Power of a lens is expr meters. If the focal length fis in me! Note: A lens is converging if its focal len sign convention). new-cartesian tres, then the power P of the lens is given by, scsed as the reciprocal of the focal length of the ten gth is positive and diverging IS Meagy, negative 6 Ray tracing for lens Convex Concave TA ray passing through optic centre goes undeviated. When a ray is incident parallel to principal axis, the refracted ray passes or appears to pass through the focus. — Images formed by a convex lens ed jn in ‘Object position | Image position | Nature of image @ Atinfinity At Fo Real and | A point-sized | [hs Y | Between infinity | Between — Fz | Re | 2 | Real, smaller and 2F, and 2F, inverted | At 2F, At 2F2 Real, same siZ@. | inverted |pene 2F; | Between 2F, | Real, enlarged F. Andinfinity | inverted z AtF, At infinity Real or virtual, infinitely large, inverted Between F; and | On the side of | Virtual, —_ larger, ° the object erect Images formed by a concave lens - ti i Object position position Nature of Image At infinity At Fo Virtual, point-sized Between infinity | Between Fp and 0 and O Virtual, erect and smallerEquivalent focal length of two or more thin lenses in contact If there are two lenses of focal lengths f, and fe, the focal length F of the combination is give b n Me tf ee FuSilvering of lenses : if any surface of a lens is silvered, it will ultimately behave 3s & wITTor aNd He yous Kring thus formed will be equal to the sum of powers of the optical lenses and the, TATOTS WAAR,man Eyes is like a camera havi ‘tne human eye iS amera having a lens syst forming an inverted, real image on a light cae screen inside the eye, called the retina. Light goes inside the eye through a thin membrane, called the cornea, which covers the transparent bulge on the surface of the eyeball. Eyeball is approximately sphere having diameter of about 2.3 cm. The comea and the ueous humor act as lens and both provide most of the refraction for the light, which enters in the eye. Sepereony cay y : ksrersY crys The oo in SO a eres required to focus objects at different distances at the ; 0 , which controls the si: in i ea, Pe cn regultng the ig rough eats size of the pupil. Iris can adjust its size, The light entering the eye is focussed by the eye lens and f¢ ir ir tt oa boll nd forms an inverted, real image of the i on hind the lens. In the relaxed position the focal length of the eye lens is The eye lens can adjust its focal length and this property i 'y is called accommodation. However, the focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain minimum limit. Defects of Vision There are mainly four common defects of vision. () _ Myopia- (Near-sightedness) The eye defect in which a person is not able to see distant objects clearly is called near- sightedness or Myopia. This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens. In this type of defect, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina. (i). Hyper metropia-(Far sightedness) In this case the image of nearby objects is formed behind the retina. Thus nearby objects cannot be seen clearly, although distant objects fan be seen. This defect is called far- sightedness, long sightedness or hypermetropia, This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate focal length. ele ¥ ives | 2m — (ii). Presbyopia With growing age, the power of accommodation of the eye decreases. Due to this, most people cannot read comfortably and ‘distinctly, without having eyeglasses. This defect is called Presbyopia. (iv). Astigmatism Somptimes the surfaces of the crystalline lens of the eye become uneven. Therefore, the fight passing through this surface can't be focused sharply at single point. It is focussed Percsely placed points at varying distances. Therefore, the image looks at a number Oo} i blurred or distorted. Such type of defect is called astigmatism. To compensate this defect ‘cylindrical glasses’ are used. ——ormreenteey fh the colour-blind person is unaby i is the eye defect due to whicl x See rnbetaces cortain colours. This is due fo the absence Of Some Cone cals thay eeere certain colours, Colour blindness is a genetic disorder t cannot be cueg ‘The red-green calor lind person can not be able to distinghish betwee! ed and yee, colours. However, colour-blind person can see other col . THE SIMPLE MICROSCOPE Itis basically a convex lens of short focal length which is also called a magnifying glass. It works on the principal that when an object is placed within the focus of a convex lens, a magnified, virtual and erect image is produced. The ray diagram of a simple microscope is shown in the figure A simple microscope has a magnifying power of 3 when the image is formed at the near point (25 cm) of a normal eye. (a) What is its focal length? a | ; (b) What will be its magnifying power if the image is formed at infinity? Mlustration 8. Solution: (a) For near point adjustment, m= 42 a3e8 => f=12.5 cm. (b) Image formed at infinity i.e. in normal adjustment m= Dif D=25cm, f= 12.5cm; m=2. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE A simple microscope can be used when the required magnification is small. To achieve greater magnification, we use a compound microscope in which two convex lenses are used. Figure shows a simplified version of compound microscope. It consists of two convex lenses mounted coaxially in separate tubes. In the given figure, an object AB is placed at a distance us from the objective, where us is slightly greater than the focal length (Ie) of the objective The objective forms a real, inverted and * ee enlarged image A’B'. The separation between the lens is so adjusted such that the image A’B’ lies within the focal length (f.) of the eyepieces, AB’ acts as the object for the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms its virtual and enlarged image . The final image is erect with respect vo and henoo, is inverted with respect to the object AB. By adjusting the separation between the objective and the eyepieces. A°B" can be 6" formed at the least distance of distinct vise, *T Bonesunn wigeaaeel Compound MicroscopeMagnifying power of a compound microscope wo Eye piece @ _bYuc _( nh’) D ® nD \hiu By substituting from results derived for simple microscope, ho = ma YofD ho Uy Uy (De for normal adjustment uc = fe v. from geometry o [e| for normal adjustment, and, Up | fe 12] for near-point adjustment aHi TELESCOPES: astronomical Telescope ‘A telescope is used to see @ magnified image of a distant object such as a star. A simplified diagram of an astronomical telescope is shown in the figure. The lens facing the object is the objective and the one close to the eye is the eyepiece In telescope, the focal length of the objective is larger than that of the eyepiece since the object AB is at infinity. The image AB’ is teal, inverted, very small and almost at the focus of objective. ‘Also as the object AB is at infinity, the rays coming from point A and B are parallel to each and make an angle 0; with the principle axis. Thus 0, is the angle subtended by AB on th pa The distance between the lenses is adjusted such that the image A’B" falls within the. hess pe ef the eyepiece. a image acts as the “object” for the eyepiece. The ees s a large and virtual final image A°B™ act atin eteclia Tae! Kanai een a nal image A B’. This image is erect with respect to A’B hence itis Magnifying Power Astronomical telescope @ hf, EP A For normal adjustment, ve = > EP =f. aa For near point adjustment, ve = -D uc = -EP" a) | é +0 motel avie &l Mlustration 10. ae telescope has f, = 200 ; pester fo = cm and fz = Posed to t00 a0 object 10 km trom the Ba Ieee rina iagel 2 ind kk magnification of telescope. length L of the tube and the angular Solution: Left fe=2 fo + fe = 200 +4 = gig 200+ 4 = 204 cm, 200.59ont gor normal adjustment, Uz = fe fo and Lf, —lfe| Forneat point adjustment, ve = fiat oS | and L=f, glustration 11. A Galilean telescope has f, = 200 cm and fe = 4 cm. The length the tub L and magnifying power if it is used to ject Ce Sea Ceara see object at a large distance in (A) L=45,m=10 (B) L=35, m= 20 (C)L=15,m=15 (D) L= 25, m=30 solution: (A) L=folfe|= 50-5 = 450m, 40 PRISM qimem is @ portion of certain optical medium bounded by "9 inclined faces. The angle A between the inclined faces is known as angle of prism. Consider the prism where a ray PQ is incident on one face of the prism. D = Angle of deviation = angle bel emergent ray. Let, /= incident angle,e = emergent angle andr, and r, are angles of refraction. From geometry it can be proved that, A=K+h ite =A+D " * + Light obeys the principle of reversibility. If we send light along the emergent direction, it will emerge along the incident direction, maintaining the deviation. = When deviation is minimum, i= 2@. so“) tween incident ray and Henoe, Zn = Zr=A => 2 Prism Formula I , AtDy A)= (A f the angle of prism A is very small, thensin (2) = (3) and sin (3) (3 Then from the above prism formula we have, deviation for a small angled prism, 8=(n-1)A153) Dispersion White light is actually a mixture of i colours. Therefore when white fet austere under certain conditions, its components bend by different amounts and separate out. This phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours, due to different refractive indices for different colours, is called dispersion of light. Screen This phenomenon arises due to the fact that refractive index varies with wavelength. It has been observed for a prism that 1 decreases with the increase of wavelength, i.e: Jouve > Hees SCATTERING OF LIGHT As sun light travels through the earth's atmosphere, it gets scattered by the large number of molecules present. Scattering represents basically change in the direction of light. According to Rayleigh, Intensity of scattered light (I,) varies inversely as the fourth power of the wavelength of incident light. 1 re These rays do not undergo any change in wavelength on scattering. ie. bo Example: Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of sunlight. As the blue colour has a shorter wavelength than red, therefore blue colour is scattered much more strongly. Hence the sky looks blue.ese = ais & NON Metats Chemical Bond: The force which holds the atoms together in a compound or a molecule is called a chemical bond. All materials found in the earth are broadly divided into two main classes metals and non-metals. About two-thirds of these elements known are metals. = Earth's curst is the main source of metals. Some metals like Na, K etc are found in the form of their soluble salts in sea-water. «+ Some elements show the characteristics of both metals and non-metals. These are known as metalloids. Examples are silicon, germanium etc. * A metal is an element which can form positive ions by the loss of electrons. They are therefore, known as electropositive elements. © The following are the characteristics of metals: ¢ They are generally solids at room temperature except mercury which is a liquid. They are hard except sodium and potassium which are so soft that they can be easily cut with a knife. ‘ They are malleable and ductile. Gold and silver are the most malleable and ductile metals except zinc which is brittle. * They are good conductors of heat and electricity. (i) Silver, is the best conductor of heat followed by mercury. (ii) Lead and mercury are the poorest conductor of heat. (ii) Silver and copper are the best conductor of electricity “They have high melting and boiling points except sodium, potassium and gallium. Chemical Properties of Metals (a) Reaction with O, Almost all metals react with oxygen to give metal oxides. e.g. 2Mg+O, > 2MgO (b) Reaction with Water Metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas. (c) Reaction with chlorine Metals react with chlorine to form ionic metal chlorides. 2Na + Cl, —>2NaCl (d) Reaction of metals with hydrogen Active metals like Na, K and Ca lose the electrons easily to hydrogen to form ionic hydrides. 2Na +H, ——> 2NaH Non-metals are those-elements which have a tendency to accept electrons and form negatively charged ions called anions. Hence, they are also known as electronegative elements. Sera ayes es owl ee ea a eeNon-metals are either solids (e.g., sulphur, carbon, phosphorous) or liquid (brom ° lon-metal gas (€.g., Cle, O2, No etc). “ Non-metals usually have the folowing ees: + They are neither malleable nor ductile. oe + have metallic lustre. lodine is an exception. : + te & si conduct heat and electricity. Graphite (carbon) is the only exception, ° When they form ions, they form negatively charged ions by the gain of electrons, Hydrogen is an exception — if forms the ion H*. * Chemical Properties of Non-metals (i) Reaction with Oxygen They combine with oxygen to form oxides. These oxides are either acidic or neutral but not basic, C+0,— 300, (il) Reaction with Chlorine With chlorine nonmetals form covalent chlorides, P,(s)+6Cl, (g) > 4PCl, (g) (iii) Reaction with Water These do not react with water or steam. This is because these can not give electrons {o reduce hydrogen ions of water to hydrogen gas. (iv) Reaction of nonmetals with dilute acids Non metals do not react with dil. HCl or dil, H,SO,. acceptor of electrons to hydrogen gas. Nonmetals being itself an can not give electrons to hydrogen ions of acid to reduce then () Reaction of nonmetals with hydrogen Non metals react with hydrogen to form covalent hydrides. The nonmetal hydrides are formed by covalent bonding, H,+S—SHs * A metal displaces a less reactive metal form its salt solution, %, The inorganic elements or com pounds which occur Naturally in earth's crust are known as minerals, The minerals from which metals can be Profitably extracted are known as ores, * qhe impurities such as sand and rocky materials present in the ore are known as gangue. ‘= The extraction of metals from their ores and then refining them for use is known as metallurgy. * The process of obtaining a metal from its ores consists of mainly three steps: + enrichment (concentration) of ores % reduction, and refining of metalsrot 7 for és Magnetic Separation: It is used t the concentration of the sulphide ores, separators. Chemical Methods: It makes use of difference the gangue and the ore (oxide, carbonates, sulphides). fi) (i) (v) e between the chemical properties of when the surface of a metal is attack by gases present in air 2 eter vapours its Said to corrode and the phenomenon is cate (Pascoe ticle) end d corrosion. Corrosion of iron is called rusting. Rusting is mainly hydrated iron(Iil]oxide(Fe,Os.xH1,0) Analloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and nonmetal. In alloys if one of the metals is Hg then it is called amalgam. Alloys are prepared by melting metal first and then dissolving the oth initi definite proportion, then it is cooled to room temperature. : pled etaalee 2 Alloys will behave differently when compared with its constituents in the following properties « Hardness + Melting points Conductivity Resistance to corrosion * Some Common Alloys, their Constituents, Properties and Uses ° Alloy Constituents Properties Uses Steel Iron, Carbon Hard, tough and strong | Construction of ships, bridge, vehicles, etc. Stainless Iron, Nickel, Hard and does not rust. | Surgical instruments, Steel Chromium cutlery, utensils, etc. Brass Copper and Zinc | Malleable, strong, Utensils, screws, nuts resists corrosion. and bolts. Can be easily cast. Bronze Copper and Tin | Very strong and highly | Statues, coins, medals, resistant to corrosion _ | ship's propellers, etc. Duralumin | Aluminium, Light and strong. Aircrafts, pressure Copper and Resistant to corrosion. | cooker. traces of Magnesium and Manganese Magnalium | Aluminium and | Very ight and hard Balance beams and Magnesium light instruments. metals as well as non-metals is called An element which exhibits the characteristics of ; are the typical examples. Metalloi ‘ "alloid. Arsenic, antimony, silicon, germanium PERN e ne ee ed+ Ore is the mineral from which a metal is conveniently and economically extract, 4 Flux is a substance which chemically combines with gangue which may stil, be 1 in the roasted or calcined ore to form an easily fusible material called slag, Presa Flux + ganuge — slagCONTROL AND COORDINATION ee Se, PS (ae + Nervous tissue forms the nervous 5) fibres, nerves, packing cells (neuro Neurons are the structural and functi stem in animals. It consists of neurons, nerves glia), ependymal cells and neurosecretory cells. ional units of nervous system. Each neuron consists of a cell bod: fl ly and two t df I es arising from it - dendrites and axon. Nerve 'ypes of protoplasmic process 9 cells have Nissl's granules. Neurons lie end-to-end in chains to transmit nerve impulses in the body. They are not connected. There occurs a minute gap is called a synapse. The synapse acts as a one- way valve to conduct the impulse in one direction only with the help of neurotransmitter. Nerve impulse travels from axon of one neuron to dendron of other neuron through a synapse. A receptor is a sensory nerve cell or group of sensory nerve cells which is sensitive to a specific stimulus or to a specific change in the environment. The animals have different sensory receptors/sense organs for receiving different stimuli such as thermo receptors for heat and cold, photoreceptors for light, phono receptors for sound, olfacto receptors for smell, gustato receptros for taste and tango receptors for touch. The receptors transmit nerve impulses to central nervous system. The latter transmits motor impulses to appropriate effectors (muscles or glands) which produce suitable responses. Human nervous system is divided into (i) central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and (ji) peripheral nervous system (cranial nerves and spinal nerves) (iii) autonomous nervous system(sympathetic and parasympathetic). The brain, in human beings, is the highest coordinating centre in the body. It is situated in brain box called cranium which protects it from mechanical injury. It is also surrounded by three membranes called meninges. The space between these meninges is filled with Cerebrospinal fluid which protects the brain from mechanical shocks. Brain consists of three regions: (a) fore brain, (b) mid brain, and (c) hind brain.’ Fore brain has three regions — olfactory lobes, cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) and diencephalon. Olfactory lobes receive impulses from olfacto receptors present in the nose. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes — frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe. Mid brain controls reflex movements of the head, neck and trunk in response to visual {and auditory stimuli, and of the eye muscles, changes in pupil size and shape of eye lens.ED Es it li and_medulla. oblongata Hind brain has three parts — cerebellum, pons varol ata, Cerebelum maintains posture, equirium and muscle tone. Pons contols some aspects of respiration. Medulla oblongata controls rate of heart beat, breathin movernents, expansion and contraction of blood vessels to regulate blood pressure, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting etc. Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column. Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves arise from it. Spinal cord conducts sensory and motor impulses to and from the brain, and acts as a centre for the reflex actions. Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary activities of the body. It is subdivide into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. These have opposing effects, Reflex action is a spontaneous, automatic and mechanical response to a stimulus acting Specific receptor, without the will of an animal. Reflex arc is the basis of reflex action, Knee jerk reflex, blinking of eyes, movement of diaphragm during respiration, coughing, Yawning, sneezing etc, are common reflex actions. Reflex actions involve spinal cord and hence are also termed spinal reflexes. Plants do not have nervous system, muscles and sense organs. Therefore, control system in plants is not as elaborate as in animals. They respond and react to various environmental stimuli e.g., light, gravity, touch, chemicals, water etc. by the action of plant hormones, Unlike animals, plants generally respond to various stimuli very slowly. Therefore, their responses in most cases can not be observed immediately. Plant movements are largely brought about by some definite intemal and extemal stimuli, Induced plant movements are classified as Nastic movements and Tropic movements Nastic movements aro induced by external stimuli such as light, temperature, touch However these are not directional movements. Seismonastic movements occur in response lo touch (shock). These are very quick and are best seen in ‘touch-me-no!’ Plant, also called chhui mui plant. These occur due to turgor changes, Nyctinastc movements involve diumal variation in the Position of flowers and leaves in day and night. Tropic movements or tropisms are directi of a plant in response to external stimuli as phototropism (light), geotropism (gravi (water) respectively, Auxin hormone causes growth movements in plants in response to stimuli Plant hormones are naturally occurrin in minute quantities. They control controling one or the other aspect growth substances. 9 organic chemical substances secreted in plants and coordinate various activities of plants by Of growth of plant. Hence, they are called plant-e * ° i of i: Five types of phytohormones are divided into two groups growth promotors ( = promotors (¢.9-, auxins, gibberellins and cytokinin ; Ethylene). 's) and growth inhibitors (e.g., Abscisic acid or ABA and ‘Auxins promote cell enlargement ; parthenocarpy. and cell differentiation in plants. It also induces ipberellins prot Gibb promote cell enlargement and cell differentiation in the presence of auxins. Cytokinins promote cell division i Pe rand'esky sceng in vision in plants. They help in breaking dormancy of seeds and Abscisic acid promotes se F and falling of leaves. ed dormancy and inhibits growth. It promotes stomatal closing The duration of sunlight (photoperiod) also par ring in bs regulates the germination of seeds and lane n Plantes Te ae photoperiod on the germination of seeds and flowering eriodism. Plants he phytochrome pigment. respond to photoperiod with the help of a ae system is meant for internal communication and regulation of the animal 0 ae have three types of glands—exocrine glands, endocrine glands and heterocrine glands. Endocrine glands lack ducts and pass their secretions (hormones) into the surrounding Fited for transport fo the site of action, The study of endocrine glands and the role of their secretions is called endocrinology. cules secreted by specialized endocrine glands. These d by blood to target organs where they stimulate or for the good of the body as a whole. Hormones are informational mole chemical messengers are carrie inhibit specific physiological processes focrine glands, e.g., hypothalamus, pituitary, Human body possesses large number of end drenal glands, pineal gland, thymus, testes thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, a (in males) and ovaries (in females). the base of the brain, The neurosecretory cells of the | neurohormones called releasing Hormones (RH) and IH or IF). These neurohormones are carried to the retion of anterior pituitary hormones. Hypothalamus is situated at hypothalamus secrete several inhibiting hormones or factors pituitary gland to stimulate or inhibit the seo just below the brain. Pituitary gland consists of three Pituitary or hypophysis is present Oe lobe, and (i) posterior lobe. Each lobe lobes — (j) anterior lobe, (ji) intermediate produces different hormones. gland present in the neck region. It secretes three Thyroid is the largest endocrine eck region. riodothyronine (Ts) and (fii) calcitonin: hormones — (i) thyroxine (Ts) (i) t eS OTS3 E74 = i the posterior surface of th id glands are four small glands situated on ay £ gland, 0 ar oach lobe of thyroid. They secrete parathormone (PTH °F Colipys hormone) PTH from parathyroid glands and calcitonin froma thyroid gland n° antagonistically to regulate the calcium-phosphorus balance in the blood. i i ide of each kidney. Theref + Adrenal glands are a pair of glands situated on upper side of eat ore, they are also called Supra Renal. Each adrenal gland has two distinct endocrine regione — outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. Adrenal cortex secretes three groups of steroid hormones — (i) mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone), (ii) glucocorticoids (e.g, cortisol), and (iii) sexcorticoids. Mineralocorticoids maintain water and electrolyte balance, and blood volume in the body. Glucocorticoids regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Sex Corticoids stimulate the development of secondary sexual characters both in males and * females. Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones — adrenaline (epinephrine) and nor adrenaline 'S are secreted in small amounts, (nor epinephrine). In normal conditions, these hormone However, in stress or danger situations, they are secreted in large amounts to prepare the body to face emergency situations. Pancreas lies below the stomach. Endocrine part of pancreas is called islets of Langerhans, It secretes two hormones — (i) insulin, (ii) glucagon. Both these hormones regulate blood sugar (glucose) level.