SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

1. Two or more subjects joined by “and” are considered plural and require a verb form
without an “s.”
Example: Jan, John, and Bob walk to the store.
Bob and his brothers walk to the store.
2. If a subject is modified by the words “each” or “every” that subject is singular and will
take a verb form that ends in “s.”
Example: Each boy and girl walks to the store.
3. If plural subjects are joined by “or,” “nor,” or “but,” the verb must only agree with the
subject that is closest to it.
Example: Either Bob or his brother walks to the store.
Neither Bob nor his brothers walk to the store.
4. Indefinite pronouns* are usually singular and take a verb form that ends in “s.”.
Example: Everyone walks to the store.
Everything comes back eventually
5. The subject of a verb is never in a prepositional* or verbal phrases. Therefore, you must
isolate the phrase and find the proper subject.
Example: The mother duck (with all of her little ducklings) walks to the store.
The mother duck (including all her ducklings) walks to the store
6. Some indefinite pronouns and nouns will be singular or plural depending on the object of
the prepositional phrase. These words are always about number or amount such as: all,
half, some, none, most, part, etc.
Example: Some (of the students) are gone.
Some (of the cake) is gone.
The mother duck and all (of her ducklings) walk to the store.
7. When a collective noun, such as family, group, committee, or class, is the subject, the
verb will end in “s.”
Example: My family with all my crazy cousins always walks to the store.
8. A few nouns, such as economics, mumps, measles, or news end in “s” but are
considered singular. You can tell these “s” words are singular because if you take the “s”
away, you don’t have a noun. For example, economic and new are adjectives that
describe a noun. Mump and measle just don’t make any sense
Example: Economics is her favorite subject.
9. When the subject is a unit of measurement of time, distance, money, weight, etc. The
unit is considered singular, and the verb will end in “s.”
Example: Ten pounds of chocolate is too much to eat at once.
Thirteen feet of kite string tangles very easily.
10. In a question or in a sentence that begins with there or here, the verb will often come
before the subject.
Example: Where is my sweater?
There are my sweaters
 11. The verb must agree only with the subject.
Example: The biggest problem we face is all the squirrels that have rabies
around here.
12. Gerunds (“ing” words) can be subjects and follow all the same rules above.
Example: Running with ducks is my favorite sport.
Running to the store and flying through the air are my favorite sports.
13. When using who, that or which, you must look to the noun these relative pronouns are
referring to in order to determine whether the subject is singular and will have a verb
ending in “s” or is plural and have a verb without an “s.”
Example: The girls who eat cake are happy.
The girl who eats cake is happy.

PRONOUN AGREEMENT
Pronouns that take the place of a noun must be either plural or singular just like the noun they
represent.
Example Everyone has his or her own way of thinking. Correct:
Everyone has their own way of thinking. Incorrect

Active Voice - what a person or thing does e.g. Anna painted the house
Passive Voice - what is done to something or someone e.g. The house was painted by Anna

Past Participle - ending with ed

Past Perfect - is a verb tense used to talk about something that happened before something
else that is also in the past. ( had + [past participle]. )
Future Perfect - will have + [past participle]

Circumference - perimeter of a circle C=2πr

Volume - can be used to find out how much a container holds.
Volume = length x width x height
Supplementary - adds up to 180 degrees
Complementary - adds up to 90 degrees

Hypotenuse = √ a² + b²
Perimeter of Rectangle = 2( l + w)
Perimeter of Square = 4a
Perimeter of Triangle = a + b + c
 LITERARY DEVICES

SIMILE
- comparison of two unrelated subject or object.
- the word “like” or “as” were usually used.
- Also known as indirect comparison
METAPHOR
- comparison of two unrelated subject.
- There are deep meanings beyond the object that is being compared.
- Also called direct comparison.
ANALOGY
- Compares to unalike things to advance an argument.
- Structure: “A is to B” or “ A as is B” or “A is to B as C is to D”.
IMAGERY
- Talks about the senses (sight, hear, touch, smell, taste)
SYMBOLISM
- Combines the idea of imagery and metaphor
- Use of symbol to represent a concept. E.g. Love is the symbol of heart.
PERSONIFICATION
- Giving human attributes to non-human object.
- E.g. The cars cough, hacked, and splutter (notice how the example has no deep
meaning unlike metaphor)
HYPERBOLE
- Refers to exaggerated statement (overdramatic). E.g. I’ve been waiting for years for this.
IRONY
- Describes something using opposite language. E.g. The poop taste good
JUXTAPOSITION
- refers to the placement of contrasting ideas next to each other, often to produce an
ironic or thought-provoking effect. E.g. The sweet and sour sauce

BOYLES LAW
- Relation between pressure and volume (indirect proportional) in a constant temperature
- Formula : P1V1 = P2V2
CHARLES LAW
- Relation between volume and temperature (direct proportional) in a constant pressure
- Formula : V1T1 = V2T2
CARBOHYDRATE
- in the form of glucose is the main source of energy for most metabolic processes in the
body.
LIPIDS
- provide essential fatty acids for brain development and are an important source of
energy.
PROTEINS
- are made up of building blocks called amino acids. There are about 20 different amino
acids that link together in different combinations.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all cells and viruses. A major function
of nucleic acids involves the storage and expression of genomic information.
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, encodes the information cells need to make proteins.
CHEMICAL KENETICS
- the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of
chemical reactions.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of nerves.
This system sends messages back and forth between the brain and the body.
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system:
1. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord.
BRAIN
- Controls all function in the body.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
1. The cerebrum (seh-REE-brum) is the biggest part of the brain. A large part of the
cerebrum is the cerebral cortex (also known as "gray matter").

2. The cortex has four areas called lobes that work together to create a person's
personality and everything they know. Each lobe processes a different kind of
information:
The frontal lobe is involved in complex thinking, like planning, imagining, making
decisions, and reasoning. It's located behind the forehead.
The parietal lobe processes information about touch, taste, and temperature. It's
behind the frontal lobe.
The temporal lobe lets us understand sounds and language, recognize objects and
faces, and create memories. It's near the ears.
The occipital lobe processes light and other visual information from the eyes, letting
us know what we're seeing. It's in the rear part of the brain.
3. The brainstem connects the brain and the spinal cord. It is made up of the pons, the
medulla (meh-DULL-uh), and the midbrain. The brainstem also controls many body
functions that we often don’t think about — like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,
swallowing, and digestion.
4. Behind the cerebrum is the cerebellum (sair-uh-BELL-um). The cerebellum — also
called the "little brain" because it looks like a small version of the cerebrum — is
responsible for balance, movement, and coordination.
5. The thalamus, which receives messages about the senses, like vision, hearing, and
touch coming from the eyes, ears, and fingers.
6. The hypothalamus, which controls the pulse, thirst, appetite, sleep patterns, and other
processes that happen automatically.
7. The pituitary gland, which makes hormones that control growth, metabolism, water and
mineral balance, sexual maturity, and response to stress.
2. The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves that run throughout the whole body.The
brain and body send information back and forth all the time. The peripheral (per-IF-er-ul)
nervous system is in charge of delivering these messages.
- The somatic (so-MA-tik) nervous system controls actions that we do by choice
(voluntarily), like walking, eating, or playing an instrument.
- The autonomic (ah-tuh-NOM-ik) nervous system controls processes that
happen automatically (involuntarily), like breathing, digestion, sweating, and
shivering. The autonomic nervous system has two parts:
The sympathetic nervous system gets the body ready to react quickly to
stressful or scary events. The parasympathetic nervous system controls body
functions when we're calm and resting.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system consists of:
- Glands located throughout the body;
- Hormones made by the glands and released into the bloodstream or the fluid
surrounding cells; and
- Receptors in various organs and tissues that recognize and respond to the hormones.
Hormones act as chemical messengers that are released into the blood stream to act on an
organ in another part of the body.
Hormones control or regulate many biological processes and are often produced in
exceptionally low amounts within the body. Examples of such processes include:
- blood sugar control (insulin);
- differentiation, growth, and function of reproductive organs (testosterone and estradiol);
and
- body growth and energy production (growth hormone and thyroid hormone).
PARTS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus

links our endocrine and nervous
systems together. The hypothalamus
drives the endocrine system.
Pituitary gland - The pituitary gland
receives signals from the
hypothalamus. This gland has two
lobes, the posterior and anterior lobes.
The posterior lobe secretes hormones
that are made by the hypothalamus.
The anterior lobe produces its own
hormones, several of which act on other
endocrine glands.
Thyroid gland - The thyroid gland is
critical to the healthy development and
maturation of vertebrates and regulates
metabolism.
Adrenal glands - The adrenal gland is made up of two glands: the cortex and medulla. These
glands produce hormones in response to stress and regulate blood pressure, glucose
metabolism, and the body's salt and water balance.
Pancreas - The pancreas is responsible for producing glucagon and insulin. Both hormones
help regulate the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.
Gonads - The male reproductive gonads, or testes, and female reproductive gonads, or
ovaries, produce steroids that affect growth and development and also regulate reproductive
cycles and behaviors. The major categories of gonadal steroids are androgens, estrogens, and
progestins, all of which are found in both males and females but at different levels.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system includes a group of organs that make up the reproductive
system and urinary system in men and people assigned male at birth (AMAB).
The male reproductive system contains internal and external parts. Internal parts are inside
your body, and external parts are outside your body. Together, these organs help you urinate
(pee), have sexual intercourse and make biological children.

The organs that make up the male reproductive system perform the following:
- Produce, maintain and transport sperm cells and semen. Sperm cells are male
reproductive cells. Semen is the protective fluid around sperm.
- Discharge sperm.
- Produce and secrete male sex hormones.

The primary hormones that help the male reproductive system function include:
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Your pituitary gland makes FSH. FSH is
necessary to produce sperm (spermatogenesis).
- Luteinizing hormone (LH). Your pituitary gland also makes LH. LH is necessary to
continue the process of spermatogenesis.
- Testosterone is the main sex hormone in people AMAB. It helps you develop certain
characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex
drive (libido).

PARTS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Penis
The penis is the male organ for
sexual intercourse. It contains many
sensitive nerve endings, and it has
three parts:
1. Root. The root is the base of
your penis. It attaches to the
wall of your abdomen.
 2. Body (shaft). The body has a shape like a tube or cylinder. It consists of three internal
chambers: the two larger chambers are the corpora cavernosa, and the third chamber is
the corpus spongiosum. The corpora cavernosa run side by side, while the corpus
spongiosum surrounds your urethra. There’s a special, sponge-like erectile tissue inside
these chambers. The erectile tissue contains thousands of spaces. During sexual
arousal, the spaces fill with blood, and your penis becomes hard and rigid (erection). An
erection allows you to have penetrative sex. The skin of the penis is loose and stretchy,
which lets it change size when you have an erection.
3. Glans (head). The glans is the cone-shaped tip of the penis. A loose layer of skin
(foreskin) covers the glans. Healthcare providers sometimes surgically remove the
foreskin (circumcision).
In most people, the opening of the urethra is at the tip of the glans. The urethra transports pee
and semen out of your body. Semen contains sperm. You expel (ejaculate) semen through the
end of your penis when you reach sexual climax (orgasm).
When your penis is erect, your corpora cavernosa press against the part of your urethra
where pee flows. This blocks your pee flow so that only semen ejaculates when you orgasm.

The scrotum is the loose, pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It holds the
testicles (testes) as well as nerves and blood vessels.
The scrotum protects your testicles and provides a sort of “climate-control system.” For
normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature that’s slightly cooler than body
temperature (between 97 and 99 degrees Fahrenheit or 36 and 37 degrees Celsius). Special
muscles in the wall of the scrotum let it contract (tighten) and relax. Your scrotum contracts to
move your testicles closer to your body for warmth and protection. It relaxes away from your
body to cool them.

The testicles (testes) are oval-shaped organs that lie in your scrotum. They’re about the size of
two large olives. The spermatic cord holds the testicles in place and supplies them with blood.
Most people AMAB have two testicles, on the left and right side of the scrotum. The testicles
make testosterone and produce sperm. Within the testicles are coiled masses of tubes. These
are the seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells through
spermatogenesis.

The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the back of each testicle. It carries and
stores the sperm cells that your testicles create. The epididymis also brings the sperm to
maturity — the sperm that emerge from the testicles are immature and incapable of fertilization.
During sexual arousal, muscle contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.

There are several internal (accessory) organs in the male reproductive system. They include:

1. The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the
pelvic cavity, just behind the urinary bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm
to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
 2. Each testicle has a vas deferens that joins with seminal vesicle ducts to form
ejaculatory ducts. The ejaculatory ducts move through your prostate, where they
collect fluid to add to semen. They empty into your urethra.
3. The urethra is the tube that carries pee from your bladder outside of your body. If you
have a penis, it also ejaculates semen when you reach orgasm.
4. The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the
base of the bladder. Seminal vesicles make up to 80% of your ejaculatory fluid, including
fructose. Fructose is an energy source for sperm and helps them move (motility).
5. The prostate is a walnut-sized gland that rests below your bladder, in front of your
rectum. The prostate adds additional fluid to ejaculate, which helps nourish sperm. The
urethra runs through the center of the prostate gland.
6. The bulbourethral glands are pea-sized structures on the sides of your urethra, just
below your prostate. They create a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the
urethra. This fluid lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any acids that may remain from
your pee.

DNA REPLICATION :
- DNA replication is the process by which the genome's DNA is copied in cells. Before a
cell divides, it must first copy (or replicate) its entire genome so that each resulting
daughter cell ends up with its own complete genome.
- Replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to
produce two identical DNA molecules.
- Replication occurs in three major steps: the opening of the double helix and separation
of the DNA strands, the priming of the template strand, and the assembly of the new
DNA segment. During separation, the two strands of the DNA double helix uncoil at a
specific location called the origin. Several enzymes and proteins then work together to
prepare, or prime, the strands for duplication. Finally, a special enzyme called DNA
polymerase organizes the assembly of the new DNA strands. The following description
of this three-stage process applies generally to all cells, but specific variations within the
process may occur depending on organism and cell type.
The initiation of DNA replication occurs in two steps. First, a so-called initiator protein unwinds
a short stretch of the DNA double helix. Then, a protein known as helicase attaches to and
breaks apart the hydrogen bonds between the bases on the DNA strands, thereby pulling apart
the two strands. As the helicase moves along the DNA molecule, it continues breaking these
hydrogen bonds and separating the two polynucleotide chains.
Meanwhile, as the helicase separates the strands, another enzyme called primase
briefly attaches to each strand and assembles a foundation at which replication can begin. This
foundation is a short stretch of nucleotides called a primer.

HOW ARE DNA STRAND REPLICATED?

After the primer is in place on a single, unwound polynucleotide strand, DNA polymerase
wraps itself around that strand, and it attaches new nucleotides to the exposed nitrogenous
bases. In this way, the polymerase assembles a new DNA strand on top of the existing one.
 As DNA polymerase makes its way down the unwound DNA strand, it relies upon the
pool of free-floating nucleotides surrounding the existing strand to build the new strand. The
nucleotides that make up the new strand are paired with partner nucleotides in the template
strand; because of their molecular structures, A and T nucleotides always pair with one another,
and C and G nucleotides always pair with one another. This phenomenon is known as
complementary base pairing (Figure 4), and it results in the production of two complementary
strands of DNA.
Base pairing ensures that the sequence of nucleotides in the existing template strand is
exactly matched to a complementary sequence in the new strand, also known as the anti-
sequence of the template strand. Later, when the new strand is itself copied, its complementary
strand will contain the same sequence as the original template strand. Thus, as a result of
complementary base pairing, the replication process proceeds as a series of sequence and anti-
sequence copying that preserves the coding of the original DNA.

MUTATION
- A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Mutations can result from
errors in DNA replication during cell division, exposure to mutagens or a viral infection.
- These hereditary (or inherited) mutations are in almost every cell of the person's body
throughout their life. Hereditary mutations include cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and sickle
cell disease. Other mutations can happen on their own during a person's life. These are
called sporadic, spontaneous, or new mutations.
- Mutation creates slightly different versions of the same genes, called alleles. These
small differences in DNA sequence make every individual unique. They account for the
variation we see in human hair color, skin color, height, shape, behavior, and
susceptibility to disease.
- Mutations result either from errors in DNA replication or from the damaging effects of
mutagens, such as chemicals and radiation, which react with DNA and change the
structures of individual nucleotides.

POPULATION DENSITY AND CARRYING CAPACITY

- carrying capacity - the average population density or population size of a species
below which its numbers tend to increase and above which its numbers tend to decrease
because of shortages of resources. The carrying capacity is different for each species in
a habitat because of that species’ particular food, shelter, and social requirements.
- Population density is the concentration of individuals within a species in a specific
geographic locale. Population density data can be used to quantify demographic
information and to assess relationships with ecosystems, human health, and
infrastructure.
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE EARTH AND SEISMIC WAVES.

Seismic waves are caused

by the sudden movement of
materials within the Earth,
such as slip along a fault
during an earthquake.
Volcanic eruptions,
explosions, landslides,
avalanches, and even
rushing rivers can also cause
seismic waves.

There are several different

kinds of seismic waves,
and they all move in different
ways. The two main types of
waves are body waves and
surface waves. Body waves
can travel through the Earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface
of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes send out seismic energy as both body and
surface waves.

Body waves are of two types: Primary waves (also called P-waves, or pressure waves) and
Secondary waves (S-waves, or shear waves).
- P-waves are compression waves. They can propagate in solid or liquid material.
- S-waves are shear waves. They only propagate in solid material.
By studying the trajectories of S-waves, scientists could prove that the Earth had a liquid outer
core.

The location of an epicenter can be found using three seismographs. By measuring the lag
time between the P-wave and S-wave, each station can calculate their distance to the
earthquake. With three stations and three distances, the epicenter can be pin-pointed.

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

- Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a
result of Earth’s subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s,
transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain
building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere—made up of the crust
and upper mantle—is broken into large rocky plates. These plates lie on top of a partially
molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere. Due to the convection of the
asthenosphere and lithosphere, the plates move relative to each other at different rates,
from two to 15 centimeters (one to six inches) per year. This interaction of tectonic plates
is responsible for many different geological formations such as the Himalaya mountain
range in Asia, the East African Rift, and the San Andreas Fault in California, United
States.
The idea that continents moved over time had been proposed before the 20th
century. However, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener changed the scientific
debate. Wegener published two articles about a concept called continental drift in 1912.
He suggested that 200 million years ago, a supercontinent he called Pangaea began to
break into pieces, its parts moving away from one another. The continents we see today
are fragments of that supercontinent. To support his theory, Wegener pointed to
matching rock formations and similar fossils in Brazil and West Africa. In addition, South
America and Africa looked like they could fit together like puzzle pieces.
Despite being dismissed at first, the theory gained steam in the 1950s and 1960s
as new data began to support the idea of continental drift. Maps of the ocean floor
showed a massive undersea mountain range that almost circled the entire Earth. An
American geologist named Harry Hess proposed that these ridges were the result of
molten rock rising from the asthenosphere. As it came to the surface, the rock cooled,
making new crust and spreading the seafloor away from the ridge in a conveyer-belt
motion. Millions of years later, the crust would disappear into ocean trenches at places
called subduction zones and cycle back into Earth. Magnetic data from the ocean floor
and the relatively young age of oceanic crust supported Hess’s hypothesis of seafloor
spreading.
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
- The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic,
collect, generate, and evaluate evidence, and establish a position on the topic in a concise
manner. Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or
previously published material

LITERARY APPROACHES
- Formalism is a school of literary criticism and literary theory having mainly to do with
structural purposes of a particular text. It is the study of a text without taking into account
any outside influence. Formalism rejects or sometimes simply "brackets" (i.e., ignores for
the purpose of analysis) notions of culture or societal influence, authorship, and content,
and instead focuses on modes, genres, discourse, and forms.
- MORALISTIC APPROACH – A tendency—rather than a recognized school—within
literary criticism to judge literary works according to moral rather than formal principles. –
Judging literary works by their ethical teachings and by their effects on readers.
- Marxist approach relates literary text to the society, to the history and cultural and
political systems in which it is created. It does not consider a literary text, devoid of its
writer and the influences on the writer. A writer is a product of his own age which is itself
a product of many ages.
- Feminist literary criticism recognizes that literature both reflects and shapes stereotypes
and other cultural assumptions. Thus, feminist literary criticism examines how works of
literature embody patriarchal attitudes or undercut them, sometimes both happening
within the same work
- Historical criticism is the historical approach to literary criticism. It involves looking
beyond the literature at the broader historical and cultural events occurring during the
time the piece was written. An understanding of the world the author lived in (events,
ideologies, culture, lifestyle etc.)

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE FORMULA

 GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
FORMULA

ALGEBRA