Abstract

expressionism

Abstract expressionism is a post–World

War II art movement in American painting,
developed in New York City in the 1940s.[1]
It was the first specifically American
movement to achieve international
influence and put New York at the center
of the Western art world, a role formerly
filled by Paris.
 Abstract expressionism

Years active Late 1940s–present

Country United States,

specifically New York
City

Major figures Clyfford Still,

Theodoros Stamos,
Jackson Pollock,
Willem de Kooning,
Arshile Gorky, Mark
Rothko, Lee Krasner,
Robert Motherwell,
Franz Kline, Adolph
Gottlieb, David Smith,
Hans Hofmann, Joan
Mitchell
Influences Modernism,
Expressionism
(Wassily Kandinsky),
Surrealism, Cubism,
Dada

Although the term "abstract

expressionism" was first applied to
American art in 1946 by the art critic
Robert Coates, it had been first used in
Germany in 1919 in the magazine Der
Sturm, regarding German Expressionism.
In the United States, Alfred Barr was the
first to use this term in 1929 in relation to
works by Wassily Kandinsky.[2]
Style

David Smith, Cubi VI (1963),

Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
David Smith was one of the
most influential American
sculptors of the 20th century.

Technically, an important predecessor is

surrealism, with its emphasis on
spontaneous, automatic, or subconscious
creation. Jackson Pollock's dripping paint
onto a canvas laid on the floor is a
technique that has its roots in the work of
André Masson, Max Ernst, and David
Alfaro Siqueiros. The newer research
tends to put the exile-surrealist Wolfgang
Paalen in the position of the artist and
theoretician who fostered the theory of the
viewer-dependent possibility space
through his paintings and his magazine
DYN. Paalen considered ideas of quantum
mechanics, as well as idiosyncratic
interpretations of the totemic vision and
the spatial structure of native-Indian
painting from British Columbia and
prepared the ground for the new spatial
vision of the young American abstracts.
His long essay Totem Art (1943) had
considerable influence on such artists as
Martha Graham, Isamu Noguchi, Pollock,
Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman.[3]
Around 1944 Barnett Newman tried to
explain America's newest art movement
and included a list of "the men in the new
movement." Paalen is mentioned twice;
other artists mentioned are Gottlieb,
Rothko, Pollock, Hofmann, Baziotes, Gorky
and others. Robert Motherwell is
mentioned with a question mark.[4]
Another important early manifestation of
what came to be abstract expressionism
is the work of American Northwest artist
Mark Tobey, especially his "white writing"
canvases, which, though generally not
large in scale, anticipate the "all-over" look
of Pollock's drip paintings.
The movement's name is derived from the
combination of the emotional intensity
and self-denial of the German
Expressionists with the anti-figurative
aesthetic of the European abstract
schools such as Futurism, the Bauhaus,
and Synthetic Cubism. Additionally, it has
an image of being rebellious, anarchic,
highly idiosyncratic and, some feel,
nihilistic.[5] In practice, the term is applied
to any number of artists working (mostly)
in New York who had quite different styles,
and even to work that is neither especially
abstract nor expressionist. California
abstract expressionist Jay Meuser, who
typically painted in the non-objective style,
wrote about his painting Mare Nostrum, "It
is far better to capture the glorious spirit of
the sea than to paint all of its tiny ripples."
Pollock's energetic "action paintings", with
their "busy" feel, are different, both
technically and aesthetically, from the
violent and grotesque Women series of
Willem de Kooning's figurative paintings
and the rectangles of color in Rothko's
Color Field paintings (which are not what
would usually be called expressionist, and
which Rothko denied were abstract). Yet
all four artists are classified as abstract
expressionists.
Abstract expressionism has many stylistic
similarities to the Russian artists of the
early 20th century such as Wassily
Kandinsky. Although it is true that
spontaneity or the impression of
spontaneity characterized many of the
abstract expressionists' works, most of
these paintings involved careful planning,
especially since their large size demanded
it. With artists such as Paul Klee,
Kandinsky, Emma Kunz, and later on
Rothko, Newman, and Agnes Martin,
abstract art clearly implied expression of
ideas concerning the spiritual, the
unconscious, and the mind.[6]
Why this style gained mainstream
acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of
debate. American social realism had been
the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been
influenced not only by the Great
Depression, but also by the Mexican
muralists such as David Alfaro Siqueiros
and Diego Rivera. The political climate
after World War II did not long tolerate the
social protests of these painters. Abstract
expressionism arose during the war and
began to be showcased during the early
forties at galleries in New York such as
The Art of This Century Gallery. The post-
war McCarthy era was a time of artistic
censorship in the United States, but if the
subject matter were totally abstract then it
would be seen as apolitical, and therefore
safe. Or if the art was political, the
message was largely for the insiders.[7]

While the movement is closely associated

with painting, collagist Anne Ryan and
certain sculptors in particular were also
integral to abstract expressionism.[8] David
Smith, and his wife Dorothy Dehner,
Herbert Ferber, Isamu Noguchi, Ibram
Lassaw, Theodore Roszak, Phillip Pavia,
Mary Callery, Richard Stankiewicz, Louise
Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson in
particular were some of the sculptors
considered as being important members
of the movement. In addition, the artists
David Hare, John Chamberlain, James
Rosati, Mark di Suvero, and sculptors
Richard Lippold, Raoul Hague, George
Rickey, Reuben Nakian, and even Tony
Smith, Seymour Lipton, Joseph Cornell,
and several others[9] were integral parts of
the abstract expressionist movement.
Many of the sculptors listed participated in
the Ninth Street Show,[9] a famous
exhibition curated by Leo Castelli on East
Ninth Street in New York City in 1951.
Besides the painters and sculptors of the
period the New York School of abstract
expressionism also generated a number of
supportive poets, including Frank O'Hara
and photographers such as Aaron Siskind
and Fred McDarrah, (whose book The
Artist's World in Pictures documented the
New York School during the 1950s), and
filmmakers—notably Robert Frank—as
well.

Although the abstract expressionist school

spread quickly throughout the United
States, the epicenters of this style were
New York City and the San Francisco Bay
area of California.
Art critics of the post–World
War II era

At a certain moment the canvas

began to appear to one
American painter after another
as an arena in which to act.
What was to go on the canvas
was not a picture but an event.

— Harold Rosenberg[10]

In the 1940s there were not only few

galleries (The Art of This Century, Pierre
Matisse Gallery, Julien Levy Gallery and a
few others) but also few critics who were
willing to follow the work of the New York
Vanguard. There were also a few artists
with a literary background, among them
Robert Motherwell and Barnett Newman,
who functioned as critics as well.

While the New York avant-garde was still

relatively unknown by the late 1940s, most
of the artists who have become household
names today had their well-established
patron critics: Clement Greenberg
advocated Jackson Pollock and the color
field painters like Clyfford Still, Mark
Rothko, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb
and Hans Hofmann; Harold Rosenberg
seemed to prefer the action painters such
as Willem de Kooning and Franz Kline, as
well as the seminal paintings of Arshile
Gorky; Thomas B. Hess, the managing
editor of ARTnews, championed Willem de
Kooning.

The new critics elevated their protégés by

casting other artists as "followers"[11] or
ignoring those who did not serve their
promotional goal.

In 1958, Mark Tobey became the first

American painter since Whistler (1895) to
win top prize at the Venice Biennale.[12]
 Barnett Newman, Onement 1,
1948. During the 1940s
Barnett Newman wrote
several articles about the
new American painting.

Barnett Newman, a late member of the

Uptown Group, wrote catalogue forewords
and reviews, and by the late 1940s
became an exhibiting artist at Betty
Parsons Gallery. His first solo show was in
1948. Soon after his first exhibition,
Barnett Newman remarked in one of the
Artists' Sessions at Studio 35: "We are in
the process of making the world, to a
certain extent, in our own image."[13]
Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought
every step of the way to reinforce his
newly established image as an artist and
to promote his work. An example is his
letter on April 9, 1955, "Letter to Sidney
Janis: — it is true that Rothko talks the
fighter. He fights, however, to submit to the
philistine world. My struggle against
bourgeois society has involved the total
rejection of it."[14]

Strangely, the person thought to have had

most to do with the promotion of this style
was a New York Trotskyist: Clement
Greenberg. As long-time art critic for the
Partisan Review and The Nation, he
became an early and literate proponent of
abstract expressionism. The well-heeled
artist Robert Motherwell joined Greenberg
in promoting a style that fit the political
climate and the intellectual rebelliousness
of the era.

Greenberg proclaimed abstract

expressionism and Pollock in particular as
the epitome of aesthetic value. He
supported Pollock's work on formalistic
grounds as simply the best painting of its
day and the culmination of an art tradition
going back via Cubism and Cézanne to
Monet, in which painting became ever-
'purer' and more concentrated in what was
'essential' to it, the making of marks on a
flat surface.[15]

Pollock's work has always polarised

critics. Rosenberg spoke of the
transformation of painting into an
existential drama in Pollock's work, in
which "what was to go on the canvas was
not a picture but an event". "The big
moment came when it was decided to
paint 'just to paint'. The gesture on the
canvas was a gesture of liberation from
value—political, aesthetic, moral."[16]
One of the most vocal critics of abstract
expressionism at the time was The New
York Times art critic John Canaday. Meyer
Schapiro and Leo Steinberg along with
Greenberg and Rosenberg were important
art historians of the post-war era who
voiced support for abstract
expressionism. During the early-to-mid-
sixties younger art critics Michael Fried,
Rosalind Krauss, and Robert Hughes
added considerable insights into the
critical dialectic that continues to grow
around abstract expressionism.
History

World War II and the Post-War period

Richard Pousette-Dart, Symphony No.

1, The Transcendental, 1941–42

During the period leading up to and during

World War II, modernist artists, writers,
and poets, as well as important collectors
and dealers, fled Europe and the onslaught
of the Nazis for safe haven in the United
States. Many of those who didn't flee
perished. Among the artists and collectors
who arrived in New York during the war
(some with help from Varian Fry) were
Hans Namuth, Yves Tanguy, Kay Sage,
Max Ernst, Jimmy Ernst, Peggy
Guggenheim, Leo Castelli, Marcel
Duchamp, André Masson, Roberto Matta,
André Breton, Marc Chagall, Jacques
Lipchitz, Fernand Léger, and Piet
Mondrian. A few artists, notably Picasso,
Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard remained in
France and survived.

The post-war period left the capitals of

Europe in upheaval, with an urgency to
economically and physically rebuild and to
politically regroup. In Paris, formerly the
center of European culture and capital of
the art world, the climate for art was a
disaster, and New York replaced Paris as
the new center of the art world. Post-war
Europe saw the continuation of
Surrealism, Cubism, Dada, and the works
of Matisse. Also in Europe, Art brut,[17] and
Lyrical Abstraction or Tachisme (the
European equivalent to abstract
expressionism) took hold of the newest
generation. Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de
Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva,
Jean Dubuffet, Yves Klein, Pierre Soulages
and Jean Messagier, among others are
considered important figures in post-war
European painting.[18] In the United States,
a new generation of American artists
began to emerge and to dominate the
world stage, and they were called Abstract
Expressionists.

Gorky, Hofmann, and Graham

Arshile Gorky, The Liver is the Cock's

Comb (1944), oil on canvas, 731⁄4 ×
98" (186 × 249 cm) Albright–Knox Art
Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gorky was
an Armenian-born American painter
who had a seminal influence on
abstract expressionism. De Kooning
said: "I met a lot of artists — but then I
met Gorky... He had an extraordinary
gift for hitting the nail on the head;
remarkable. So I immediately
attached myself to him and we
became very good friends."[19]

The 1940s in New York City heralded the

triumph of American abstract
expressionism, a modernist movement
that combined lessons learned from
Matisse, Picasso, Surrealism, Miró,
Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via
great teachers in America such as Hans
Hofmann from Germany and John D.
Graham from Ukraine. Graham's influence
on American art during the early 1940s
was particularly visible in the work of
Gorky, de Kooning, Pollock, and Richard
Pousette-Dart among others. Gorky's
contributions to American and world art
are difficult to overestimate. His work as
lyrical abstraction[20][21][22][23][24] was a
"new language.[20] He "lit the way for two
generations of American artists".[20] The
painterly spontaneity of mature works
such as The Liver is the Cock's Comb, The
Betrothal II, and One Year the Milkweed
immediately prefigured Abstract
expressionism, and leaders in the New
York School have acknowledged Gorky's
considerable influence. The early work of
Hyman Bloom was also influential.[25]
American artists also benefited from the
presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger,
Max Ernst, and the André Breton group,
Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy
Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This
Century, as well as other factors. Hans
Hofmann in particular as teacher, mentor,
and artist was both important and
influential to the development and success
of abstract expressionism in the United
States. Among Hofmann's protégés was
Clement Greenberg, who became an
enormously influential voice for American
painting, and among his students was Lee
Krasner, who introduced her teacher,
Hofmann, to her husband, Jackson
Pollock.[26]

Pollock and Abstract influences

During the late 1940s, Jackson Pollock's

radical approach to painting revolutionized
the potential for all Contemporary art that
followed him. To some extent, Pollock
realized that the journey toward making a
work of art was as important as the work
of art itself. Like Picasso's innovative
reinventions of painting and sculpture near
the turn of the century via Cubism and
constructed sculpture, with influences as
disparate as Navajo sand paintings,
surrealism, Jungian analysis, and Mexican
mural art,[27] Pollock redefined what it was
to produce art. His move away from easel
painting and conventionality was a
liberating signal to the artists of his era
and to all that came after. Artists realized
that Jackson Pollock's process—the
placing of unstretched raw canvas on the
floor where it could be attacked from all
four sides using artist materials and
industrial materials; linear skeins of paint
dripped and thrown; drawing, staining,
brushing; imagery and non-imagery—
essentially took art-making beyond any
prior boundary. Abstract expressionism in
general expanded and developed the
definitions and possibilities that artists
had available for the creation of new
works of art.

The other abstract expressionists followed

Pollock's breakthrough with new
breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the
innovations of Pollock, de Kooning, Franz
Kline, Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans
Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman,
Ad Reinhardt, Richard Pousette-Dart,
Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos, and
others opened the floodgates to the
diversity and scope of all the art that
followed them. The radical Anti-Formalist
movements of the 1960s and 1970s
including Fluxus, Neo-Dada, Conceptual
art, and the feminist art movement can be
traced to the innovations of abstract
expressionism. Rereadings into abstract
art, done by art historians such as Linda
Nochlin,[28] Griselda Pollock[29] and
Catherine de Zegher[30] critically shows,
however, that pioneer women artists who
have produced major innovations in
modern art had been ignored by the
official accounts of its history, but finally
began to achieve long overdue recognition
in the wake of the abstract expressionist
movement of the 1940s and 1950s.
Abstract expressionism emerged as a
major art movement in New York City
during the 1950s and thereafter several
leading art galleries began to include the
abstract expressionists in exhibitions and
as regulars in their rosters. Some of those
prominent 'uptown' galleries included: the
Charles Egan Gallery,[31] the Sidney Janis
Gallery,[32] the Betty Parsons Gallery,[33] the
Kootz Gallery,[34] the Tibor de Nagy Gallery,
the Stable Gallery, the Leo Castelli Gallery
as well as others; and several downtown
galleries known at the time as the Tenth
Street galleries exhibited many emerging
younger artists working in the abstract
expressionist vein.

Action painting

Action painting was a style widespread

from the 1940s until the early 1960s, and
is closely associated with abstract
expressionism (some critics have used the
terms action painting and abstract
expressionism interchangeably). A
comparison is often drawn between the
American action painting and the French
tachisme.
The term was coined by the American
critic Harold Rosenberg in 1952[35] and
signaled a major shift in the aesthetic
perspective of New York School painters
and critics. According to Rosenberg the
canvas was "an arena in which to act".
While abstract expressionists such as
Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline and Willem
de Kooning had long been outspoken in
their view of a painting as an arena within
which to come to terms with the act of
creation, earlier critics sympathetic to their
cause, like Clement Greenberg, focused on
their works' "objectness." To Greenberg, it
was the physicality of the paintings'
clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was
the key to understanding them as
documents of the artists' existential
struggle.

Boon by James Brooks, 1957, Tate

Gallery

Rosenberg's critique shifted the emphasis

from the object to the struggle itself, with
the finished painting being only the
physical manifestation, a kind of residue,
of the actual work of art, which was in the
act or process of the painting's creation.
This spontaneous activity was the "action"
of the painter, through arm and wrist
movement, painterly gestures,
brushstrokes, thrown paint, splashed,
stained, scumbled and dripped. The
painter would sometimes let the paint drip
onto the canvas, while rhythmically
dancing, or even standing in the canvas,
sometimes letting the paint fall according
to the subconscious mind, thus letting the
unconscious part of the psyche assert and
express itself. All this, however, is difficult
to explain or interpret because it is a
supposed unconscious manifestation of
the act of pure creation.[36]
In practice, the term abstract
expressionism is applied to any number of
artists working (mostly) in New York who
had quite different styles, and even applied
to work which is not especially abstract
nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic
action paintings, with their "busy" feel, are
different both technically and aesthetically,
to De Kooning's violent and grotesque
Women series. Woman V is one of a series
of six paintings made by de Kooning
between 1950 and 1953 that depict a
three-quarter-length female figure. He
began the first of these paintings, Woman
I, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and
painting out the image until January or
February 1952, when the painting was
abandoned unfinished. The art historian
Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de
Kooning's studio soon afterwards and
encouraged the artist to persist. De
Kooning's response was to begin three
other paintings on the same theme;
Woman II, Woman III and Woman IV.
During the summer of 1952, spent at East
Hampton, de Kooning further explored the
theme through drawings and pastels. He
may have finished work on Woman I by the
end of June, or possibly as late as
November 1952, and probably the other
three women pictures were concluded at
much the same time.[37] The Woman
series are decidedly figurative paintings.

Another important artist is Franz

Kline.[38][39] As with Jackson Pollock and
other abstract expressionists, Kline was
labelled an "action painter" because of his
seemingly spontaneous and intense style,
focusing less, or not at all, on figures or
imagery, but on the actual brushstrokes
and use of canvas; as demonstrated by his
painting Number 2 (1954).[40][41][42]

Automatic writing was an important

vehicle for action painters such as Kline
(in his black and white paintings), Pollock,
Mark Tobey and Cy Twombly, who used
gesture, surface, and line to create
calligraphic, linear symbols and skeins
that resemble language, and resonate as
powerful manifestations from the
Collective unconscious.[43][44] Robert
Motherwell in his Elegy to the Spanish
Republic series painted powerful black
and white paintings using gesture, surface
and symbol evoking powerful emotional
charges.[45][46]

Meanwhile, other action painters, notably

de Kooning, Gorky, Norman Bluhm, Joan
Mitchell, and James Brooks, used imagery
via either abstract landscape or as
expressionistic visions of the figure to
articulate their highly personal and
powerful evocations. James Brooks'
paintings were particularly poetic and
highly prescient in relationship to Lyrical
Abstraction that became prominent in the
late 1960s and the 1970s.[47]

Color field

Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Adolph

Gottlieb and the serenely shimmering
blocks of color in Mark Rothko's work
(which is not what would usually be called
expressionist and which Rothko denied
was abstract), are classified as abstract
expressionists, albeit from what Clement
Greenberg termed the Color field direction
of abstract expressionism. Both Hans
Hofmann and Robert Motherwell can be
comfortably described as practitioners of
Action painting and Color field painting. In
the 1940s Richard Pousette-Dart's tightly
constructed imagery often depended upon
themes of mythology and mysticism; as
did the paintings of Gottlieb, and Pollock in
that decade as well.

Color Field painting initially referred to a

particular type of abstract expressionism,
especially the work of Rothko, Still,
Newman, Motherwell, Gottlieb, Ad
Reinhardt and several series of paintings
by Joan Miró. Greenberg perceived Color
Field painting as related to but different
from Action painting. The Color Field
painters sought to rid their art of
superfluous rhetoric. Artists like
Motherwell, Still, Rothko, Gottlieb, Hans
Hofmann, Helen Frankenthaler, Sam
Francis, Mark Tobey, and especially Ad
Reinhardt and Barnett Newman, whose
masterpiece Vir heroicus sublimis is in the
collection of MoMA, used greatly reduced
references to nature, and they painted with
a highly articulated and psychological use
of color. In general, these artists
eliminated recognizable imagery, in the
case of Rothko and Gottlieb sometimes
using symbols and signs as a replacement
of imagery.[48] Certain artists quoted
references to past or present art, but in
general color field painting presents
abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing
this direction of modern art, artists wanted
to present each painting as one unified,
cohesive, monolithic image.

In distinction to the emotional energy and

gestural surface marks of abstract
expressionists such as Pollock and de
Kooning, the Color Field painters initially
appeared to be cool and austere, effacing
the individual mark in favor of large, flat
areas of color, which these artists
considered to be the essential nature of
visual abstraction, along with the actual
shape of the canvas, which later in the
1960s Frank Stella in particular achieved in
unusual ways with combinations of curved
and straight edges. However, Color Field
painting has proven to be both sensual
and deeply expressive albeit in a different
way from gestural abstract expressionism.

Although abstract expressionism spread

quickly throughout the United States, the
major centers of this style were New York
City and California, especially in the New
York School, and the San Francisco Bay
area. Abstract expressionist paintings
share certain characteristics, including the
use of large canvases, an "all-over"
approach, in which the whole canvas is
treated with equal importance (as
opposed to the center being of more
interest than the edges). The canvas as
the arena became a credo of Action
painting, while the integrity of the picture
plane became a credo of the Color field
painters. Younger artists began exhibiting
their abstract expressionist related
paintings during the 1950s as well
including Alfred Leslie, Sam Francis, Joan
Mitchell, Helen Frankenthaler, Cy Twombly,
Milton Resnick, Michael Goldberg, Norman
Bluhm, Grace Hartigan, Friedel Dzubas,
and Robert Goodnough among others.

William Baziotes, Cyclops,

1947, oil on canvas, Chicago
Art Institute. Baziotes'
abstract expressionist works
show the influence of
Surrealism

Although Pollock is closely associated

with Action Painting because of his style,
technique, and his painterly touch and his
physical application of paint, art critics
have likened Pollock to both Action
painting and color field painting. Another
critical view advanced by Greenberg
connects Pollock's allover canvasses to
the large-scale Water Lilies of Claude
Monet done during the 1920s. Art critics
such as Michael Fried, Greenberg and
others have observed that the overall
feeling in Pollock's most famous works –
his drip paintings – read as vast fields of
built-up linear elements. They note that
these works often read as vast complexes
of similarly-valued paint skeins and all-
over fields of color and drawing, and are
related to the mural-sized Monets which
are similarly constructed of close-valued
brushed and scumbled marks that also
read as fields of color and drawing.
Pollock's use of all-over composition lend
a philosophical and a physical connection
to the way the color field painters like
Newman, Rothko and Still construct their
unbroken and in Still's case broken
surfaces. In several paintings that Pollock
painted after his classic drip painting
period of 1947–1950, he used the
technique of staining fluid oil paint and
house paint into raw canvas. During 1951
he produced a series of semi-figurative
black stain paintings, and in 1952 he
produced stain paintings using color. In his
November 1952 exhibition at the Sidney
Janis Gallery in New York City Pollock
showed Number 12, 1952, a large,
masterful stain painting that resembles a
brightly colored stained landscape (with
an overlay of broadly dripped dark paint);
the painting was acquired from the
exhibition by Nelson Rockefeller for his
personal collection.[49]

While Arshile Gorky is considered to be

one of the founding fathers of abstract
expressionism and a surrealist, he was
also one of the first painters of the New
York School who used the technique of
staining. Gorky created broad fields of
vivid, open, unbroken color that he used in
many of his paintings as grounds. In
Gorky's most effective and accomplished
paintings between the years 1941–1948,
he consistently used intense stained fields
of color, often letting the paint run and
drip, under and around his familiar lexicon
of organic and biomorphic shapes and
delicate lines. Another abstract
expressionist whose works in the 1940s
call to mind the stain paintings of the
1960s and the 1970s is James Brooks.
Brooks regularly used stain as a technique
in his paintings from the late 1940s.
Brooks began diluting his oil paint in order
to have fluid colors with which to pour and
drip and stain into the mostly raw canvas
that he used. These works often combined
calligraphy and abstract shapes. During
the final three decades of his career, Sam
Francis' style of large-scale bright abstract
expressionism was closely associated
with Color field painting. His paintings
straddled both camps within the abstract
expressionist rubric, Action painting and
Color Field painting.

Having seen Pollock's 1951 paintings of

thinned black oil paint stained into raw
canvas, Frankenthaler began to produce
stain paintings in varied oil colors on raw
canvas in 1952. Her most famous painting
from that period is Mountains and Sea.
She is one of the originators of the Color
Field movement that emerged in the late
1950s.[50] Frankenthaler also studied with
Hans Hofmann.

Hofmann's paintings are a symphony of

color as seen in The Gate, 1959–1960. He
was renowned not only as an artist but
also as a teacher of art, both in his native
Germany and later in the US. Hofmann,
who came to the United States from
Germany in the early 1930s, brought with
him the legacy of Modernism. As a young
artist in pre-First World War Paris,
Hofmann worked with Robert Delaunay,
and he knew firsthand the innovative work
of both Picasso and Matisse. Matisse's
work had an enormous influence on him,
and on his understanding of the
expressive language of color and the
potentiality of abstraction. Hofmann was
one of the first theorists of color field
painting, and his theories were influential
to artists and to critics, particularly to
Clement Greenberg, as well as to others
during the 1930s and 1940s. In 1953
Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland were
both profoundly influenced by Helen
Frankenthaler's stain paintings after
visiting her studio in New York City.
Returning to Washington, DC., they began
to produce the major works that created
the color field movement in the late
1950s.[51]
In 1972 then Metropolitan Museum of Art
curator Henry Geldzahler said:

Clement Greenberg included the

work of both Morris Louis and
Kenneth Noland in a show that
he did at the Kootz Gallery in
the early 1950s. Clem was the
first to see their potential. He
invited them up to New York in
1953, I think it was, to Helen's
studio to see a painting that she
had just done called Mountains
and Sea, a very, very beautiful
painting, which was in a sense,
out of Pollock and out of Gorky.
It also was one of the first stain
pictures, one of the first large
field pictures in which the stain
technique was used, perhaps the
first one. Louis and Noland saw
the picture unrolled on the floor
of her studio and went back to
Washington, DC., and worked
together for a while, working at
the implications of this kind of
painting.[52][53]
In the 1960s after abstract expressionism

In abstract painting during the 1950s and

1960s, several new directions, like the
Hard-edge painting exemplified by John
McLaughlin, emerged. Meanwhile, as a
reaction against the subjectivism of
abstract expressionism, other forms of
Geometric abstraction began to appear in
artist studios and in radical avant-garde
circles. Greenberg became the voice of
Post-painterly abstraction; by curating an
influential exhibition of new painting that
toured important art museums throughout
the United States in 1964. Color field
painting, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical
Abstraction[54] emerged as radical new
directions.

Abstract expressionism and

the Cold War
Since the mid-1970s it has been argued
that the style attracted the attention, in the
early 1950s, of the CIA, who saw it as
representative of the US as a haven of free
thought and free markets, as well as a
challenge to both the socialist realist
styles prevalent in communist nations and
the dominance of the European art
markets.[55] The book by Frances Stonor
Saunders, The Cultural Cold War—The CIA
and the World of Arts and Letters,[56]
(published in the UK as Who Paid the
Piper?: CIA and the Cultural Cold War)
details how the CIA financed and
organized the promotion of American
abstract expressionists as part of cultural
imperialism via the Congress for Cultural
Freedom from 1950 to 1967. Notably
Robert Motherwell's series Elegy to the
Spanish Republic addressed some of
those political issues. Tom Braden,
founding chief of the CIA's International
Organizations Division (IOD) and ex-
executive secretary of the Museum of
Modern Art said in an interview, "I think it
was the most important division that the
agency had, and I think that it played an
enormous role in the Cold War."[57]

Against this revisionist tradition, an essay

by Michael Kimmelman, chief art critic of
The New York Times, called Revisiting the
Revisionists: The Modern, Its Critics and
the Cold War, asserts that much of that
information concerning what was
happening on the American art scene
during the 1940s and 50s, as well as the
revisionists' interpretation of it, is false or
decontextualized.[58] Other books on the
subject include Art in the Cold War, by
Christine Lindey, which also describes the
art of the Soviet Union at the same time,
and Pollock and After, edited by Francis
Frascina, which reprinted the Kimmelman
article.

Consequences

Jean-Paul Riopelle, 1951, Untitled, oil

on canvas, 54 x 64.7 cm (21 1/4 x 25
1/2 in.), private collection

Canadian painter Jean-Paul Riopelle

(1923–2002), a member of the Montreal-
based surrealist-inspired group Les
Automatistes, helped introduce a related
style of abstract impressionism to the
Parisian art world from 1949. Michel
Tapié's groundbreaking book, Un Art Autre
(1952), was also enormously influential in
this regard. Tapié was also a curator and
exhibition organizer who promoted the
works of Pollock and Hans Hofmann in
Europe. By the 1960s, the movement's
initial effect had been assimilated, yet its
methods and proponents remained highly
influential in art, affecting profoundly the
work of many artists who followed.
Abstract expressionism preceded
Tachisme, Color Field painting, Lyrical
Abstraction, Fluxus, Pop Art, Minimalism,
Postminimalism, Neo-expressionism, and
the other movements of the sixties and
seventies and it influenced all those later
movements that evolved. Movements
which were direct responses to, and
rebellions against abstract expressionism
began with Hard-edge painting (Frank
Stella, Robert Indiana and others) and Pop
artists, notably Andy Warhol, Claes
Oldenburg and Roy Lichtenstein who
achieved prominence in the US,
accompanied by Richard Hamilton in
Britain. Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper
Johns in the US formed a bridge between
abstract expressionism and Pop art.
Minimalism was exemplified by artists
such as Donald Judd, Robert Mangold and
Agnes Martin.
However, many painters, such as Jules
Olitski, Joan Mitchell and Antoni Tàpies
continued to work in the abstract
expressionist style for many years,
extending and expanding its visual and
philosophical implications, as many
abstract artists continue to do today, in
styles described as Lyrical Abstraction,
Neo-expressionist and others.

In the years after World War II, a group of

New York artists started one of the first
true schools of artists in America, bringing
about a new era in American artwork:
abstract expressionism. This led to the
American art boom that brought about
styles such as Pop Art. This also helped to
make New York into a cultural and artistic
hub.[59]

Abstract Expressionists value

the organism over the static
whole, becoming over being,
expression over perfection,
vitality over finish, fluctuation
over repose, feeling over
formulation, the unknown over
the known, the veiled over the
clear, the individual over society
and the inner over the outer.[60]
— William C. Seitz, American
artist and Art historian
Major sculpture

Richard Stankiewicz, Detail of Figure; 1956;

steel, iron, and concrete; in the collection of
the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture
Garden
Alexander Calder, Red Mobile, 1956, Painted
sheet metal and metal rods, Montreal
Museum of Fine Arts
John Chamberlain, S, 1959, Hirshhorn
Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington,
DC.
Isamu Noguchi, The Cry, 1959, Kröller-Müller
Museum Sculpture Park, Otterlo, Netherlands
Louise Bourgeois, Maman, 1999, outside
Museo Guggenheim

List of abstract expressionists

Abstract expressionist artists

Significant artists whose mature work

defined American abstract
expressionism:
Albert Alcalay (1917–2008)

Charles Alston (1907–1977)[61]

Ruth Asawa (1926–2013)[62]

Alice Baber (1928–1982)[62]

William Baziotes (1912–1963)[63]

James Bishop (1927–2021)

Norman Bluhm (1921–1999)[64]

Louise Bourgeois (1911–2010)[62]

Ernest Briggs (1923–1984)[62]

James Brooks (1906–1992)[62]

David Budd (1927–1991)[65]

Fritz Bultman (1919–1985)[62]

Hans Burkhardt (1904–1994)[66]

Jack Bush (1909–1977)[67]

Charles Cajori (1921–2013)

Lawrence Calcagno (1913–1993)[68]

Alexander Calder (1898–1976)[69]

Nicolas Carone (1917–2010)[62]

Giorgio Cavallon (1904–1989)[62]

John Chamberlain (1927–2011)[70]

Ed Clark (1926–2019) [71]

Joseph Cornell (1903–1972)[62]

Dorothy Dehner (1901–1994)[62]

Jean Dubuffet (1901–1985)[72]

Elaine de Kooning (1918–1989)[73]

Willem de Kooning (1904–1997)[74]

Beauford Delaney (1901–1979)[75]

Robert De Niro, Sr. (1922–1993)[76]

Richard Diebenkorn (1922–1993)[77]

Mark di Suvero (born 1933)[78]

James Budd Dixon (1900–1967)[79]

Enrico Donati (1909–2008)[62]

Edward Dugmore (1915–1996)[62]

Friedel Dzubas (1915–1994)[80]

Jimmy Ernst (1920–1984)[62]

Herbert Ferber (1906–1991)[81]

John Ferren (1905–1970)[82]

Perle Fine (1905–1988)[83]

Sam Francis (1923–1994)[84]

Jane Frank (1918–1986)[85]

Helen Frankenthaler (1928–2011)[62]

Sonia Gechtoff (1926–2018)[83]

Michael Goldberg (1924–2007)[62]

Robert Goodnough (1917–2010)[62]

Arshile Gorky (1904–1948)[86]

Joseph Goto (1916–1994)

Adolph Gottlieb (1903–1974)[87]

Morris Graves (1910–2001)[88]

Cleve Gray (1918–2004)[89]

Philip Guston (1913–1980)[90]

Raoul Hague (1904–1993)[91]

David Hare (1917–1992)[92]

Grace Hartigan (1922–2008)[93]

Hans Hofmann (1880–1966)[94]

Paul Horiuchi (1906–1999)

John Hultberg (1922–2005)[95]

Paul Jenkins (1923–2012)[96]

Gerome Kamrowski (1914–2004)[97]

Matsumi Kanemitsu (1922–1992)

Minoru Kawabata (1911–2001)

James Kelly (1913–2003)

Earl Kerkam (1891–1965)

Franz Kline (1910–1962)[63]

Albert Kotin (1907–1980)[62]

Lee Krasner (1908–1984)[63]

Walter Kuhlman (1918–2009)[98]

Ibram Lassaw (1913–2003)[99]

Alfred Leslie (born 1927)[100]

John Harrison Levee (1924–2017)

Norman Lewis (1901–1979)[101]

Richard Lippold (1915–2002)[102]

Seymour Lipton (1903–1986)[103]

Frank Lobdell (1921–2013)[104]

Morris Louis (1912–1962)[105]

Conrad Marca-Relli (1913–2000)[106]

Nicholas Marsicano (1908–1991)[73]

Mercedes Matter (1913–2001)[107]

Hugh Mesibov (1916–2016)[108]

Fred Mitchell (1923-2013)[109]

Joan Mitchell (1925–1992)[110]

Robert Motherwell (1915–1991)[111]

Louise Nevelson (1899–1988)[112]

Barnett Newman (1905–1970)[113]

Isamu Noguchi (1904–1988)[114]

Kenzo Okada (1902–1982)[115]

John Opper (1908–1994)[116]

Charlotte Park (1910–2010)[117]

Ray Parker (1922–1990)[118]

Phillip Pavia (1912–2005)[119]

Jackson Pollock (1912–1956)[63]

Fuller Potter (1910–1990)

Richard Pousette-Dart (1916–1992)[63]

Ad Reinhardt (1913–1967)[120]

Milton Resnick (1917–2004)[121]

Robert Richenburg (1917–2006)

George Rickey (1904–2002)[122]

Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923–2002)[123]

William Ronald (1926–1998)[124]

James Rosati (1911–1988)

Ralph Rosenborg (1913–1992)[125]

Theodore Roszak (1907–1981)[126]

Mark Rothko (1903–1970)[63]

Anne Ryan (1889–1954)[127]

Louis Schanker (1903–1981)

Jon Schueler (1916–1992)

Charles Seliger (1926–2009)[128]

Harold Shapinsky (1925–2004)

Thomas Sills (1914–2000)

Janet Sobel (1893–1968)

David Smith (1906–1965)[129]

Theodoros Stamos (1922–1997)[130]

Richard Stankiewicz (1922–1983)[131]

Joe Stefanelli (1921–2017)[132]

Hedda Sterne (1910–2011)[133]

Clyfford Still (1904–1980)[134]

George Stillman (1921–1997)[135]

Reuben Tam (1916–1991)

Alma Thomas (1891–1978)[136]

Mark Tobey (1890–1976)[137]

Bradley Walker Tomlin (1899–1953)[138]

Cy Twombly (1928–2011)[139]

Jack Tworkov (1900–1982)[140]

Esteban Vicente (1903–2001)[141]

Peter Voulkos (1924–2002)[142]

Corinne Michelle West (1908–1991)[143]

John von Wicht (1888–1970)[144]

Hale Woodruff (1900–1980)[145]

Emerson Woelffer (1914–2003)[146]

 Taro Yamamoto (1919–1994)[147]

Manouchehr Yektai (1922–2019)[148]

Other artists

Significant artists whose mature work

relates to the American abstract
expressionist movement:
Satoru Abe (born 1926)

Bumpei Akaji (1921–2002)

Olga Albizu (1924–2005)

Karel Appel (1921–2006)

Mino Argento (born 1927)[149]

Rosemarie Beck (1923–2003)

William Brice (1921–2008)

Alexander Bogen (1916–2010)

Charles Ragland Bunnell (1897–1968)

Gretna Campbell (1922–1987)

Mary Callery (1903–1977)

Chu Teh-Chun (1920–2014)

Edward Clark (1926–2019)

Alfred L. Copley (1910–1992) (aka L.
Alcopley)

Edward Corbett (1919–1971)

Jean-Michel Coulon (1920–2014)

Sari Dienes (1898–1992)

Jacques Démoulin (1905-1991)

Isami Doi (1903–1965)

Lynne Mapp Drexler (1928–1999)

Jean Dubuffet (1901–1985)

Lucio Fontana (1899–1968)

Alice Garver (1924–1966)

Herbert Gentry (1919–2003)[150]

Sam Gilliam (1933–2022)

Joseph Glasco (1925–1996)

John D. Graham (1881–1961)

Stephen Greene (1918–1999)

Elaine Hamilton (1920–2010)

Hans Hartung (1904–1989)

Saburo Hasegawa (1906–1957)

Al Held (1928–2005)

Raymond Hendler (1923–1998)

Gino Hollander (1924–2015)

John Hoyland (1934–2011)

Ralph Iwamoto (1927–2013)

William Ivey (1919–1992)

Jasper Johns (born 1930)

Karl Kasten (1916–2010)

Keichi Kimura (1914–1988)

Sueko Kimura (1912–2001)

Hilma af Klint (1862–1944)

Frances Kornbluth (1920–2014)

André Lanskoy (1902–1976)

John Levee (1924–2017)

Michael Loew (1907–1985)

Agnes Martin (1912–2004)

Knox Martin (1923–2022)

Georges Mathieu (1921–2012)

Herbert Matter (1907–1984)

Emiko Nakano (1925–1990)

George McNeil (1908–1995)

Jean Messagier (1920–1999)

Jay Meuser (1911–1963)

George Miyasaki (1935–2013)

Seong Moy (1921–2013)

Jan Müller (1922–1958)

Robert Natkin (1930–2010)

Tetsuo Ochikubo (1923–1975)

Frank Okada (1931–2000)

Jerry Okimoto (1924–1998)

Jules Olitski (1922–2007)

Pat Passlof (1928–2011)

Irene Rice-Pereira (1902–1971)

Earle M. Pilgrim (1923–1976)

Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008)

Larry Rivers (1923–2002)

Julio Rosado del Valle (1922–2008)

Jack Roth (1927–2004)

Tadashi Sato (1923–2005)

Jon Schueler (1916–1992)

Pablo Serrano (1908–1985)

Sarai Sherman (1922–2013)

Morita Shiryū (1912–1999)

Vieira da Silva (1907–1992)

Aaron Siskind (1903–1991)

Tony Smith (1912–1980)

Syd Solomon (1917–2004)

Pierre Soulages (1919–2022)

Nicolas de Staël (1914–1955)

Frank Stella (born 1936)

Ary Stillman (1891–1967)

Kumi Sugai (1919–1996)

Stuart Sutcliffe (1940–1962)

Augustus Vincent Tack (1870–1949)

Toshiko Takaezu (1922–2011)

Antoni Tàpies (1923–2012)

Harry Tsuchidana (born 1932)

Tony Tuckson (1921–1973)

 Nína Tryggvadóttir (1913–1968)

Bram van Velde (1895–1981)

Don Van Vliet (1941–2010)

Cora Kelley Ward (1920–1989)

Ulfert Wilke (1907–1987)

Wols (1913–1951)

Tseng Yu-ho (1924–2017)

Zao Wou Ki (1920–2013)

See also
Visual Arts
portal
Philosophy
portal
Arts portal
Related styles, trends, schools, and
movements

Abstract art

Abstract Imagists

Action painting

American Abstract Artists

Arte Povera

Asemic writing

Avant-garde

CoBrA

Color field painting

History of painting

Informalism

Les Automatistes
Les Plasticiens

Lyrical Abstraction

Lyricism

Minimalism

New European Painting

New York School

Organic Surrealism

9th Street Art Exhibition

Painters Eleven

Pop art

Post-painterly abstraction

Tachisme

Tenth Street galleries

The Irascibles

Western Painting
Other related topics

Bluebeard, by Kurt Vonnegut, is a

fictional autobiography written by
fictional abstract expressionist Rabo
Karabekian.

Ismail Gulgee (artist whose work

reflects abstract expressionist influence
in South Asia during the Cold War,
especially 'action painting')

Michel Tapié (critic and exhibition

organizer important to the
dissemination of abstract
expressionism in Europe, Japan, and
Latin America)
References
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2. Hess, Barbara; "Abstract Expressionism",

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4. Barnett Newman Foundation, archive

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073536/http://www.haunchofvenison.co
m/en/)

Greenberg, Clement. "'American-Type'

Painting". In Art and Culture: Critical
Essays. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961.
208–29.

Jachec, Nancy. The Philosophy and

Politics of Abstract Expressionism
1940–1960. Cambridge University
Press: Cambridge, 2000 ISBN 0-521-
65154-9

O'Connor, Francis V. Jackson Pollock (ht

tp://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/165
852&referer=brief_results) [exhibition
catalogue] (New York, Museum of
Modern Art, [1967]) OCLC 165852 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/165852)

Saunders, Frances Stonor, The cultural

cold war: the CIA and the world of arts
and letters (http://www.worldcatlibrarie
s.org/oclc/43114251&referer=brief_resu
lts) (New York: New Press: Distributed
by W.W. Norton & Co., 2000) ISBN 1-
56584-596-X
Tapié, Michel. Hans Hofmann: peintures
1962 : 23 avril-18 mai 1963. (http://ww
w.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/62515192&
referer=brief_results) (Paris: Galerie
Anderson-Mayer, 1963.) [exhibition
catalogue and commentary]
OCLC 62515192 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/62515192)

Tapié, Michel. Pollock (http://www.world

catlibraries.org/oclc/30601793?tab=det
ails) (Paris, P. Facchetti, 1952)
OCLC 30601793 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/30601793)

Wechsler, Jeffrey (2007). Pathways and

Parallels: Roads to Abstract
 Expressionism. New York: Hollis Taggart
Galleries. ISBN 978-0-9759954-9-5.

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Abstract expressionism.

Wikiquote has quotations related to

Abstract expressionism.

Jackson Pollock (https://web.archive.or

g/web/20140717070455/http://www.ter
raingallery.org/Jackson-Pollock-Ambitio
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Louis Schanker (http://www.louisschank

er.info/)

Philip Guston (https://web.archive.org/w

eb/20040624012050/http://www.aesthe
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painter 1906–1992 (https://web.archive.
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New York School 1950s action painting
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Artist of the 9th St. Show (https://www.y
outube.com/watch?v=J-kMxtJ0GfA) on
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Expressionism 1950s-New York School
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1950s-New York School 1950s (https://
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v1w) on YouTube

What is Abstract Expressionism? (http

s://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4vujKv
NrnY) on YouTube

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