Ae 223 - Finals - Module No. 8

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Introduction to Gas and Vapor Cycles
LEARNING MODULE 08:

Introduction to Gas and
Vapor Cycles
AE 223– THERMODYNAMICS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Gas Cycles 1,3,4 5
Carnot Cycle 1,3,4 6
Internal Combustion Engines 1,3,4 11
Dual Combustion Engine (Modern Compression Ignition
1,3,4 19
Engines)
Brayton Cycle (Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engine) 1,3,4 23
Sample Problems 27
Video References 33
Assessment Activity 34
Plate No. 2 35
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TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Cengel, Y. A., & Boles, M. A. (2011). Thermodynamics An Engineering
Approach (7th Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
1
Burghardt, M. D., & Harbach, J. A. (1993). Engineering Thermodynamics (Fourth
2
Edition) [E-book]. HarperCollins College College Publishers.
Sta. Maria, H. B. (n.d.). Thermodynamics I [E-book]. National Bookstore, Inc. 3
Pauken, M. (2011). Thermodynamics for Dummies [E-book]. Wiley Publishing,
4
Inc.
Figures and Tables No.
Figures 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.6, 8.10, and 8.11 are taken from the reference
1
above.
Figure 8.2, 8.5, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9 and 8.12 is taken from the references above.. 3
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Module
Gas Cycles 5
Carnot Cycle 20
Internal Combustion Engines 43.4
Dual Combustion Engine (Modern Compression Ignition
20
Engines)
Brayton Cycle (Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engine) 20
References
Sta. Maria, H. B. (n.d.). Thermodynamics I [E-book].
50
National Bookstore, Inc. p. 81-113, 151-157
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 25
Assessment Activity 40
Plate No. 2 40
Quiz No. 2 60
TOTAL 323.4 min (5.39 hrs)
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)

Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1. Apply knowledge of Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
mathematics, physical sciences, CLO 1: Demonstrate fluency on
engineering sciences to the Topic Learning
the principles underlying the
practice of aeronautical MLO 1: Explain the Carnot Cycle Outcomes (TLO)
utilization of energy in thermal
engineering. systems, open and closed by discussion of its working TLO 7: Recall the
PLO 5.Identify, formulate, and systems during lectures through principle. importance of units in solving
problems involved in
solve aeronautical engineering problem solving activities. MLO 2: Derive working thermodynamics through
problems. CLO 2: Produce accurate equations for Carnot cycle using presentation of sample problems
equations for ideal gas processes and discussion presented in the
PLO 6. Understand the solution for a certain logical module.
professional and ethical problem at utmost ease by MLO 3: Solve problem involving TLO 8: Explain the working
responsibility applying the correct formulae. Carnot Cycle through sample principle of a Carnot Cycle through
discussion presented in the
PLO 7.Communicate effectively CLO 3: Manipulate data and problems and module activities. module.
aeronautical engineering activities formula to solve engineering MLO 4: Explain the Otto Cycle TLO 9: Derive working
equations for Carnot Cycle analysis
with the engineering community problems involving principles and by discussion of its working through application of previous
and with society at large applications of thermodynamics. principle knowledge from ideal gas
MLO 5: Derive working processes
PLO 8.Understand the impact of CLO 4: Apply laws of TLO 10: Demonstrate deep
aeronautical engineering solutions thermodynamics in real life equations for Otto cycle using understanding of ideal gas
in global, economic, applications by numerical equations for ideal gas processes processes through solving
problems involving the Carnot
environmental, and societal computations during lectures and MLO 6: Solve problem involving Cycle
context activities. Otto Cycle through sample TLO 11: Explain the working
principle of a Otto Cycle through
PLO 9.Recognize the need for, CLO 5: Classify the applications problems and module activities. discussion presented in the
and engage in life-long learning of formulae and principles for MLO 7: Explain the Diesel Cycle module.
TLO 12: Derive working
PLO 11.Use techniques, skills, different problems in by discussion of its working
equations for Otto Cycle analysis
and modern engineering tools thermodynamics through principle. through application of previous
necessary for aeronautical numerical computations during MLO 8: Derive working knowledge from ideal gas
processes
engineering practice equations for Diesel cycle using
lectures and activities. TLO 13: Demonstrate deep
PLO 13.Apply acquired CLO 7: Apply ideal cycle equations for ideal gas processes understanding of ideal gas
processes through solving
aeronautical engineering analysis to simplify solving MLO 9: Solve problem involving problems involving the Otto Cycle
knowledge and skills for national properties in real heat engine Diesel Cycle through sample TLO 14: Explain the working
problems and module activities. principle of a Diesel Cycle through
development. cycles. discussion presented in the
CLO 8: Apply the laws, MLO 10: Explain the Brayton module.
properties and concepts of Cycle by discussion of its working TLO 15: Derive working
equations for Diesel Cycle analysis
thermodynamics to give emphasis principle through application of previous
on its potential to aeronautics and MLO 11: Derive working knowledge from ideal gas
processes
propulsion systems equations for Brayton cycle using TLO 16: Demonstrate deep
CLO 9: Display professional equations for ideal gas processes understanding of ideal gas
MLO 12: Solve Problem involving processes through solving
commitment to ethical practice in problems involving the Diesel Cycle
complying technical requirements Brayton Cycle through sample TLO 17: Explain the working
such as problems sets and/or problems and module activities. principle of a Brayton Cycle through
discussion presented in the
module activities. module.
TLO 18: Derive working
equations for Brayton Cycle
analysis through application of
previous knowledge from ideal gas
processes
TLO 19: Demonstrate deep
understanding of ideal gas
processes through solving
problems involving the Brayton
Cycle
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CONTENT
I. Gas Cycles
There are two important areas of application for thermodynamics, namely
power generation and refrigeration. Both are usually accomplished by
systems that operate on a thermodynamic cycle that can be divided into two
general categories; the power cycle and the refrigeration cycle. For our
case, we are to focus on the power generation.
Engines, are devices or systems that are used to produce a net power
output, and the thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power
cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can still be categorized as closed and open cycles.

In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of
the cycle and is recirculated. In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at
the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated. Example of this is an
automobile engine, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by a
fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of each cycle. The engine operates on a
mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does not go through a complete
thermodynamic cycle.
Heat engines or thermal engines are a closed system that exchanges only
heat and work with its surroundings that also operates in cycles. They are
categorized as internal combustion and external combustion engines,
depending on how the heat is supplied to the working fluid. In external
combustion engines, like a steam power plant, heat is supplied to the
working fluid from an external source such as a furnace, a geothermal well,
a nuclear reactor, or the sun. In internal combustion engines, like the
automobile engines, this is done by burning the fuel within the system
boundaries.
The elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as the working

substance:
1. A working substance, is a matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and
does work.
2. A source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source),
from which the working substance receives heat;
3. A heat sink (also called a receiver, a cold body, or just sink), to which the
working substance can reject heat; and
4. An engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work
done in it.
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II. Carnot Cycle
We know from the second law of thermodynamics that a heat engine cannot
be 100 percent efficient, since there must always be some heat transfer QC
to the environment. How efficient can a heat engine be then? This question
was answered at a theoretical level in 1824 by a young French engineer,
Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), in his study of the then-emerging heat engine
technology crucial to the Industrial Revolution. He devised a theoretical
cycle, now called the Carnot cycle, which is the most efficient cyclical
process possible. The second law of thermodynamics can be restated in
terms of the Carnot cycle, and so what Carnot actually discovered was this
fundamental law. Any heat engine employing the Carnot cycle is called a
Carnot engine.
What is crucial to the Carnot cycle is that only reversible processes are
used. Irreversible processes involve dissipative factors, such as friction and
turbulence. This increases heat transfer QC to the environment and reduces
the efficiency of the engine. Obviously, then, reversible processes are
superior.
The second law of thermodynamics: A Carnot engine operating between

two given temperatures has the greatest possible efficiency of any heat
engine operating between these two temperatures. Furthermore, all engines
employing only reversible processes have this same maximum efficiency
when operating between the same given temperatures.
The Carnot cycle is known to be the most efficient cycle conceivable

because of it having the highest thermal efficiency. It is composed of four
totally reversible processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression. The P-v and T-s
diagrams are plotted below.
Figure 8.1 P-V and T-S Diagram Carnot Cycle

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WORKING PROCESSES OF A CARNOT CYCLE:
A. Process 1-2: Isothermal Heat Addition
Heat is added from the high-temperature reservoir at T H to the working

fluid, which may be gas or a vapor. Because adding heat to a gas
increases temperature, the gas has to be expanded in a turbine to keep
the temperature constant. As a result of the expansion process, the
turbine gets work out of the process at the same time. In reality, adding
heat to a gas while it’s expanding in a turbine isn’t feasible.
B. Process 2-3: Isentropic Work Output
The high-pressure, high temperature gas expands in the isentropic

turbine. No friction occurs in either the fluid or the rotating turbine. The
temperature and pressure of the gas decrease in the process.
Isentropic means that the process is reversible and adiabatic (that is, no
heat transfer occurs through the system boundary)
C. Process 3-4: Isothermal Heat Rejection
Heat is removed from the relatively low-temperature, low-pressure gas

and rejected to the low-temperature thermal energy sink at T L. Because
removing heat from a gas decreases its temperature, the gas has to be
compressed to keep the temperature constant by removing heat at the
same rate at which work is being done. A compressor isn’t a very good
heat transfer device, so removing all the heat generated by compression
in the same process is impractical.
D. Process 4-1: Isentropic Work Input
The low-pressure, low-temperature gas is compressed in the isentropic

compressor. As in the turbine, no friction occurs in either the fluid or the
rotating compressor. The temperature and pressure of the gas increase
in the process.
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ANALYSIS OF A CARNOT CYCLE:
Figure 8.2 Analysis of Carnot Cycle
 From the figure above:

𝑸𝑨 = 𝑻𝟏 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 )
𝑸𝑹 = 𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟒 − 𝑺𝟑 ) = −𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟑 − 𝑺𝟒 ) 𝒃𝒖𝒕 ∆𝑺𝟏−𝟐 = ∆𝑺𝟑−𝟒
𝑸𝑹 = −𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 )
From the formula of work and efficiency:
𝑊 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝑅
𝑊 = 𝑻𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 ) − 𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 )
(
𝑾 𝑻𝟏 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 ) − 𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 ) 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑
𝒆= = =
𝑸𝑨 𝑻𝟏 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 ) 𝑇1
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑
𝒆=
𝑇1
(Remember that efficiency is the defined as the fraction of the heat
supplied to a thermodynamic cycle that is converted into work.
 From the T-S Plane
Process 1-2: T = C (Heat Addition)
𝑉2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑉1
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1
Process 3-4: T = C (Heat Rejection)
𝑉4
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 ln 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑉3
𝑉4 𝑉4
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉3 𝑉3
𝑉3
𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉4
k
Process 2-3: PV = C (Isentropic Expansion)
𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇2 𝑉3
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Process 4-1: PVk = C (Isentropic Compression)
𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=[ ] 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ; 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇 = 𝐶)
𝑇1 𝑉4
𝑇4 𝑉2 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇1 𝑉3
Equating both temperature ratios:
𝑉2 𝑘−1 𝑉1 𝑘−1
[ ] = [ ]
𝑉3 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉1
=
𝑉3 𝑉4
Rearranging we have:
𝑉2 𝑉3
=
𝑉1 𝑉4
Therefore, from QR:
𝑉3 𝑉2
𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln = −𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉4 𝑉1
From the formula of work and efficiency:
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln − 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1
W
e=
QA
𝑉 𝑉
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑉2 − 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln 𝑉2
1 1
e=
𝑉2
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln
𝑉1
T1 − 𝑇3
e=
𝑇1
 From the P-V Plane
W = ∑ 𝑊 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−4 + 𝑊4−1
Since a heat engine is considered a closed system we have W NF:
𝑉2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉1
𝑃3 𝑉3 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑊2−3 =
1−𝑘
𝑉4
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 ln
𝑉3
𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃4 𝑉4
𝑊4−1 =
1−𝑘
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Mean Effective Pressure (Pm or MEP)
𝑾
𝑷𝒎 =
𝑽𝑫
Where:
VD = displacement volume, the volume swept by the piston in one
stroke
Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that, acting
through one stroke, will do on the piston the net work of a single cycle.
Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉1
𝑉3
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉2
𝑉3
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉3
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉4
𝑉4
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟𝑘 =
𝑉1
𝑉3
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉1
The isentropic compression, rk is the compression ratio most commonly
used.
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III. Internal Combustion Engines
The reciprocating engine is one of the rare inventions that has proved to be
very versatile and have a wide range of applications. It is the powerhouse
of the vast majority of automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric
power generators, as well as many other devices.
The basic components of a reciprocating engine is shown below. The piston

reciprocates in the cylinder between two fixed positions called the top dead
center (TDC) – the position of the piston when it forms the smallest volume
in the cylinder – and the bottom dead center (BDC) – the position of the
piston when it forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The distance
between the TDC and BDC is the largest distance that the piston can travel
in one directions, and it is called the stroke of the engine. The diameter of
the piston is called the bore. The air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the
cylinder through intake valve, and the combustion products are expelled
from the cylinder through the exhaust valve.
Figure 8.3 Basic

Components of a
Reciprocating Engine
Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines or
compression-ignition (CI) engines, depending onhow the combustion
process in the cylinder is initated. In SI engines, the combustion of the air-
fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. In CI engines, the air-fuel mixture
is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above its self-ignition
temperature.
A. Otto Cycle (Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines)
This cycle is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-
stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by
Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.
In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete

strokes (two mechanical cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft
completes two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle. These
engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines. The
schematic and its P-v diagram is given below.
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Figure 8.4 P-V and T-S Diagram of Otto Cycle
WORKING PROCESSES OF AN OTTO CYCLE:
A. Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression

The piston compresses the air inside the cylinder from BDC to TDC,
so work goes into the air.
The lines from state 1 to 2 on the figure above show the process.
The compression process in the ideal engine is reversible
(frictionless) and adiabatic (transfers no heat to or from the
cylinder). Because the compression is reversible and adiabatic, the
process is isentropic meaning that entropy is constant, as shown
from the T-S diagram from states 1 to 2.
B. Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition

Fuel is burned in the cylinder, putting heat into the air. (Heat
Addition)
In an Otto cycle engine, a spark initiates the combustion process,

which is treated as a constant-volume process. The combustion is
completed so quickly the piston doesn’t move very much. In a
diesel cycle engine, the fuel spontaneously combusts because the
air is compressed so much that the temperature is above the fuel
flash temperature.
The addition of heat to the air causes the temperature, pressure,

and entropy to increase, as show in the lines from state 2 to 3 in the
P-V and T-S diagram in the figure above.
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C. Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

The hot gas expands and pushes the piston down from TDC to
BDC (Work out).
In the Otto cycle, the combustion is completed before the piston
moves down. In the Diesel cycle, the combustion process continues
during a portion of the piston stroke, thereby doing work at the
same time.
As the gas expands, the volume increases while both the pressure
and the temperature decrease. The process is shown by the line
from states 3 to 4 in the figure above. Notice that this line is vertical
in the T-S diagram. The expansion process is isentropic just like the
compression process.
D. Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection

Exhaust is pushed out of the cylinder from nearly BDO to TDC, and
the excess heat leaves with it. (Heat out)
A small amount of work is used in this process, but, like the work
involved in the intake stroke, it’s usually disregarded in a typical
thermodynamic analysis.
Even though the piston obviously moves, the exhaust process is

modeled as a constant-volume process in the ideal Otto cycle,
because the piston is at the bottom of the cylinder at the beginning
of the exhaust process, and it’s back at the bottom at the start of the
compression process. Thus, the cylinder volume at the start of the
exhaust process is the same as the volume at the start of
compression, which makes it appear to be a constant-volume
process from states 4 to 1 shown in the figure above.
ANALYSIS OF AN OTTO CYCLE:
Figure 8.5 Analysis of Otto Cycle
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An air-standard cycle means that air alone is the working medium used
in the cycle.
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) = −𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
From the formula of Work and Efficiency:

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
(
𝑊
𝑒=
𝑄𝐴
𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒=
𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
1
𝑒 = 1 − 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘
𝑉
Where 𝑟𝑘 = 𝑉1 , the isentropic compression ratio
2
 Derivation of the formula for efficiency (e):

From Process 1-2: PVk = C (Isentropic Compression)
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇1 𝑉2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
From Process 3-4: PVk = C (Isentropic Expansion)
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑘−1
=[ ] 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 ; 𝑉4 = 𝑉1 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑉 = 𝐶)
𝑇4 𝑉3
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑘−1 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=[ ] = [ ]
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑉2
𝑘−1
𝑇3 = 𝑇4 𝑟𝑘
From the formula of efficiency, we have:
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 =1−
(𝑇4 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 − 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) 1
𝑒 = 1− ∗ 𝑘−1
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑟𝑘
1
𝑒 = 1 − 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘
14 | P a g e
 From the P-V Plane
W = ∑ 𝑊 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−4 + 𝑊4−1
Since the heat engine is considered a closed system, W NF:
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊1−2 =
1−𝑘
𝑊2−3 = 0
𝑃4 𝑉4 − 𝑃3 𝑉3
𝑊3−4 =
1−𝑘
𝑊4−1 = 0
Clearance Volume, Per Cent Clearance

𝑉1 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑉3 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑐𝑉𝐷
𝑟𝑘 = = =
𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉𝐷
1+𝑐
𝑟𝑘 =
𝑐
Where:
c = per cent clearance
V3 = clearance volume
VD = displacement volume
Ideal Standard of Comparison

a. Cold-air standard, k =1.4
b. Hot-air standard, k < 1.4
The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Otto Cycle is:

1. Increased by increase in rk
2. Increased by increase in k
3. Independent of the heat added
B. Diesel Cycle (Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines)

This cycle is first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s, and is very
similar to the SI engine discussed above, with its main difference mainly
in the method of initiating combustion.
It is just like all other heat engines and requires the four basic cycle
processes: work in, heat in, work out, and heat out. The main difference
between the diesel cycle and the Otto Cycle is that you assume that the
combustion process in the diesel cycle occurs at a constant pressure
instead of a constant volume
15 | P a g e
In the diesel cycle, only air is compressed in the cylinder and fuel is
injected as the piston approaches the top of the cylinder. The
compression ratio of the diesel cycle is higher than that of the Otto cycle;
the air temperature at the end of the compression in the diesel cycle is
hot enough to spontaneously ignite the fuel when it’s injected into the
cylinder. Diesel fuel burns more slowly than gasoline, so it adds heat to
the air while the piston moves down the cylinder. A constant-pressure
combustion process more accurately represents what happens in a
diesel cycle.
Figure 8.6 P-V and T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle
WORKING PROCESSES OF A DIESEL CYCLE

After the intake stroke when the piston moves down and draws in
air, the piston rises and compresses the air where the temperature
of air rises to about 900 ⁰F (480 ⁰C). Work goes into the cycle.
B. Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition

The process where the fuel is injected (added) to the high
temperature compressed air and burns explosively.

The process where the burnt air-fuel mixture performs work by the
expansion of the mixture. It pushes the piston down to rotate the
crankshaft in the power stroke. Work comes out of the cycle.
D. Process 4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

The process where the piston moves up again and forces the burnt
gases out of the system (exhaust stroke). Heat comes out of the
cycle.
16 | P a g e
ANALYSIS OF A DIESEL CYCLE:
Figure 8.7 Analysis of Diesel Cycle

𝑄𝐴 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) = −𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
 From the formula of work and efficiency:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
W
e=
𝑄𝐴
𝑚𝑐𝑃 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 − 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
( )
e=
𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
e=1−
𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
1 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1
e = 1 − 𝑘−1 [ ]
𝑟𝑘 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 − 1)
Where:
𝑉1
𝑟𝑘 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉2
𝑉3
𝑟𝑐 = = 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉2
Point 3 is called the cutoff point.
 Derivation of the formula for efficiency (e):

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇1 𝑉2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘−1
𝑘
From Process 2-3: P = C (Isobaric Heat Addition)
17 | P a g e
𝑇3 𝑇2
=
𝑉3 𝑉2
𝑇3 𝑉3
= = 𝑟𝑐 (𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
𝑇2 𝑉2
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 𝑟𝑐
𝑇3 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑐

𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑘−1
=[ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑉3 = 𝑉2 𝑟𝑐
𝑇3 𝑉4
𝑇4 𝑉2 𝑟𝑐 𝑘−1
=[ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉4 = 𝑉1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑇3 𝑉4
𝑇4 𝑉2 𝑟𝑐 𝑘−1 𝑉2
=[ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝑟𝑘
𝑇3 𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑇4 𝑟𝑐 𝑘−1
=[ ] 𝑓𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇3 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑐
𝑇3 𝑟𝑘
𝑟𝑐 𝑘−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑐 [ ]
𝑟𝑘
𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐𝑘
From the formula of efficiency, we have:

W
e=
QA
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
e=1−
𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇1 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 𝑇1 )
e=1−
𝑘(𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘−1
𝑘 )
(𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1)
e = 1−
𝑘 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 ( 𝑟𝑐 − 1)
1 (𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1)
e = 1 − 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘 𝑘( 𝑟𝑐 − 1)
The efficiency of the Diesel cycle differs from that of the Otto cycle
(𝑟𝑐𝑘 −1)
by a factor of , where this factor is always greater than 1
𝑘( 𝑟𝑐 −1)
because the cutoff ratio rc is always greater than 1.
Therefore, for a particular compression ratio r k the Otto cycle is

more efficient but the diesel engine compresses air only as
compared to the Otto engine which compresses air-fuel mixture.
Thus the compression ratio of the Diesel engine is higher than the
18 | P a g e
Otto engine because air is readily compressible. An actual diesel
engine with a compression ratio of 15 is more efficient than an
actual Otto engine with a compression ratio of 9.
Relation among rk, rc and re (expansion ratio)

𝑉4 𝑉1
𝑟𝑒 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 4 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 1
𝑉3 𝑉3
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝑉3
𝑟𝑘 = = [ ] = [ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑐 =
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉2
𝑟𝑘 = 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑒
IV. Dual Combustion Engine (Modern Compression Ignition Engines)

The dual combustion engine represents the modern compression ignition
engines. The pressure in the heat addition process is not constant. The
major part of combustion in this type of engine can be considered to
approach a constant volume process, and the late burning, a constant
pressure process.
Figure 8.8 P-V and T-S Diagram of Dual Combustion Cycle
WORKING PROCESSES OF A DUAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

The isentropic compression represents the compression stroke after
the intake stroke where work is put in. This compresses the air in the
cylinders as it moves toward the TDC.
B. Process 2-3: Isometric Heat Addition

As the compression stroke reaches the TDC, fuel is injected in the
compressed air which ignites the resulting mixture in the cylinder.
Since the air is in the compressed state as the fuel is introduced to the
system, the initial burning represents a constant volume process where
19 | P a g e
the pressure significantly increases on the first part of the combustion
process.
C. Process 3-4: Constant Pressure Heat Addition

For the latter part of the combustion process, the pressure peaks to a
fixed value and continues the combustion in a constant pressure until
the source of fuel is cut off.
D. Process 4-5: Isentropic Expansion

This represents the power stroke where the energy from the burnt fuel-
air mixture is used to perform work by pushing the piston down to turn
a crankshaft.
E. Process 5-6: Isometric Heat Rejection

Represents the exhaust stroke where the burnt gases are expelled in
the system.
ANALYSIS OF A DUAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:
Figure 8.9 Analysis of Dual Combustion Cycle

𝑄𝐴 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇1 − 𝑇5 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊 = (𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )) − 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊
𝑒=
𝑄𝐴
𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒=
𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
20 | P a g e
𝑇5 − 𝑇1
𝑒 =1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑘(𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1
𝑒 = 1 − 𝑘−1 [ ]
𝑟 𝑘 𝑟𝑃 − 1 + 𝑟𝑃 𝑘 (𝑟𝑐 − 1)
Where:
𝑃3
𝑟𝑃 = , 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃2
𝑉1
𝑟𝑘 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉2
𝑉4
𝑟𝑐 = , 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉3
Note that the efficiency of this cycle lies between that of the ideal
Otto and the ideal Diesel.
 Derivation for the formula for efficiency (e):

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑇1 𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑘−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 [ ]
𝑉2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
From Process 2-3: V = C (Isometric Heat Addition)

𝑇3 𝑃3
= = 𝑟𝑃
𝑇2 𝑃2
𝑃3
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 𝑟𝑃
𝑃2
𝑇3 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃
From Process 3-4: P = C (Isobaric Heat Addition)

𝑇4 𝑉4
= = 𝑟𝑐
𝑇3 𝑉3
𝑉4
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 = 𝑇3 𝑟𝑐
𝑉3
𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐

𝑇5 𝑉4 𝑘−1
=[ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉5 = 𝑉1
𝑇4 𝑉5
𝑇5 𝑉4 𝑘−1 𝑉3
=[ ] 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑉3
21 | P a g e
𝑇5 𝑉4 𝑉3 𝑘−1 𝑉4 𝑉3 𝑘−1 𝑉4
=[ ∗ ] = [ ∗ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑐 = , 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝑉3
𝑘−1
𝑇5 𝑉3
= [𝑟𝑐 ∗ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑇4 𝑉1
𝑇5 𝑉2 𝑘−1 𝑉1
= [𝑟𝑐 ∗ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑘 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑘−1
𝑇5 1
= [𝑟𝑐 ∗ ]
𝑇4 𝑟𝑘 1
𝑘−1
𝑟𝑐
𝑇5 = 𝑇4 [ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐
𝑟𝑘 1
𝑘−1
𝑟𝑐
𝑇5 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐 [ ]
𝑟𝑘 1
𝑇5 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐𝑘
From the formula of efficiency:

𝑇5 − 𝑇1
𝑒 =1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑘(𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
𝑇1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 𝑇1
𝑒 =1−
(𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 − 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 ) + 𝑘(𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 )
𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1
𝑒 = 1 − 𝑘−1
(𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑃 − 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 ) + 𝑘(𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃 )
1 𝑟𝑃 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1
𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1
[ ]
𝑟𝑘 (𝑟𝑃 − 1) + 𝑟𝑃 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 − 1)
22 | P a g e
V. Brayton Cycle (Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engine)
This cycle was first proposed by George Brayton for use in the reciprocating
oil-burning engine that he developed around 1870. Today, it is used for gas
turbines only where both the compression and expansion processes take
place in rotating machinery. Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle
as fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its
temperature and pressure are raised. Then the high-pressure air proceeds
into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.
The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they
expand to the atmospheric pressure while producing power. The exhaust
gases leaving the turbine are thrown out (not recirculated), causing the cycle
to be classified as an open cycle.
Figure 8.10 Jet Engine
Figure 8.11 P-V and T-S Diagram of Brayton Cycle
23 | P a g e
WORKING PROCESSES OF A BRAYTON CYCLE:

Fresh air enters the compressor at the engine at state. State 1 is
defined by the ambient temperature and pressure of the air prior to
entering the compressor. The air is compressed isentropically to State
2. As a result of compression, the temperature of the air increases with
pressure.
The amount of air compression that the compressor section provides is

called the pressure ratio (rP). Typical gas turbine engines compress the
air to 5-30 times the inlet pressure. Engine efficiency increases with the
pressure ratio and generally ranges from about 40-60 percent.
B. Process 2-3: Isobaric Heat Addition

The high-pressure gas is heated in a constant-pressure process. This
heat addition is the result of a continuous combustion process in a
combustion chamber physically located between the compressor and
the turbine sections of the engine.

The high-pressure and temperature gas is expanded isentropically
through a turbine to extract work from the cycle. As the gas decreases
in pressure, its temperature also decreases. The turbine is often
connected to the compressor on a single shaft so that the turbine is
mechanically coupled to provide power to operate the compressor.
A tremendous amount of work is required to compress a gas to high

pressure. Consequently, much of the power the turbine produces is
used by the compressor. The back work ratio (r bw) is the ratio of
compressor work to turbine work. In jet aircraft engines, all the turbine
work is used to turn the compressor, electric generators, and hydraulic
pumps. In a power plant gas turbine, more than half the turbine work is
consumed by the compressor.
D. Process 4-1: Isobaric Heat Rejection

In the ideal Brayton cycle engine, the exhaust gas leaving the turbine is
cooled in a constant-pressure process by a heat exchanger between
the low-pressure side of the turbine and the compressor. Cooling the
exhaust gas removes the energy from State 4 so that it reaches State 1
again to complete the four-process cycle in a closed loop.
24 | P a g e
In a real gas turbine engine, the heat is rejected to the atmosphere, so
the engine operates in an open loop. The atmosphere is the only
physical heat exchanger between the turbine and the compressor.
Furthermore, a significant amount of heat usually remains in the
exhaust leaving the turbine, but the pressure can’t be decreased any
further to take advantage of this energy.
ANALYSIS OF A BRAYTON CYCLE:
Figure 8.12 Analysis of Brayton Cycle

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑅 = −𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊
𝑒=
𝑄𝐴
𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒=
𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒=
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
1 1
𝑒 = 1 − 𝑘−1 = 1 − 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘
𝑟𝑃 𝑘
Where:
𝑉1
𝑟𝑘 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉2
25 | P a g e
𝑃2
𝑟𝑃 = , 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃1
 Derivation for the formula for efficiency (e):
Process 1-2: PVk = C (Isentropic Compression)
𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑃2 𝑘
=[ ] =[ ]
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑘−1
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 [ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝑟𝑘
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑘−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 [𝑟𝑘 ]
𝑘−1
𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑃2 𝑘 𝑃2
[ ] =[ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝑟𝑃
𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑃1
𝑘−1
[𝑟𝑘 ]𝑘−1 = [𝑟𝑃 ] 𝑘
Process 3-4: PVk = C (Isentropic Expansion)

𝑘−1
𝑇3 𝑃3 𝑘
=[ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑃3 = 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃4 = 𝑃1
𝑇4 𝑃4
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑇3 𝑃3 𝑘 𝑃2 𝑘
=[ ] =[ ]
𝑇4 𝑃4 𝑃1
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑇3 = 𝑇4 [𝑟𝑃 ] 𝑘 𝑏𝑢𝑡 [𝑟𝑘 ]𝑘−1 = [𝑟𝑃 ] 𝑘
𝑇3 = 𝑇4 [𝑟𝑘 ]𝑘−1
 From the equation of efficiency (e)
𝑊
𝑒=
𝑄𝐴
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1
(𝑇4 [𝑟𝑘 ] − 𝑇1 [𝑟𝑘 ]𝑘−1 )
1 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 =1−
[𝑟𝑘 ]𝑘−1 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
1 𝑘−1
𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1
𝑏𝑢𝑡 [𝑟𝑘 ]𝑘−1 = [𝑟𝑃 ] 𝑘
[𝑟𝑘 ]
1
𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1
[𝑟𝑃 ] 𝑘
 Since a gas turbine engine is considered an open system, W SF;
Total Compressor Work: let W C be the W SF

𝑄 = 𝑊𝑠𝑓 + ∆𝐻 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑐 + ∆𝐻 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
26 | P a g e
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑄 − ∆𝐻 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝑄 = 0)
𝑊𝑐 = −∆𝐻
Where: From the enthalpy of an ideal gas
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑐 = −∆𝐻 = −𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Total Turbine Work: let W T be the W SF:
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑠𝑓 + ∆𝐻 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

𝑄 = 𝑊𝑇 + ∆𝐻 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
𝑊𝑇 = 𝑄 − ∆𝐻 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝑄 = 0)
𝑊𝑇 = −∆𝐻
Where: From the enthalpy of an ideal gas
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
𝑊𝑐 = −∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )
The net work, W or W B = W T – W C.
VI. Sample Problems

1. The intake of the compressor of an air-standard Brayton cycle is 40,000
ft3/m at 15 psi and 90oF. The compression ratio, rk = 5 and the
temperature at the turbine inlet is 1440 oF. The exit pressure of the
turbine is 15 psi. Determine the net work, thermal efficiency and the
mean effective pressure.
Given:
V1 = 40,000 ft3/m
P1 = 15 psi
T1 = 550 R
T3 = 1900 R
P4 = 15 psi
rk = V1/V2 = 5
Solution:
𝑝1 𝑉1 (15)(40,000)(144)
𝑚= = = 2945 𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑇1 (53.34)(550)
Point 1
27 | P a g e
𝑣1 40000 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉1 = = = 13.58
𝑚 2945 𝑙𝑏
Point 2:
𝑉1 13.58 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉2 = = = 2.72
𝑟𝑘 5 𝑙𝑏
𝑝2 = 𝑝4 𝑟𝑘𝑘 = (15)(5)1.4 = 142.8 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 = (550)(5)1.4−1 = 1047 𝑅
Point 3:
𝑇3 1900 𝑓𝑡 3
( )
𝑉3 = 𝑉2 ( ) = 2.72 ( ) = 4.94
𝑇2 1047 𝑙𝑏
Point 4:
1 1
𝑃3 𝑘 142.8 1.4 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉4 = 𝑉3 ( ) = (4.94) ( ) = 24.7
𝑃4 15 𝑙𝑏
𝑉3 𝑘−1 4.94 1.4−1

𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) ( )
= 1900 ( ) = 998 𝑅
𝑉4 24.7
Compressor Work
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = (0.24)(1047 − 550) = 119.3
𝑙𝑏
Turbine Work
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = (0.24)(1900 − 998) = 216.5
𝑙𝑏
Network
𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 216.5 − 119.3 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟐
𝒍𝒃
Heat Added
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = (0.24)(1900 − 1047) = 204.7
𝑙𝑏
Efficiency
28 | P a g e
𝑊 97.2
𝑒= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟒𝟖 𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝟖%
𝑄𝑖𝑛 204.7
pm
𝑊 𝑊 (97.2)(778)
𝑝𝑚 = = = = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖𝟗 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑉𝐷 𝑉4 − 𝑉2 (24.7 − 2.72)(144)
2. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine

operating on hot air standard with k = 1.34, are 101.3 kPa, 0.038 m3 and
32oC. The clearance is 10% and 12.6 kJ are added per cycle. Determine
(a) V2, T2, p2, T3, p3, T4 and p4, (b) W, (c) e, and (d) pm.
Given:
P1 = 101.3 kPa
V1 = 0.038 m3
T1 = 32oC + 273 = 305 K
Solution:
𝑅 0.28708 𝑘𝐽
𝑐𝑣 = = = 0.8444
𝑘 − 1 1.34 − 1 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑝1 𝑉1 (101.3)(0.038)
𝑚= = = 0.04396 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑇1 (0.28708)(305)
1 + 𝑐 1 + 0.10
𝑟𝑘 = = = 11
𝑐 0.10
(a) Point 2
𝑉1 0.038
𝑉2 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝟑
𝑟𝑘 11
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 = (305)(11)1.34−1 = 𝟔𝟖𝟗 𝑲
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 𝑟𝑘𝑘 = (101.3)(11)1.34 = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Point 3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
12.6 = (0.04396)(0.8444)(𝑇3 − 689)
𝑇3 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝑲
𝑇3 1028
𝑃3 = 𝑃2 ( ) = (2518) ( ) = 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑇2 689
Point 4
29 | P a g e
𝑉3 𝑘−1 1 𝑘−1 1 1.34−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 𝑇3 ( ) = (1028) ( ) = 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝑲
𝑉4 𝑟𝑘 11
𝑉3 𝑘 1 𝑘 1 1.34
𝑃4 = 𝑃3 ( ) = 𝑃3 ( ) = (3757) ( ) = 𝟏𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑉4 𝑟𝑘 11
(b)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) = (0.04396)(0.8444)(305 − 455) = −5.57 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 12.6 − 5.57 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑱
(c)
𝑊 7.03
𝑒= = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟖 𝒐𝒓 𝟓𝟓. 𝟖%
𝑄𝑖𝑛 12.6
(d)
𝑊 𝑊 12.6
𝑝𝑚 = = = = 𝟑𝟔𝟒. 𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑉𝐷 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 0.038 − 0.003455
3. Consider an ideal Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8. P1 =

95 kPa, T1 =15 C. The maximum cycle temperature is 1200 C.
Determine the heat transferred to an rejected from the cycle and
calculate the cycle thermal efficiency. Assume k = 1.4.
Given:
𝑟𝑘 = 8
𝑃1 = 95 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑇1 = 15 + 273 = 288 𝐾
𝑇3 = 1200 + 273 = 1473 𝐾
Required:
𝑄𝐴 , 𝑄𝑅 , 𝑒 = ?
Solution:
𝑣1 𝑘−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 288 𝐾 (8)1.4−1 = 661.7 𝐾
𝑣2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄𝐴 𝐽 𝐽
= (0.718 (1473 𝐾 − 661.7 𝐾 ) = 582.5
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
30 | P a g e
𝑣3 𝑘−1 1 1.4−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 1473 𝐾 ( ) = 641.2 𝐾
𝑣4 8
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑉 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄𝑅 𝐽 𝐽
= (0.718 (641.2 𝐾 − 288 𝐾) = 253.6
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
4. A Carnot engine works at high temperature 600 Kelvin with the efficiency
of 40%. If the efficiency of the engine is 75% and the low temperature
kept constant, what is the high temperature?
Given:
If high temperature (TH) = 600 K , efficiency (e) = 40% = 0.4
Required:
High temperature (TH) if efficiency (e) = 75% = 0.75
Solution:
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝑒=
𝑇𝐻
600 𝐾 − 𝑇𝐿
0.40 =
600 𝐾
𝑇𝐿 = 360 𝐾
If: e = 75% and TL is kept constant:
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝑒=
𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐻 − 360 𝐾
0.75 =
𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐻 = 1440 𝐾
5. An engine works on Diesel Cycle with an inlet temperature and
pressure of 1 bar and 17 C. Pressure at the end of adiabatic
compression is 35 bar. The compression ratio is 5. Calculate heat
added, heat rejected and efficiency of cycle. Let k = 1.4, c P = 1.006
kJ/kgK, and cV = 0.712 kJ/kgK.
Given:
𝑃1 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑇1 = 17 + 273 = 290 𝐾
𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = 35 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 3500 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑟𝑘 = 5
Reqiured:
𝑄𝐴 , 𝑄𝑅 , 𝑒 = ?
31 | P a g e
Solution:
𝑘−1 0.4
𝑃2 𝑘 3500 1.4
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 [ ] = 290 𝐾 [ ] = 801 𝐾
𝑃1 100
1
𝑃3 𝑘
𝑟𝑘 = [ ]
𝑃4
35
𝑃4 = 1.4 = 3.67 𝑏𝑎𝑟
5
𝑇4 𝑃4
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
𝑃4 3.67 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑇4 = 𝑇1 = 290 𝐾 ∗ = 1066.37 𝐾
𝑃1 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑘−1
𝑇4 𝑃4 𝑘
=( )
𝑇3 𝑃3
𝑇4 1066.37 𝐾
𝑇3 = 𝑘−1 = 0.4 = 2031.13 𝐾
𝑃 𝑘 3.67 1.4
( 4) (
35
)
𝑃3
𝑄𝐴 𝑘𝐽
= 𝑐𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 1.006 ∗ (2031.13 𝐾 − 801 𝐾 ) = 1237.51 𝑘𝑔
𝑚
𝑄𝑅 𝑘𝐽
= 𝑐𝑉 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.712 (1066.37 𝐾 − 290 𝐾 ) = −552.78
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝑅 1237.51 𝑘𝑔 − 552.78 𝑘𝑔
𝑒= = = 0.55 = 55%
𝑄𝐴 𝑘𝐽
1237.51
𝑘𝑔
32 | P a g e
Video References
Brayton Cycle - Gas Power Cycles - Thermodynamics. (2017, January

12). [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66nCeHyeO5I
Animation How Diesel Cycle Works. ✔. (2013, July 21). [Video].

YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyadfj7NQqI
Otto Cycle in a Type of Gas Power Cycle - Gas Power Cycles -

Thermodynamics. (2017, January 11). [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=limPdIpWrdQ
Expression for the efficiency of Diesel Cycle - Gas Power Cycles -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GncnvR_6hRQ
Dual Cycle in types of Gas power cycle - Gas Power Cycles -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zCxsncJnV5Q
VII. Assessment Activity

Instruction: Answer the following questions. Compile all accomplished
activities on a single pdf file only which can be either scanned or type
written. Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates
designated by the instructor.
A. Essay
1. Summarize how a Carnot cycle work.
2. Summarize how an Otto cycle work.
3. Summarize how a Diesel cycle work.
4. Summarize how a Brayton cycle work.
B. Problem Solving
1. An Carnot engine absorbs heat at high temperature 800 Kelvin and
efficiency of the Carnot engine is 50%. What is the high temperature to
increase efficiency to 80% if the low temperature kept constant?
2. Consider an ideal Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 10. P1 = 95 kPa,
T1 =15 C. The maximum cycle temperature is 1200 C. Determine the
33 | P a g e
heat transferred to an rejected from the cycle and calculate the cycle
thermal efficiency. Assume k = 1.4.
3. An ideal Diesel Cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of
1.5. Determine the maximum air temperature in Rankine and rate of heat
addition in BTU/hr to this cycle when it produces 200 hp of power. The
state of the air at the beginning of the compression process is 13.8 psia
and 65 F. Assume k = 1.4.
4. The pressure ratio and the maximum temperature of a Brayton cycle are
7 and 1000 K. Air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 303 K for 2 kg/s of
air flow. Calculate compressor work input, turbine work output, and
thermal efficiency.
VIII. Plate No. 2

Instruction: Solve the following problems. Compile all accomplished
activities on a single pdf file only which can be either scanned or type
written. Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates
designated by the instructor.
1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lb of air between the limits of 70 ⁰F

and 500 ⁰F. The pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansion is
400 psia and at the end of the isothermal expansion is 185 psig.
Determine a) the volume at the end of isothermal compression, b) ∆S
during an isothermal process, c) QA, d) QR, e) W, f) e, g) the ratio of
expansion during isothermal heating and the overall ratio of expansion,
and h) the mean effective pressure.
2. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine
operating on hot-air standard with k = 1.34, are 101.3 kPa, 0.038 m3
and 32 ⁰C. The clearance is 10% and 12.6 kJ are added per cycly.
Determine a) V2, T2, P2, T3, P3, T4 and P4, b) W, c) e, and d) Pm.
3. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine operating on
227 g of air: P1 = 97.91 kPa, T1 = 48.9 ⁰C. At the end of compression,
P2 = 3930 kPa. Determine a) rk, b) c, c) rc, d) W, e) e, and f) Pm.
4. At the beginning of compression in an ideal dual combustion cycle, the
working fluid is 11 lb of air at 14.1 psia and 80 ⁰F. The compression
ratio is 9, the pressure at the end of the constant volume addition of
heat is 470 psia, and there are added 100 Btu during the constant
pressure expansion. Find a) rp, b) rc, c) the percentage clearance, d) e,
and e) Pm.
5. The intake of the compressor of an air-standard Brayton Cycle is
40,000 cfm at 15 psia and 90 ⁰F. The compression ratio, r k = 5 and the
temperature at the turbine inlet is 1440 ⁰F. The exit pressure of the
turbine is 15 psia. Determine the net Work, thermal efficiency and the
mean effective pressure.
34 | P a g e

Ae 223 - Finals - Module No. 8

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Ae 223 - Finals - Module No. 8

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 08:

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

TOTAL 323.4 min (5.39 hrs)

Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)

Thermodynamic cycles can still be categorized as closed and open cycles.

The elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as the working

The second law of thermodynamics: A Carnot engine operating between

The Carnot cycle is known to be the most efficient cycle conceivable

Figure 8.1 P-V and T-S Diagram Carnot Cycle

A. Process 1-2: Isothermal Heat Addition

Heat is added from the high-temperature reservoir at T H to the working

B. Process 2-3: Isentropic Work Output

The high-pressure, high temperature gas expands in the isentropic

C. Process 3-4: Isothermal Heat Rejection

Heat is removed from the relatively low-temperature, low-pressure gas

D. Process 4-1: Isentropic Work Input

The low-pressure, low-temperature gas is compressed in the isentropic

Figure 8.2 Analysis of Carnot Cycle

 From the figure above:

Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression

The basic components of a reciprocating engine is shown below. The piston

Figure 8.3 Basic

In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete

Figure 8.4 P-V and T-S Diagram of Otto Cycle

WORKING PROCESSES OF AN OTTO CYCLE:

A. Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression

B. Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition

In an Otto cycle engine, a spark initiates the combustion process,

The addition of heat to the air causes the temperature, pressure,

C. Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

D. Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection

Even though the piston obviously moves, the exhaust process is

ANALYSIS OF AN OTTO CYCLE:

Figure 8.5 Analysis of Otto Cycle

From the formula of Work and Efficiency:

 Derivation of the formula for efficiency (e):

Clearance Volume, Per Cent Clearance

Ideal Standard of Comparison

The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Otto Cycle is:

B. Diesel Cycle (Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines)

Figure 8.6 P-V and T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle

WORKING PROCESSES OF A DIESEL CYCLE

A. Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression

B. Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition

C. Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

D. Process 4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

Figure 8.7 Analysis of Diesel Cycle

 From the figure above:

 Derivation of the formula for efficiency (e):

From Process 1-2: PVk = C (Isentropic Compression)

From Process 2-3: P = C (Isobaric Heat Addition)

From Process 3-4: PVk = C (Isentropic Expansion)

From the formula of efficiency, we have:

Therefore, for a particular compression ratio r k the Otto cycle is

Relation among rk, rc and re (expansion ratio)

IV. Dual Combustion Engine (Modern Compression Ignition Engines)

Figure 8.8 P-V and T-S Diagram of Dual Combustion Cycle

WORKING PROCESSES OF A DUAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

A. Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression

B. Process 2-3: Isometric Heat Addition

C. Process 3-4: Constant Pressure Heat Addition