Management Advice Sheet (Draft: 19 December 2022) DRINKING WATER

Household water treatment

Boiling
This Management Advice Sheet provides guidance for the operation and maintenance (O&M) of household water
treatment using boiling. This should be read in conjunction with the Management Advice Sheet for Collection, storage,
treatment and handling. Household treatment may need several steps. If the water looks very dirty, it should be allowed to
settle to remove any solids before boiling. Any additional stages of household treatment should be inspected as well as
the boiling stage.
Typical O&M tasks are listed in Table 1 with suggested frequencies for each activity. These activities are important for
improving the quality of the water. . Table 2 lists potential issues associated with drinking-water treatment using boiling.
Suggested improvements are listed for each possible risk.

1. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Checking the effectiveness of each stage of household water treatment reduces the risk from environmental
contamination . Household water treatment methods should be used correctly and in a consistent manner. To minimize
the risk of contamination from the user, general hygienic practices should be followed. Effective handwashing prior to
handling is important.
All containers used for treating drinking-water should be dedicated for this purpose (i.e. treat only drinking-water and no
other liquids, including heating water of lesser quality for washing) and should not be directly used for other household
activities (e.g. cooking). Re-use of old/ recycled containers should be avoided (e.g. those which may leach chemical
contaminants, such as engine oil containers). Periodic disinfection of containers may also be required (e.g. after long
periods without use).
Table 1. Operation and maintenance schedule guidance

Frequency Activity
• When not in use, ensure the treatment vessel is covered with its lid and kept in a clean, sanitary
Daily
area.
Weekly • Inspect the vessel for obvious signs of damage or failure.
• Check that household drinking-water treatment procedures are being followed correctly and
Annually
consistently,
As the need • Repair or replace containers.
arises

Notes:
1. The suggested frequencies in Table 1 represent a minimum requirement and may need to be increased depending
on the local context. A suitable timetable should be made for each household drinking-water supply chain.
2. For guidance on appropriate frequencies for monitoring (e.g. sanitary inspections and water quality testing), refer to
Guidelines for drinking-water quality: risk-based management, regulation and surveillance of small water supplies
(WHO, in preparation).

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 2. ISSUES AND REMEDIAL ACTIONS
Each issue in Table 2 is linked by a number to a corresponding question in the Household water treatment: Boiling
sanitary inspection form (e.g. issue 1 below is linked to question 1 in the sanitary inspection form.)
Table 2. Common issues associated with boiling drinking-water, and suggested remedial actions
Issue
Untreated water
The water is cloudy or solid particles settle
out of the water if it is left to settle for a
while. Boiling will disinfect the water but not
remove other impurities. Cloudy or coloured
water could indicate other types of pollution.
1 solid particles, especially during periods of heavy rainfall.
People may not want to drink water that
looks or smells unusual, even if it is safe to
drink.
Consistent and correct use
There is evidence that boiling is not being
carried frequently, so it is not being treated
consistently. The boiling vessel should be on
or near the stove. It could contain water that
is cooling.
2
The householder is not clear about how to
3
treat water. The method has steps missing.
The treatment vessel is used to heat liquids
other than drinking-water, increasing the
4
likelihood of cross- contamination
The vessel is uncovered, providing a route
for contaminants to enter the container.
5 Covering the pot saves fuel and raises the
temperature faster.
If the intention is to boil the water, it needs to
reach a rolling boil .At 1 000 metres above
sea level, the boil needs to last for one
6a
minute; at 2 000 metres it needs to be two
minutes, at 5 000 metres above sea level, it
needs to be 5 minutes.
If the intention is to pasteurize the water, it
needs to reach 65°C for six minutes.
6b
Householders do not always drink boiled
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water.
Remedial actions to consider
• Use the source with the best available water quality.
• Carry out a source water Sanitary Inspection. Complete
any remedial actions identified from this inspection.
• Consider pre-treatment (such as settlement or straining)
for water that clearly looks cloudy or has lots of small
• Check that any pre-treatment processes are being used
effectively and if not, address any issues.
• Check that the container used to collect the unfiltered
water is clean and free from particles before filling with
water
• Provide information or instruction to the whole
community on the importance of treating water when
needed.
• People may only boil water in specific seasons, in
response to changes in water quality, when there is a
disease outbreak or other heightened risk, or for
vulnerable people. Check that the use of boiling matches
the risk.
• Review the cost and availability of suitable vessels such
as kettles for boiling water.
• Provide information or instruction to all householders on
how to improve current practices.
• Explain the risks of using the vessel for other liquids and
clean the container thoroughly, or replace if deemed
necessary.
• Consider getting a kettle for boiling water only.
• Explain the risks of not using a lid, and the benefits in
terms of cost savings.
• Use a lid when boiling water.
• Consider getting a kettle for only boiling water.
• Explain how to recognise boiling water and not to stop
heating it when there is only some steam or small
bubbles appearing. The water should be all be moving
and large bubble appear.
• A clock is needed at high altitudes
• If pasteurisation (rather than boiling) is being used, some
sort of thermometer and a timer such as a clock is
needed.
• Provide instructions on how to improve current practices.
• Identify barriers and motivations to help change
behaviour so that boiled water is consistently consumed.
3

Treated water
The water is transferred to another
8 container to cool down or for storage. Ice is
added to speed up cooling.
Aerating boiled water can improve the taste
of boiled water but stirring or pouring may
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lead to contamination.
• Address barriers to boiling/ pasteurization. Pot lids,
kettles or fuel-efficient stoves may make the process
more economic.
• Pasteurization may consume less fuel than boiling, but
requires a thermometer or other suitable device
• Provide instruction on how to improve current practices.
• A second boiling vessel provides flexibility.
• Provide instruction on how to improve current practices.
• Storage in a covered boiling vessel allows re-aeration
over a few hours.
• Shaking in a clean, covered container speeds up aeration.

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The boiled water is mixed with non-boiled in • Provide instruction on how to improve current practices.
the container

Notes:
1. The suggested remedial actions apply to the specific household being inspected.
2. If the same hazard is found frequently, considered a community wide action