_ MECHANICS of NEWER WILLIAM RILEY LEROY STURGES DON MORRISAVERAGE PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ENGINEERING MATERIALS (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) Exact values may vary information can be obtained from manufacturers. ly with changes in composition, heat treatment, and mechanical working. More precise Elastic Stengtht _Ukimate Strength Ter i Sear sion Comp, Shear in) ks Tesd— esl) Csi) (sds om 30 a * Bina 67 om xt G+ ry 66 om a of 66 om sf uo 4 om 5 mie 0.260 25 10 a 67 0256 2 oF 1 66 0266 70 10 66 om 6 Cn 0 96 ons 65 + 0 + 50. 96 om 1m 1s Bo 4 95 6 0109 2s 6 wi? aes as 8 tr 00 8 & & @ * # 8 6 40 ‘Aluminum, wrought, 061-76 O08] 0 HCAS #33 oe 9 24 Ma wo «0 4 24 2 as so % “0 os os 18 1s 364 98 is oF 3650 98. 8 109 6s 3 94 Bronze, annealed 2 st 6s 90 34 Titanium alloy, annesled ns} Bs 3308 Invar, annealed a 4 nm art 06 Nonmetallic materials 39 08 16 140 v9 3512 La 1 6918 18 30 30 60 so 45 60 Yield point, or yield strength ata specified offset (usually 0.2 percent for ductile metals (those with an appreciable ultimate elongation), itis customary to assume the proper values as those in tension. in compression have the smeMechanics of Materials Sixth Edition WILLIAM F. RILEY “LEROY D. STURGES Associate Professor Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Towa State University DON H. MORRIS Professor Emeritus Engineering Science and Mechanics Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University @ AZCAPOT74: JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. 8 3 §7 vvACQUISITIONS EDITOR Joseph Hayton SENIOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Maureen Clendenny SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Sandra Dumas MARKETING MANAGER Pry Cerys DESIGNER Hope Mille: SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Sigmund Malinowski (MEDIA EDITOR Stefanie Liebman PRODUCTION SERVICES ‘Suzanne Ingroilngrao Associates Cover photo by Bill Gover provided courtesy of The Angle Riag Companys {©The Angle Ring Company Limited, Wes Midland, UK, hit/wons.anglering com. “This book was stin Times New Roman by GTS Companies (TechBooks) and prited and bound by R.R. Donnelle/ Willard. The cover ‘as printed by Phoenix Color Corporation. ‘This book is printed on acid ee pape. Copyright © 2007 Job Wiley & Sons, Ic. All sights eserve. [No pat of his publication maybe reproduce stored in arte system or tansmited nay form or by any means, elecwone, mechanical, photocopying, recording, seaming ‘or otters except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 the 1976 United States ‘Copyright Act, without ether the prior writen permission of he Publisher, © authorization trough payment ofthe appropiaie pe-copy fee to the Copyright (Clearance Center, In, 222 Rosewood Drive, Durvers, MA 01923, website www.copyight.com. ‘Requests othe Publisher for permission shouldbe adressed othe Pzmissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Ine, 111 Rive Street, Hoboken, NI 07020-5774, 201)748-601, fas (201) 748-6008, website bp ww wley com gopsrmissios “To order books or fo customer service please call -800-CALL WILEY (225.8945), 1SBN978-0-471-70811-6 Print in he United States of America wos7sstT Preface INTRODUCTION ‘The primary objectives of a course in mechanics of materi- als are: (1) to develop « working knowledge of the relations between the loads applied to a nonrigid body made of a given material and the resulting deformations of the body; (2) to develop a thorough understanding of te relations be- tween the loads applied to a nonrigid body and the stresses produced in the body: (3) to develop a clear insight into the relations betwoen stress and strain for a wide variety of conditions and materials; and (4) to develop adequate pro- cedures for finding the required dimensions of a member of 1 specified material to carry a given load subject to stated specifications of stress and deflection. These objectives in- volve the concepts and skills that form the foundation ofall structural and machine design. The principles and methods used to meet the general objectives are drawn largely from prerequisite courses in mechanies, physies, and mathematics together with the ba- sic concepts ofthe theory of elasticity and the properties of| engineering materials. This book is designed to emphasize the required fundamental principles, with numerous appli- cations to demonstrate and develop logical, orderly methods of procedure. Instead of deriving numerous formulas for all types of problems, we have stressed the use of free-body diagrams and the equations of equilibrium, together with the geometry of the deformed body, and the observed rela- tions between stress and strain, for the analysis of the force system acting on a body. ‘This book is designed for a first course in mechanics, ‘of deformable bodies. Because ofthe extensive subdivision into different topics, the book will provide flexibility in the choice of assignments to cover courses of different length and content. The developments of structural applications include the inelastic as well as the elastic range of stress; however, the material is organized so that the book will be ‘found satisfactory for elastic coverage only. NEW TO THIS EDITION Content changes © A sign convention for internal forces is established in Chapter I and followed consistently throughout the text. * Discussion ofthe stress element in Chapter 2s expanded. * Section 4-6 ofthe Fifth Edition has been moved and com- bined with section 5-11 on Design © Updated coverage of combined loadings provided in mul- tiple chapters—Chapters 5,6, and 7—to offer continuous reinforcement of this difficult topic ** New and revised example problems and homework prob- lems throughout. New visualization tool ‘MecMovies, by Tim Philpot of University of Missouri- Rolla is integrated at appropriate places in the text. Win- ner of the Premier Award for Excellence in Engineering Education Software, MecMovies offers a series of inter- active tutorials, quizzes, problems, and games to support lectures and aid student self-study. Icons in the margin re- fer to appropriate sections of MecMovies, and MecMovie Problems and Activities are provided with most end of sec- tion problem sets. Available by accessing the companion site www.wiley.com/college/iley (student companion site) and using the registration code that accompanies new copies of the text. ORGANIZATION OF THE TEX’ Since most mechanics of materials problems begin with a statics problem (finding the forces in structural members or the forces in pins connecting structural members), we have included a review of statics in Chapter 1 of this book. ‘The coverage is perhaps more complete and comprehensive than would be necessary for review so thatthe book could be used for both statics and mechanics of materials if desired. After the review of statics in Chapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 consist ofa thorough discussion of material stress and strain including principal stresses and principal strains. We choose to present principal stresses and principal strains at this early position to make it easier to talk about maximum stresses in the axial, torsional, and flexural applications that follow. Italso allows us to talk about the maximum stresses incombined loading situations in Chapters 5,6,and 7, rather than waiting until the end ofthe book. The ideas of principal values also allow for continuous reinforcement throughout the book of the state of stress and strain ata point.iv. PRERACE Material properties and the relationship between stress and strain are presented in Chapter 4, In Chapters 5, 6, and 7, we consider the stresses and strains in axial, torsional, and flexural loading applications. In addition to calculating the stresses in members subjected to axial load- ing and the siresses in pressure vessels subjected to inter- nal pressure, in Chapter 5 we also calculate the stresses in pressure vessels subjected to axial and pressure loading. In ‘Addition (o calculating the stresses in circular shafts sub- jected to torsional loading, in Chapter 6, we also calculate the stresses in circular shafts subjected to axial and torsional loads and in pressure vessels subjected to torsional loads. In Chapter 7, we frst calculate the normal and shear stresses in beams subjected to flexural loading. We conclude Chapter 7 with the calculation of stresses in beams and circular shafts subjected to a combination of axial, torsional, and flexural loads. InChapter 8, we calculate the deflection of beams due to various loading situations and also cover the calculation of support reactions for and stresses in statically indeter- rminate beams. In Chapter 9, we consider the tendency of columns to buckle. Finally, in Chapter 10 we discuss theo- ries of failure and the use of energy methods. Every chapter opens with a brief Introduction and ends with a Summary of important coneepts covered in the chapter followed by a set of Review Problems. All prin- ciples are illustrated by one or more Example Problems and several Homework Problems. The Homework Prob- Jems are graded in difficulty and are separated into groups of Introductory, Intermediate, and Challenging problems. Several sections of Homework Problems also have a set of Computer Problems. While the computation could be ac- complished by the student writing a FORTRAN program, the computation could just as easily be carried out using MathCAD, Mathematica, or a spreadsheet program. The important concept of the Computer problems is that they require students to analyze how the solution depends on some parameter of the problem. Most chapters conchide with a section on Design, which includes Example Problems and a set of Homework Problems. The emphasis in these problems is that there are ‘often more than just one criteria to be satisfied in a design specification, An acceptable design must satisfy all spec- ified criteria. In addition, standard lumber, pipes, beams, ete. come in specific sizes. The student must choose an ap- propriate structural member from these standard materials. Since each different choice of a beam or a piece of lumber has a different specific weight and affects the overall prob- lem differently, students are also introduced to the idea that design is an iterative process FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS ‘We strongly feel that a proper free-body diagram is just as important in mechanics of materials as itis in statics. It is, ‘our approach that, whenever an equation of equilibrium is ‘written, it must be accompanied by a complete, proper free body diagram. Furthermore, since the primary purpose of a free-body diagram is to show the forees acting on a body, the free-body diagram should not be used for any other purpose. We encourage students to draw separate diagrams to show deformation and compatibility relationships, PROBLEMS-SOLVING PROCEDURES Students are urged to develop the ability to reduce problems toa series of simpler component problems that can be easily analyzed and combined to give the solution of the initial problem. Along with an effective methodology for problem decomposition and solution, the ability to present results in a clear, logical, and neat manner is emphasized throughout the text. HOMEWORK PROBLEMS ‘The illustrative examples and problems have been selected ‘with special attention devoted to problems that require an ‘understanding of the principles of mechanics of materials without demanding excessive time for computational work. A large number of homework problems are included so that problem assignments may be varied from term to term. ‘The problems in each set represent a considerable range of difficulty and are grouped according to this range of di ficulty. Mastery, in general, is not achieved by solving a large number of simple but similar problems. While the so- lution of simple problems is necessary to build a student’ problem-solving skills and confidence, we believe thatastu~ dent gains mastery ofa subject through application of basic theory to the solution of problems that appear somewhat difficult, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Results should always be reported as accurately as possible. However, results should not be reported to 10 significant fig ures merely because the calculator displays that many digits. (One of the tasks in all engineering work is to determine theaccuracy of the given data and the expected accuracy of the final answer, Results should always reflect the accuracy of the given data In a textbook, however, it is not possible for stu- dents to examine or question the accuracy of the given data, It is also impractical, in an introductory course, to give error bounds on every number. Therefore, sinee an accuracy greater than about 0.2% is seldom possible for practical engineering problems, all given data in Exam- ple Problems and Homework Problems, regardless of the ‘number of figures shown, will be assumed sufficiently ac- ccurate to justify rounding off the final answer to approx- imately this degree of accuracy (three to four significant figures). ‘SI VERSUS USCS UNITS US. customary units and SI units are used in approximately equal proportions in the text forboth Example Problems and Homework Problems. To help the instructor who wants to assign problems of one type or the other, odd-numbered Homework Problems are in USS. customary units and even- numbered Homework Problems are in SI units ANSWERS PROVIDED Answers to about half of the Homework Problems are provided on the student companion site: www.wiley.com/ college/Riley. Since the convenient designation of problems, for which answersare provided isof great value to those who ‘make up assignment sheets, the problems for which answers are provided are indicated by means of an asterisk (*) after the problem number. In addition to a fully worked solutions manual, all fig ures from the text are available in electronic format for instructors who adopt this book for use in their classes. All resources will be available for download from the book's, website: wwu-wiley.com/collegerriley. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful for comments and suggestions received from colleagues and fiom users of the earlier editions of this book. Special thanks go to the following people who provided input and comments: Candace M. Ammerman, Colorado School of Mines, James N. Craddock, Souther Illinois University, Leonard De Rooy, Calvin College, Xin-Lin Gao, Michigan Techno- logical University, John B. Ligon, Michigan Technological University, Charles E. Bakis, Pennsylvania State University, Shashi S. Marikunte, Southern Illinois University, Timothy A. Philpot, University of Missouri-Rolla, Ray Ruichong, Zhang, Colorado School of Mines, Jiang Zhe, University of Akron. Final judgments concerning organization of material and emphasis of topics, however, were made by the au- thors. We wil be pleased to receive comments from readers and will attempt to acknowledge all such communications. ‘Comments can be sent by email to sturges@ iastate.edu or to dhmorris @ vtedu. William F. Riley Leroy D. Sturges Don H. MorrisT Contents Chapter 1 Introduction and Review of Statics 1 1-1 INTRODUCTION 1 1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES 2 1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 4 1-4 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 30 1-5 INTERNAL FORCES 34 SUMMARY 44 Chapter 2 Analysis of Stress: Concepts and Definitions 48 2-1 INTRODUCTION 48 2:2. NORMAL STRESS UNDER AXIAL LOADING 48 2.3. SHEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS 49 2-4 BEARING STRESS 51 2:5. UNITS OF STRESS 51 2-6 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE IN AN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER 65 2:7 STRESS AT A GENERAL POINT IN AN ARBITRARILY LOADED MEMBER 72 2-8 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR PLANE STRESS 74 2.9 ‘THE STRESS TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR PLANE STRESS 75 2-10 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM ‘SHEARING STRESS--PLANE STRESS 85 2-11 MOHR'S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS 98 2-12 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT 108 SUMMARY 117 Chapter 3 Analysis of Strain: Concepts and Definitions 121 31 INTRODUCTION 121 3:2 _ DISPLACEMENT, DEFORMATION, AND STRAIN 121 3.3 THE STATE OF STRAINAT APOINT 129 3-4 THE STRAIN TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR PLANE STRAIN 130 3-5 PRINCIPAL STRAINS AND MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN 135 3-6 MOHR'S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN 140 3-7 STRAIN MEASUREMENT AND ROSETTE ANALYSIS 142 SUMMARY 148 Chapter 4 Material Properties and Stress-Strain Relationships 153 41 INTRODUCTION 153 4.2. STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS 153, 43. GENERALIZED HOOKE'S LAW 164 44 THERMAL STRAIN 176 45. STRESS-STRAIN EQUATIONS FOR ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS 180 SUMMARY 184 Cheaper, 5 oe enbeeececeneeeeeteeaeerSnSi He Axial Loading Applications and Pressure Vessels 189 S-_ INTRODUCTION 189 5.2. DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS 189 5-3 DEFORMATIONS IN A SYSTEM OF AXIALLY LOADED BARS 201 5-4 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS 209 5-5. THERMAL EFFECTS 225 5-6 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS 234 5-7 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS 239 5-8 THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS 246 5.9 COMBINED EFFECTS—AXIAL AND PRESSURE LOADS 254 5-10. THICK-WALLED CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS 257 S-ll_ DESIGN 264 SUMMARY 270 Chapter 6 Torsional Loading of Shafts 271 6-1 INTRODUCTION 276 62 TORSIONAL SHEARING STRAIN 277 63 TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS—THE ELASTIC TORSION FORMULA 279 6-4 TORSIONAL DISPLACEMENTS 281 6-5 STRESSES ON OBLIQUE PLANES 295 66 POWER TRANSMISSION 300 6-7 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS 303, 68 COMBINED LOADING—AXIAL, TORSIONAL, AND PRESSURE VESSEL 315 viiviii cowrents 6-9 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS UNDER TORSIONAL LOADINGS 322 6-10 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF TORSIONAL ‘MEMBERS 325 6-11 TORSION OF NONCIRCULAR SECTIONS 331 6-12 TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBES—SHEAR FLOW 333 6-13 DESIGN PROBLEMS 339 SUMMARY 344 Chapter 7 Flexural Loading: Stresses in Beams 349 TL INTRODUCTION 349 7-2 FLEXURAL STRAINS 352 7-3. FLEXURAL STRESSES 354 7-4 THEELASTIC FLEXURE FORMULA 356 7-5 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS IN BEAMS 366 7-6 LOAD, SHEAR FORCE, AND BENDING MOMENT RELATIONSHIPS 376 7-7 SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS 391 7-8 PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS 405 7-9 FLEXURAL STRESSES—UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 410 7-10 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS UNDER FLEXURAL LOADINGS 418 7-11 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 422 7-12 SHEARING STRESSES IN THIN-WALLED OPEN SECTIONS—SHEAR CENTER 431 7-13 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN BEAMS OF TWO MATERIALS 441 7-14 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 445 7-15 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS 450 7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, FLEXURAL, AND TORSIONAL 457 7-17 DESIGN PROBLEMS 475 SUMMARY 480 Chapter 8 Flexural Loading: Beam Deflections 487 #1 INTRODUCTION 487 8.2. THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF THE ELASTIC CURVE 487 8-3 DEFLECTION BY INTEGRATION 489 8-4 DEFLECTIONS BY INTEGRATION OF SHEAR FORCE OR LOAD EQUATIONS 502 8.5 SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS 507 8-6 DEFLECTIONS BY SUPERPOSITION 520 8-7 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO SHEARING STRESS 530 88 DEFLECTIONS BY ENERGY METHODS— CASTIGLIANO'S THEOREM $532 8.9 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS 542 8-10 DESIGN PROBLEMS 567 SUMMARY $74 Chapter 9 Columns 578 9.1 INTRODUCTION 578 9-2. BUCKLING OF LONG, STRAIGHT COLUMNS 579 9-3. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT IDEALIZED END CONDITIONS 587 9-4 EMPIRICAL COLUMN FORMULAS—CENTRIC LOADING $92 95 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS 600 96 DESIGN PROBLEMS 606 SUMMARY 610 Chapter 10 ee Energy Methods and Theories of Failure 614 10-1 INTRODUCTION 614 PART A: ENERGY METHODS 615 10.2. STRAIN ENERGY 615 10-3 ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR VARIOUS LOADS 617 10-4 IMPACT LOADING 624 PART B: THEORIES OF FAILURE FOR STATIC LOADING 637 10.5. INTRODUCTION 637 10-6 FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS 637 10-7 FAILURE THEORIES FOR BRITTLE MATERIALS 650 SUMMARY 654 Appendices ‘A SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA. 659 B TABLES OF PROPERTIES 683 Answers* Index 705 ine at the Wiley website www-wileycomChapter 1 Introduction and Review of Statics 1-1 INTRODUCTION ‘The primary objective of a course in mechanics of materials is the development of relationships between the loads applied to a nonrigid body and the internal forces and deformations induced in the body. Ever since the time of Galileo Galilei (1564~ 1642), scientists and engineers have studied the problem of the load-carrying capacity of structural members and machine components, and have developed ‘mathematical and experimental methods of analysis for determining the internal forces and the deformations induced by the applied loads. The experiences and observations of these scientists and engineers of the last three centuries are the heritage of the engineer of today. The fundamental knowledge gained over the last three centuries, together with the theories and analysis techniques developed, permit the modern engineer to design, with complete competence and assurance, structures and machines of unprecedented size and complexity, The subject matter of this book forms the basis for the solution of three general types of problems: 1. Given a certain function to perform (transporting traffic over a river by means of a bridge, conveying scientific instruments to Mars in a space vehicle, con- Yerting water power into electric power) of what materials should the machine or structure be constructed, and what should be the sizes and proportions of the various elements? This is the designer’ task, and obviously there is no single solution to any given problem, 2. Given the completed design, i itadequate? That is, does itperform the funtion economically and without excessive deformation? This istxe checker’s problem, 3. Given a completed structure or machine, what i its actual load-carrying capac- ity? The structure may have been designed for some purpose other than the one for which it is now to be used. Is it adequate for the proposed use? For example, ‘building may have been designed as an office building but i later found to be desirable for use as a warehouse. In such a case, what maximum loading may the floor safely support? This is the rating problem. Because the complete scope of these problems is obviously too comprehensive for mastery in a single course, this book is restricted to 2 study of individual members and very simple structures or machines. The design courses that follow ill consider the entre structure or machine, and will providcessential background forthe complete analysis of the three problems2. caseruk 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW oF stATiCs by oe denon ‘The principles and methods used to meet the objective stated atthe beginning of this chapter depenc to a great extent on prerequisite courses in mathematics and mechanics, supplemented by additional concepts from the theory of clastcity ‘and the properties of engineering materials. The equations of equilibrium from slatics are used extensively, with one major change in the free-body diagrams; namely, most free bodies are isolated by cutting through a member instead of simply removing a pin or some other connection. The internal force on the cut section is related to the stresses (force per unit area) generated by the cohesive forces holding the menber together. The size and shape of the member must be adjusted to keep the stress below the limiting value for the type of material from which the member is constructed. In some instances, the specified maximum deformation, not the specified ‘maximum stress, will govern the maximum load that a: member may carry, In other instances, it may be found that the equations of equilibrium (or motion) are not sufficient to determine all of the unknown loads or reactions acting on a body. In such cases itis necessary to consider the geometry (the change in size or shape) of the body after the loads are applied. The deformation per unit length in any irection or dimension is called sirain ‘Some knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties of materials is required in order to create a design, to properly evaluate a given design, or even to write the correct relaton between an applied load and the resulting deformation of a loaded member. Essential information will be introduced as required, and ‘more complete information can be obtained from textbooks and handbooks on properties of materials 1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES: Force is one of the most important of the basic concepts in the study of mechanics cof materials (or the mechanics of deformable bodies). Force is the action of one body on another; forees always exist in equal magnitude, opposite direction pairs, Forces may result from direct physical contact between two bodies ot from two bodies that are notin direct contact. For example, consider a person standing on a sidewalk, The person exerts a force on te sidewalk through direct physical contact, between the soles of his or her shoes and the sidewalk; the sidewalk in turn exerts ‘an equal magnitude, apposite direction force on the soles of the person's shoes. If the person were to jump, the contact force would vanish but there would still be a gravitational attraction (force between two bodies not in direct contact) between the person and the earth. The gravitational attraction force exerted on the person by thc earth is called the weight ofthe person; an equal magnitude, opposite direction, attraction force is exerted on the earth by the person. Another type of force that exists without direct rhysical contact is an electromagnetic force. Contact forves are called surface forces, since they exist at surfaces of contact between two todies. Ifthe area of contact is small compared to the size of the body, the force is called a concentrated force; this type of force is assumed to act at a point. For exemple, the force applied by a car wheel to the pavement on 1 bridge (see Fig. I-1) is often modeled as a concentrated force. Also, a contact force may be distributed over a narrow region in a uniform or nonuniform manner. ‘This situation would exist where floor decking contacts a floor joist, as shown in Fig. 1-2a, Here, the floor decking exerts a uniformly distributed load (force) on the joist, as shown in Fig. 1-26. The intensity of the distributed load is w and has dimensions of force por unt length.ee seit sin 4, ) o @ Figure 2 Other common types of forces are external, internal, applied, and reaction, ‘To illustrate, consider the beam loaded and supported, as siown in Fig. 1-3a. A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. I-35. All forces acting on the free- body diagram are external forces; that is, they represent the interaction between the beam (the object shown in the free-body diagram) and the external world (everything else that has been discarded). Force F is a concentrated force, whereas 1» is a uniformly distributed load with dimensions of forcellength. The forces F and w are called applied forces or loads. They are the forces that the beam is designed to carry. Forces 4,, 4,, and B are necessary to prevent movement of the ‘beam. Such supporting forces are called reactions. Force distributions at supports ‘are complicated, and reactions are usually modeled as concentrated forces. ‘Once again, all the forces shown in Figure 1-3 are external forces. At every seetion along the beam, there also exists a system of equal magnitude, opposite direction pairs of internal forces between the atoms on cither side of the section. ‘The study of mechanics of materials or mechanics of deformasle bodies dependson the calculation of these internal forces at various sections of «structure or machine ‘element and how these forces are distributed over the sections. The determination of internal forces is discussed in Section 1-5. In our previous discussion of loads (forces), we saw that the loads might be ‘concentrated forces or distributed forces. Furthermore, we assumed that the forces id not vary with time, that is, they were staric loads. In many situations, loads ‘may be a function of time, For example, a sustained load is a load that is constant over a long period of time, such as the weight of a structure (called dead load). ‘This type of load is treated in the same manner as a static loed; however, for some ‘materials and conditions of temperature and stress, the resistance to failure may F Figure 1-3, 1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES 34 ‘HAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS be different under short-time loading and sustained loading. An impact load is a rapidly applied load which transfers a large amount of energy in a short period of time, Vibration normally results from an impact load, and equilibrium is not ‘established until the vibration is efiminated, usually by natural damping forces. A repeated load is a Toad that is applied and removed many thousands of times. ‘The helical springs that close the valves on an automobile engine are subjected to repeated loading, 1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY ‘A rigid body (a body that does not deform under the action of applied loads) is in equilibrium when the resultant of the system of forces acting on the body is zero. sondition is satistied if EF=0 ay BMo =0 (1-2) Equation 1-1 states thatthe vector sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero, whereas Eq. 1-2 states thatthe vector sum of the moments of the external forces about any point O (on or off the body) is zero. Equations 1-1 and 1-2 are the necessary and the sufficient conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body. The two vector equations of ecuilibrium may be written as six scalar equations. Selecting a right-handed, xy2-rectangular coordinate system, the equations of equilibrium may be writen ER=0 ER=0 ER=0 3) =M=0 EM,=0 EM, (4) Equation 1-3 states thatthe sum ofall external forees acting on the body in the x-, J», and z-directions is zero. Equation 1-4 states that the sum of the moments ofall Of the external forces acting on a body about the x-, y-, and z-axes is zero. Many problems encountered in mechanics of materials are two-dimensional in nature. Selecting the x- and y-axes in the plane of the forces and the z-axis perpendicular to the plane, the equations of equilibrium reduce to ER=0 IF, 0 (sy y =M, ‘These equations of equilibrium would be applicable for the force system shown in Fig. 1-32, which is coplanar and noncurrent, Ifthe force system acting on the body is coplanar and concurrent, as in the light suspended from the ceiling by two wires shown in Fig. 1-4, Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4 reduce to BR =0 Bh =0 a6 ther types of force systems exist forproblems encountered inthe study of mechan- ics of materials. Students should not try to memorize the equations of equilibrium that apply for each ofthe various force systems. Rather, Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4 should be reduced to equations appropriate for the particular problem at hand. This witl be illustrated in the example problems presented at the end of this section,7 igure 1-4 Note from previous discussions thatthe equations of equilibrium are applied to. system of forces. The system of forces may act on a single body or ona system of connected bodies. A free-body diagram is a carefully prepared drawing that shows a “body of interest” separated from all other interacting bodies and that shows all external forces, both known and unknown, tha are applied to the body. ‘The word “free” in the name “free-body diagram” emphas.zes the idea that all bodies exerting forces on the body of interest are removed cr withdrawn and are replaced by the forces that they exert. At each position on the free-body diagram ‘where other bodies have been removed, the equal magnitude, opposite direction pairs of forces have been broken, and the forces which act on te free-body diagram ‘must be shown. These forces may be either surface forces or body forces, or both. ‘An important body force is the gravitational attraction of the earth, that is, the ‘weight of the body. ‘The following examples illustrate the use of free-body diagrams together with the equations of equilibrium to determine unknown forces acting on rigid bodies. The importance of drawing a correct free-body diagram cannot be overem- phasized. The free-body diagram clearly establishes which body or portion of the body is being studied. A correct free-body diagram clearly identifies all forces (both known and unknown) that must be included in the equations of equilibrium. ‘The methods commonly used to find the unknown forces which act on rigid bodies ‘must be thoroughly mastered, since these methods, as well as an extension of these methods to deformable bodies, are used throughout this book. Example Problem 1-1 Therigid structure shovnin Fig. 1-Saissub- jected to a5000-Ib force P. The connections a joints A, B, and C are frictionless pins. Determine the forces at A and B on member AB. SOLUTION We first draw a free-body diagram of member AB, as shown 1n Fig, 1-5b. Member ABs “freed” from interacting bodies: the bracket and pin at A and member BC. At the places where AB is separated from interacting bodies, we show external forces acting on 4B. Since member BC is a straight two-forze member, the force T must lie along the member. The force at pin 4 has an unkaown magnitude and direction. We show this force as two components, A, and 4,, where the directions hhave been assumed. The weight of member AB is assumed to be small compared to the applied force P and is not shown on the free-body diagram. The free-body diagram contains three unknowns, 4,, 4,, and 7. These unknowns, together with 1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 5.6 querer 1 > Point A was chosen fr the moment equa- ‘ion since two of the unknown forces A, and Ay) intersect at point A, Therefore, the mo- ‘ment equation relative to point 4 contains only one unknown (F) and can be solved immediately forthe value of T. Two of the unknown forces also intersect at points B (forces 4, and 7) and C (forces 4, and 7), and these would also be good points to use forthe moment equation INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS a 5000 tb o Figure 1-5 the 5000-Ib applied load, constitute a coplanar, nonconcurrent force system. The equations of equilibrium 1-3 and 1-4 for this system of forces reduce to Br 0 @ 0 = =F=0 =, where EM, = O has been replaced with 3M, = 0 (point isthe intersection of thez-axis and the planc of the two-dimensional structure), Point A was selected for the moment equatior; any other point on or off body 4B could have been selected, ‘There is no particular order in which we write the equations of equilibrium; ‘mathematical convenience usually dictates the order. In tis example, we use the order given in Eq. (c). 45ER=0 AT costs? =0 o +4 BF, Ay + T sin 45°—5000 = 0 © +1EMy (T'sin 45°(4) ~ 500044) = 0 @ Equation (d) is solved for 7, which is then substituted into Eqs. (6) and (¢) to find the components of the pin forces at 4. The results are Ay = 590016 A, = 0.04795 1b T = 7071Ib @1.8 PQUILIBRUM OFA RIGID BODY 7 Before proceeding further, we examine the results. Why were the forees writen ‘with the number of significant figures shown in Eq, (c)? For example, consider the solution of Eq, (d) wn “Although results should always be reported as accurately as possible, the numbers to the tight ofthe decimal point in Eq. (f) have meaning only if the original data (dimensions and applied load) are known to the same relative accuracy as the solution forthe force 7. One ofthe tasks in all engineering work isto determine the accuracy of the given data and the expected accuracy of the final answer. Results should always reflect the accuracy of the given dat. Itis not possible, however, for students to examine or question the accuracy of the given data in a textbook. It is also impractical in an introductory course to give error bounds on every number. Therefore, since an accuracy greater than about 0.2 percent is seldom possible for practical engineering problems, all given data in Example Problems and Homework Problems, regardless of the number of figures shown, will be assumed sufficiently accurate to justify rounding off the final answer to approximately this degree of accuracy (three to four significant figures). One commonly used rounding scheme uses the leading digitto determine how many significant figures to keep inthe final answer. Ihe first nonzero digit of the result is a 1, then the answer is reported with four significant figures, otherwise the answer is reported with three significant figures (Of course, all intermediate steps in the solution must maintain more sig- nificant figures than are used to represent the final results so as to reduce the effect of roundoff errors on the final results. Using the value of T from Eq. (f) in Eq. (c) would yield 4, =0 instead of the value shown in Ea, (¢). The point of this discussion is: Don't report final results with more accuracy than is justified by the data and don't round off numbers too much too soon. For this example problem, then, the answer is 5000 tb, Ans. A feama eee Example Problem 1-2 A 900-kg mass is supported by a roller that ao ‘can move along a beam, as shown in Fig. 1-6a. The beam is supported by a pin atd and a roller at B. (a) Neglect the mass of the beam and determine the reactions at 4 and B. (©) Ifthe mass of the beam is 8.5 kg/m, determine the reactions at A and B. soo, fe SOLUTION The beam can be modeled as a rigid member with frictionless pin and roller supporsat 4 and B.A free-body diagram forthe beams corstructedby “freeing” the beam from ts supports tA and Band from the roller that supports the 900-kg Figure 1a) ny ox chown iy 1-65. © (@) As in Example Problem I-1, the components 4, and A, ofthe pin reaction at A are shown, Rollers exert forces on the beam that are perpendicular to the8 current «anes nl Ay acres : as > The maximum difference in the results from parts (a) and (b) is less than 10 percent. Jn many problems in engineering, we ne- sllect the weight of members as being small ‘when compared tothe applied loads. As you gain experience in solving problems, you will beable to judge when you can safely ne- slectand when you must include the weights ‘of members of a structure or machine. Of ‘course, if you have any doubts, the safest ‘approach isto include these weights. INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS bbeam. The masses of the bar and roller connecting the 900-kg mass to the ‘beam are neglected. The force F in Fig. 1-Gb isthe weight of the 900-kg mass, F = mg = 8829 N. There are three unknown forces (4, 4y, and 8) shown ‘on the free-body diagram (Fig. 1-65) for the beam. The three equations of equilibrium available to solve for the unknowns are EF, =0 Ehyp=0 IMe +5 BF =0: As +1 BF =0 Ay + B 8829 =0 +4 EMy=0. BB) — 8829(3) = 0 Solving for 4, and B gives Ay=5518N B ‘Thus, the reactions at supports A and B are Ap=0N dy =5520N B= 3310N Ans, (b) For a beam mass of 8.5 kg/m, the uniformly distributed force on the beam resulting from its weight is w = mg = (8.5)(9.81) = 83.39 Nim. A free-body diagram for this beam is shown in Fig. 1-6c. In the equilibrium equations, the distributed force is statically equivalent to a single force whose magni- ‘ude is equal to the area under the load diagram (the area of a rectangle, 8m x 83.39 Nim = 667.1 N) and which acts through the centroid ofthe load diagram (wiich is 4 m to the right of 4). The free-body diagram of Fig. I-64 and the equations of equilibrium give FER <0 A=0 +7 ER, =0 4, +B —8829-8(83.39)=0 LEM, =O: BR) ~ 8829(3) — 8(83.39\4) = 0 Solving gives Ay =5852N BB =3644N ‘Thus, the reactions at 4 and B are Ap=0N 4y=5850N B= 3640N Ans. | Problem 1-3 The truss shown in Fig. 1-7a supports one side of a bridge; an identical truss supports the other side. Floor beams carry ‘ehiele loads tothe truss joints. A 3400-Ib car is stopped on the bridge. Assume that the weight of thecarisevenly distributed among the wheels and thatthe centerof gravity of the car is 16 ft from support 4, Calculate the support reactions and the forces in members BD, DE, and CE of the truss. BEAKER 168 f aS a— Figure 1-1(a) SOLUTION ‘We model an actual truss by making four assumptions: 1. Truss members are connectod only at their ends. 2, Truss members are connected by frictionless pins 3. The truss is loaded only at the joints 4, The weights of the members may be neglected. ‘These assumptions are idealizations of actual structures, but real trusses behave according to the idealizations to a high degree of approximation, As a result of the assumptions, each member of a truss is a two-foree member. Since truss members are also usually straight, the force is along the member, and a member is subjected to either tension or compression ‘According to assumption 3, we must proportion the weight ofthe car be- tween the joints of the truss. Half of the car’s weight, 3400/2 = 17001, is carried by the truss shown and the other hal is carried by the truss on the other side of the bridge. Since the weight is evenly distributed to each wheel and the center of gravity of the car is midway between A and C, 8501b will be applied to joint 4 and 850 Ib will be applied to joint C. A free-body diagram of the entire truss is, shown in Fig, 1-76. The equations of equilibrium yield +> BF, =0: Ap=0 +7 EK, =0: Ay + E850 ~850=0 +4 EM, =0: E(64) — 850(32) = 50 1b Figure 1-7(b) 1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 910 current > ByNowton’s third law (action-reacton), a force that points away from (pulls on) joint also points away from (pulls on) a mem- ber, That is, the corresponding member is in tension. [fall member forces are shown in tension (pointing away from the joints) ‘on free-body diagrams, then a positive sign fora force will indicate thatthe correspond ‘ng member is in tension (as assumed on the frve-body diagram), while a negative sign fora force will indicate thatthe correspond- ing member isin compression, INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS Thus, the support reactions are 4,=0lb 4y=1275b E = 4251b Ans. ‘The forces in the various members of the truss can be found using either the method of joints or the method of seetions. We choose the method of joints to calculate the forces in members CE and DE. A free-body diagram of pin E is shown in Fig. I-7e, The force system is concurrent, and there are two equations of equilibrium Tce — Toe cos =0 E+ Tye sin = 425 + Tye sin6 =0 Figure 1-76) ‘Since @ = tan“!(16/19) = 40.10", the forces in members CE and DE are Tor =-659.8lb Tee = $04.7 Ib ‘The minus sign for Tye indicates that the ditection of the force on Fig, 1-7c should be reversed. Figure I-Td shows the correct directions for Tee and Ta, along with the directions ofthe forces in members CE and DE. Clearly, member CEB is in tension (7) and member DE is in compression (C). The final results are Tce =5051b(T) Tog = 660 Ib(C) Ans. 660 b SS a 660 05 b 425 5th ® Figure 1-7(@) The force in member BD could be found using the method of joints (joint D) since Te is now known. However, as a review of the method of sections, we select this method to calculate Tap. We “section” through members BD, BC, and AC and draw the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1-7e. The force system is1-3 BQUIMIBRIUM OF ARIGID BODY 11 wae 8300 25% © Figure 1-76) coplanar and noncurrent, and there ae three equations of equilibrium. Summing ‘moments about point C eliminates all unknowns except the desired foree in BD. +4 EMc =0: Tap(16) + 425(32) = 0 850 Ib. = 850 Ib (C) Ans. Tao i Example Problem 1-4 A bag of potatoes is sitting onthe chair of 8a. The force exeried by the potatoes on the frame ct one side of the chair is equivalent to horizontal and vertical forces of 24 N and 84 N, respectively, at and a force of 28 N perpendicular to member BH at G (as shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 1-8b). Find the forces acting on member B/. am ‘The equations of equilibrium for the entire chair (Fig. 1-8b) are so Enee n-theao 20 ER =0 A4-W-msn0=0 titan 02@9-0309-044+ (03+ 25)ane012. GIAPTER 1 IYTRODUCTION AND REVIEW oF srarics ie] LA: Tt 5 @ e 016677 "01333 m o Figure 1-9 where 9 = tan“'()4) = 30.96". The first equation is satisfied identically. The remaining two equations give A=BRIN 8B =2458N Next the chairs disassembled and free-body diagrams are drawn for each part (Fig. 1-9). For member DF, the equilibrium equations can be writen D.-F,+24=0 Fy +Dy~84=0 0.4(84) - 0.5F, Dy F.-24N Now the equations of equilibrium for member BH are +7 EF =O Fr, +C,—28 cos 6 =0 cvsmee (0342!) an sanncus +0.1667(67.2) — 0.2777, Which have only three unknowns remaining and can be solved to get F,=1S1N C,=-91.0N 7.0 N1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF ARIGID BODY 13 ‘Then the forces acting on member BH are F = 115.1 1-672 5N Ans. plus the applied force of 28 N perpendicular to the bar at G. These forces are shown on the “report diagram” of Fig. 1-10. ‘The “report diagram,” though not necessary, may be wsed to check the results, For example, =28 cos 30.96° + 115.1 — 91.0 = 0.08925 = 0 real —28 sin 30,96° — 67.2 + 57.04 24.6 = —4.307 x 10? = 0 Figure 140 +bEMp =0: 28(0.3) +57.0(0.1667) — 91.0(0.2777) + 24.6(0.3) =00112=0 ‘The force and moment equations of equilibrium do not exactly equate to zero due to roundoff error. i ~ Example Problem 1-5 The weight of books on a shelf bracket is equivalent to a vertical force of 751b as shown on Fig. 1-Ia. All members are made of 195-T6 cast aluminum, and all pins have '-in. diameters. Determine all Cy) forces acting on all three members of this frame. SOLUTION First draw the free-body diagram of the entire shelf bracket as in Fig. 1-115. Here the “body of interest” is the frame ABC. The pins at 4, B, and C remain attached to the frame, and thus the forces that would result from removal of the pins are not shown on the free-body diagram, The bracket at 4 has been removed from the frame, and the forces thatthe bracket exerts at are shown as A, and A, (directions assumed). Similarly, the rocker at C has been removed, and the force ofthe rocker on the frame is shown as C. The equations of equilibrium are 7b © +4 EM, =0. 5C-8(75)=0 Figare 1-11 +5 ER =0 ActC=0 +4 EF, =0% A,-75=0 Tae ‘which are solved to get the support reactions Ar 5.01b C= 120.01 Ans. 120.0 1b a ce cee are mil eee ean eee ‘thus the forces in these members must act along the members. Pin A connects a be Figure 1-12(a)14 ciIAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW oF staTICs © Figure 1-12(b,¢) support and two members, Since member AC isatwo-force member, pin d will be leftattached to member AB. The forces that acton pin A are the support reactions. Az and A, and a vertical force due to the two-force member AC. Similarly, pin B connects two menbers, one of which is a two-force member. Therefore, pin Bis left attached to member 4B, and the only force on pin B is along the two- foroe member BC. Pin C connects a support and two members. Since both of the members are two-force members, pn C is arbitrarily left attached to member BC, ‘and thus the force on pin C due to member AC is vertical. Then the equations of ‘equilibrium can be written for member AB (Fig. 1-126) $LEMp =O 4(15)+ 127 ye — 12(75.0) =0 +h EM, =0 12 (is) B] — 8(75) = from which ~~ | t i 2 «1 @ | | ci mop ep Itis easily verified that these values also satisfy the equations of equilibrium for the other free-body diagrams. These forces areal shown on the “report diagrams” of Fig. 1-13,i Example Problem 1-6 Determine the reacten at suppor 4 of the pipe system shown in Fig. 1-14a. The 200-N force is parallelto the z-axis. Neglect the weights of the pipe and the wrench, ‘ 200N Figure 1-14(a) SOLUTION ‘A free-body diagram of the pipe system is shown in Fig. 1-145. The support at A is modeled as a rigid support that does not translate or rotate. There are three forces Ay, Ay, and A, to prevent translation and three couples M,, M,, and M. to provent rotation. Couple My lies in the yz-plane, couple M, lies inthe xz-plane, and couple M. lies in the xy-plane, Since there are six equations of equilibrium for a three-dimensional force system, all six unknowns can be found, Using Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4 yields A=0 4y=0 A, ~200=0 ‘Mg ~ 200(0.350 + 0,230) = 0 ‘My ~ 200(0.180) = M,=0 Figure 1-14(b) 1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID Bopy 15 > The summation Ey isthe net tendency ‘of all forees and moments to rotate the pipe about the x-axis through point 4. For the 200-N force, this is just the magnitude of the force times the perpendicular distance ‘between the line of action of the foree and the x-axis through point 4. For amore com plicated force system, the tendency to rotate the body about the x-axis would be com- puted using the s-component of the veetor product r x F.16 (HAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS ‘Thus, the reaction at Ais 4, =0N 4, =0N A; = 200 Ans. M,=1160N-m My =360N-m — M,=0N-m Ans, Since all the reactions are positive, they actin the directions shown on the free- body diagram of Fig. 1-14. i Example Problem 1-7 A 1000s losd is securely fastened to a hoisting cable as shown in Fig. 1-15a. The tension in the flexible cable does not ‘change as it passes eround the small frictionless pulley atthe right support. The ‘weight ofthe cable may be neglected. Plot the tensions in the two cables (Tan and P) as a function of the sag distance d (0 < d = 10), Determine the minimum sag d for which P is tess than (a) Twice the weigh: of the load. (b) Four times the weight of the load. (©) Eight times the weight of the load. ® Figure 1-15(a) SOLUTION ‘The ring B holds the wires together, and it will be isolated to generate the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1-15b. The tension forces in the cables and the \weight of the load are concurrent at the ring B. Writing the x- and y-components of the equilibrium equation for the free-body diagram of Fig. 1-15b results in 4 BR =0: +t BR, Tye 008 8c — Tap C08 04 =0 @ Tap sin 84 + Tre sin 8c — 1000 = 0 @) Solving Eq. (a) for Tap gives Ta = oO1-3 BQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 17 and substituting Eq, (c) into Eq. (6) gives sin Oc 003 64 +sin 4 cos Be Tac = 008 84 a 2 Before we can solve Eq. (d) for Tc, we need to know how the angles 0c and @, are related to the sag distance d. From the geomet-y of the triangles in Me The Fig. I-15c t , Be © cot» Al that remains is to choose some values for d and to solve Egs. (c)-(e) for the tensions, For example, when d = 6 ft, Eqs. (e) give 04 = sin = 36,8699" 4 = 10.c0836.8699° = sft b=30-8=228 8 at 5 15.2551" ee ‘Then, Eqs. (d) and (c) give 1013.49 Ib 222,22 Ib Tae Tan where Tac = P because the tension in the hoisting cable dees not change as the cable goes around the small pulley. Figure I-15d shows the results of repeating this process for various values of the sag distance d and graphing the results Resultant force Cable force (kip) Sop, a (8) © Figure 1-15(@)18 cHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS: When d = 108, the load hangs directly below the support A, cable AB carries the entire loed, and the hoisting cable is slack, P = Ob. As the load is raised (d gets smaller, the force in both cables increases. Atd = 3.28 ft, the force in the hoisting cable is twice the load; at d = 1.66, the force in the hoisting cable is four times the load; and at d = 0.833 ft, the force in the hoisting cable is eight times the weight of the load being lifted. As d goes to zero, the forces in the two cables both go to infinity. Bhnosuens Introductory Problems 1-3. An $00-Ib homogeneous cylinder is supported by two rollers, as shown in Fig. PI-3. Determine the forces exerted by the Lie pec lg a 204 obit 5 oma in Fig. PLL. uso tm eins Al ses st ues) Determine the force Tin the biceps muscle and the force F of the humerus agains the ulna, in terms ofthe weight W of the forearm, which acts through G. For the positon shown, both T and P act vertically. Figure PI-3 1-4* A curved slender bar is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. PI-4. Determine the reactions at supports and B. Figure Pi-t 1.2% A worker is using a hoist and cable to lift a 175-kg engine from a car as shown in Fig. PI-2. Determine the forces inthe three cables attached tothe ring. Figure Pit 1-5 _A curved slender bar is loaded and supported as shown in Fig, PI-5, Determine the reaction at suppor a 250 se Figure Pz reer1-3 EQUIMIBRIUM OF ARIGID Bopy 19 1-6 Determine the forces in members BC, CD, and DE of the truss shown in Fig. PI-6. 10kN ISkN Figure PI-6 Figure P18 1-7* ‘The lawn mower shown in Fig. PI-7 weighs 35 b. Deter- mine the force P required to move the mower at a constant velocity andthe forees exerted on the front and rear wheels by the inclined surface, 1-9* Determine te forces in members CD, CF, and FG of the bridge truss shown in Fig, PI-9. 10 kip 20 kip Figure P1-7 1.40" The coal wagon shown in Fig. P1-10 is used to haul coal from a mine. fhe mass of the coal and wagon is 2000 kg, de- 1-8 A human femur is modeled as shown in Fig. P1-8. The ab- actin mel fre is M = 4090N, andthe femoral ned is 3210N. Determine the force P and the couple €. termine the force P required to move the wagon at a constant velocity and the forces exerted on the front and rear wheels by the inclined surface.20 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS 1-13 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. PI-13. Determine the reactions at supports A and B. 001 800% 7901 4001 res eee Figure P1-13 1-11 30-1 foree P is applied tothe brake pedal of an automo- bile as shown in Fig. PI-11, Determine the force Q applied to the brake cylinder and the reation at support 1-14 Pulleys A and 2 of the chain hoist shown in Fig. PI-14 are ‘connected and rotate as a unit, The chain is continuous, and ‘each ofthe pulleys contains slots that prevent the chain from slipping. Determine the force F required tohold a 450-kg block Ww in equilibrium ifthe radi of pulleys A and B are 90 mm and 100 mm, respectively. Figure Pi-at 1-12" A beam is loaded and supported as show in Fig. PI-12 Detesmine the reaction at support ; aan Figure PL-14 1-45* A bracket of negligible weight is used to support the dis- tributed load shown in Fig. PI-15. Determine the reactions at Figure Pt-12 the supports A and B. Ty1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF ARIGID Bopy 21 148* A pairof vise grip pliersis shown in Fig. PI-18, Determine the force F exerted on the block by the jaws of the pliers when force P = 1001 is applied tothe handles. Figure PI-15 1-16 The wood plane shown in Fig. PI-16 moves with a constant, velocity when subjected tothe forces shown, Determine Figure P1-18 2, The shearing force of the wood on the plane. », The normal fore, and its locaton, ofthe wood on the plane 1-19 ‘The Gambrel truss shown in Fig. P1-19 supports one side ‘ofa bridge: an identical truss supports the other side, Floor ee ew =— bbeams carry vehicle loads to the truss joints. Calculate the forces in members BC, BG, and CG when a truck weighing Bye Bil6, ‘75001 is stopped in the middle of the bridge as shown. The center of gravity of the truck is midway between the front and Intermediate Problems rear wheels. 1-17" Forces of 25 lb are applied to the handles ofthe pipe pliers, shown in Fig. PI-17. Determine the force exerted on the pipe at D and the force exerted on handle DAB by the pin at sa an “ L 5t-+—108 1on—tsa Figure P1-17222 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS 1-20* A transmission line truss supports a 5-KN load, as shown, in Fig. PI-20, Determine the forces in members FG and CD. Specs ay Figure PI-22 1-23° The wrecker truck of Fig. PI-23 has. a weight of 15,000 1b 4 Z anda center of grevityatG. The free exerted onthe rear (drive) ‘wheels by the ground consists of both a normal component el and a tangential component B, while the free exerted onthe aaa fout wheels consists ofa normal force 4, ony. Determine the ‘maximum pull P that the wrecker can exert when 0 = 30° if 3B, cannot exceed 0.88, (because of fition considerations) land the wrecker does not tip over backwards (the font wheels 1.21 Three smooth homogeneous cylinders A, B, and C are remain in contact with the ground) stacked ina V-shaped trough as shown in Fig, PL-21. Cylin decd weighs 1001b; cylinders B and C each weigh 2001b, All ‘linders have a5-in diameter. Determine the minimum angle for equilibrium. Figure PI-20 Figure PI-23, 1-24 A drum of il with amass of 200 kg is supported by apair of frames (the second frame is behind the one shown) as shown in Fig, P1-24, Determine all forces acting on member ACE. Figure P12 1-22 The mass of block 4 in Fig. P1-22 is 250 kg. Block 4 is Supported by a small wheel that is free to roll on the continu~ us cable between supports Band C. The length of the cable is 42 m, Determine the distance x and the tension 7 in the cable hen the system is in equilibrium. Figure PI-241-3. EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 23 41-25 The hot.ir balloon shown in Fig. PI-25 is tethered with 17 A force of 201 is required to pull the stopper DE in ‘thice mooring cables. Ifthe net lift of the balloon is 900 1b, Fig, P1-27. Determine all forces acting on member BCD. ‘determine the force exerted onthe balloon by each ofthe three cables. Figure P27 1-28. The front-wheel suspension of an automobile is shown in I-28. The pavement exerts a vertical force of 2700 on the tire. Determine the force inthe spring and the forces at 4, Band D. 1-26 A 100-kg traffic ight is supported by a system of cables as shoun in Fig. P1-26. Determine the tensions in each of the three cables. Figure P1-26 Figure P1-2824 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS 41-29 Determine all forces acting on member ABCD ofthe frame of Fig. PI-29. Figure PL-31 aie 1-32* The homogencous door shown in Fig. P1-32 has a mass (oF 6 kg and is held inthe positon show by te rod 4B. The tod sel in place by smooth horizontal pin at and 8. The Tings at Can Dae smoot, andthe hinge tC can suppor thrust along is avs Determine all forces that at on th doo: Figure P1-29 1-30. The lat roof of a building is supported by a series of parallel plane trusses spaced 2 m apart (only one such truss is shown in Fig PI-30), Calculate the forces in all the members of atypical truss whon water collects toa depth of 0.2 m as shown. The density of water is 1000 kg/m’ Figure P1-32 Figure P1-30 1-31 Two bodies Mand ¥7; weighing 200 1b and 150 1b, respec tively est on a cylinder and are connected by arope as shown, in Fig. PI-31. Ifall surfaces are smooth, determine 1-33 A farmer is using the hand winch shown in Fig. P1-33 to slowly raise a 40-Ib bucket of water from a well. Inthe posi tion shown, force P is vertical. The bearings at C and D exert 1. The reactions ofthe cylinder on the bodies. ‘only force reactions on the shaft. Bearing C can support thrust b, The tension in the rope. loading; bearing D cannot, Determine the magnitude of force ©, The angle 8. and the components of the bearing reactions.1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF ARIGID Boy 25 Figure P1-33 1-34* A scissors jack for an automobile is shown in Fig. PL-34, Figure PISS ‘The sotew threads exert a force F on the blocks at joints 4 and B. Determine the force P exerted on the automobile if F = 1-36 A frame is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. PI-36 ‘800N and 9 = 15°, Repeat for # = 30° and @ = 45°. : . Determine the reactions at supports 4 and C and all forces acting on member ADE. Figure P1-34 Figure P1-36 137 Forces of SDIb are applied to the handles ofthe bolt cutter 1-38* ‘The fold-down char of Fig PI-35 weighs 25 Ib and has its ee center of gravity at G. Determine all fores acting on member a. All forces acting on the handle ABC. ABC. bs The fore exerted on the bolt at E,26. ciAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS 500 Lin sig 72% Fucus | P = so Figure PI-37, Challenging Problems 1.38 The garage door ABCD shown in Fig. P1-38 is being raised by a cable DE. The one-piece door is a homogeneous rectan- gular slab wich has a mass of 100 kg, Fritionless rollers B ‘and C rum in tracks at each side of the door as shown. Deter- mine the tension Tin the cable andthe forces B and C on the fitionless rollers when d = 1.875 m. Figure PL-38, 1-39* ‘The crane and boom shown in Fig. PL-39 weigh 12,000 Ib ‘and 600{b, respectively. When the boom is in the position shown, determine ‘8 The maximum load that cam be lifted by the erane ‘The tension in the cable used to rise and lower the boom hen the load being lifted is 36001. ©. The pin reaction at boom support A when the load being lifted is 36001. Figure P1-39 1-40 Figure P1-40 isa simplified sketch of the mechanism used to raise the bucket of a bulldoze. The bucket and its contents ‘weigh 10 KN and have a center of gravity at. Arm ABCD has a weight of 2 KN and a center of gravity at B; arm DEFG has a weight of 1 KN and a center of gravity at £. The weight ‘of the hydraulic cylinders can be ignored. Calculate the foree inthe horizontal eylinders G/ and £Y and all forces acting on arm DEFG for the position shown. Figure PI-40 1-41 The mechanism of Fig. PI-41 is designed to keep its load level while raising it. A pin on the rim of the 4-ftdiameter pulley fits in a slot on arm ABC, Arms ABC and DE are each 4 ftlong, and the package being lifted weighs 80[b. The mech- anism is raised by pulling on the rope that is wrapped around the pulley. Determine the force P applied to the rope and all forces acting on the arm ABC when the package has been lifted 4 ft, as shown.Figure PI-41 1-42* Bar AB of Fig. PI-42 has 2 uniform cross section, « mass of 25 kg, and a lengih of 1 m. Determine the angle @ for equilibrium, Figure PL-42 1-43 The homogeneous door shown in Fig. PI-43 has a mass of 25 kg and is supported in @ horizontal position by two hinges and a bar. The hinges have been properly aligned; therefore, they exert only foree reactions on the door. Assume that the hinge at B resists any force along the axis of the hinge pins. Determine the reactions at supports 4, B, and D. Figure P1-43 1.3. EQUILIBRIUM OF ARIGID Bopy 27 ‘Computer Problems 1-44 A pair of steel pipes is sticked in a box as shown in Fig PI-44. The masses and diameters of the smooth pipes are sma = Skg, ma = 20 kg, dy = 100 mm, and dy = 200 mm, Plot the two forees exerted on pipe (by pipe B and bythe side wall) as function of the distance b between the walls of the box (200mm = = 300mm). Determine the range of B for which 1, The force a the side walls less than J, the weight of pipe 4. b. Neither ofthe two forces exceeds 2, ©. Neither ofthe two forces exceeds 4M, Figure P44 145 A worker positions 2 250-Ib erate by pulling on the rope BD tas shown in Fig. PI-45. The 3-ft long rope BD is horizontal (6 =0) when the ft long rope AB is vertical (6 = 0), 44. What is the maximum distance yyy that the erate can be pulled to the side using this arrangement? ', Calculate and plot the forces in ropes 4B and BD asa fane- tion ofthe distance A for 0 ER =o Az —T cos (45 + 0/2) = 6 @ + PER, =0: Ay +7 sin (45 +62)-W =0 o IT sin (45 + 6/2)14 c0s 4) -[T cos (45 + 9/2))(4 sin 8) © =W (4089) =0 Using the trigonometric relation sin (A ~ B) = sin A cos B — cos Asin 332 GHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS Figure 1-16(0) Eq, (¢) may be written AT sin (45 — 62) — AW cos 0 =0 © Equations (@), (8) and (c) contain fourunknowns A.,4y, 7, and. Thus, there are four unknowns and three equations of equilibrium. We need an additional independent equation to solve the problem. The equations of equilibrium (a), (©), and (6) are necessary for equilibrium, but they are not sufficient to solve the problem. The additional equation comes from the relationship between the force in the wire and the deformation of the wire, Such a relationship will be developed in Chapte: 4; we merely state the result here to complete this example. Figure 1-16(0)1-4 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE Bopy 33 ‘The force-deformation relation depends on the type of material from which the wire is made, and the relationship may be linear or nonlinear. Herein we limit bur discussion to a linear relationship between force and deformation. Thus, we assume the behavior shown in Fig. 1-16d rah @) where k is a material constant (the slope of a T—3 curve) that depends on the type of material from which the wire is made, For the wire, Ly = VA) + (A) = 5.6578 = 67.88in. Since 5 = Ly — L, = Ly — 67.88 in., we need to determine the deformed length of the wire in order to find 7. Using Fig. 1-165 and the law of cosines, 18)? + (48)? — 2)(48)(48) cos (90° + 0) from which Ly = 61.887 + sin in. The deformation 5 of the wire is baLy-Ly 7.889/T + sin 8 — 67.88 = 67.88[/T-F sind — Ii. ‘The relationship between the applied load and the deformation of the structure is found by substituting Ba (e) nto Eq (d). The results ten used in Eq, (c)t0 sive o 67.88 k (T+ sin — 1) sin (45 — 9/2) = cos 8 ” Ifk~ 5000 Ib/n., then Eq. (f) gives 6 = 2.465°; Eq. (c) gives T=7221 1b Ans. Equation (a) gives 4, = 4995 Ib, and Eq, (b) gives 4, = —215 Ib. This compares to the solution of Example Problem 1-1 (in which this stucture was assumed to be rigid), which had T' = 7071 Ib, A; = 5000 b, and Ay = Ob. For this very stiff wie, the sag ofthe beam (@ = 2.465*) would barely be noticeable and the error in the value of T' from treating the structure as rigid would be only about, 2 percent If k = 2500 Ibn, then Eq, (f) gives # = 5.097; Be. (gives T=7379lb Ans. Equation (a) gives 4, = 4890 Ib; and Eq. (6) gives 4, If = 1000 Ibjin, then Eq, (f) gives 0 = 14.246°; Eq, (c) gives, T = 7893 Ib Ans. @ Figure 1-16(@) > In Chapter 3 it willbe shown thatthe constant af proportionality k= “4 where isthe modulus of elasticity of the material and L and A are the length and the coss- sectional aes ofthe wir. Fora tel wire + in. in diameter, k= $420 bn, o fora sos) tie rod in in diameter, & = 21,6901bin, litl-erorisintroducedty tating the stuc- tureas rigid. For an aluminum ally wire V8 in indiameter, however, k= 1808 bin, and te ero introduce by treating the stroctare asrgidisabout6 percent Formore“stretch- able” support materials, the error would be ‘even greater34 GAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS Equation (a) gives 4, = 4846 Ib, and Eq, (6) gives 4, = —12301b. For this less stiff wire, the sag ofthe beam is definitely noticeable and the error in the value of 7 from treating th structure as rigid would be over 10 percent. ‘The process illustrated in this example is typical of the solution of de- ‘formable body problems. Regardless of the type of structure or machine compo- nent or the type of loading, the solution process generally consists ofthese three steps 1, Equations of equi ibrium, (a), (b), and (c) 2, Force-deformation relationship, Eq. (d) 43. Geometry of deformation, Eq. (€) Since the equations of equilibrium must be applied to the forces acting on the deformed structure, the three sets of equations are often interdependent. It is, this interdependence that makes the solution of deformable body problems more ‘complex than the sokution of rigid-body problems. 1-5 INTERNAL FORCES Inthe study of mecharics of materials, itis necessary that we examine the internal forces that exist throughout the interior ofa body. We consider an arbitrary body in 5 ‘equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 1-17a. The forces F, F2, Fs, Fs, and Fs are applied Joads and support reactions (found using the equations of equilibrium). We pass A an imaginary “cutting plane” a-a (henceforth called a section) through the body, part A (Fig. 1-176) we note that, in addition to the applied forces F, and F2, the ‘material of part B exerts forces on the material of part A over the section. These wit forces ar internal he body a a whole tae external for pat A. The frees on the section are distributed over the surface in an unknown fashion. However, F @ ‘we can replace the distributed force system by a resultant force R and a resultant oy couple C. In general, the couple C depends on where we place the force R. In a mechanics of materials we place R at the centroid C of the section, as shown in : Fig. I-17c. We use a éouble arrowhead to distinguish the couple C (vector) from \ es teary rag enimeae dea ee Ae ( R statically equivalent tothe force system R and C of Fig. -17e. The force system R \ and C will be referredto as an internal force system. We recognize that the internal Z force system depends on the orientation of the section. 2 Instead of part 4, we could have considered part B, as shown in Fig. 1-17. fs By applying Newton’ third law to every pair of particles on the section for parts @ A and B of the body, we have thatthe distributed force systems over the section of fe parts d and B are equel in magnitude but opposite in sense, and thus the resultant, e force R and the resutant couple C on the two parts of the body are equal in ‘magnitude but opposie in sense. Because the body as a whole is in equilibrium, any portion of the body is also in equilibrium. Thus, using the equations of equilibrium and the force system showin in Fig. 1-17, @ a EF=00 Fi +h +R Figure 1-17 EMc=t | M; +M:+C=0where My and My are the moments of forces F and Fa, respectively, about the ‘centroid ofthe section, We would find the same result using the free-body diagram of part B shown in Fig. 1-17d. Thus, we find the resultant of the internal force aystem using the equations of equilibrium. However, we cannot find the exact distribution ofthe internal forces until we learn how to deternine the deformation of the body. Experience indicates that materials behave differently to forces trying to pull atoms apart than to forces trying to slide atoms past each other. Therefore, it is standard practice to resolve the resultants R and C into components along and perpendicular to the section, as shown in Fig. 1-18, For convenience we select an :92-coordinate system in which x is perpendicular to the section and y and = lie in the section, The component of R which is perpendicular to the section, Ry, is called 2 normal force; this force tends either to pull the bod apart orto compress the body (Fig. 1-18a). The symbol Ps often used to denote the normal foree. The components of R that lie inthe section are called shear forces; these forces tend to slide part of the body relative to part. The symbol V is often used to denote shear forces; hence, the forces J and ¥, in Fig. 1-180 ‘The component T'of couple C shown in Fig. 1-186 tends to twist the body and is called a twisting couple (or twisting moment, or torque). The components ‘M, and M, tend to bend the body and are called bending couples (or bending moments). Throughout this book we will examine the effects on a deformable ‘body of the components of R and C. ‘The section shown in Figs. 1-18a and b is called a postive section sinee the ‘outward normal to the section points in a postive coordinate direction. The section shown in Figs. 1-18¢ and dis called a negative section since the outward normal to the seetion points in a negative coordinate direction. A resultant force or couple component is defined as postive ifthe component is ina positive coordinate direction when acting on a positive section. Thus, all of the force and couple components shown in Figs. 1-18a and b are positive. Ifthe internal forces exerted on part 4 of the body by part B are called positive, then the ‘other half ofthe internal forces (exerted on part B of the bedy by part A) should also be called positive. Therefore, a force or couple component will also be defined as positive if the component is in the negative coordinate cirection when acting ‘on a negative section. Hence, all ofthe force and moment components shown in Figs. I-18e and d are also positive. The components ofthe internal force system canbe found using the equations of equilibrium (Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4). ce) (4) ‘The equations of equilibrium should be applied to the body (or portion of the body) in its deformed state. However, as we saw in Exaruple Problem 1-8, the support reactions (or, inthis ease internal forces) cannot be found until we know the relationship between the forces applied to the body and the deformation of the body. As we shall see in later chapters of this book, we can determine support reactions and internal forces using the undeformed configuration of a body. We accept this statement for now and illustrate the determination of internal forces ‘with the following examples, 1-5. INTERNAL FORCES 35, Figure 1 @36 cuAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS Figure 1-19(b) o i Example Problem 1-9 A post and bracket are used to support a pulley, as shown in Fig. 1-19a, A cable passing over the pulley supports a 2200- 1N force. Determine the internal forces on a section at the support at 4, Figure 1-19(a) SOLUTION ‘A section (perpendicular tothe post) is passed through the post at the support at A.A firee-body diagram of the part of the structure above the section is shown in ig 1-19b, The y2-coordinate axes were arbitrarily selected, but the origin ofthe coordinate system isat the centroid of the section. Coordinate xis perpendicular to the section, whereas coordinates y and z lie in the section. Thus, the section con which the force and couple components act isa positive section, and the force and couple components shown in Figure 1-19b are positive. The couples 7, M, and M, are represented by curved arrows instead of vectors, as was done in Fig, 1-186. The twisting couple T (torque) lies in the yz-plane; the bending. couples M, and M, lie in the x2- and xy-planes, respectively. The equations of equilibrium (Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4) yield +2200 =0 = ¥, 200 =0 T ~2200(0.300) = 0 M, ~2200(0.500) ‘M, ~ 2200(0.300) = 0 Solving for the intemal force system gives P=-2000N = 0N V, = 2200N Ans. T=660N-m My=1100N-m — M, = 660N-m Ans.‘The negative sign for P indicates that the force is opposite to that shown in Fig. 1-19, therefore, P is a compressive force. i Example Problem 1-10 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. 1-200 js subjected to both concentrated and distributed loads. Determine (a) the support reactions and (b) the internal forces on a section 4 m to the right of the support at i si , a I Figure 1-20(a) SOLUTION (@) A fiee-body diagram of the complete beam is shown in Fig. 1-208. The support at A does not translate or rotate; thus, forces 4, and A, and couple ‘Mg may exist, The distributed load has been replaced 3y its resultant, R = ‘wi = 2kNim(5 m) = 1OKN, acting 2.5 m tothe right of . The equations of equilibrium give +5 BR =0: Ap=0 +P ER 0: 4y-10-S=0 +SEMy ‘M4 ~ 1002.5) = 5G) =0 Figure 1-20(b) Solving gives the support reactions 4, =0KN dy =15.00KN My =40.0EN-m Ans. 1-5 INTERNAL FoRcES 3738 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS > The internal foree system acting on the pportion of the beam to the right of the section is equal in magnitude and opposite in sense tothe internal force system acting, ‘onthe portion of the beam tothe left of the section. Either portion ofthe beam can be used to determine the internal force system, Using te le portion of the beam, however, required that we frst determine the forces ‘and moments exerted on the bear by the ‘wall. Generally speaking the portion which is acted on by the fewest applied forces will be the easiest to use. (©) A vertical seoticn is passed through the beam 4 m tothe right of 4. A free- ‘body diagram of the part of the beam to the left of the section is shown in Fig. 1-20c. The section as well as the force and couple components shown, in Fig. 1-20e ate positive. The distributed load is shown to illustrate that the forces acting on that part ofthe beam must be shown on the free-body diagram. The 10-KN resultant force on the free-body diagram of Fig. 1-20 ‘cannot be used for the free-body diagram of the part of the beam shown in Fig. 1-20c, The free-body diagram of Fig. 1-20c is redrawn in Fig. 1-20d, where the distributed load on this part ofthe beam has been replaced by its resultant, The equations of equilibrium give +7ER=0 P=0 4+tEF,=0 1500-8-5+%,=0 +L EM, = 0; 40.0 15.0004) + 8(2) + 5(1) + site | TT 0 00m 15.00 Figure 1-20(0) ‘The internal forzes on the section are P=OKN Vy =~2.00kN LO00KN-m Ans. ‘The negative signs indicate that the directions of shear force Fj and bending couple M. are epposite to those shown in Fig. 1-20d. Figure 1-20(@) ‘Amore convcnient way to solve part (b) is to use the free-body diagram of Fig. 1-206, which stows the part ofthe beam tothe right ofthe section (a negative section forthe positve coordinate axes shown in Fig, 1-20d). The distributed load for this part ofthe beam has been replaced by its resultant; we note thatthe 5-KN concentrated load is not shown on the free-body diagram as it does not act on1-5 INTERNAL ORES 39 this part ofthe beam. Consistent with Newton's third law, the internal forces and ‘moments in Fig. 1-20¢ are opposite in sense to the internal forces and moments in Fig. 1-20d. The forces P and ¥, as well as the moment M. in Fig, 1-20e are 2a positive for this negative seetion. The equations of equilibrium give +> ER =0: -P=0 Gal 5 Gs +P ER =0 -Vy-2=0 Cans +bEM, = 0: =M, =208) =0 24 ‘The internal forces on the section are aN | Peo ypecaony meta teen fee which are the same as the previously calculated internal forees. The internal ” forces are shown in Fig. 1-20/. Figure 1-20(e, 1) i Example Problem 1-11 A bag of potatoes is sitting on the chair in Fig. 1-21a, The force exerted by the potatoes on the frame atone side of the chair is equivalent to horizontal and vertical forces of 24 N and 84 N, respectively, at E and force of 28 N perpendicular to member BH at G. Determine the internal forces on a section perpendicular to and midway between pins D and F. am 27 "02 m"02m © Figure 1-21(a) usiw oun SOLUTION ‘The forces acting on member DEF were found in Example Problem 1-4 and are oN scary shown in Fig. 1-21. A section is passed midway between D and F. A free-body ® diagram of the portion of the member to the right of the section is shown in Figure 1-21(b)40 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW oF STATICS Fig. 1-21c. Positive axes and internal forces are shown on te fiee-body diagram. ‘The equations of equilibrium yield $eERH6 P-91.1=0 @ V, — 16.80 =0 @) Mz + 16.80(0.25) = © M, e * OLIN vyf02s m 1680) , o Figure 1-21(@) The internal forces on the section are P=9LIN %y=1680N M,=—420N-m Ans. Students are encoureged to solve the problem using a free-body diagram of a portion of the member to the left of the section. T PROBLEMS Introductory Problems 1-84" ‘Three forces are applied along the centerline of a steel ‘bar as shown in Fig, PI-S4, Determine the internal forces on transverse cross sections in intervals AB, BC, and CD of the bar, SON Figure PI-S4 1-S5* A human femur is modeled in Fig. P1-SS. The abductor ‘muscle force is M = 90b, andthe femoral oad is J = 120 Ib. Determine the internal forces on section 2-2 Figure P1-554-56 The man shown in Fig, PI-S6 has « mass of 75 kg; the ‘beam has a mass of 40 kg. The beam is in equilibrium with the ‘man standing atthe end and polling on the cable. Determine the internal forees on a section perpendicular to and midway between a. A and B. b Band. Figure P1-S6 1-87* Determine the internal forces on section a-a in the angle brackot shown in Fig. PI-S7 Figure P1-S7 1-88 Determine the internal forces acting atthe centroid of sec- tion 4-A ofthe C-clamp shown in Fig, PI-S8. The force P has ‘a magnitude of 2000 N. 1-5 INTERNALFoRCES 41 15 mm 25mm =z Section AA Figure P18 Intermediate Problems 1-59* Four sets of flexible cables, spaced at 120° intervals, are used.to stabilize 2 400-ft communications tower. The tower and ‘one cable from each set are shown in Fig. PL-59. The weight of the tower is 40 b/R, and the communications equipment atthe top weighs 2000 Ib. Determine the axial forces (normal forces acting along the centerline) on transverse cross sections at points A, B, C, and D ofthe tower. Figure P1-59 1-60* Determine the internal fores acting on section a-ain the ‘bar rack show in Fig. P1-60 iFeach bar has a mass of 50 kg,42 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS: 100m Figure P1-60 1-61 "The reaction between a crutch and the ground! is 3516, as ‘shown in Fig. PI-61. Determine the internal forces aeting on 200mm 125 mm 2700 Figure P1-62 1-63 A pin-connected system of levers and bars is used asatoggle fora press as shown in Fig. P1-63. Three members are joined by pin D, as shown in the inset. Determine the internal forces ‘on a section perpendicular to and midway between D and E when P= 10001. igure PI-61 1-62. The front-wheel suspension of an automobile is shown in, Fig. P1-62. The pavement exerts a vertical force of 2700 N on the tie. Determine the internal forces on a section perpendic- ular to and midvay between Cand D. Figure P1-63 Challenging Problems 1-64* A stecl shaft 120 mm in diameter is supported in flexible bearings at its ends. Two pulleys, each 500 mm in diameter, are keyed tothe shat. The pulleys carry belts that produce the {orces shown in Fig. P1-64. Determine the intemal forces on & vertical setion through point1-5 INTERNAL FORCES 43 SkN Figure P1-64 Figure P1-66 1-65* A dovice for lifting rectangular objects such as bricks and ‘conerete blocks isshown in Fig. PI-65. The coefficients offric- 1-67 Determine the internal forces on section a-a of the pipe tion at all vertical contact surfaces are 4, = 0.4 and jy = 03. system shown in Fig. PI-67. ‘The deviee is to lift two blocks, each weighing 15 Ib. Deter- mine the internal forees on 2 vertical section 4 in tothe left of pin B. Figure P1-67 1-68" Determine the internal forces on section aa in bar ABC. ‘of the three-bar frame shown in Fig. PI-68, Figure P1-65 1-66 An automobile engine with a mass of 360 kg is supported by ‘anengine hoist, as shown in Fig.P1-66. Determine the internal forces on section a-a. Figure P1-6844 GIAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS Computer Problems 1-69 ‘The hook shown in Fig. P1-69 supports a 10-kip load. Plot 'P, Vand M, the internal forces and moment transmitted by 2 seetion ofthe hook, as function ofthe angles (0° <6 < 150°) Figure PL-69 1-70 Forees of 100 N are being applied tthe handles ofthe vise stip pliers shown in Fig. P1-70. Plot P, Vand A, the internal forces and momeat transmitted by section a-a of the handle, 5 function of the distance d (20 mm expected accuracy of the final answer. Results should always reflect the accurary of the given data Al data in Example Problems and Homework Problems will be assumed sufi ciently accurate to justify rounding of the final answer to three or four significant figures. REVIEW PROBLEMS = 45 1 REVIEW PROBLEMS 1.73* The collar A shown in Fig, P1-73 is fiee to slide on the smooth rod BC. Determine the fores exerted on the collar by the cable and by the od when the force F = 900 is applied to the collar. Figure P1-73 F~9001b4G cuUAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS, 1-74* A 500-kg mass is supported by a four-bar truss as shown in Fig, PI-74, Determine the foree in each member ofthe truss. Figure PI-74 1-78 Theelectric motor shown in Fig. PI-75 weighs 25 bs Due to fiition between the belt and pulley, the belt forees have mag Tb, Determine the support Figure PI-75, -16* Determine the force P required to push the 135-kg cylinder ‘over the small block shown in Fig. PI-T6. Figure PI-76 1-77 For the beam shown in Fig, PI-17, determine 1. The reactions at supports and B. 'b The internal forees on a transverse cross section 10 lt the right of support. 3000 Ib soon | meee (UTM. ae a Figure P1-77 1-78 The jaws and bolts of the wood clamp in Fig. PI-78 are parallel. The bolts passthrough swivel mounts so that no mo- ‘ments act on them. The clamp exert forces of 300 N on each side of the board. Treat the forces on the boards as uniformly distributed over the contact areas and determine the forees in ‘each of the bolts, Show on a sketch all forces acting on the upper jaw ofthe elamp, Figure P1-78 1-79* A three-bar frames loaded and supported as shown in Fig. I-79. Determine the internal forces transmitted by 2, Section a-a in bar BEF ', Seotion b-b in bar ABCD. uw 1 FiREVIEW PROBLEMS 47 1-80 Forces of 5 N are applied to the handles ofthe paper punch 1-83. "The clamp of Fig, P1-83 is used to hold two boards. Ifthe ‘of Fig. PI-80, Determine the force exerted on the paper at D clamping force is 300 Ib, determine te internal forces on sec~ and the force exerted on the pin at B by handle ABC. tion ana SN Figure P1-80 1-81" A shaftis loaded through 2 pulley and a lever (Fig. PI-81) ‘that are fixed tothe shaft, Friction between the belt and pulley preventsslipping ofthe belt. Determine the force P required for ‘equilibrium and the reactions at supports A and B. The support at A isa ball bearing, and the support at isa thrust bearing ‘The bearings exert only force reactions on the shat S00 Figure P18 1-84. Two bars, a pulley, and a cable are used to support block, as shown in Fig PI-84. The two bars have negligible weight. ‘The mass ofthe pulley is 50 kg, and the mass of the block is 100 kg. Determine the internal forces on cross section a-a in bar 4B, Figure P1-81 1-82" The masses of cartons 1, 2, and 3, which rest on the plat form shown in Fig. P1-82, are 300 kg, 100 kg, and 200 ky, respectively. The mass of the platform is 500 kg. Determine 300mm the tensions in the three eables 4, B, and C that support the platform. 300: p 300mm Lh 330mm} 300mm 300 mam Figure P1-82 Figure P1-84Chapter 2 Analysis of Stress: Concepts and Definitions 2-1 INTRODUCTION Application of the equations of equilibrium is usually just the first step in the s0- lution of engineering problems. Using these equations, an engineer can determine the forces exerted ot a structure by its supports, the forces on bolts and rivets that connect parts of a machine, or the internal forces in cables or rods that either support the structure or are a part ofthe structure. A second and equally important step is determining the internal effect of the forces on the structure or machine. It is important, therefore, that all engineers understand the behavior of materials under the action of ferces Safety and ecoromy ina design are two considerations for which an engineer must accept responsiblity. He or she must be able to calculate the intensity of the internal forces to witch each part of a machine or structure is subjected and the deformation that each part experiences during the performance of its intended function. Then, by knowing the properties of the material from which the parts will be made, the engineer establishes the most effective size and shape of the individual parts and the appropriate means of connecting them. In every subject area there are certain fundamental concepts of paramount importance to a satisfactory comprehension of the subject matter. For the subject ‘mechanics of materials, a thorough mastery of the physical significance of stress and strain is paramount. The discussion of stress will be undertaken frst; the study of strain will be taken up in Chapter 3. 2-2 NORMAL STRESS UNDER AXIAL LOADING In the simplest qualitative terms, stress is the intensity of force. A body must be able to withstand the intensity of an internal force; if not, the body may rupture or deform excessively. Force intensity (stress) is force divided by the area over which a? the force is distributed. Thus, Force Se ness = “Area @) The forces shown in Fig. 2-1 are collinear with the centroidal axis of the eyebar P and produce a tensile loading of the bar. These forees are called axial forces. igure 2-1 When the eyebar is cut by a transverse plane, such as plane a-a of Fig. 2-1, a 482-3 SHEARING smiess rv connecTios 49. {ee-body diagram ofthe bottom half ofthe bar can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2-2. Fr Equilibrium of this portion of the bar is obtained with a distribution of internal force that develops on the exposed cross section. This distribution of internal force tus a resultant F that is normal to the exposed surface, is equal in magnitude to P, and has a line of action that is collinear with the line of action of P. An average oo {intensity of internal force, which is also known as the average normal stress og ion the cross section, can be computed as F om = 5 (22) where F is the magnitude of the internal force F and 4 is the cross-sectional area of the eyebar. P ‘The Greek letter sigma (7) is used to denote a normal stress in this Book. Figure 2-2 [A positive sign is used to indicate a tensile normal stress (member in tension), and a negative sign is used to indicate a compressive normel stress (member in compression). Ths sign convention is independent of the seletion of a coordinate system. Consider now a small area A on the exposed cross section ofthe bar and ar let AF represent the magnitude of the resultant of the internal forces transmitted by this small area, as shown in Fig. 2-3, The average intensity of internal force being transmitted by area A is obtained by dividing AF by Ad. Ifthe internal forces transmitted across the section are assumed to be continuously distributed, the area A can be made smaller and smaller and will approach a point on the exposed surface in the limit. The corresponding force AF ako becomes smaller and smaller The sttess atthe point on the cross section to which A converges is defined as ar a aBaa ey tn genera, the sess & ata given pont on a transvese cross section of an axially loaded bar will not be the same as the average stress computed by dividing the force F by the cross-scctional area A. For long, slender, axially loaded members such as those found in trues and similar structures, however, i is generally assumed tht the normal stresses are uniformly dsibuted except inthe ‘icnity ofthe poins of aplication of the leads, The subject f nonuniform sues distributions under axial loading wil be ciscussed ina ater chaper of his book Figure 2-3 2.3. SHEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS Loads applied to a structure or machine are generally transmitted to the individual members through connections which use rivets, bolts, pins, nails, or welds. Inall of these connections, one of the most significant stresses induced is a shearing stress. ‘The bolted and pinned connection shown in Fig. 2-4 willbe used to introduce the concept ofa shearing stress. ‘The method by which loads are transferred from one member of the con- nection to another is by means ofa distribution of (internal) shearing foree on a transverse cross section of the bolt or pin used to effect the connection. A fiee-body diagram of the left member of the connection of Fig. 2-4 is shown in50 CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS : © Figure 2-5 24 ee a (i al aval Figure 246 22 23 igure 2-4 Fig, 2-5. In this diagram, a transverse cut has been made through the bolt, and the lower portion ofthe boltremains in contact with the let member, The distribution of shearing force on the transverse cross section of the bolt has been replaced by a resultant shear force Y. Since only one cross section of the bolt is used to effect Joad transfer between the members, the bots said to be in single shear; therefore, equilibrium requires that the resultant shear force V equal the applied load P. A. free-body diagram fo the threaded eyebar atthe right end of the connection of Fig. 2-4 is shown in Fig. 2-6, In this diagram, two transverse cuts have been made through the bolt, and the middle portion ofthe bolt remains in contact with the ceyebar. In this case, two transverse cross sections of the pin are used to effect load transfer between members of the connection and the pin is said to be in double shear. AS a result, equilibrium requires that the resultant shear force 7” on each ‘ross section ofthe pin equals one-half of the applied load P. From the defirtion of stress given by Eq. 2-1, an average shearing stress ‘on the transverse cross section of the bolt or pin can be computed as r ee) t= ) where Vis the magnitude ofthe shear force V and A isthe cross-sectional area of the bolt or pin, “The Greck letter tau (+) is used to denote shearing stress in this book. A sign convention for shearing stress is presented ina later section of the book. “The stress ata Foint on the transverse cross section of the bolt or pin can be obtained by using the same type of limit process that was used to obtain Eq. 2-3 for the normal stress a a point. Thus, tim 2” asvBA @5) Unlike the normal stress in long, slender members, it can be shown that the shear stress 7 caanot be uniformly distributed over the area. Therefore, the actual shear stress at eny particular point and the maximum shear stress on a cross section will generally be different from the average shear stress calculated using Eq. 2-4. However, the design of simple connections is usually based on average stress considerations and this procedure is followed in this book. Another type of shear loading is termed punching shear. Examples of this type of loading include the action of a punch in forming rivet holes in a metal plate, the tendency of building columns to punch through footings, and the tendency of 2 tens Und the oft exte 2-4 Boar nor from thes the y inter of th wer Bear pins dive ote