The Digestive System Functions
- Serves as a passageway for air and food
1. Ingestion—taking in food
2. Digestion—breaking food down both
physically and chemically
3. Absorption—movement of nutrients into the
bloodstream
4. Defecation—rids the body of indigestible
waste
Organs of the Digestive System
• Two main groups of organs
Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract)—
continuous coiled hollow tube
o These organs ingest, digest, absorb,
defecate
Accessory digestive organs
o Includes teeth, tongue, and other large
digestive organs
Organs of the Alimentary Canal
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus
MOUTH (ORAL CAVITY) ANATOMY:
• Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
• Cheeks—form the lateral walls
• Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
• Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
• Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
• Vestibule—space between lips externally
and teeth and gums internally
• Oral cavity proper—area contained by the
teeth
• Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and
styloid processes of the skull, and by the
lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
TONSILS
• Palatine—located at posterior end of oral
cavity
• Lingual—located at the base of the tongue.
PHARYNX PHYSIOLOGY
- Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
muscle layers
- Longitudinal inner layer
- Circular outer layer
- Food movement is by alternating
contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)
ESOPHAGUS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• Anatomy
• About 10 inches long
• Runs from pharynx to stomach
through the diaphragm
• Physiology
• Conducts food by peristalsis (slow
rhythmic squeezing)
• Passageway for food only
(respiratory system branches off
after the pharynx)
Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs
• Mucosa
• Innermost, moist membrane
consisting of Surface epithelium
• Small amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria)
• Small smooth muscle layer
• Lines the cavity (known as the
lumen)
• Submucosa
• Just beneath the mucosa
• Soft connective tissue with blood
vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-
associated lymphoid tissue, and
lymphatics
• Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
• Inner circular layer
• Outer longitudinal layer
• Serosa—outermost layer of the wall
contains fluid-producing cells
• Visceral peritoneum—outermost
layer that is continuous with the
innermost layer
• Parietal peritoneum—innermost
layer that lines the abdominopelvic
cavity
 Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
- Two important nerve plexuses serve the
alimentary canal
- Both are part of the autonomic nervous
system
• Submucosal nerve plexus
• Myenteric nerve plexus
Function is to regulate mobility and secretory
activity of the GI tract organs
STOMACH ANATOMY
• Located on the left side of the abdominal
cavity
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Food empties into the small intestine at the
pyloric sphincter (valve)
Regions of the stomach
• Cardiac region—near the heart
• Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the
cardiac region
• Body—midportion
• Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
• Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa
• Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon)
of food when full
• External regions
• Lesser curvature—concave medial surface
• Greater curvature—convex lateral surface
STOMACH PHYSIOLOGY
• Temporary storage tank for food
• Site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small
intestine
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
Mucosa is simple columnar epithelium
• Mucous neck cells—produce a sticky alkaline
mucus
• Gastric glands—situated in gastric pits and
secrete gastric juice
• Chief cells—produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)
• Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
• Enteroendocrine cells—produce gastrin
 SMALL INTESTINE
• The body’s major digestive organ
• Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
• Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter
to the ileocecal valve
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by
the mesentery
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
• Duodenum
- Attached to the stomach
- Curves around the head of the pancreas
• Jejunum
- Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
• Ileum
- Extends from jejunum to large intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
- Chemical digestion begins in the small intestine
- Enzymes are produced by
• Intestinal cells
• Pancreas
- Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes to the
small intestine
- Bile, formed by the liver, enters via the
bile duct
SMALL INTESTINE ANATOMY
• Three structural modifications that increase surface
area
- Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma
membrane (create a brush border
appearance)
- Villi—fingerlike structures formed by the
mucosa
- Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep
folds of mucosa and submucosa

LARGE INTESTINE
• Larger in diameter, but shorter in length, than the
small intestine
• Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
• Subdivisions:
- Cecum
- Appendix
- Colon
- Rectum
- Anal canal
 LARGE INTESTINE ANATOMY
o Cecum—saclike first part of the large intestine
o Appendix
• Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
• Hangs from the cecum
o Colon
• Ascending—travels up right side of abdomen
• Transverse—travels across the abdominal cavity
• Descending—travels down the left side
• Sigmoid—S-shaped region; enters the pelvis
o Rectum and anus also are located in the pelvis
o Anus—opening of the large intestine
• External anal sphincter—formed by skeletal muscle and under voluntary control
• Internal involuntary sphincter—formed by smooth muscle
• These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
- No villi present
- Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the passage of feces
- Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle called teniae coli
- These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs)
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
1. Teeth
2. Salivary glands
3. Pancreas
4. Liver
5. Gallbladder
TEETH
- Function is to masticate (chew) food
- Humans have two sets of teeth
1. Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth
• A baby has 20 teeth by age two
• First teeth to appear are the lower central incisors
2. Permanent teeth
• Replace deciduous teeth between the ages of 6 and 12
• A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth (third molars)
• If they do emerge, the wisdom teeth appear between ages of 17 and 25
Classification of Teeth
 Incisors—cutting
 Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
 Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
 Molars—grinding
Regions of a Tooth
CROWN—exposed part
• Enamel—hardest substance in the body
• Dentin—found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth
• Pulp cavity—contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers
• Root canal—where the pulp cavity extends into the root
NECK
• Region in contact with the gum
• Connects crown to root
ROOT
• Cementum—covers outer surface and attaches the tooth to the periodontal membrane
SALIVARY GLANDS
- Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
• Parotid glands
• Found anterior to the ears
• Submandibular glands
• Sublingual glands
• Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty saliva into the floor of the mouth
through small ducts
SALIVA
- Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
- Helps to form a food bolus
- Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
- Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
 PANCREAS
• Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
o Its location is retroperitoneal
• Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach
Hormones produced by the pancreas
• Insulin
• Glucagon

LIVER
• Largest gland in the body
• Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
• Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
• Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct
- Produced by cells in the liver
• Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct
Function—emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat globules into smaller ones

GALLBLADDER
• Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
• When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
• When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is introduced into the duodenum from the gallbladder
- Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can cause blockages
 FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. INGESTION—placing food into the mouth
2. PROPULSION—moving foods from one region of the digestive system to another
• Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeezes food along the GI tract
• Segmentation—moving materials back and forth to aid with mixing in the small intestine
• Food breakdown as mechanical digestion
• Examples:
• Mixing food in the mouth by the tongue
• Churning food in the stomach
• Segmentation in the small intestine
• Mechanical digestion prepares food for further degradation by enzymes
• Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks
• Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
• Proteins are broken to amino acids
• Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
3. ABSORPTION
• End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
• Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph capillaries
4. DEFECATION
• Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces
CONTROL OF DIGESTIVE ACTIVITY
2. Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic division
3. Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in organ walls that trigger reflexes
Stimuli include
• Stretch of the organ
• pH of the contents
• Presence of breakdown products
Reflexes include
• Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
• Smooth muscle activity
DIGESTIVE ACTIVITIES OF THE MOUTH
Mechanical breakdown
• Food is physically broken down by chewing
Chemical digestion
• Food is mixed with saliva
• Starch is broken down into maltose by salivary amylase
ACTIVITIES OF THE PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS
- These organs have no digestive function
- Serve as passageways to the stomach
 Deglutition (Swallowing)
Buccal phase
• Voluntary
• Occurs in the mouth
• Food is formed into a bolus
• The bolus is forced into the pharynx
by the tongue
Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
• Involuntary transport of the bolus
• All passageways except to the
stomach are blocked
• Tongue blocks off the mouth
• Soft palate (uvula) blocks the
nasopharynx
• Epiglottis blocks the larynx
• Peristalsis moves the bolus toward
the stomach
• The cardioesophageal sphincter is
opened when food presses against it
DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
• Enzymes from the brush border function
to Break double sugars into simple sugars
• Complete some protein digestion
• Pancreatic enzymes play the major
digestive function
• Help complete digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase)
• Carry out about half of all protein
digestion
• Digest fats using lipases from the pancreas
• Digest nucleic acids using nucleases
• Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme
REGULATION OF PANCREATIC JUICE
SECRETION
• Release of pancreatic juice into the
duodenum is stimulated by
a. Vagus nerve
b. Local hormones
c. Secretin
d. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Hormones travel the blood to stimulate
the pancreas to release enzyme- and
bicarbonate-rich product
• Secretin causes the liver to increase bile
output
• CCK causes the gallbladder to release
stored bile
• Bile is necessary for fat absorption and
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (K, D, A)
ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
• Water is absorbed along the length of the
small intestine
• End products of digestion
• Most substances are absorbed by
active transport through cell
membranes
• Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
• Substances are transported to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein or lymph
• Propulsion in the Small Intestine
• Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
• Segmental movements
• Mix chyme with digestive juices
• Aid in propelling food
FOOD BREAKDOWN AND ABSORPTION IN THE
LARGE INTESTINE
• No digestive enzymes are produced
• Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
• Produce some vitamin K and B
• Release gases
• Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
• Remaining materials are eliminated via feces.
• Feces contains
a. Undigested food residues
b. Mucus
c. Bacteria
d. Water
PROPULSION IN THE LARGE INTESTINE
• Sluggish peristalsis
• Mass movements
• Slow, powerful movements
• Occur three to four times per day
• Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defecation reflex
• Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
• Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal sphincter
Nutrition
• Nutrient—substance used by the body for
growth, maintenance, and repair
• Major nutrients
a. Carbohydrates
b. Lipids
c. Proteins
d. Water
• Minor nutrients
e. Vitamins, Mineral.
f. Minerals