Possessive adjectives and it isn't. ws \ mine! A. Here is a lst of possessive adjectives and pronouns: — / Subject | Possessive adjective | “ Possessive pronouns jt drove my car to London. This car is mine. [mine = my car} You — should do | your work Is this book yours? (yours = your book) | He took | is grtiend co dee The red jacket is his. (his = his jacket) She took | her boytriend ta the cinema. | The blue jacket is hers. (hers = her jacket) The dog ate | its dinner ’ | We ate | our breakfast | The money is ours (ours = our money) | You should aif do | your homework ‘Ave those bags yours? (yours = your bags} They met | their friend The black cat is theirs. (theirs = their cat} | * tus cannos be used! as 9 pronoun We use possessive adjectives befare nouns. We use possessive pronouns without @ noun. B, Possessive adjectives. We use @ possessive which agrees with the possessor not with the thing which is possessed. If something belongs to ~ a girl or woman, we say her: This is Mary. Thomas is her husband. ~ a boy or man, we say his: This is John. Susan is his daughter bwo or more people, we say their: Here are Tom and Maggie. This is their flat. C. We often use possessive adjectives with parts of the body, clothes ete. He cleaned his teeth. (Not: #e-toath) J brushed my hair (Not: she-taie) He raised his hand. (Not. shefrare] He took off his jacket. (Not: she-jackes) D. We use a possessive adjective hefore own to say that something is only mine/yours ete. She has a house of her own. (only hers} The boss lent me his own car. (his private car) E. Possessive Pronouns. We use mine, yours, his, hers, etc, when we don't want to repeat a noun Ive got my umbrella. Have you got yours? Not: Have you got yourumbratia? Her car is newer than mine. Not: Her car is newer than myp-see, F. We tise Yours when we end a formal letter. (see Appendix 13) if the fetter begins Dear Sir/Madam, it usually ends Yours faithfully, If the fetter begins Dear + personal name, it usually ends Yours sincerely, G. We can say a friend/some friends of mine/of yours /of his etc. I saw one of your friends.» I saw a friend of yours. We met some of her teachers. » We met some teachers of hers H. Remember that its and it’s are different in meaning its = of it I dropped the cup and broke its handle. it's = itis k's raining Look at the dog. It's eating its dinner. or = ithas The dog isn't hungry. It’s already eaten its dinner. Their, there and they're are also different in meaning Their = of them/there = opposite of here/they're = they are @nit Ck ssessive ’s i May A. We use 's to shaw that something belongs to somebody Maggie is writing with Tom's pen. (=the pen of Tom) Tom is using Meggie’s camputer. (= the computer of Maggie] We use 's with people, animals, organisations, time words, churches, offices and shops: Me Johnson's house Sheila's birthday Nato’s space programme a day's work St. John’s Church Romano's pizzeria the President's palace the dog's dinner the butcher's But not usually with things: the wing of the aeroplane (Not: the-seaoplane's wing) the back of the car (Not: she-sanie-boot!] the end of the film (Not: she-tinss-end) the bottom af the river (Not: she-riverie testo) B. if we have a plural noun ending in -s, we add an apostrophe ('] only: | stayed at my parents’ house, [= the house of my parents) She took her sisters’ photo, (= a photo of her sisters ~ more than one sister) oe ey » Wry oF S yl my brother's dog (the dog belongs to 1 brother) my brothers’ dog (the dog belongs to 2 brothers) But we add ‘s to an irregular plural: the chifdren's toys the women's clothes ©. We can use Whose...? to ask a question about the owner of an object (see Unit 58): Whose car is this? Whose books are these? Whose photo is this? Ifthe mesning is clear, we can use just 's without 8 noun Whose car is this? It's Bob's. (not necessary: ... Bob's car} Jim's haircut is better than Tom's. (not necessary: ... Tom's haircut) is this Sue's cat?” “No, it’s vJill's He stayed at his parents’. (= his parents’ home) 1D. Sometimes, we need to use a double possessive, For example: This is the car of the sister of John. = This is John’s sister's car. I met the friends of the brothers of Tim, = | met Tim's brothers’ friends. When twa or more people own the same thing we add 's only to the final name: John and Jane's car. (Not: debn's-and-dane's-cam) But: John’s and Jane’s bicycles. (They both have a bicycle) omUnit CZ> Some, any, no ‘There were some difficult questions. He didn’t answer any questions. He got ne marks. A. We use some (positive) or any (with negative verbs and questions) or no (= not) with plural nouns: met some friends yesterday. — Have you got any friends? Ben doesn't have any friends. = Ben has no friends. (Not: Berhasrt-ne-feionde.) B. We also use some, any and no with uncountable nouns: Vd fike some information. They havent: got any information. = They've got no information. Have you got any information about the city? €. We use any in questions: Did you meet any famous people? Have you got any sugar? But we usually use some in questions if: 1. we are offering something Would you like some biscuits? Do you want some advice? 2. we are asking for something: Can you give me some tickets, please. Can you lend me some money, Dad? 3. we expect the answer yes: Did you buy some tickets? (1 expect that you bought some) Is there some bread in the kitchen? (I expect that the bread is there) D. We can use some and any without a noun if the meaning is clear He didn't give any sweets to Jenny but he gave me some. (= some sweets) Ive taken some photos but Tim hasn't taken any. (= any photos) But remember: no is always followed by @ noun. E. We can use any in positive sentences when any means thet it doesn't matter which. For example: Visit me at any time. (= the time is not important, you can come in the marning or afternoon or evening etc.) J will marry any of the girls. {= [will marry Tina or Julie or Betty etc.) Choose any number* between 1 and 7. (= Choose 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6 or 7.) * Notice: in this meaning we can use any + singular noun. F. If we want to talk about the remaining quantity of something, we use some left, any left, none left There's some soup left. Do you want some more? Is thore any coffee laft? Sorry, there's none left. (= we've drunk all the coffee)Unit > Something, anything, nothing etc. ee Something Someboay is happening. ‘A. We often use words beginning some, any: and no- (For things | For peopie | For places ‘something | somebody or* someone | somewhere anything | anybody —or* anyone | anywhere (nothing | nobody or no one | nowhere * These words with -body and -one have the same meaning B. We use the some-words in positive sentences: ‘The robbers | can hear something, (\ don't know exactly what.) are hiding somewhere Somebody/Someone is upstairs. {I don't know who.) He went on holiday somewhere in France. {I don't know exactly where.) ©. We use some-words in questions if we are offering something, asking for something, or we expect the answer yes: Would you like something to eat? Can you suggest somewhere to visit in this town? D. We use the any-words in negative sentences and questions: I can't see anything. Turn on the light! Did you go anywhere last weekend? | didn’t meet anybody/anyone at the disco, E. We can use anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere in positive sentences. In these sentences, we want to say that it doesn't matter which thing or person or place. 1 do anything you want, (= it doesn’t matter which thing} I's easy! Anyone can do it, (- it doesn’t matter which person) J will go anywhere. (& Fil. go to London or New York or Paris or etc.) F. We use the no-words with a positive verb to express negative ideas: Nothing is wrong. Nobody/No one visited her in hospital. We went nowhere last weekend. G. We can use else after someone, anything etc. For example: John was in the park but | saw no one else. (© | saw only John} Would you like anything else? (© something more) The hotel was closed, so we stayed somewhere else, (~ at a different place) H. We can use something, nobody, anywhere etc. with an adjective: | gave her something nice She's done nothing wrong. Have you been anywhere interesting? Did you see anything unusual? |. We can use something, nobody, anywhere etc. + to + verb. I want something to drink. He's got nothing to do,Unit > A lot of, lots of, gy Ho's got alot of money. She hasn't got much money ov got itso fiends, She hasa’e got many fiends. A. We use a lot of with plural and uncountable nouns: Ive got a lot of friends. He drank a lot of water. We can use a lot of in all kinds of sentences: positive, negative and questions: He doesn't eat a lot of vegetables. Did she do a tot of work? B. We can use lots of in informal situations: I've got lots of friends. Are there lots of discos? ©. We normally prefer to use much and many in negative sentences and questions: We use much with uncountable nouns: Does he know much English? He didn't give me much food. We use many with plural nouns: Have you got many friends? —_—| haven't seen many films. D. We can use many in positive sentences but in informal spoken English we prefer to use a lot of /lots of. For example J know a lot of /lots of people. (spoken English) J have visited many countries in Europe. (more formal English) Many people go to university. (more formal English) E. Here is @ summary: - a lot of /lots of much | many | {J plural or uncountable uncountable nouns plural nouns all sentences negative sentences negative sentences and and questions | questions F. We can use a lot and much without a noun at the end of a sentence: J don't go to the cinema much/a lot. Hike England a fot, (Not: Hike-<-4et-Gnglerd) “Do you like her?" "No, not much.” "Did you enjoy the film?" "Yes, a lot/very much.” We use very much in positive (especially with verbs such as like, love, want] and negative sentences (and sometimes questions) Hike England very much. (Not: Hike-veryeueh-Eeglend) | don't like London very much. G. We use How much...? (with uncountable nouns) and How many...? (with plural nauns) to ask questions about quantity How much cheese did you buy? How many biscuits have you eaten? We can use How much...? or How many...? without @ noun if the meaning is clear: How much do you earn? (= How much money...?) “like Russian films.” “How many have you seen?” (= How many films...?) @ | positive sentences (formal)Unit p> A few, a little, few. He has few friends He's got a little money, 80 and little money. he’s going to visit afew friends A. A few/a little have @ positive idea. Few/little have a negative idea: He has a few friends. (some) He often visits them. He has few friends. (net many) —_He is lonely and unhappy. He has a little money. (some) He can buy @ magazine. He has little money. (not much) He can’t buy enough food for himself. B. We use a few/few with plural nouns: J borrowed a few books from the library. There were a few people in the pub Older drivers have few accidents. {= almost no accidents/very few) Few people know about their argument. (= almost no people} C. We use a little /little with uncountable nouns* Late a little bread and drank a little water. They had a little time so they went shopping. He has little money so he has to spend it carefully. (= almost no money/very little money) There is little milk in the fridge. Can you get some more? Here is a summary (a) little much) D. We can use a few and a little in short answers: “Have you seen many plays by Shakespeare?” “Yes, a few.” “Did you buy any cheese?” “Yes, a little.” E. We can use a little with a negative adjective: He is a little sad today. (Not: sitsle-hepey) She is a little stupid. (Not: a-tittlointohigent) * See Appendix 12 for a list of uncountable nouns.Unit 4> Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ‘She has out hes He is looking at himself. A. We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and object are the same person T Example | Tenjoyed* myself at the party. yourself | Please make yourself at home. himself | He cut himself while he was shaving. herselt Sue is talking to herset. | z pi Th dog iar leat | | We ourselves We helped ourselves to the food. | | You (plural) | yourselves | Please serve yourselves | (they themselves | They injured themselves during the match.) + When we use enjoy without a reflexive pranoun, we must use it with an object: He enjoyed the party. B. We use verb + myself, yourself, himself etc, + object when we do something for ourselves: J cooked myself an omelette, = J cooked an omelette for myself. She washed herself an apple. = She washed an apple for herself. C. We use verb + object + myself, yourself, himself etc. when we want to make it clear that another person didn’t do it: | coaked dinner myself. (= My mother/friend etc. didn't cook dinner] He did the homework himself. (= It was his work.) D. We use by + myself, yourself, himself etc. when we do something without help: I cooked dinner by myself. (= without help) or when we are alone: She was sitting by herself. (- alone, with nobody) E, We use the reciprocal pronoun* each other when the action is between two people, not reflexive They kissed each other. He connected the computers to each other. Notice the difference between each other and myself, yourself, himself etc. 41, They love each other. 2. They love themselves. We do not use myself, yourself, himself etc. in these cases: They met each other in the town. Not: They married each other. Not: We do not usually use myself, yourself, himself etc, after verbs like dress, shave, shower, wash in English: He shaves every morning. I shower twice 2 day. * for more than two people, we use one another: The team shaok hands with one another. “mUnit > Each, every, all, both, most, some, none ‘A. We can use each, every, all, both, most, some, none in different sentence patterns: 4. + singular noun: each/every + singular noun + singular verb: Each student sits at a desk. Every classroom has a desk in it Not: Bach Bror-studentom We use each when we are thinking of each person/item individually. We use every when we are thinking of all the people /items together. 2. + of the/these/those /my/your ete. Each of the/None of the/these/my etc. + plural noun + singular verb Each of the classrooms has twenty desks in it None of my friends drinks* beer. None of the students has dene* the homework, * But people often use none + plural verb in informal English, ~ All/Most/Some/None of the/these/my etc. + plural noun + plural verb + uncountable noun + singular verb Alll of the students are coming to the disco. _All/Mest/Some/None of the food is expensive Most of the schools in England are free. ‘None of the advice was useful. None of the students have done the hamewonk. Some of this information is wrong. 3. + plural or uncountable noun: All/Most/Some + plural noun + plural verb/+ uncountable noun + singular verb: All/Most/Some exams are difficult. Most coffee comes from South America We usually use this pattern to make general statements. All fish live in water. (but All the fish in this lake are dead.) All water contains oxygen. (but All the water in this lake is dirty.) 4. + the: All the + plural noun + plural verb/+ uncountable noun + singular verb: We use this pattern to make statements about particular people, things etc. All the teachers are helpful. (8.9, the teachers in this particular school) All the information is correct. (e.g. this particular information) 5. both (pattern 2 or 3 or 4) Both of the sisters are good swimmers. or Both sisters are good swimmers. Both the sentences are correct. B. There are four pronouns which begin every-: everything, everybody, everyone, everywhere Everything* is all right (Remember to use a singular verb.) Everybody/Everyone* likes the maths teacher. We looked everywhere (in all places) but we didn’t find the keys. * In most cases, we cannot use all instead of everything, everybody, everyone Everything's OK (Not: Aiie-DK ) ‘like everybody in the school, (Not: Hike-aie-sheseheot) C. We often use expressions like: every day/every week/every month/every year etc He goes on holiday every summer. @. (Geter boy - Unit > Siva? 7, % \ it Both... and... BQ LY either ... or... - neither... nor A. We use both, either, neither fone ae to talk about two things/people/groups: Both cars are fast. Both films were good. We use either and neither with a singular noun and singular verb because we are talking about one thing/one person/one group of two can use either hand to write. {my left hand or my right hand) Either car is good for driving in the mountains. {= one car or the other car) Neither team is very good. {= not one team, not the other team) We can use neither only with a positive verb J want neither magazine, Not: tdert-went-neither magazine, B We can use both, either, neither + of + the/these/those/my etc. with a plural noun: Both of my cars are expensive. I can't buy either of the houses. Neither of those radios is* cheap. We often use both/either/neither + of + object pronoun (us/you/them etc.) Both of them are expensive. Neither of us has enough money. ©. We use: both X and Y: Both Britain and Japan are islands. either X or Y: | don't play either football or cricket. = neither X nor Y: / play neither football nor cricket. D. Look at these examples of neither.,.nor... with singular and plural verbs: Neither Holland nor Belgium has high mountains. [we use a singular verb ~ we mean not one has and not the other one has) Neither teachers nor students want to work in the hot weather. (we use a plural verb because teachers and students are plural) Neither of the twins has finished the work. E, We can use both, either, neither without a noun when the meaning is clea Would you like tea or orange juice? _'d fike either. (tea or juice) Id like both. (cea and juice) Neither, thank you. I'd prefer coffee. + But in informal English, people often use the plural verb with neither: Neither of those radios are... Neither of us have,VAISS ‘The history teacher lost wes key ring. She found it at the police station. Sometimes a phrase consists of noun + noun: a history teacher = 9 teacher of history the police station = the station of the police The first noun is always singular even if it has a plural meaning because it describes the second noun, like an adjective: @ key ring = a ring for keys |. To form the plural we add -s to the second noun: London has a lot of train stations. She has two table lamps in her bedroom. Not: —tve-tables tame We write some compound words of this kind as one word. For example 2 bookshop a girlfriend a classroom a toothbrush ). Sometimes the finst part of the expression contains @ number. There is always a hyphen () between the number and the first noun: He gave me a five-pound note. but He gave me five pounds. We went for a twenty-kilometre walk. but We walked for twenty kilometres. We had @ two-hour lesson but. The lesson lasted two hours. In the same way, we say: I've got a four-year-old daughter. but My daughter is four years old. She is a Seventeen-year-old singer. but The singer is seventeen years ald. Notice that the naun is always singular. Here are clues to sixteen words. You can make the correct words by combining words from Box 1 with words from Box 2. Write the words in the places on the right-hand side of the page. bed book candle class ear eye finger key life motor night paper sauce sun tocti wind back brows dress glasses guard hole mates nails pan paste ring room screen shelves stick way We clean our teeth with this: toothpaste, We sleep here: We study with these people: ‘We put books on these: We cook vegetables ete. in this: geeneUnit G&> Relative pronouns [lke the teacher who wears glasses. A. We use who or that to refer to @ person /people: I like the teacher. Which teacher? | like the teacher who/that wears glasses. / / \ (person + who/that (= he) + verb etc.) Who and that are relative pronouns. The underlined part of the sentence is a relative clause. B. We use that or which for things or animals*: | always use a computer. The computer is near the window. = | always use the computer that/which is near the window. They rescued the bird. It had a broken wing. = They rescued the bird that/which had a broken wing. * But we sometimes use who for pets or snimals that we love: Thad a pet rabbit wha lived for sixteen years. Do not use which for people: the teacher who... Not: she-seashenwhiat— e We use whose when something belangs to a person, people, countries and organisations: Iwas angry with the man whose dog bit me. That's the boy whose girlfriend hit him. There'll be an election in the country whose president resigned. D. We use where to refer to a place when something happened there: That's the school where | studied last year. ‘She showed me the palace where the king lives. But we use which when it is the subject of the verb: That's the schoo! which won the football cup. That's the palace which burnt down. E. We usually place who, that, which, whose, where directly after the person, thing or place: ‘She studies with the teacher who has a beard. (Relative clause at the end of the sentence) The teacher who has a beard is kind. (Relative clause in the middle of the sentence) Remember: We do not repeat the subject pronoun: Not: Hike-she-ssschenwhete-Unit &> Defining relative clauses without who, which or that T don’t like the dress she’s. wearing. ‘A. These sentences are called defining relative clauses because they define/identify the noun. In defining relative clauses we can use who, that, which, whose and where. | don't lke the teacher who/that has a moustache. | met the gin! whose mother is a frm star. London is a city which/that Ive always wanted to visit. This is the place where we first met. B. We can use who, that or which as the subject of the verb in the relative clause. We usually use that instead of who and which: I like the gir! that works in the restaurant. When who, which or that is the subject of the verb, we must include it: Not: That's the marcald-mashe-car C. We can also use who, that, which as the object of the verb: That's the car which the man sold me. (That's the car. The man sold me the car.) But we normally omit who or which or that when it is the object in a defining relative clause That's the car he sold me. (without which) or That's the car which he sold me. That's the singer Sue likes. (without who) er That's the singer who Sue likes. | don't like the dress Tina is wearing. (without that) or dont like the dress that Tina is wearing D. We can also omit who or which or that when it is the object of a preposition in a defining relative clause: He hit the man. His girlfriend was dancing with him. = He hit the man his girlfriend was dancing with, (without who/that) or He hit the man who/that his girlfriend was dancing with, Here are some mare examples: ike the music you're listening to. (without which /that) The painting you're looking at is by Picasso. (without which/that) Notice: the preposition comes at the end of the relative clause. E. We can use whom instead of who when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause: He is the man whom they arrested. In modern English, we use whom only in very formal English or when there is another who in the sentence: Who spoke to whom? F. In formal English, we can use preposition + which or wham: He bought the bed in which Queen Victoria had slept. (less formal: ...the bed she'd slept in.) He met the man with whom he had argued. (less formal: the man he'd argued with.) @Unit &> Non-defining relative clauses with who, which, whose, wher ‘Tim has got two uncles. Sue has got an uncle. A. Some relative clauses define /identify a person/people/thing/place. We have studied this kind of sentence in Unit 53 Tim says: “My uncle who lives in Sydney visited me.” Ze \ no comma no comma who lives in Sydney. answers the question: “Which uncle?" B. Some relative clauses add extra information Sue says: “My uncle, who lives in Tokyo, visited rme.” Zl \ comma comme who lives in Tokyo... gives us extra information. Sue has only one uncle, so we don't ask ‘Which uncle?" it is non-defining relative clause. Remember: = We do not use that in extra information clauses. ~ We cannot omit who, which, whose, where with extra information relative clauses. = We use commas with extra information relative clauses Here are some more examples: The manager, who speaks French, talked to the tourists. We went to new restaurant, which serves (talian food. The cook, whose food is delicious, is very fat: This garden, where | often sit in the summer, has lots of roses. C. We can use which to refer to a complete idea, not just one noun: | climbed up the mountain at night, which was very exciting. (which « the fact of climbing the mountain at night) She wants to get married to a singer, which makes her parents angry. (which = the fact that she's getting married) @Unit > Grammatical names > Look at these sentences and the grammatical names of different kinds of words. Noun Adverb Article Preposition Adjective Pronoun Verb \ \ \ \ / Ve Sarah looked sadly at the photo of her old boyfriend and she threw it away. Z ys / Loot ZN Verb Prep. Noun Poss. adj, Noun Joining word Pronoun Prep. B. Nouns describe people, animals or things: teacher, friend, cat, eagle, food, chair, oxygen ‘Some nouns describe ideas or events: love, peace, problem, war, party, accident Some nouns are the names of people, films, books, languages, places, organisations etc. and they begin with a capital letter: Sarah, French, London, the Houses of Parliament C. We use pronouns instead of repeating the noun: J, you, he/she/it, we, you, they me, you, him/her/it, us, you, them She (= Sarah) threw it (= the photo} in the rubbish. ‘There are other pronouns. For example: everything, somebody, mine, ours Remember: We always write the pronoun I as a capital letter. D. Verbs describe actions. For example: go, walk, dance, cake, bring, buy, sell They went to the shops and bought some food. Dictionaries give the infinitive form (= basic form! first of the verb: go nat going/goes/went ete. We can use verbs like do, does, is, are, has, have, will to form tenses or question and negative forms. When we use them like this, we call them auxiliary verbs (~ helping verbs): Do you like her? (do = auxiliary verb) They always do the work well. (do = verb) E. Adjectives qualify nouns: old, young, rich, poor, intelligent, stupid, bright, dark, sad, happy The new teacher is young and handsome. (new, young, handsome describe the teacher) Adjectives have one form. There is no special singular or plural form. an old friend or some old friends (Not: elds-feiends) My, your, his, her, its etc. are possessive adjectives. F, Adverbs qualify verbs: happily, sadly, intelligently, stupidly, quickly, slowly, fast She wrote the letter quickly. (quickly (adverb) tells us how she wrote (verb)) G. Prepositions are words like: at, by, for, fram, in, on, to, with, without We use them in front of a noun or a verb + -ing: He ran ta the shop at the corner of the street without. stopping. H. Articles are a, an, the (See Units 35-37), 1. Joining words (also called conjunctions) are words like: and, but, if, when, while, although: We can use them to join two clauses: Sarah took the photo and threw it in the rubbish. aUnit & Word order: subject - verb —- object A. Every complete sentence has @ subject and a main verb except sentences with an imperative verb (see Unit 1}. Many sentences also have an object /complement: “Subject | Verb ees Sarah js dancing. T This is a sentence | London has got 2 lot of traffic. | ‘Stop! | J) B. Sentences with two or mare subject-verbs need a joining word. See Unit 68. C. In most positive and negative sentences in English, the order of the basic parts of the sentence is: subject before verb before object (See table above). But in questions, we invert the order of the subject and verb: Is she a student? Has London got* a lot of traffic? Do they study* English? * Notice: the subject always goes immediately after an auxiliary, not after the main verb, D. Some verbs do not have an object: The sun rose. The train arrived. Some verbs need an abject, for example like, want and enjoy: I like ie. (Not: Hike.) He enjoyed himself. (Not: He-esjeyed.) They want some dinner. E. We do not usually place anything between the verb and the object /complement: f | Verb | —Object/compiement | —_\ lke | chocolate ice crear very much, Not: Leer mcliho | Did you see | the file ‘on TV last night? |Not: Bidyouscetactnighi | \ Yesterday | there was _| @ good party at the beach. _ | Not: Frone-was-yostordayn F. We can add information after the subject-verb or subject-verb-object. Information about place usually (but nat always} comes before information about time, Subject-verb-(object)_ | found the information in the library last weekend. | The police arrested Michelle | at the airport on 25th August. \The train arrives | 2t platform 3 fae ta.05. ) But we can also put information about time at the beginning of the sentence, especially short phrases such as This Monday or Last year: Last week, | watched the match on TV. We can also put information about place or time + place at the beginning In New York, there are a lot of tall buildings. Last year in Nigeria, | saw a dance festival bbut usually information about place comes after the verb: The train arrives at Platform 3. Not: At-Platiorm2-she-seaie annives: He works in a big office. Not: me-biretticehewerks- QUnit GP Verbs with direct and ~ indirect objects A. Sometimes a verb has two objects. = We can say: She gave her friend a prese ‘She gave a present to her friend. ne. Her friend is the Indirect Object (it is often a person); a present is the Direct Object {i is often a thing.) — or we can say: She gave a present to her friend. So, there are two possible structures: either (1) She gave her friend a present. or (2) She gave a present to her friend (preposition + Indirect Object) B. Here are some examples of structure (1) with different verbs: (© Subject | Verb Indirect object | Direct object) | He gave me present. \4 ent Tom £100. | They offered me a job in New York. She passed me the salt and pepper. | He showed them the photos. | Hor triends | bought her a birthday cake. | cooked his friends | 9 meal. brought their teacher | the homework. took his girlfriend | some roses. C. In structure (2), we use the preposition to when there is the idea of giving or passing: He gave a present to me. ent £100 to Tom. They offered a job in New York to me. She passed the salt and pepper to me. He showed the photos to them. We use the preposition for when there is the idea of deing something for somebody or helping: Her friends bought a birthday cake for her. He cooked @ meal for his friends. Sometimes, we can use either to or for: Thay brought the homework to/for their teacher: He took some roses to/for his gintriend, D. We must use structure (2) (+ preposition) when the direct object is a pronoun (it, them etc. See Unit 41) He gave it to me. Not: He-gave-medi They brought it to the teacher. Not: Fhoy-broughe-the feachan it E, We form questions like this: (1) Did you send him a letter? (2) Did you send a letter to him? With Wh-questions, both (1 and (2) are possible: (1) What did she send him? (2) What did she send to him?Unit > Questions with what, who, when etc. ~ 954, - (what's your A. Here are some words which we often use to make questions: What...? (for things) What did he say to you? Who...? {for people) Who idl you meet at the party? When...? {for time) When do you usually go to bed? Where...? {for place) Where did you go last night? Why...? (for reason, cause) Why are you late? How...? {for method, manner) How did you travel? Which...? (for things or people (see 58.8)) Which one did you meet? | Whose...? (for possession (see 43.0) Whose is this bag? | Don't confuse who's...? [= who is..? ar who has...?) and whose... Who's there? lis) Who's broken it? (has) Whase are these jeans? (possession) B. What and Which We use Which...? when we are asking about one/some of a limited set: Here are some umbrellas. Which is the one that you lost? We use What...? when there are many/an unlimited number of possible answers’ For example, we usually ask: What's your name? (open question) But we ask: Which is your name? if there is a limited list of names. ©. We often use What + noun: What time...?, What colour...?, What size..?, What flavour...?, What kind/sort/type of...? ee What time (= when) does the film start? What colour is your new T-shirt? What size shoes do you take? What kind of cheese do you prefer? We also use Which + noun and Whose + noun: Which pen is yours? Whose bag is that? 1D. We also often use How + acjective/adverb: How long...?, How far...?, How tall..?, How often... ? etc. How long does it take to drive to Nottingham from here? ‘How tall are you? How far is London from Edinburgh? How often do you play tennis? E. We use How much... (with uncountable nouns) and How many...? (with plural nouns) to ask about: number or quantity or price: How much milk would you like? How many students are there in the class? How much does it cost? F. Intonation Guestions that begin with @ question word ~ What, Where etc, - go down Questions which require a yes/no answer ~ Is he...? Did they...? Does she...? ete. ~ go up. What were you.doing last night? Are you coping’ to the party? aGoD s ‘What are you lke? Inteligent and romantic. Unit &> More about questions ‘What do you look ike? ‘A. We use What + be + like...? to ask about somebody's/something's character: “What is your boss like?” "He’s generous but very strict.” “What is Canterbury like?” “it’s an old city with a beautiful cathedral.” "What's your house like?” “it's modern and very comfortable.” We use What + look like...? to ask about somebody's something's appearance: “What does your boss look like?" “He's tall and fat.” “What does the house look like?" “It's white with @ green front door.” “What do the new students look like?" “They're all tall and dark-haired.” But it is also possible to use What + be + like? for appearance: “What is she like?” "She is very beautiful.” (appearance) or "She is vain." (character) B, We use How...? to ask about health/general happiness: How are you? How is your grandmother? is she well? We can use How...? to formally greet someone for the first time: “How do you do?* ©. We do not use How...? to ask about appearance or character Wrong: "Hestatendfer” or “Hesverykind” Correct: "He's very well.” or “He's got a headache. “How is your boss? D. We can make questions in the present, past or future with What.....like? or How + be? What was the weather like last week? ‘I met her new boyfriend last week.” “What did he look like?” “I saw Granny yesterday." “How was she?” E. We can ask Who's he/she like? = Is he/she like his mother/his father/his grandfather etc. ? F. We can use feel like (for touch or emotions), smell like, sound like and taste like as well as look like What does the music sound like? What did it feel like to see your girfriend again? Remember: in these questions like is a preposition not the verb like. @Q“who loves you?” “Betty loves me.” “whe do you love?” “I love Stella.” ‘A. Compare these two questions and answers: 1. What did you study today? 2. Who studied French today? | studied English grammar. John and Susan studied French. In 1., the question uses the question form of the verb: did you study...? The answer is in abject position after the verb. In 2., the question uses the normal form of the verb: studied... The answer is in subject position, Here are some more examples Guestion word as subj What happened yesterday? | | What do you usually cook for tunch? —_| Who usually cooks the lunch? Who wants some more tea? _) \ Who do you want to spesk to? B. We can also use Which + noun...? and Whose + noun...? as subject of the question verb We can also use Which + noun...?, Whose + noun and How many/how much + noun...? as subject of the question verb: (— Guestion word as object | Question word as subject +) Which horse did you bet on? Which horse won the race? I bet on Irish beauty. Irish Beauty won the race. | Whose car did you crash into? Whose son passed the exam? | 1 crashed into my boss's car. Jo Smith's son passed the exams. | How many people did you see? How many planes go to London fram Dublin every day? \ How much beer did they drink? How much of this wine comes from France? @Aren't they stupid? Unit Gp Negative questions Land A. We form negative questions like this Are you a spy? Do you speak German? Did he have dinner? Will she come to the party? Aren't you a spy? Don't you speak German? Didn't he have dinner? Won't she come to the party? B. We use negative questions: 1. when we are surprised: Haven't you been to work today? Aren't you at school? 2, when we are annoyed or angry: Why aren’t you working? Why didn’t you help her? 3. as an exclamation (!): Isn't this meal delicious! Wasn't the weather terrible! 4. when we are almost sure about something: Isn't your name Ted? Didn't you win the lottery? 5. when there is a negative fact or happening: Why didn’t you finish the work? Which bird cannot fly? m= 1 Make these questions negative. 1. Is that a Mercedes? Isat that a Mercedes? 2, Have you met my parents? 3. Did you go to the party? 4, Will you help me? 5, Would you lke to marry ar film star? 6. Have you got a TV? 7. Do you like her?Unit > Yeo, Tam Short answers es ‘A. Here are sore examples of short answers: “Do you like chocolate?” “No, I don’t, “Was there @ clown at the party?" “No, there wasn't." Sometimes somebody says something and we give a short response: “Don't forget to post the letters." “No, I won't.” "You haven't done your hamework.* “Yes, I have!” B. We form some short answers with so! “Is John coming?” “1 suppose 80. “Are you going skiing tomorrow?" “| hope so.” | “Is the train late? “Tm afraid 50." | “Will Anne pass the exam?" © | “Did you post the letters?” | think so, ‘Are you going to the cinema tonight?" “I don't expect so.” "Do you think she is going to come to the party?" "I don't suppose so.” Negative | “Is Alaska part of Canada?” "I don't think so.” “Are John and Sally well?” “Im afraid not.” “Is Uncle Jim going to visit us at the New Year?" “I hope not.” ) . We can also form a short answer with verb + to: “Is she coming to the beach?” “Yes, she wants to. ) “Is he going to register at the police station?” “Yes, he has to.** | “Can you come to our wedding?” “Id love to.” | “No, I wouldn't like to.” | Negative “Aren't you going to play football?” "No, don't want to." | ‘fdon't want to go to church.” "Well, you don't have to.*” ) D. Remember to say “Yes, please.” or “No, thank you.” when accepting or refusing something “Would you like @ drink?” “Yes, please.” Not: “¥ee-+weuld-diker! “Do you want something to eat?” "No, thanks.” Not: =Fhanke-ae * when have to = must OnIt isn’t nice weather, is it? It’s lovely ‘weather, A. A question tag consists of two words which we add to the end of @ statement to make @ question: ‘Moscow is in Russia, isn’t it? Tom wasn't at the party, was he? There are fifty states in the USA, aren’t there? After a positive statement we use @ negative tag. After e negative statement, we use & positive tag ( | Pecive [+ negative») (Negative with be imate, ~~ arene? Tim not late, [not annes+2} He's late, |ien‘t ne? You're not angry, | was ice, wasn's |? He wasn't hungry, | they were there, | weren't they? | | We weren't wrong, Present | You like oysters, | don’t you? He doesn't know, does he? Simple | He tikes footbal, | doesn’t he? They don't play. do they? | Past Simple | She arrived early, | didn’t she? _| | They didn't help, did they? | Present I've finished, haven't |? She hasn't done it, has she? | She's found it, [It hasn't arrived yet, has it? " (a tnished They hadn't done it, | had they? Continuous —_-He’s coming, isn’t he? They aren't joking, ‘are they? Tenses They were lying, weren't they? She wasn't sleeping, was she? ereibto | - with will They will be here, | won't they? They won't hurt us, will they? with modals | You can swim, | can’t you? She wouldn't do i, would she?| | | they should go, | shouldn't they? | | | mustn't do it, must I? (with there + be | There is a mistaks,| isn’t there? (There aren't any problems, | are there?, B. We most often use question tags in conversation and in informal writing. Sometimes, we are asking a real question - we don't know the answer. Then the voice goes up You're Bob's ginifriend-aren’t you? This is Smith Steest, ten't te? But often we expect the other person to agree. It is not @ real question. Then the voice goes down: It’s Zale today, isn’t it? That was @ ga0d tim, wasn't it? omTm 2 Bob's girlfriend, Unit > So am I, Iam too, neither am I, I’m not either A. We use so + verb + noun after a positive statement, especially when two people are talking "Im hungry.” “So am = ‘1am also hungry.” ike driving and 80 does Sheila, = Sheila also likes driving. Notice the farm of the verb after so: “Tim hungry.” “So ayn "Yfke..." “80 dogs Sheila.” am am+t Present Simple verb does (auxiliary) + Sheila Here are some more examples: "Ben is going to the cinema tonight.” "So is Susan.” (or “So's Susan. ‘Bill and Joe are il.” “So am |.” “Mike was at the party.” “So were vill and Nick.” ‘ill kes: watching tennis.” “So does Liz.” "Americans speak English.” “So do Australians.” "lwent swimming yesterday.” "So did |.” ve been working here for ten years and so has my wife, Dan will probably be at the disco and so will his girlfriend. Myra can caok very well and so can Tim. B. Instead of So am I, we can say: "Tam too.” “John is hungry.” “Susan is too.” “The British drive on the left.” “The Australians do too.” "We were at the party last night.” ‘ill and Nick were too.” C. We use neither or nor + verb + noun after a negative statement: "Ym not hungry. “Neither am |.” = “lam also not hungry.” "Timm isn’t going to the party." “Neither is Petra.” (or ‘"Neither’s Petra.’) ‘uill and Nick aren't pleased." “Nor am |." They weren't late. “Neither was Nigel.” “Peter didn't see the film." “Nor did |.” "He hasn't been to see Granny." “Neither have |.” “Lwon't lend him any money. “Nor will we.” The children mustn't swim here and neither must the adults. Bob doesn't want to go and neither do the other students. D. Instead of Neither/Nor am I, we can say: “I'am not either.” (or I'm not either.) “Ididn't pass the exam." "I didn't either." “They won't go to the party.” "We won't either." “The children mustn't smoke in the classroom.” "The adults musta’ either." @[went to the ‘A. We use to + infinitive to say why we do something J went to the shops to buy some food. I'go to the gym to keep fit. “Why did you go to the post office?" “To buy some stamps." We can also use in order to (more formal) with the same meaning: 1 go to the gym in arder to keep fit. We do not use for to say why we do something: J went to the park to play football Not: Lwenite-the paniforplay-feathalh- B. We can also use so that + subject + verb to say why we do something: Ive bought a car so that | can drive to work. I went to London so that I could meet my friends. “Why do you get up early?* “So that I'm not late for work.” Notice: we often use so that + subject + can/could... (See Unit 27) C. We use in case + subject + verb when we do something because we are worried about @ possible problem: I always pack some medicine in case | arr ill “Why did you take an umbrella?" “In case it rained.” Notice that when we are talking about the future, we use @ present tense verb after in case: J will take my driving licence in case the police stop me. D. We use for + verb + -ing to talk about the function of a tool/instrument/machine eto. A pen is for writing, Scissors are for cutting. We can ask the questions What is /What's it for? or What are they for? What's this machine for? It’s for recording music. E. Notice the difference between to do and for doing: I bought some scissors to cut my nails. (Purpose: Why did you buy them?) Scissors are for cutting. (Function: What are they for?)Unit @> Joining words and complex sentences A. Each part of a sentence with a subject + main verb is @ clause. Simple sentences have one clause: On Saturday, I went to London Complex sentences have two or more clauses: J went to London with my sister and we bought some clothes. Complex sentences need joining words like and, but, because etc. You cannot use a comma to join two clauses: HHentse-Lendon—mabeughtseme-cathes: B. We can use and to join subject + verb and subject + verb. If the subject of each verb is the same, we usually do not repeat it: J. went to London on Saturday and bought some clothes, We use but in the same way but we often include both subjects: J bought some new clothes but (I) didn’t buy any shoes. We join three or more clauses with and like this: J bought some clothes, visited an art gallery and met my friend. My brother arrived, my sister joined us and then we went to the theatre. Do not write very long sentences using and... and... and... but... and... etc, C. Here are some more words which we use to jain subject + verb and subject + verb: 4. for showing contrast: Although it rained, we continued playing football. Even though it rained, we continued playing football Never use although and but in the same sentence: ‘Although-it-nained-but-he-wore-hie-6unglacces- 2. for showing time relationships (see Unit 26} When it rained, we went indoors. As soon as it rained, we went indoors. After it rained, the sun began to shine. Before it: rained, the sun had been shining, While it was raining, we stayed indoors. We stayed indoors until it stopped raining. 3. for showing cause and result relationships: Because it rained, they cancelled the football match. 4. for expressing conditions (see Units 108-111): If it rains, | won't go out. We can use these joining words at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle between the two clauses. Either: Although it rained, we continued playing... (use a comma) Or: We continued playing football although it rained. (no comma) D. We also use s0, especially in informal English, to show cause and result relationships: It rained, so we stopped playing football. (use a comma} E. We can use so that for purpose (see Unit 85): J bought a paper so that I could read the latest news. (no comma) @and?? however??, ‘A. We often need to show the connection in meaning between sentences. Here are some words/phrases which we often use at or near the beginning of a sentence, especially when we are writing (for other joining wards see Unit 66} 1. for adding information | passed my exams last year. | also won the tennis competition. In addition, | won the tennis competition. 2. for showing the result/what happened because of this: | passed my exams last year. As @ result, ! went into the top class. Therefore, | went into the top class. Thus, | went into the top class. 3. for describing the logical conclusion: Everyone passed the exam. Therefore, it must have been tao easy. Thus, it must have been too easy. 4. for introducing a contrast/something unexpected: | passed my exams last year. However, my teacher was angry with me. 5. for showing the sequence: | took my exams in June. Previously, | had studied hard for six months. I took my exams last June. At the same time, ! worked in the evenings. Later, | received my results. Firstly,.../First of all,... Secondly,... Thirdly,... Then, s+: After this,... Finally,.../Lastly,.../Last of ally... First of all, | took my exams. Then, I received my results. Finally, the school gave me a certificate. Notice the comma after these linking words. B. We use therefore or thus especially when there is a strong logical consequence ar deduction Jim's fingerprints are on the gun. Therefore, he is the killer. (Not: Aé-a-resuithe-e-she-tilr--) Three kilos cost 99p. Thus, one kilo costs 33p. (Not: Ae-e-Aa6ttrr=) But As a result is used when one thing happens because of another thing: She fell on the ice. As a result, she broke her leg. ©. Notice the difference between last of all/lastly (to show sequence) and at last. We use At last,... to show emotion when we have been waiting for something for a long time: I waited at the bus stop for an hour. At last, the bus arrived! Do not use at last in a sequence: Fisssy-—Secendly Aras @Q@Let She's @ beautiful, poor girl She's @ lucky girl. She's a beautiful, rich girl A. Adjectives describe nouns. We use them 1. before a noun: — We went to an expensive restaurant, Hike black coffee. 2. after the verb be: The weather is cold in the winter: Her father is angry. 3. after the verbs feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste (see Unit 94): | feel tired, You look beautiful in that dress. This soup tastes wonderful. The orchestra sounds great. 4, after get and become: He got angry. She became rich. Remember: adjectives in English have only one form for both singular and plural nouns: I met @ good friend. J have a lot of good friends. (Not: geeds-friende] B. When there are two or more adjectives in front of a noun, we separate them with a comma. We do not use and: They have a large, brick house. (Not: 4eege-and-beiek) A handsome, young, French student joined the class. (Not: handeome-young-anct Froneh student) But: we use and between two colours: I've got a red and white football shirt. After be, feel, look etc., we use adjective and adjective. He is young and handsome. She looks beautiful, intaligent and generous. (three adjectives) C. When there is more than one adjective, we usually place them in this order: (Value | Size | Age | Shape ality | Mat [ la large | new brick | house | a small square yellow plastic | box otal young | American student ‘2 wonderful new French | firm \2 valuable | antique Chinese | \vase 1 a Underline all the adjectives in this piece of writing. “Iddon't like zomemtic books. The stories oFe All (2) jssi.nnunnnn » The hero is always a teal, 2) , Young main, The heroine is a (3) young woman with @ hair and (5) eyes, These perfect people fall in love but there is always a serious problem. Perhaps the git! has rich parents and the boy is © Perhaps the boy has already promised to mamry a different git] who is se and selfish. But at last these difficult problems disappear. They getUnit &D> More about adjectives ‘The young and the old don’t understand each other. A. With @ few adjectives, we can use the + adjective if we are talking about the general class of people: the poor, the rich, the young, the old, the sick, the blind, the deaf: He gives money to help the blind, (General = all blind people) But: He gave some money to the blind people. (Particular) B. We can also use the + nationality adjectives to refer to all the people from that country ike the English, The French drink a lot of wine. ss or -ese, we do not add -s when Notice that with nationality adjectives ending in -sh, -ch, we are talking about all the people | like the English (= the English people]/the Dutch/the Swiss/the Chinese etc But with nationality adjectives ending in -an/-ani, we add -s: | like the Americans /the Indians/the Italians /the Pakistanis etc. See a good dictionary for a full list of nationality adjectives. C. We use be, feel, look etc. + ill* She is ith | fee! ih They 100k il. But we use sick + noun: / visited a sick friend. (Not: ap-i-feiond) * In Boitish English, we use ill; Americans prefer sick in all cases. 1D. We can form the opposites of some adjectives by using the prefix un- uncomfortable, unhappy, unkind, uninteresting But there are other prefixes to form opposites: in-, im- (+ p...}, diss, ik (+ I...) ir- (+ r...J, non: inexpensive, impatient, dissimilar, illegal, irregular, non-alcoholic Notice the opposite of normal is abnormal. We can also use the suffix less to form opposites: hopeless, useless, penniless E. Some adjectives end in ful. Remember to spell them with one 't beautiful, careful, harmful, helpful, hopeful, thoughtful, useful @Unit <> Adverbs A. The form of many adverbs is like thi (Adjective +-y > — Adverb slow + slovay cheap cheaply Old people drive carefully. \ dangerous | * dangerously / Young people drive carelessly. Remember these rules about the spelling of adverbs: 1, If the adjective ends in I, the adverb has -lly: usual + ly > usually careful + -ly -» carefully real + ly > really 2. If the adjective ends in -y, the adverb ends in -ily: easy + “ily > easily happy + -ily + happily crazy + -ily » crazily 3. If the adjective ends in -e, the adverb ends in -ely: late + -y > lately immediate + -ly > immediately Except: true + ly > truly whole + ly > wholly 4. Also, if the adjective ends in -able or -ible, the adverb ends in -bly (no “e") possible + ly + possibly probable > probably terrible + terribly 5. If the adjective ends in ic, the adverb usually ends in -ically scientific + -ally + scientifically magic + -ally > magically B. We use adverbs with verbs. They often answer the question How....? He worked slowly. (How did he work?) They asked us politely. (How did they ask?) We usually place adverbs after the verb + object: | parked the car carefully in the street and went into the building. But sometimes we put the adverb at the beginning of the clause: Quickly, she took out @ gun. Do not put the adverb between the verb and the object: | parked the car carefully. (Not: +parked-sarofully-she-car:) C. Adverbs of frequency, e.g. often, usually, sometimes, have special rules about position in the sentence. See Unit 73 for information about this. D, Not all adverbs end in -ly, for example: fast", hard", late*, often He drove fast. (How did he drive?) She works hard. They arrived late. it often rains. The adverb of good is well* She's @ good dancer. She dances well. Compare: She speaks good English. (adjective) She speaks English well. (adverb) * We can use fast, hard, late, well and early as adverbs or adjectives: | arvived early/late. (adverb) caught an early train. (adjective) He sings well (adverb) | was ill but now 'm well. (adjective) @