3.

7 THREE CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM

 Paraffins: These can make up 15 to 60% of crude and have a carbon to hydrogen ratio of 1:2,
which means they contain twice the amount of hydrogen as they do carbon. These are generally
straight or branched chains, but never cyclic (circular) compounds. Paraffins are the desired
content in crude and what are used to make fuels. The shorter the paraffins are, the lighter the
crude is. This type of crude oil contains a high proportion of straight-chain hydrocarbons, known
as paraffins. Paraffinic crude oil has a relatively low density and a low viscosity, which makes it
easier to extract and refine. It is also known for producing high-quality lubricants and diesel fuel.

 Napthenes: These can make up 30 to 60% of crude and have a carbon to hydrogen ratio of 1:2.
These are cyclic compounds and can be thought of as cycloparaffins. They are higher in density
than equivalent paraffins and are more viscous. This type of crude oil contains a high proportion
of cyclic hydrocarbons, known as naphthenes. Naphthenic crude oil has a higher density and
viscosity than paraffinic crude oil, which makes it more difficult to extract and refine. However,
it is also known for producing high-quality gasoline.

 Aromatics: These can constitute anywhere from 3 to 30% of crude. They are undesirable
because burning them results in soot. They have a much less hydrogen in comparison to carbon
than is found in paraffins. They are also more viscous. They are often solid or semi-solid when an
equivalent paraffin would be a viscous liquid under the same conditions. This type of crude oil
contains a high proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, and xylene.
Aromatic crude oil has a high density and viscosity, which makes it the most difficult type of
crude oil to extract and refine. However, it is also known for producing high-value products such
as petrochemicals, solvents, and dyes.

3.8 CHEMICAL COMPOSTION OF PETROLEUM

The Basic Composition of Petroleum

Carbon 84 to 87%

Hydrogen 11 to 14%

Sulfur 0.06 to 2%

Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%

Oxygen 0.1 to 0.2%

Metals 0.14%

The actual overall properties of each different petroleum source are defined by the percentage of the
four main hydrocarbons found within petroleum as part of the petroleum composition.

The percentages for these hydrocarbons can vary greatly, giving the crude oil a quite distinct compound
personality depending upon geographic region. These hydrocarbons are typically present in petroleum
at the following percentages: paraffins (15% - 60%), napthenes (30% - 60%), aromatics (3% to 30%), with
asphaltics making up the remainder.
The composition of petroleum is defined as laid out above, and it is this composition which gives the
crude oil its properties.

Raw petroleum is usually dark brown or almost black although some fields deliver a greenish or
sometimes yellow petroleum. Depending upon the field and the way the petroleum composition was
formed the crude oil will also differ in viscosity.

At the extreme ranges petroleum can be almost solid, and required a significant investment of resources
to refine into a useable state as anything other than bitumen. At the other end of the scale the
petroleum composition can be a clear fluid resembling kerosene or gasoline, needing very little refining
to be useable as a fuel.

3.9 PRINCIPLE OF FUEL AND ITS PURPOSE

The principle of fuel is the idea that substances containing stored energy, such as hydrocarbons, can be
burned in the presence of oxygen to release that energy in the form of heat and light. The purpose of
fuel is to provide energy for various applications, including transportation, heating, and electricity
generation.

When a hydrocarbon fuel, such as gasoline or natural gas, is burned in the presence of oxygen, a
chemical reaction occurs that releases energy in the form of heat and light. This reaction is known as
combustion and produces carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. The heat energy released during
combustion can be harnessed for a variety of purposes, such as powering an engine or heating a
building.

The choice of fuel depends on various factors, including availability, cost, and energy density. Different
types of fuels have different energy densities, or the amount of energy that can be obtained per unit of
mass or volume. For example, gasoline has a higher energy density than ethanol, which means that it
can provide more energy per unit of volume. However, ethanol is a renewable fuel that can be produced
from plant materials, while gasoline is a finite resource that is extracted from the earth.

3.10 CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL

CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL

Fuels can be classified based on their source, physical state, and chemical composition. Here are some
common ways to classify fuels:

Based on Source:

Fuels can be classified into two broad categories based on their source:

a) Fossil Fuels: These are derived from ancient organic matter and include coal, petroleum, and natural
gas.

b) Renewable Fuels: These are derived from natural resources that are replenished over time and
include biomass, biofuels, solar, wind, and hydroelectricity.
Based on Physical State:

Fuels can also be classified based on their physical state:

a) Solid fuels: Coal, wood, and charcoal are examples of solid fuels.

b) Liquid fuels: Gasoline, diesel, and kerosene are examples of liquid fuels.

c) Gaseous fuels: Natural gas, propane, and hydrogen are examples of gaseous fuels.

Based on Chemical Composition:

Fuels can also be classified based on their chemical composition:

a) Hydrocarbon fuels: These are fuels that contain only hydrogen and carbon atoms, such as gasoline,
diesel, and natural gas.

b) Non-hydrocarbon fuels: These are fuels that contain other elements besides hydrogen and carbon,
such as alcohol, biodiesel, and hydrogen.

Based on Application:

Fuels can also be classified based on their application:

a) Transportation fuels: These are fuels used to power vehicles, such as gasoline and diesel.

b) Industrial fuels: These are fuels used in industrial processes, such as coal and natural gas.

c) Residential fuels: These are fuels used for heating and cooking in homes, such as natural gas and
propane.

3.11 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL

1. High Energy Content: A good fuel should have a high energy content per unit mass or volume.
This means that it should release a significant amount of energy when burned, which can be
harnessed for various applications.

2. Low Cost: A good fuel should be affordable and readily available. This ensures that it can be used
on a large scale without significantly impacting the economy.

3. Low Environmental Impact: A good fuel should have a low environmental impact. This means
that it should produce minimal emissions and pollutants when burned, and should not
contribute significantly to climate change.
 4. Safe Handling: A good fuel should be easy to handle and store safely. This reduces the risk of
accidents and ensures that it can be transported and used without causing harm to people or
the environment.

5. Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure: A good fuel should be compatible with existing
infrastructure, such as engines and power plants. This ensures that it can be used with minimal
modifications to existing systems.

6. Renewable and Sustainable: A good fuel should be renewable and sustainable, which means
that it can be produced and used without depleting finite resources or harming the
environment.

7. Stable and Non-corrosive: A good fuel should be stable and non-corrosive, which means that it
can be stored for long periods without deteriorating or damaging the storage containers.

3.12 THE DISTILLATION PROCESS OF FUEL

The distillation process of fuel, also known as fractional distillation, is a process used to separate crude
oil into different components based on their boiling points. The process involves heating crude oil to a
high temperature and then cooling it down in a distillation column with different temperature zones,
where the different components condense and are collected.

The process typically involves the following steps:

Heating: Crude oil is heated in a furnace to a temperature of about 370-500°C, depending on the type of
crude oil being processed.

Vaporization: The heated crude oil is then fed into the bottom of a distillation column, where it
vaporizes as it rises up through the column.

Separation: The distillation column is divided into several temperature zones, each with a different
boiling point range. As the vapor rises through each zone, the different components with different
boiling points condense and are collected at different levels of the column.

Collection: The collected components are then further processed or sent to storage tanks for
distribution.

The different components obtained through the distillation process include:

Gasoline: A light liquid fuel used for internal combustion engines in vehicles.

Kerosene: A heavier liquid fuel used for heating and lighting.

Diesel: A heavier liquid fuel used for diesel engines in vehicles and generators.

Lubricating oils: Used for lubrication of machinery and engines.

Residues: Heavier components with high boiling points, used for bitumen production, asphalt and heavy
fuel oil.

3.13 PARAMETERS IN TESTING LIQUID FUEL AND OIL

Testing liquid fuels and oils involves a number of parameters that are used to evaluate their quality and
suitability for use in various applications. Some of the common parameters used in testing liquid fuels
and oils are:

1. Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of the thickness or flow resistance of a fluid. It is an important

parameter for determining the performance of lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids.

2. Flash point: The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid fuel or oil can release
enough vapor to ignite when exposed to a spark or flame. It is an important safety parameter
for handling and transportation of fuels and oils.

3. Pour point: The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid fuel or oil can still flow. It
is an important parameter for determining the performance of diesel and heating oils in cold
weather conditions.

4. Density: Density is a measure of the mass of a liquid fuel or oil per unit volume. It is an
important parameter for determining the energy content and volume of fuels and oils.

5. Octane number: The octane number is a measure of the ability of a gasoline fuel to resist
knocking or detonation in an internal combustion engine. It is an important parameter for
determining the performance of gasoline fuels.

6. Sulfur content: The sulfur content is a measure of the amount of sulfur present in liquid fuels
and oils. It is an important parameter for determining the environmental impact of fuels and oils
and compliance with regulatory standards.

7. Total acid number (TAN): The TAN is a measure of the acidity of a lubricating oil. It is an
important parameter for determining the suitability of lubricating oils for use in specific
applications.

Overall, testing liquid fuels and oils using these parameters and others is important for ensuring their
quality and suitability for various applications. The specific parameters used in testing depend on the
type of fuel or oil being tested and its intended use.

3.14 PRINCIPLE OF COMBUSTION

The principle of combustion is based on a chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidizing agent,
typically oxygen, that releases energy in the form of heat and light. The basic chemical equation for
combustion is:

Fuel + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

During the combustion process, the fuel molecules break apart and react with the oxygen molecules,
releasing energy in the form of heat and light. The products of combustion are carbon dioxide and water
vapor, which are released into the atmosphere.

The rate and efficiency of combustion depend on several factors, including the fuel type, the oxygen
supply, and the temperature. In order for combustion to occur, the fuel and oxygen must be present in
the right proportions and the temperature must be high enough to initiate and sustain the chemical
reaction.
In addition to heat and light, combustion can also produce other byproducts, such as carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. These byproducts can have harmful effects on human health
and the environment, so it is important to control and monitor the combustion process to minimize
their production.

Overall, the principle of combustion is a fundamental concept in the production of heat and energy from
fuels, and understanding the factors that influence combustion is important for optimizing efficiency and
minimizing environmental impact.

3.15 THE PURPOSE OF ANALYSIS OF FUEL GASES

The analysis of fuel gases is an important process that involves the measurement and characterization of
the chemical composition of gases produced during the combustion of fuels, such as natural gas,
propane, and diesel. The analysis of fuel gases serves several purposes, including:

1. Safety: The analysis of fuel gases is essential for ensuring the safe operation of combustion
equipment, such as furnaces, boilers, and engines. By monitoring the levels of potentially
dangerous gases, such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, the analysis of fuel gases can
help prevent accidents and protect workers and the public from exposure to harmful gases.

2. Efficiency: The analysis of fuel gases is important for optimizing the combustion process and
improving the efficiency of combustion equipment. By measuring the chemical composition of
the fuel gases, the analysis can identify any imbalances in the air-fuel ratio, allowing
adjustments to be made to maximize combustion efficiency and reduce fuel consumption.

3. Environmental compliance: The analysis of fuel gases is important for ensuring compliance with
environmental regulations governing emissions of harmful gases, such as sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter. By measuring the levels of these gases, the analysis can help identify
potential sources of emissions and guide the implementation of measures to reduce emissions
and meet regulatory standards.

4. Quality control: The analysis of fuel gases is important for maintaining the quality and
consistency of fuel supplies. By monitoring the chemical composition of fuel gases, the analysis
can detect any variations or impurities that may affect the performance of combustion
equipment or the quality of the end product.

3.16 PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION

The purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction and wear between two surfaces in contact with each
other, such as between mechanical parts in an engine or machine. The basic function of a lubricant is to
form a protective film or layer between the two surfaces, which helps to reduce the friction and wear
that would occur if the surfaces were in direct contact.

The benefits of lubrication include:

1. Reduced friction: By reducing the friction between two surfaces, lubrication helps to prevent the
parts from wearing out or becoming damaged due to excessive heat or stress.
 2. Increased efficiency: Lubrication can help to improve the efficiency of machinery and equipment
by reducing the energy required to overcome friction and by minimizing losses due to heat and
wear.

3. Improved performance: Lubrication can help to improve the performance and longevity of
machinery and equipment by reducing the likelihood of breakdowns or malfunctions due to
excessive wear or damage.

4. Protection against corrosion: Lubricants can also help to protect against corrosion and other
forms of chemical damage by forming a barrier between the metal surfaces and the surrounding
environment.

5. Noise reduction: Lubrication can also help to reduce the noise level of machinery and equipment
by dampening the vibrations and noise generated by moving parts.

3.17 RELATIONSHIP OF FRICTION AND WEAR IN LUBRICATION

Friction and wear are two closely related phenomena that are affected by lubrication. Friction is the
resistance to motion between two surfaces in contact, while wear is the gradual loss of material from
the surfaces due to the interaction between the surfaces.

Lubrication is used to reduce friction and wear between two surfaces in contact. The lubricant forms a
protective film or layer between the two surfaces, which helps to reduce the friction and prevent direct
contact between the surfaces, thus reducing wear.

The relationship between friction and wear in lubrication can be described as follows:

1. Friction and wear are both affected by the nature and properties of the lubricant. The lubricant
must have the right viscosity, chemical composition, and other properties to reduce friction and
wear effectively.

2. The amount of friction and wear depends on the load, speed, and temperature of the surfaces in
contact. Lubricants must be chosen based on their ability to perform under specific conditions.

3. Effective lubrication can reduce friction, which in turn reduces wear. The reduction of wear is
due to the reduction of friction, which minimizes the amount of material being worn away from
the surfaces.

4. However, excessive or inadequate lubrication can actually increase wear. Over-lubrication can
lead to excessive buildup of the lubricant, which can cause the surfaces to slide or slip against
each other, leading to increased wear. Inadequate lubrication can also cause increased wear due
to insufficient protection against friction.

Overall, the relationship between friction and wear in lubrication is complex and depends on many
factors. Effective lubrication can reduce both friction and wear, but proper lubricant selection and
maintenance are crucial to achieving the desired results.

3.18 COMPOSITION OF LUBRICATION

The composition of lubricants can vary depending on the specific application and type of lubricant.
However, most lubricants contain a combination of base oils and additives.
 1. Base oils: The base oil is the primary component of lubricants and typically makes up 70-90% of
the lubricant's composition. Base oils can be derived from petroleum, synthetic sources, or a
blend of the two. The choice of base oil depends on the application and desired properties of
the lubricant, such as viscosity, oxidation stability, and temperature range.

2. Additives: Additives are used to enhance the properties of the base oil and provide specific
benefits, such as increased viscosity index, improved wear protection, and reduced corrosion.
Additives can make up 10-30% of the lubricant's composition and may include:

 Viscosity modifiers: These additives help to maintain the lubricant's viscosity over a range of
temperatures.

 Anti-wear agents: These additives reduce friction and wear by forming a protective layer on
metal surfaces.

 Detergents: These additives help to keep engines and machinery clean by removing deposits and
contaminants.

 Dispersants: These additives help to keep contaminants suspended in the lubricant, preventing
them from settling out and causing damage.

 Antioxidants: These additives prevent the lubricant from breaking down due to exposure to heat
and oxygen.

 Corrosion inhibitors: These additives protect metal surfaces from corrosion by forming a
protective film.

In addition to these components, lubricants may also contain other ingredients such as pour point
depressants, foam inhibitors, and friction modifiers.

3.19 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LUBRICANT

There are several types of lubricants available, and the choice of lubricant depends on the specific
application and operating conditions. Here are some of the most common types of lubricants:

1. Mineral oils: Mineral oils are derived from crude oil and are the most commonly used type of
lubricant. They have good lubrication properties and are relatively inexpensive. However, they
are not suitable for use at high temperatures or in extreme environments.

2. Synthetic oils: Synthetic oils are made from chemical compounds and offer superior
performance in extreme temperatures and harsh environments. They have excellent thermal
stability, oxidation resistance, and low volatility. However, they are more expensive than
mineral oils.

3. Greases: Greases are semi-solid lubricants that consist of a base oil thickened with a thickening
agent, such as lithium, calcium, or aluminum soap. They are ideal for applications where a solid
or viscous lubricant is required, such as in bearings.

4. Biodegradable lubricants: Biodegradable lubricants are made from renewable resources and
break down naturally in the environment. They are often used in environmentally sensitive
applications, such as in marine and forestry equipment.
 5. Solid lubricants: Solid lubricants, such as graphite and molybdenum disulfide, are used in
applications where liquid lubricants are not suitable. They provide good lubrication properties at
high temperatures and under extreme pressure.

6. Vegetable oils: Vegetable oils, such as rapeseed and sunflower oil, are being increasingly used as
lubricants in certain applications. They have good lubrication properties and are
environmentally friendly.

3.20 CRITERIA TO BE CONSIDERED IN SELECCTING LUBRICANT

Choosing the right lubricant is critical to ensuring the proper function and longevity of machinery and
equipment. The following are some criteria to consider when selecting a lubricant:

1. Operating conditions: The lubricant must be able to perform in the specific operating conditions
of the machinery or equipment, including temperature, pressure, speed, and load.

2. Viscosity: The viscosity of the lubricant must be appropriate for the application. A lubricant that
is too thin may not provide adequate protection, while a lubricant that is too thick may cause
excessive friction.

3. Compatibility: The lubricant must be compatible with the materials used in the machinery or
equipment, including seals and gaskets. Incompatible lubricants can cause damage or failure.

4. Performance requirements: The lubricant must meet the performance requirements of the
application, such as wear protection, oxidation resistance, and corrosion protection.

5. Environmental factors: Consideration should be given to environmental factors such as

biodegradability, toxicity, and flammability.

6. Cost: The cost of the lubricant should be considered, but it should not be the sole determining
factor. High-quality lubricants may be more expensive upfront but can provide significant cost
savings in the long run by reducing maintenance and downtime costs.

7. Manufacturer recommendations: The manufacturer's recommendations for lubricants should be

followed whenever possible to ensure proper function and warranty coverage.

3.21 DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANT\

Lubricants are classified based on their properties, composition, and applications. Some of the most
common classifications of lubricants are:

1. Mineral oil-based lubricants: These lubricants are made from crude oil and are the most widely
used type of lubricant. They are suitable for most applications and are available in various
viscosities.

2. Synthetic lubricants: These lubricants are made from chemical compounds and offer superior
performance and longevity compared to mineral oil-based lubricants. They are also more
expensive.
 3. Biodegradable lubricants: These lubricants are made from renewable resources and are
environmentally friendly. They are commonly used in applications where there is a risk of
environmental contamination.

4. Greases: Greases are semi-solid lubricants made by mixing oil with a thickening agent. They are
used in applications where liquid lubricants are not practical.

5. Food-grade lubricants: These lubricants are specially formulated for use in the food processing
industry. They are non-toxic and do not contaminate food products.

6. High-temperature lubricants: These lubricants are designed to withstand high temperatures and
are commonly used in applications such as furnaces and engines.

7. Low-temperature lubricants: These lubricants are designed to perform at low temperatures and
are commonly used in applications such as refrigeration systems.

8. Multipurpose lubricants: These lubricants are versatile and can be used in a wide range of
applications. They are a popular choice for general maintenance and repair work.

9. Extreme pressure lubricants: These lubricants are designed to handle high-pressure applications
such as gearboxes and heavy machinery.

3.22 DIFFERENCE IN SYSTEM OIL USE IN 2 STROKE, 4 STROKE AND TURBINES

The use of system oil in 2-stroke engines, 4-stroke engines, and turbines differs in terms of the type of
oil, the method of oil delivery, and the purpose of the oil.

1. 2-stroke engines: In 2-stroke engines, the system oil is mixed with the fuel and is delivered to
the engine through the carburetor. The oil serves both as a lubricant and as a coolant. The oil is
burnt along with the fuel during the combustion process, so it must be designed to burn cleanly
and leave minimal deposits.

2. 4-stroke engines: In 4-stroke engines, the system oil is separate from the fuel and is delivered to
the engine through an oil pump. The oil lubricates the internal components of the engine and
also helps to cool them. The oil is not burned during the combustion process and must be
filtered and replaced periodically.

3. Turbines: In turbines, system oil is used to lubricate the bearings and other moving parts. The oil
is delivered to the bearings through a sophisticated oiling system, which includes oil pumps,
filters, and coolers. The oil must be designed to withstand high temperatures and pressures and
to provide excellent lubrication properties.

3.23 PURPOSE OF TESTING LUBE OIL ON BOARD

The purpose of testing lube oil on board a ship is to ensure that the oil is performing its intended
function of providing adequate lubrication and protection to the ship's machinery. The testing of lube oil
is a critical aspect of preventive maintenance and helps to identify potential problems before they result
in equipment failure or downtime.

The following are some of the key reasons why lube oil is tested on board a ship:
1. To monitor oil condition: Lube oil can degrade over time due to oxidation, contamination, and
other factors. Regular testing helps to identify changes in oil condition, such as changes in
viscosity, acidity, and wear metals content.

2. To detect machinery wear: Wear metals from machinery can accumulate in the oil and provide
an indication of the condition of the machinery. Regular testing can detect changes in wear
metals content and provide an indication of potential machinery problems.

3. To extend machinery life: Adequate lubrication is critical to the longevity of ship machinery.
Regular testing helps to ensure that the oil is providing adequate protection to the machinery,
reducing wear and extending its life.

4. To reduce maintenance costs: Regular testing helps to identify potential problems before they
result in equipment failure or downtime.