Persepolis

Representations of Persepolis — ancient and/or modern

Modern Representations of Persepolis 33yAt42JnkxG5z

e Persepolis is a World Heritage Site and as such is:among the world’s greatest archeological
sites.
e Persepolis was the seat of government of the Achaemenid Empire, though it was designed
primarily to be a showplace and spectacular centre for the receptions and festivals of the kings 33yAt42JnkxG5z

and their empire. The terrace of Persepolis continues to be, as its founder Darius would have
wished, the image of the Achaemenid monarchyitself, the summit where likeness of the king
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reappears unceasingly, here as the conqueror of a monster, there carried on his throne by the
downtrodden enemy, and wherelengthy cohorts of the sculpted warriors and guards, dignitaries
and tribute bearers parade endlessly.
e Today Persepolis is not only the ‘image of the Achaemenid monarchy itself’, but intimately
linked to the ‘Iranian spirit’. As nationalistic sentiment has grown in Iran. Persepolis has
increasingly become a political site as well as an archaeological one.
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The geographical and historical context, including:

An overview of the Persian Empire from Cyrus the Great to Darius | and early capital cities Ecbatana and
Pasargadae
King and Dates Contribution to the Persian Empire
of Reign

Cyrus the Great |e Founded and expanded the empire

c. 560-530 BCE |e Incorporated the neighbouring kingdomsof the Medes, Lydians and Babylonians
CambysesII e Added Egypt to the empire
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530-522 BCE

Darius,| e Expanded the empire to its greatest extent, eventually including 30 nations
522-486 BCE e Added Thrace and Macedonia, brining the extent of the empire to 7.5 million
square kilometres
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e 499 BCE- Put down the lonian revolt and reimposed peace
e 490 BCE- Invaded the Greek mainland in an attempt to add this region to his
empire and punish Athens for supporting the Greek lonian cities. Darius’ forces were
defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon.
Xerxes,| e Suppressed revolts in Egypt and Babylon
486-465 BCE e 480-479 BCE- Graeco-Persian Wars
e 480 BCE- Victory over Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae followed by the
burning of Athens

The Persian Empire was.remarkable for the systems put in place under Cyrus and Darius | to control its
people and administer their affairs. This was the satrapy system in which the territory of the empire was
divided into 23 administrative districts. Each district was governed on behalf of the king by a high-
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ranking Persian official known as a satrap. Cyrus refrained from interfering in the religions, customs and
trades of the subject peoples, thereby winning the support of the people and ensuring the smooth
running of the empire. Because ofthis policy, the resources of the empire could be harnessed in relative
peace.

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 Ecbatana
e Capital of the Median kingdom, and was taken over when Cyrus conquered the Medes.
e Werely on ancient writers and chroniclers for an idea of the city was like because its remains
lie beneath the modern Iranian city of Hamadan.
e Polybius of Megalopolis, a Greek historian, described Ecbatana in his World History. He tells us
that the city was well fortified and surrounded by a 1300-metrewall. The buildings were
constructed of cedar and cypress and covered with silver and gold, as were the rooftiles, columns
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and ceilings. It was clearly a royal place.

Pasargadae
e Cyrus ordered its construction to celebrate his conquest of the Medes.
e It had not been completed at the time of Cyrus’ death and construction: continued into the
reign of Darius I.
e Despite its impractical location, well to the east of the economic and military centres of the
empire, Pasargadae had special significance as a national shrine, the setting for the royal
coronation ceremonies.
e The Greek writer Plutarch, in his Life of Artaxerxes, recorded a royal rite that took place at
these ceremonies. The new king, wearing the robes that had belonged to Cyrus before he became
king, ate a cake offigs, some leaves of a terebinth tree and drank sour milk. This ritual seems to
have established the new king’s connection with the first ruler of the empire.
e Situated in the centre of a fertile plain, surrounded by mountains. The palaceitself consisted
of two sections, a residential building and a 30-columned audience hall, both built from white 33yAt42JnkxG5z

stone. In addition, there were two garden pavilions and a gatehouse bearing a carved bas-relief of
a 2.7 metres four-winged guardian spirit, known as a genius. The buildings featured elements from
the Persian pre-Achaemenid culture as well as some that were Assyrian, Greek and Egyptian.
e Animportant structure at Pasargadae is the tomb of Cyrus the Great, located about 1
kilometre south-west of the other structures. It consists of a large, rectangular, vaulted tomb
chamber sitting on a 5 metres-high platform.

Susa:
e became an important Achaemenid city after its capture by Cyrus during his defeat of Elam in
539 BC
e —_His successor, Darius |, constructed a palace and an apadana or audiencehall there.
e He left inscriptions recording his restoration works, which he portrayed as part of his bid to
establish order and his right to rule.
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Babylon: 33yAt42JnkxG5z

e reputation as the intellectual and cultural capital of the region long before it was conquered by
Cyrus in 539 BC
e Under Cyrus and Darius, it became the administrative capital of the Persian Empire.
e The Achaemenid kings upheld the major cults of the city and their associated shrines.
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Geographic location of the site-of Persepolis

e Persepolis is located 70 kilometres north-east of the modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province
of southern Iran.
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e The remains dominate the Marvasht plateau and are framed by the Zagros Mountains.
e The city is near the small river Pulvar, formerly called Medus, which flow into the Kur River.

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 e Persepolis is set on a terrace measuring 125000 square metres that has been partially cut out
of Rahmet Mountain.
e Retaining walls form the other three sides, which vary in height according to the slope of the
ground.

The discovery of Persepolis and the nature of archaeological excavation over time
e The first organised excavations of the Persepolis ruins took place in the early 19" century.
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Along with these came the first reliable sketches, engravings and photographs ofthe site.
e Inthe early 20" century, there was an increased interest in excavating Persepolis, especially in
Iran itself.
e This is reflected in the government support that was given to Ernst Herzfeld’s expedition in
1931, conducted by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. His brief as first field
director was to conduct a thorough exploration, excavation and restoration of Persepolis.
e He found the north and eastern staircases of the Apadana and the Harem of Xerxes.
e The expedition’s architect, Friedrich Krefter discovered the gold and silver Foundation Tablets
of Darius | in the Apadana, written in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian.
e Herzfeld was succeeded in 1934 by Erich Schmidt, who carried out a more organised, large- 33yAt42JnkxG5z

scale excavation of the site and its environs. His major finds included seven foundation tablets
belonging to Xerxes’ reign. He also discovered twoarchives of cuneiform texts. The older is a
collection of about 30000 tablets called the Persepolis Fortification Tablets. A smaller set, the
Persepolis Treasury Tablets, recorded the origins of workers and the amounts they werepaid.
Schmidt’s work at Persepolis ended with the outbreak of WWII in 1939.

After the Islamic Revolution

e Persepolis was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, the year of the
Islamic Revolution. Between 1979 and the visit of the president of Iran in 1991,
archaeological work came to a virtual standstill.
e New archaeological investigations have taken place as a result.
e These include:
Oo ageomagnetic survey of the Marvdasht plateau
© astudy of pottery found in fortifications on the top of the adjacent mountain
Oo excavation and dredging of underground canals.
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The rangeof sources, including:

Archaeological finds, architectural features and wall reliefs at the site, eg the Apadana, the terrace, the
palaces, gatehouse, Hall of the Hundred Columns (Throne Hall), Tripylon staircase, Harem and treasury
buildings, stone carving, glazed brick panels, Bisitun (Behistan), inscription of Darius |
The ruins of Persepolis show the monumental nature of Persepolis.
NAME AND DESCRIPTION SIGNIFICANCE FOR UNDERSTANDING
LOCATION OF 33yAt42JnkxG5z
POWER AND IMAGE OF PERSIAN KINGS AND
RELIEF 33yAt42JnkxG5z

PERSIAN KINGSHIP
Treasury relief — e The king, possibly Darius |, sits |The king and crown prince can be seen as
originally located on ona throne, his feet onasmall stylised figures who represent the monarchy.
the North Stairs of stool to prevent them touching The continuation of the Achaemenid Dynasty
the Apadana and the ground. 33yAt42JnkxG5z

can be seen in:

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 later moved to the ¢ The crown prince, possibly
Treasury Xerxes, stands behind the
throne. He carries a lotus flower
like the king.
e They receive a Persian court
official who touches his hand to
his lips as a sign of respect.
e Incense burnersare placed in
front of the king.
¢ Two personal attendants, the
royal towel bearer and the royal
weapon bearer, hold their signs
of office.
A doorjamb from the It shows a king fighting with a 4-
southern doorway of metre-high animal with the
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the ‘Harem’ at body of a lion, the head of a
Persepolis. griffin and the tail of a scorpion.
A relief from the Hall » He is supported by images of
of a Hundred the subject peoples of the
Columns at empire.
Persepolis showing a » Heis at the top of the
king seated under a structure with 3 rows of the
| baldachin or canopy. subject peoples behind him
» The king is supported by an
attendant
A relief from the » The soldiers are carrying
Apadana stairs weapons and all look exactly
showing Persian and the same
Median soldiers » They arecarryingthesame
| weapons alternately
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e the lotus flowerscarried by the king
and crown prince, which symbolise
eternity (they each have 12 petals for
| the months of the year)
e the presence of the successor who is
depicted the same size as the king.
This image showsthe kings power and his
strength in his ability to defeat the animal.
The animal is not any usual animal however,
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and due to its supernatural nature, the king
looks as if nothing can defeat him. This is
particularly important to show the power of
Persepolis. If the king is strong, so is the
empire. This image communicates a message
of undeniable strength and stature placing
the king aboveall.
The image represents the hierachal structure
of the Persian Empire. The king is right at the
top to suggest his absolute power and his
power in general.
|The throne scene in the Tripylon and the Hall
of a Hundred Columns — this represents an
actual procession wherethe king is carried
high by the subject people
» The Persian army was known as the an
immortal army as they were never down a
soldier
» This meant that they, once someone died,
they would replace them quickly
» This showed the Kings military power as he
was easily able to quickly replace a fallen
soldier showing the size of his military.
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 The history of Persepolis as revealed through the sources, including:
The layout of the city of Persepolis, the features ofthe city and their role in everyday life
Gate ofAll Nations
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e Formal entrance to Persepolis, reached by an imposing double staircase near the north-west
corner of the site.
e The gateway was bordered by twocolossal guardian figures in the shape of human-headed
bulls.

Apadana
e 60 square metre audiencehall
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e 36columns holding up a 25-metre-high roof

e Could accommodate 10000 people
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e Its north and east stairs feature reliefs of guards, dignitaries and subjects bringing gifts to the
king.

Palace of Darius (Tachara) 33yAt42JnkxG5z

e This building measures 40 by 30 metres and had 12 columns.

e Its 5 doors and 16 windowsareall inscribed with Darius’ name.
e The window framesare notable for their Egyptian-style lintels known a cavetto cornices.

Palace of Xerxes (Hadish)

e Square hall with 36 columns and two double, sculpture decorated staircases.
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e The doorjambs have images of the king entering the palace.

Harem
e Acollection of buildings in the south-eastern part of the site.
e The main wing contained two rowsof six apartments. Each one consisted of a large pillared
room with one of two smaller rooms.
e The west wing had another 16 apartments.
e There is no evidence that it housed the king’s concubines as the name suggests.

Tripylon (Triple Gate)

e Located between the Apadana and the Hall of a Hundred Columns.
e Consists of a central room and three decorated gates.

Hall of A Hundred Columns (Throne Hall)

e This 70 square metre hall had 10 rowsof 14-metre-high reliefs of throne scenes and the king
in combat with lion monsters.

Treasury
e 120 by 60 metres (huge structure)
e A large cache of clay tablets was discovered here, which have supplied information about the
Achaemenid Empire.

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 Design and ornamentation of the Achaemenid period
Architecture
e Achaemenid architects, designers and artists.drew on different artistic traditions from
neighbouring cultures to create a style that uniquely Persian. Influences from Assyria, Babylonia,
Media, Greece, Egypt and others are evident in Achaemenid architecture and art.
e The early kings of the Achaemenid Empire devised new styles in architecture and sculpture to
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decorate their capital cities and convey their dominion and authority over the known world.

Some of the features of this architecture include:

e Columned Halls: The huge columned spaces or hypostyle halls were possibly inspired by
Median architecture. Cyrus used columned halls at Pasargadae. At Persepolis, Darius | modified
the rectangular Apadana to a square achieve an even number of columns in each row. The Hall of
a Hundred Columns was another of these columned halls, features 10 rows of 10 columns.
e Columns: The inspiration for columns seems to have been the temples of the Greeks. Made
from either wood or stone, they featured capitals of animals or humans placed back to back. The
shafts of the columns were often ornately fluted, and the basesor plinths were bell-shaped and
made of stone. Columns at Susa and Persepolis were more than 19 metres high.
e Monumental Staircases: Staircases were necessary at Persepolis’ terrace location. Xerxes
replaced the entrancestaircase in the south with a new double staircase in the north west.
Containing 11 steps nearly 7 metres wide, it had long treads and low risers, enabling an easy climb
for robed visitors or even horses. The Apadana was also reached by two double staircases on the
north and east of the structure.
e Masonry: The masonry or stonework techniques used at both Pasargadae and Persepolis may
have come from Lydia and lonia. Examples include the stone columns at both locations and the 33yAt42JnkxG5z

gable-roofed tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae. Median, Egyptian, Phoenician and Mesopotamian

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influences can also be identified.
e Glazed Brickwork: Glazed and moulded brickwork was an Elamite technique and Darius’
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choice of style for Susa. Best known are the scenesof the Ten Thousand Immortals, the Susian
archers and the Babylonian-style protective sphinxes. 33yAt42JnkxG5z
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Iconography
e The iconography used by the Achaemenid kings to proclaim their royal and imperial power
was largely borrowed. Both Cyrus and Darius seem to have valued Assyrian iconography and
appropriated it for their own use; for example, the bas-relief of the four-winged genius from
Pasargadae. The iconography of the bas-relief is used by Cyrus not only to say that he has taken
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ancient Elam into his sphere of influence, but that he has access to resources from as far away as
Egypt.

Ornamentation
Achaemenid ornamentation was a blend of different cultural styles and traditional Persian motifs.
e Metalwork: Achaemenid metalwork was highly prized. Craftsmen used bronze, silver and gold
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to make objects suchas bowls, plates, vases, statuettes, jewellery and rhytons. Examples of the
Achaemenid goldsmiths’ skill came to light in the cache of treasure found near the Oxus River in
what had once been the satrapy of Bactria. The Persian motifs of lions and griffins appear on many
pieces, which were made using the Assyrian and Egyptian techniques of embossing, enameling
and inlaying of precious stones.

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 e Sculpture: Most Achaemenid sculpture was devoted to the ornamentation of the palaces. Asa
result, it is primarily large-scale, as seen in the animal capitals on the columns ofseveral buildings
at Persepolis and the huge bulls at the entrances.to the Gate of All Lands. It is also seen in the bas-
reliefs on palace walls and staircases and on cliff faces. Foreign influences are evident, such as the
stylized forms of Mesopotamian art, but these are combined with local motifs to form a new
Achaemenid style.
e Animportant example of Persian sculpture is the Behistun Inscription of Darius I, carved into a
cliff face beside the road from Babylon to Ecbatana. It depicts representatives of the subject
peoples who rebelled against his rule in the first months ofhis reign.

The role of Persepolis as a centre of Persian power — debate over the role of Alexander the Great in the
destruction of Persepolis
A Venue for the Now RuzFestival
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The Now Ruz festival was celebrated at the time of the spring equinox. According to this view the
Persepolis reliefs depict the ritual of the New Year Festival. The motifs included on them areall aspects
of the festival:
e The lion and bull in combat- the lion represents summer heat and the bull the winter rain
e The tribute of gift procession- this shows representatives of subject nations coming to
Persepolis for the New Year
e The people carrying food for banquets- these are festival banquets
e The scenes of audience with the king- the court official here introduces the representatives of
the subject peoples
Morerecently, this interpretation of Persepolis has been questioned. Scholars now think that the Now
Ruz was unlikely to have been celebrated in Achaemenid times at all. If it was, it was not celebrated at
the time of the spring equinox. According to ancient Greek scholars who were familiar with Persian
culture, the king’s birthday was the most celebrated festival, followed by the festival in honour of the
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God Mithras. Many scholars agree that the reliefs are best explained as an expression of kingship.
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A Centre of Royal Power

Persepolis operated as a symbolic centre of Persian power and kingship. Writers of Achaemenid history
have commented on the way in which the reliefs and the architecture give the impression that the
Achaemenid kings were unanimously supported by their subjects.
e The throne scene in the Tripylon and the Hall of a Hundred
e The sight of Persepolis is one of the most famous ruins of ancient times.
e The Achaemenid king Darius | began building there in the early 6" century BC, but most of the
building was completed during the reign of his son, Xerxes.
e The later king, Artaxerxes |, added to Persepolis before it was destroyed byfire in 330BCE,
after Alexander the Great’s conquest.
e Its monumental nature is shown through the palace complex, covering an excavated terrace
measuring 12 hectares, with the buildings erected on a 9-metre-high platform.
e Striking features include the giant columns of the palaces and treasure houses and the
monumental gateway bearing the guardian sculpture of massive stone bulls.

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 Alexander the Great’s Role in the Destruction of Persepolis
When Alexander the Great defeated the Persians at the Battle of the Persian Gate in 330BCE his army
occupied Persepolis. After some time, the troops were permitted to loot the Persian capital and as an
outcome ofthis, Persepolis was destroyed byfire. This story.is often questioned in historical sources and
raises several questions: 33yAt42JnkxG5z

33yAt42JnkxG5z Did Alexander’s army loot Persepolis?

How much ofthe site was destroyed byfire?
Wheredid the fire begin?
Was the fire deliberately started or was it an accident?
If the fire was deliberately started, what was the motive?
What was Alexander’s role in the destruction?
Was anyone else involved besides the soldiers? Who, and what was the nature of their
involvement?
(modern/ancient sources)

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 The First 4 Rulers of Persepolis

Cyrus the Great

e Founder of the Achaemenid Empirethefirst persian empire
e (born 590-580 BCE, Media, or Persis [now in Iran]—diedc. 529, Asia)
e objectives was to gain poweroverthe Mediterranean coast and secure A sia Minor.
e Almost nothing is known about Cyrus' personal beliefs, but X enophonreports to us that in religious
matters he followed the guidance of the Magiansathis court.
e asa tolerant and ideal monarch whowascalled the father of his people by the ancient Persians. In
the Bible heis theliberator of the Jews who were captive in Babylonia.
e The most important sourceforhislife is the Greek historian Herodotus.
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o Herodotus saysthat the Persians called Cyrustheir father, while later Achaemenian rulers
werenot so well regarded
e Inthe Bible (e.g., Ezra 1:14), Cyrus is famousfor freeing the J ewish captives in Babylonia and
allowing them to return to their homeland. Cyrus was also tolerant toward the Babylonians and
others. He conciliated local populations by supporting local customs and evensacrificing to local
deities.
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e Cyrus was quick to learn from the conquered peoples. Henotonly conciliated the Medes but united
them with the Persians in a kind of dual monarchy of the Medesand Persians. Cyrus had to borrow
the traditions of kingship from the Medes, who had ruled an empire whenthe Persians were merely
their vassals.
e Cuneiform records from Babylon suggest that Cyrus died on 4 December 530BCE. However,
according to Herodotus, Cyrus waskilled near the Aral Sea in July or August 529BCE during a
campaign to protect the northeastern borders of his empire from incursions by the Massagetae.

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Cambyses 2
Cambyses the second was the Achaemenid king of Persia, the eldest son of King CyrusII. He
reigned from 529 BCE to 522 BCE andis well knownforhis conquer of Egypt. Althoughthis
campaign wasoriginally planned by Cyrus, it is considered the major achievement of Cambyses’
reign. Cambysesreceived assistance from Polycrates of Samos; from Phanes, a Greek general in
the Egyptian army who gave him valuable military information; and from the Arabs, who
provided waterfor the crossing of the Sinai Desert. After Cambyses had wonthe Battle of
Pelusium (525) in the Nile Delta and had captured Heliopolis and Memphis, Egyptian resistance
collapsed. While in Egypt, Cambyses planned expeditions against Ethiopia, the Oasis of Amon 33yAt42JnkxG5z

(modern Wahat Stwah), and Carthage. He himself set out against Ethiopia, but, after annexing
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the northern part of the country, he ran short of supplies and had to return. The attack on
Carthage was neverattempted. Further points to note duringhis reign include him performing
the ritual duties of the Babylonian king at the NewY ear festival in 538 BCE, and being
appointed regent in Babylon in 530 BCE.

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 Darius |
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DariusI (c. 550-486 BCE), also knownas Darius the Great, was the third Persian Kingof the
Achaemenid Empire.
His reign lasted 36 years, from c. 522 to 486 BCE; during this time the Persian Empirereachedits
peak.
Darius led military campaigns in Europe, Greece, and even in the Indusvalley, conquering lands
and expanding his empire.
Of these, he attempted several times to conquer Greece;his fleet was destroyed by a storm in 492,
and the A thenians defeated his army at Marathonin 490.
He undertook a numberof campaignsfor the purposeof strengtheninghis frontiers and checking
the incursions of nomadic tribes.
Healso improved the legal and economic system and conducted impressive construction projects
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acrossthe Persian Empire.

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Wasthe greatest royal architect of his dynasty

He completed the organization of the empireinto satrapies, initiated by Cyrus the Great, and fixed
the annual tribute due from each province.
Ambitious and far-sighted projects were undertaken to promote imperial trade and commerce.
Coinage, weights, and measures were standardized and land and sea routes developed.
Darius followed the example of Cyrusin respecting nativereligiousinstitutions.
Introduction of Zoroastrianism as the state religion of Persia is probably to be attributed to him, as
reflected in his inscriptions, which showtheinfluence of these teachings.

Xerxes I
Fourth king of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia.
Ruled from 486-485 BCE.
His motherwas tossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great (who founded the Achaemenid Empire).
His father was Darius the Great. Came into powerashis successorfollowinghis death.
Knownfor his many building projects throughout his empire.
Best knownforthe expedition he mounted against Greece in 480 BCE during which he assembled
the largest and most well equipped fighting force everputinto the field upto that point. This
involved a massive invasion of Greece from across the Hellespont (480 BCE), a campaign marked
by the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea.
His ultimate defeat led to the beginning of the decline of the Achaemenid Empire.
Portrayed as a tyrant. His rule over ancient Egypt washarsh, disregarding local customsandbeliefs.
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Xerxes decided not to follow the ideas set by his predecessors; the notion that ruling with fair,
light hand was the way to keep many nations underone's ruleat once.
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 Modem andAncient Sources:

Ancient: 33yAt42JnkxG5z

Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, Life of Alexander, suggests that the burning of persepolis was a
premeditated act caused by Thais. Thais, the mistress of Ptolemy was said to havetold
everyone that she wanted to burn Persepolis down. Plutarch says that Thais,” said, ... it would
be a... greater pleasureto ... set fire to the houseof the Xerxes who burned Athens, she
herself kindling the fire under the eyes of Alexander ... As soon as she had thus spoken,
tumultuous applause arose, and the companions of the king eagerly urged him on, so that he
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yielded to their desires, and leaping to his feet, with a garland on his head and a torch in his
hand, led them the way.This is the way the deed was done, according to some writers; but
others say itwas premeditated, according to Plutarch.

Diodorus Siculus, in his book, bibliotheca Historica, suggests that the cause ofthe fire of
persepolis was due to a drunken part that Alexander held. A Greek Attic woman present, Thais,
encouraged them to put “to extinguish the famed accomplishments of the Persians”. The source
suggests that Thais had a big influence on the fire as she is also suggested to have been the
primary backerofthe fire in Plutarch’s Theparallel lives. Siculus suggests that perhapsif the
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guests were notintoxicated, the other events wouldn’t have followed perhapsjustifying the
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destruction. 33yAt42JnkxG5z

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Arrian’s, The Anabasis of Alexander suggests that the main causeofthe fire was due to a
grudge againstthe persian’s for their attacks on greece. He says, “But Alexander said that he
wished to take vengeance on the Persians, in retaliation for their deeds in the invasion of
Greece, when they razed Athens to the ground and burnt downthe temples,” suggesting that
Alexander was driven on getting revenge, rather than keeping aspects of areas he had taken
over to use. He wanted his own image and culture to be represented in the architecture,
especially not one that had invaded his own nation and destroyed Athens. Also shows a
projection of power and superiority, and is a caution to what may happen to other nations who
try to destroy Greece.
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Modern
In Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, they proposethat the main reason for Alexander’s
destruction of persepolis was its status in Asia as the religious centre of Persia. This would be
further supported by the fact that Alexander wanted to supersede the kingship of Persia rather
then to continue it. Another modern source from ‘Persia and Persepolis, part II states Arrians
given reason for why he would want to destroy persia but notions to a deeper meaning then just
revenge. Theystate that “the destruction of Persepolis itself was intended to remove a royal
centre around which Persian feeling might rise again under the influence of a native pretender
to the Achaemenian throne.” Showing that alexander wanted to destroy a city and completely
show his power. Thesetwo perspectivesoffer a reflective view of Alexander's motives and often
link different historical events that, if reflected on during the time, would have been dismissed.

Source 17

Primary source 17 is written by Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca Historica. He states

that the reason for Persepolis’ destruction was a drunken feast held by Alexanderin which
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 a Greek Attic woman present, Thais, encouraged them to put “to extinguish the famed
accomplishments of the Persians”. Siculus suggests that perhapsif the guests were not
intoxicated, the other events wouldn’t have followed perhapsjustifying the destruction,
since he is Greek and therefore would beslightly bias in his accounts. The source was
also written 200 years after the demise of Persepolis meaning that there would be extra
room for historical error and Siculus may also have compiled a variety of perspectives and
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Opinions before he wroteit, swaying his own judgements. This must be considered
meaning that the source’s accuracy and trustworthiness will have slightly decreased.

Source 18

Source 18 portrays the profile of Alexander the Great.It depicts his large mass ofhair,
youthful face and deep eyes. The detail taken into forming this marble head can be seen
to reflect his power and respect in society as careful attention to detail was taken when
carving out his features.

Source 19

This source portrays Alexander to have been pressured into setting fire to the Palace of
Xerxes, due to the eagerness of his companions, though it considers the perspectives of
other historians in the belief that this fire was planned. It also demonstrates the agreement
that directly after setting fire he felt remorse and ordered the fire to be put out.

Source 20
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Secondary source written about Alexander. It reveals that Alexander was driven on getting
revenge, rather than keeping aspects of areas he had taken over to use. He wanted his
own image and culture to be represented in the architecture, especially not one that had
invaded his own nation and destroyed Athens. Also shows a projection of power and
Superiority.

Source 21

Secondary source showing a modern perspective on Alexander's reasons to destroy

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Persepolis. Reveals that Alexander had multiple reasons to destroy Persepolis. He used
its destruction as a way of Spreading his own religious beliefs, as Persepolis was seen as
a religious centre in the Persian Empire. Persepolis was also destroyed as a way of
getting revenge against the Persians, as well as solidifying Alexander’s power and
proclamation of kingship.

Source 22

A secondary source on Alexander the Great written by George Woodcock in his book
about Persia. It reveals Alexander’s motive for ruining Persepolis, being that it was a
punishment against what the Persians did to the Greeks, but it is argued that there was a
deeper meaning to his conquering saying that the Persian empire was an obstacle to his
conquering of other nations, and that they could become a major rival and could challenge
for the throne, therefore getting rid of any factors that could stop him from gaining power.

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 Preservation, Conservation and Reconstruction of Ancient Sites

The nature of the site(s), and the condition and extent of the remains
The Case of Abu Simbel
Abu Simbel in southern Egyptis a case if the preservation of an archaeological site, which involved the
complete dismantling, removal and reconstruction of the site at a new location.
The two great temples of Abu Simbel, situated south of Aswan, near Egypt’s border with Nubia were
carved by the builders of the pharaoh Ramses II out of the limestone cliffs bordering the Nile over 3000
years ago. They are-aweinspiring monuments, their facades decorated with 20-metre-high colossal
statues of the king and his chief wife Nefertiti.

In the 1960’s the Egyptian government began construction of the High Dam at Aswan to control the flow
of the Nile. This meant that the Abu Simbel temples would have been submerged and lost forever under
the waters of Lake Nasser. The threatened loss of these great monumentsstirred the world community
to action. The cost of this project was too much for Egypt to bear alone. UNESCO spearheaded the
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campaign to rescue the temples, the cost of which was subsequently met by donors from around the
world in an unprecedented spirit of goodwill and cooperation. Archaeologists, scientists, engineers and
other experts from many countries worked together to save the temples.

The Abu Simbel rescue operation took more than four years, cost $40 million and required a labour
force of nearly 3000 people who had to be fed, housed and paid for the duration of the project.
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Thousands of tonnes of solid rock were removed from behind the temples, and the temples themselves
were sawn into over 1000 blocks, each weighing up to 33 tonnes. The temples were then reassembled
onto a cement foundation on high ground out of reach of the rising waters of Lake Nasser. A 30-metre-
high dome with a span of 65 metres was constructed behind the temples to replicate the original
limestone cliffs from which the temples were carved. The dome contains a modern lighting system and
pumps to ventilate the temples. The rescue of the Abu Simbel temples is one of the greatest engineering
accomplishments of the 20th century. 33yAt42JnkxG5z

Issues of conservation and preservation of the site(s), including factors which threaten the integrity or
survival of the ancient site, for example environmental factors, war, deliberate destruction, pillaging,
poverty
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Factors Threatening Ancient Sites

[EnvironmentalExampleAgencyExample
Climatic events Flood, fire, tornado, Warfare Bombing,looting,
tsunami (when caused deliberate destruction
by a storm or glacier
calving)
Geological events Earthquake, volcanic Illegal excavation and Clandestine digging and
eruption, land looting removal of artefacts for
subsidence, tsunami black market
Vegetation Weeds, jungle growth Vandalism Associated with war or
other civil unrest,
desecration for political
or other purposes

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 Weathering and Effects of wind, Modern development Building of roads,
erosion water/rain, sand, heat freeways, shopping
and cold malls, housing, mining,
developments
Animals and insects Burrowing, chewing, Tourism Impact of large
boring, droppings numbers, carelessness,
souveniring,illicit
photography

The effectiveness/appropriateness of methods used to preserve, conservevand/or reconstruct the

site(s), including relevant national or international charters or conventions, forsexample UNESCO, and
international efforts to protect ancient sites of World Heritage significance

Conservation is the deliberate attempt to arrest the process of change and decay, and to protect and
preserve sights and artefacts from the damaging effects of both natural and human agency. A number of
organisations and governments around the world have introduced chartersand legislation for the
protection, preservation and management of important archaeological sites and cultural heritage.
The aim of conserving the historic environment is to hand on to future generations whatist'we value.
Conservation involves manyactivities — maintenance, repair, use, access and interpretation. In some
instances, conservation can also involve restoration, reconstructionistrior replication of historic fabric,
usually as part of a programme of public interpretation. Unfortunately, such work also has the potential
to damageplaces. therefore, international and national guidance is that restoration or reconstruction of
historic buildings and ruins should be approached cautiously and never carried out on a speculative
basis.

Protecting World Heritage Sites

An important international charter that aims to protect World Heritage sites
and cultural property from the effects of war is the UNESCO Hague Convention
for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. This
convention, which came into effect in 1954, was developed in the aftermath of
the widespread destruction of archaeological sites and artefacts during World
War Il. As of 2017, 128 states have signed up to the convention. Signatories
commit to the adoption of measures to protect their own cultural property,
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and that of other states as appropriate, in the event of war. This includes
drawing up inventories of monuments, artworks, scientific collections, books
and other artefacts of historical or archaeological value. Under the convention,
they are also required to make plans for the safe storage and supervision of
cultural property protected by this convention.
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International Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS)

The Blue Shield is also the symbol of the International Committee of the Blue Shield, which was found to
support the aims of The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property. Blue Shield members
offer expert advice and support to countries in preparing plans to protect their cultural property and to
respond to crisis situations, including natural disasters. Blue Shield is also active in the campaign to
stamp out illegal trafficking of art and antiquities.

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 The Conservation Plan
In the early days of archaeology, excavation was the prime concern of archaeologists, and little thought
was given to the long-term preservation or conservation of the site. Today, any work of excavation and
examination carried out on archaeological sites must also have in place a plan for the conservation of
the site. Conservators use a range of sophisticated technologies to arrest the deterioration of ancient
sites and finds to ensure their preservation. Conservation can also involve the restoration of neglected
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or damaged features and in some cases actual reconstruction.

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The Venice Charter

The International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monumentsand Sites or Venice
Charter has been the benchmark for principles governing the conservation and restoration of historic
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building since 1964. It was established by a group of professional conservationists meeting in Venice,
Italy, hence its name. The charter sets down guidelinesfor all conservation, restoration and
reconstruction work on historic buildings and the sites in which they are located.
Preserving an exposed site could include closing areas such as houses and rooms to protect them from
the effects of tourism. Scaffolding can be erected to strengthen crumbling structures; roofs and glass or
plastic coverings can be used to protect structures and other features, such as frescoes and mosaics,
from the effects of weather. For example, the entire 20-hectare archaeological site of Akrotiri on the
island of Thera, modern Santorini, was covered by roof to protect the various features of the site.
The principle of reversibility included in the Venice Charter requires that all interventions with the object
or structure should be fully reversible so that it can be returned to the state it was in before the
conservator’s intervention.

Conservation Technologies
Treatment of built structures and artefacts will depend on the nature of the materials from which they
are made. Some procedures for conserving organic materials include impregnation with a chemical 33yAt42JnkxG5z

agent to strengthen and stabilise, or drying and hardening with chemical agents, eg- freeze drying.
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Inorganic articles that corroded, rusted or otherwise deteriorated can be treated by chemical
desalination or impregnation with resins, (eg. acrylic, polyurethane and epoxy).
Modern conservation techniques depend on increasingly sophisticated technologies. Survey,
investigation and examination of the various structures and features of a site can involve the use of:
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e Satellite imagery, aerial photography and GIS mapping

e X-ray radiography
e Computerised image analysis
e X-ray computer tomography
e Neutron radiography
e Infrared photography

An example of the application of some of the latest digital technology in archaeological conservation is
the use ofa terrestrial laser scanner (LIDAR) was used to create a precise record of restored mosaics in a

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 1** century AD Byzantine church at the ancient site of Petra in Jordan. Regular scans are used to detect
any changes or movement in the structure so that necessary conservation work can be undertaken.
The reconstruction of the ancient site(s), for exampl@to restorea site to its original form, and digital
reconstructions
Reconstruction involves rebuilding or restoring a site to its original state, or the state it was in at the
period ofits history chosen for that particular representation. Depending on the condition of the
remains, this may require introducing new material into the structure and so the integrity of the original
structure may be compromised. Some reconstructions in attempting to be morevisually appealing to
the visitor may enhance features of the structure which are notfaithful to the original. Even when
accuracy is the main aim, the older the site is, the more difficult it is to be sure that the reconstruction is
a reliable reconstruction of the original.
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Modern Methods of Reconstruction

Anastylosis is the term archaeologists and conservators use to describe the reconstruction of ruined
ancient structures using- as far as possible- the original materials. The introduction of new materials is
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strictly limited. These principles of reconstruction are set down in the Venice Charter and are
summarised as follows:
e The original state of the building must be determined bystrict scientific evidence
e The correct location for placing any recovered material must also be carefully established
e Any newor substituted materials can only be used to maintain the integrity of the structure.
They mustbe able to be clearly identified as substitute materials. No use of new materials for
filling in gaps to enhance the appearanceof the building is allowed.

Digital Reconstruction
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Today the use ofdigital technologies by archaeologists and historians is opening exciting new
possibilities for preserving and representing the ancient past. These techniques include digital image
processing, terrestrial laser scanning and 3D-model processing. Digital models of sites or buildings can
be easily adapted for a wide range of purposes including research, teaching, publication and on-site or
museum displays.

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