Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19

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Journal of Structural Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsg

The development of structural geology and the historical context of the T

journal of structural geology: A reflection by Bruce Hobbs
Bruce E. Hobbsa,b,∗
a
Centre for Exploration Targeting, School of Earth Sciences, University of Western Australia, WA, 6009, Australia
b
CSIRO, Perth, WA, 6102, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper sets the historical context for the Journal of Structural Geology when it was first published in 1979.
Historical context The major advances in Structural Geology over the past 40 years are then highlighted. Finally, ten Grand
Structural geology Challenges for the next decade are nominated.
History of structural geology

He who sees things grow from the beginning will have the best view It is interesting to note that Win Means (pers. comm.) was in-
of them. dependently negotiating with Springer for the publication of a journal
Barry Voight, 1976. with a similar emphasis to JSG but was beaten to the line by Paul
Hancock. Clearly there was a perceived need for such a journal at the
time and the last 40 years has confirmed this perception.
1. Introduction
It is noteworthy that 1979 was also the year that Bruno Sander died
at the age of 95. More will be said about Sander later in this note but I
The first issue of The Journal of Structural Geology (JSG) was
am sure he would have looked upon JSG as a truly major contribution
published in 1979, 40 years ago. JSG was the brain child of Paul
to the subject that he played a major role in creating.
Hancock who convinced Pergamon Elsevier that there was a need for a
I have been asked to write this note to celebrate 40 years of JSG.
specialised journal devoted to Structural Geology amongst existing
Initially I set out to look at each issue of JSG and to note the first ap-
journals that emphasised Geotectonics, Regional Structural Geology
pearance of new ideas that have made a seminal contribution to
and Plate Tectonics. The first issue stated that …
Structural Geology. I managed to review up until 1995 when I realised
“The principal aim of this — journal is to publish original research
that the publication rate and subject matter were beginning to grow
and review articles in structural geology and tectonics. Deformation
exponentially and that there was not enough time available to complete
phenomena and processes on all scales from the crystal lattice to the
the task. Instead I have decided to summarise the subject up until 1979
lithospheric plate are included in the scope of the Journal. Long or short
to provide a basis for where the subject was at the time the first issue
articles are invited in the fields of: the analysis of natural deformation
appeared, to provide a very brief comment on significant advances
elements (e. g. folds, foliations, faults, minor fractures); structural as-
since 1979 and to offer some comments on Grand Challenges for the
sociations (e. g. gliding masses, diapirs, graben, orogenic belts); mi-
next decade.
crofabrics; experimental deformation; strain analysis; seismotectonics;
My commentary is necessarily biased towards contributions that
regional structural geology; and global tectonics. The Journal particu-
made important impacts on me and I trust I do not offend too many
larly welcomes papers on relationships between tectonic phenomena
people whose contributions I have left out. In fact it is a testimony to
and deformation processes”, making it quite clear that this was a
the success of JSG that it would be difficult to summarise the con-
journal devoted to a wide range of structural and tectonic phenomena
tributions in JSG over the past 40 years. This note is not a review and is
and with an emphasis on processes. Editors in Chief since Paul Hancock
not meant to be inclusive so that references have been kept to a
are Sue Treagus (1986–1998), Jim Evans (1998–2005), and Cees
minimum otherwise this paper would become an encyclopaedia. I
Passchier (2005 to present). The original intent of JSG has been well
apologise if omission of the reader's favourite reference causes distress.
maintained by the dedication of these people to whom we owe a great
Space and time constraints mean that important topics to do with brittle
debt of gratitude.

∗
Centre for Exploration Targeting, School of Earth Sciences, University of Western Australia, WA, 6009, Australia.
E-mail address: Bruce.hobbs@csiro.au.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2018.12.008
Received 14 December 2018; Accepted 29 December 2018
Available online 03 January 2019
0191-8141/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
B.E. Hobbs
failure, thrust tectonics, seismotectonics, the relevance of CPO devel-
opment for mantle flow and the influence of fluids have not been in-
cluded. Nor have deformation mechanisms and CPO development been
discussed for any mineral other than quartz.
2. Advances in structural geology in the period 1726 to 1979
A discussion of advances in Structural Geology up until 1979 is both
a daunting and humbling experience. I have tried to attribute various
advances to individuals only invariably to discover that there was
someone earlier. I trust the reader will excuse my errors and omissions.
2.1. Early structural geology: the 18th and 19th centuries
The origins of Structural Geology at least in the English speaking
world perhaps began with Hutton (1788). Although it was clear to
Hutton and to Playfair (1802), who elaborated upon Hutton's ob-
servations, that originally horizontal strata had been deformed so that
they are now seen to be “bent” and vertical, the concept of folding does
not seem to be well developed in those writings. It remained for Hall
(1815) to develop and illustrate the folding concept and to undertake
analogue experiments to show that horizontal shortening (rather than
forces from below) could be responsible for the deformation. 1815 was
also the year that Smith's map of Britain (except for the Scottish
Highlands) was published (Smith, 1815). It should be noted that folding
in the European Alps had been described by Vallisneri (1715; see
Schmalholz and Mancktelow, 2016) and the concept of horizontal
forces producing folds had previously been proposed by de Saussure
(1796) in the European Alps. Analogue modelling however was not
restricted to folding and Cadell (1889) modelled the development of
thrusts (with results uncannily similar to those from modern analogue
modelling) to be followed by Willis (1892) with relevance to de-
formation in the Appalachians.
Darwin (1839) described planar structures crossing primary bed-
ding from South America and so the concept of deformation induced
foliations was established (with some difficulty against the prevailing
views). In fact Darwin describes these foliations as chemically differ-
entiated so his observations seem to represent the first description of
metamorphic differentiation. By 1847 the concept of slaty cleavage was
well known (Sharpe, 1847; Sorby, 1853). By the end of the 19th century
foliation crossing bedding was an established concept and in fact
multiple foliation episodes were recognised. An example is Clough
(1897) where a late “strain slip” (crenulation) cleavage is described
overprinting an early cleavage. Heim (1878) and Loretz (1882) both
described the detailed relations between folding, axial plane cleavage
and lineation including that the intersection of cleavage and bedding is
parallel to the fold axis. Heim (1878) in particular describes belemnites
stretched parallel to the fold axes and is the first to demonstrate elon-
gation parallel to fold axes. These observations were beautifully re-
produced experimentally by Danbrée (1879), accompanied by the ex-
perimental production of schistosity.
Some 40 years after Darwin's observations, Lapworth (1883, 1885)
described mylonites from the Moine Thrust and proposed (against
strong opposition from The UK Geological Survey, see Law and
Johnson, 2010) that thrusting was responsible for the disposition of
rocks in the NW Scottish Highlands. Lapworth was strongly influenced
by Heim (1878) who had proposed (again against considerable oppo-
sition) the presence of thrust and fold nappes in the Swiss Alps and was
strongly supported by later workers (Argand, 1911; Wegmann, 1929).
The thrust concept was confirmed in the Scottish Highlands by the
detailed mapping ofPeach et al. (1907). Lapworth had described my-
lonites as “milled rocks” with the implication that they originated
through a process of (brittle) crushing. Thus the process involved in the
production of mylonites was envisaged to be solely cataclasis as op-
posed to a modern view that plastic deformation and dynamic re-
crystallisation play a major role. Lapworth did however recognise that
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
other processes (that we now call recrystallisation) had operated. The
concept of “milling” persisted until well into the 1970's especially in the
USA; Billings (1972) for instance refers to mylonite as a “breccia”. Heim
(1878) however had already made the distinction between cataclasis
and plastic deformation and had in fact proposed a cataclastic/plastic
transition as one proceeded deeper in the crust, a proposal also made by
Van Hise (1898). For an insightful review up until 1971 with annotated
bibliography, see Higgins (1971).
Inspired by the work of Heim (1878), Adams and Nicholson (1901)
conducted an amazing and beautiful series of experiments (begun in
1897) on Carrara marble at up to 300 MPa confining pressure, strain
rates as low as 10−8 s−1, and temperatures of room temperature and
300 °C and 400 °C with and without water. They demonstrated cata-
clastic flow at room temperature and plastic behaviour at 300 °C and
(better) at 400 °C by twinning and “gliding”. Water had little influence
on their results (an observation that was unexpected in view of the well-
known (by then) phenomenon of “pressure solution”). They drew
analogies with experiments on the plastic behaviour of metals and of ice
and compared their results with natural microstructures. This re-
presents the first set of experiments on mineral deformation and
documents the cataclastic/plastic transition already discussed by Heim
(1878). The design of their apparatus prevented the measurement of
stress-strain curves.
2.2. The Sander – Schmidt contributions
Thus by the start of the 20th century the concepts of cataclasis and
plastic deformation, along with a depth transition between these two
modes of deformation, rock deformation by folding with axial plane
cleavages (even multiple fold sets with associated overprinting clea-
vages) and thrusting had at long last been accepted and well demon-
strated at least in the UK and parts of Europe and the USA. However
two other publications need to be mentioned that appeared in the 19th
century that made important impacts on the future development of
Structural Geology. One was Thomson and Tait (1867) and the other
Becker (1893); both of these papers made significant impacts on Bruno
Sander who was to develop micro-fabric analysis from ca.1911 on-
wards. Thompson and Tait (commonly known as TT) accumulated in
one place much of what had been achieved in mechanics up until that
time and TT became the definitive treatment of the kinematics1 of de-
formation with the first treatments of homogeneous strain and of finite
shear in particular. The emphasis was on the energy associated with
deformation and hence TT represents an early treatment of the ther-
modynamics of deformation. The book also contains an early definition
(Section 673 of Thomson and Tait, 1867) for the stress from a ther-
modynamic point of view (approximately a decade before Gibbs, 1878).
The important aspect of TT is that they discussed the motions involved
in deformation and this formed the basis for Sander's kinematic concept
of componental movements (Tielbewegung).
Becker (1893) summarised some of TT with relevance to Structural
Geology and in particular applied mechanics to the origin of jointing
and cleavage. Although one may not agree with many of Becker's
concepts (in particular that there is a relation between jointing and
slaty cleavage; but see also Cosgrove, 1989) the paper represents one of
the first applications of mechanics to Structural Geology and raises the
suggestion that slaty cleavage is parallel to planes of shearing rather
than being a principal plane of strain as was the common wisdom at
that time (Sharpe, 1847; Sorby, 1853 and after, Becke, 1913; Harker,
18851932).
1
The term kinematics is used traditionally in mechanics to include both the
geometry (displacement/strain field) and movements (velocity/vorticity field)
associated with deformation. In Structural Geology it has come to mean only
the velocity/vorticity field. We use it in that sense here. TT used kinematics in
the broader sense.
B.E. Hobbs
Although Trener (1906) is attributed (by Sander, 1911) with the
first documentation of crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) in
deformed rocks it was Sander (1911, 1930, 1948, 1950) with the in-
valuable interaction and assistance of Walter Schmidt (1918, 1927,
1932) and other colleagues, who fully documented many of the CPO's
that we now know of in deformed quartzites, marbles and mica-rich
rocks. In his classical 1911 paper Sander (see Ingerson, 1938) in-
troduces the concept that the kinematic framework (as opposed to the
geometry) of deformation is the control on the fabrics we see in de-
formed rocks. By kinematic framework is meant the spatial array of
movements of material particles that produce the deformation. He
called this the movement picture; today we would call this the velocity
gradient tensor. He introduced the term fabric (Gefüge) to describe the
spatial arrangement of structural elements in a deformed rock where
both scalar and vector measures were implied. In particular Sander's
views of kinematics in deformed rocks involved slip on one or more
planes (at all scales from microscopic to regional) in the fabric; he
called these motions componental movements. These concepts derive
from both TT and Becker (1893). At the grain scale we would now
identify componental movements as the motions associated with dif-
fusion, dislocation glide and climb, twinning, subgrain rotation and
grain boundary sliding.
Sander described the kinematics in terms of the symmetry of the
kinematic framework (a procedure common in today's literature; see
Tikoff et al., 2013) and developed a set of orthogonal coordinate axes to
describe the kinematics: for simple shearing the movement picture has
monoclinic symmetry whereas for pure shearing the symmetry is or-
thorhombic and for superimposed shearing and shortening the sym-
metry may be triclinic. For a monoclinic movement picture (and only
for a monoclinic movement picture) a is parallel to the direction of
shearing (the direction of tectonic transport), a and b define the plane of
shearing and c is normal to this plane. Sander also defined a geome-
trical axis, B, that defines the direction of a rotation axis in the fabric;
commonly, but not exclusively, B was identified with a fold axis. In
modern terminology (only for a velocity gradient tensor with mono-
clinic symmetry) a and b are eigenvectors of the velocity gradient
tensor and B is the curl of the velocity gradient tensor. He also in-
troduced the term tectonite to mean a deformed rock where the com-
ponental movements can be integrated to define a movement picture
(in other words, the deformation is penetrative) and distinguished be-
tween tectonites dominated by linear fabrics (now called L-tectonites)
and those distinguished by planar fabrics (now called S-tectonites). All
of these definitions are clear and internally consistent as can be seen by
examining the relevant sections (in English) of Sander (1970, p 70).
By 1930 X-ray methods for examining crystallographic preferred
orientation were established and a summary is given in Schmid and
Boas (1935). Sander and Sachs (1930) is the first use of such methods to
look at mineral CPO's. The method was further developed by others
including Fairbairn (1949, p 23, pp 292–296). These methods ulti-
mately evolved into current electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD)
methods via X-ray goniometry (Higgs et al., 1960). Sander also worked
with Ramsauer (1941) who meticulously mapped by hand the shapes of
individual quartz grains and coloured each one according to its crys-
tallographic orientation. This method, called axial distribution analysis
(Achsenverteilungsanalysen, AVA) was used by Sander to understand the
spatial relationships between various parts of a preferred orientation
pattern, and to postulate various deformation mechanisms, but in-
volved only the crystallographic c-axis. These maps are early forms of
EBSD maps.
It is noteworthy that Schmidt (1927) proposed a mechanism for the
formation of quartz CPO involving the rotation during deformation of
active slip systems. The slip planes postulated were the basal plane,
(0001), the prism planes, {101̄0} , and the pyramids, {101̄1} ; glide di-
rections were < a>, < c> and < c ± a>. These are the slip systems com-
monly used for quartz in modern approaches but at the time there were
no experimental observations to support these proposals. Schmidt
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
(1927) showed that all of the common CPO patterns developed for
quartz in nature could be explained if these slip systems aligned with
the dominant s-plane in the fabric and that crystallographic slip di-
rections aligned with a slip direction in the fabric during deformation.
Such an approach is amazingly similar to modern approaches to CPO
development. Schmidt also described the rotation of garnets indicated
by relative rotation of schistosity within the garnet.
2.3. The Sander controversy
However in some parts of the English speaking world the Sander
concepts met with considerable opposition. People argued whether B
was always parallel to b or if the lineation, L, was always parallel to a.
Clearly there were cases where L was parallel to B (and hence parallel
to b?). To make things worse, examples were documented where L was
oblique to B (a fold axis) or even worse where more than one L and/or
fold axis (taken as B) were present so how could the Sander concepts be
relevant?
Much of the misunderstanding of Sander's work arose from attempts
to apply the concepts to (i) fabrics with non-monoclinic symmetries, (ii)
fabrics comprised of superimposed deformations, (iii) a contradictory
assertion that mineral lineations always parallel principal axes of strain
(i.e. they are “stretching” lineations) and that this corresponds precisely
with a “slip” direction, (iv) another contradictory assertion that folia-
tions are parallel to principal planes of strain and that these correspond
directly with slip planes and (v) an assumption that strain rather than
kinematics is important in controlling fabric. The latter three assump-
tions are still prominent in some modern writings and are considered
later in the paper. Another objection was based on an erroneous mixing
of kinematic axes (a, b and c) with fabric and strain axes. Thus the ab-
plane was equated with a principal plane of strain and so on. Added to
these misunderstandings was a controversy that arose concerning the
kinematic interpretation of quartz c-axis fabrics where it was claimed
that interpretations of c-axis fabrics in terms of symmetry indicated a
NE direction of transport on the Moine Thrust (Phillips, 1937, 1939,
1945, 1947, 1956) whereas the prevailing interpretation was transport
to the NW. For a review of this controversy see Law and Johnson
(2010). This view on transport directions was shared by others. Ex-
amples are Kvale (1945, 1948, 1953); it is interesting for the reader to
revisit Kvale (1948) and reinterpret his data in terms of modern
thinking (Schmid and Casey, 1986). To some extent this was attempted
by Fairbairn (1949, p 220). The outcome however was that Sander's
work fell into disrepute and remains in disrepute in many circles to this
day. This is unfortunate because his work is rigorously stated and in-
ternally consistent. He amassed an amazing data set on the CPO's of
common minerals and set the foundations for modern Structural
Geology. Currently, where kinematic interpretations are the norm,
Sander's contributions are more relevant than ever.
Throughout this controversy there was recognition that earlier fold
axes had been rotated to become parallel to the proposed direction of
transport on the associated thrust; an example is Bryant and Reed
(1969). To a large extent this concept was formalised by the recognition
of sheath folds (Cobbold and Quinquis, 1980) formed by shearing.
2.4. Sander's concepts in North America
One of the influential people with respect to Structural Geology in
the USA during the first half of the 20th century was Eleanora Bliss
Knopf. She had visited Sander and transferred many of his ideas into
English in Knopf (1933) and Knopf and Ingerson (1938). She was also a
strong supporter of and lobbyer for experimental rock deformation
(Knopf, 1946) and encouraged David Griggs and Frank Turner in their
subsequent work. Nothing can be clearer regarding the significance (to
Knopf and to Sander) of foliation than the frontispiece to Knopf and
Ingerson (1938). In a thin section cut parallel to the lineation and
normal to the foliation, the dominant foliation in a deformed quartzite
B.E. Hobbs
is outlined by quartz grain shape and is labelled the slip plane (S1 ≡
ab); another slip plane is marked by quartz grains with a different or-
ientation of the c-axis. The role of foliations as slip planes was an in-
tegral part of Sander's philosophy and the concept was inherited di-
rectly from TT.
Fairbairn (1949) extends the work of Knopf and Ingerson (1938)
and attempts an integration of CPO observations with the limited
amount of experimental data available at the time and summarises the
application of Sander's concepts at the regional scale. A range of mi-
crofabrics is discussed including deformation lamellae, “pressure sha-
dows” and internal/external foliations in porphyroblasts including
snowball garnets with an emphasis on the kinematic significance (in-
cluding sense of shear) of these fabrics.
An important aspect of the book is the emphasis on slip planes in
deforming minerals and the resultant microfabrics especially with re-
spect to CPO development. The work follows directly the ideas of
Schmidt (1927) and Sander (1930) who discussed CPO in quartz in
terms of postulated slip systems. Fairbairn attempts to integrate these
ideas with observations on deformation lamellae. Such an approach is
insightful since at that stage there was no experimental work on slip
systems in minerals and dislocations had not been observed in silicates.
2.5. The UK school of small scale structures and superimposed folding
A strong school in Britain involved with detailed mapping of small
scale structures grew from early work in the Scottish Highlands by
Peach and Horne (1884), Peach et al. (1907). Early workers were
conscious that more than one period of deformation existed in some
areas and Clough's demonstration in 1897, that the Cowal anticline
folds older folds and was a fold in an older foliation is outstanding, both
as an example of early detailed structural work and of the early re-
cognition of superimposed fold systems (Clough, 1897). Following
Clough, other workers in the Scottish Highlands were quick to recognise
superimposed fold systems but in most areas the recognition rested
purely on stratigraphic grounds. Wright (1908) described an area of
repeated deformation where overprinting was used as the main cri-
terion to distinguish the various phases of deformation and consider-
able effort was put into describing the styles of deformation. This re-
presents one of the earliest references (after Clough) to overprinting as
a means of establishing a chronological sequence in the deformation
history.
Bailey, in particular, often referred to multiple periods of folding
and in 1910 in a discussion of recumbent folding in the Scottish
Highlands he states: …. ”these folds are by no means in the position in
which they were formed, since many of them have been subsequently
rucked up and bodily involved in other isoclinal folds” (Bailey, 1910,
p589). Again in 1922 he states: “We now know of several much clearer
examples in the Highland Schists of secondary folds affecting earlier
recumbent folds (Bailey, 1922, p 86) and in 1934: “Clearly pre-existing
folds have been bent sideways, as well as downwards” (Bailey, 1934,
p465). In all these studies the emphasis was on stratigraphic relations
and patterns of mapped outcrops and, although small scale folds and
lineations were mapped, there was no systematic attempt to relate them
to large scale folds.
In Greenly (1919) a detailed description of small scale folds is
presented for The Mona Complex on Anglesey. These folds are classified
(p 186) mainly according to their shape. All folds were pictured as
products of the same “system of dynamic impulse” and no chronological
order was inferred. Arguing mainly on stratigraphic grounds, four
periods of foliation development were recognised. Greenly described
(Figures 73 to 76) the transposition of an earlier foliation and discussed
its significance at the regional scale. This same approach to deformed
areas continued for many years and is, again, well-illustrated by the
detailed study of Balk (1936) in New York. Fold shapes are described in
utmost detail but, although overprinting relations are illustrated, there
is no attempt to establish a time sequence. Folds and lineations of all
6
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
kinds are brought together under the same symbol on maps and al-
though trend and plunge are variable there is little attempt to explain
this variation.
One of the first detailed examinations of the geometry of multiple
deformations was made by Kvale (1948) in Western Norway. He ap-
pears to have classified lineations in part by their prominence in out-
crop and in part by orientation. Overprinting relations were used to
decide the relative ages of structural elements.
Up until this time the criteria used in the interpretation of multiple
deformations were fold orientation and overprinting of one structural
feature upon another. In 1950 McIntyre commenced a series of papers
describing parts of the Scottish Highlands which drew attention speci-
fically to the style of deformation (McIntyre, 1950a, b; 1951a, b; 1952).
These studies built upon the ideas of Sander but were also strongly
influenced by Wegmann (1929).
The geometrical approach to the mapping of large areas was em-
ployed extensively in the Scottish Highlands by authors such as Sutton
and Watson (1952), Rutledge (1952), and Wilson (1953) in areas
homogeneous with respect to the orientation of a single fold axis and by
Sutton and Watson (1954) in an area containing variations in plunge of
the larger structures.
In 1953 Weiss published an account of an area in Vest Spitsbergen
where two periods of folding are present. Overprinting relations were
used to distinguish the two periods of folding with their associated
lineations and the area was divided into a number of smaller areas each
of which was reasonably homogeneous with respect to the orientation
of one fold axis. This paper (Weiss, 1953) marks the first attempt to
portray the variation in orientation of small scale folds in an area of
repeated deformation. A similar study was undertaken by Reynolds and
Holmes (1954) and they delineated several small areas which were
relatively homogeneous with respect to a single fold axis.
The previous discussion indicates that up until 1954 the main cri-
terion used to distinguish different phases of deformation was over-
printing; in many studies much later than 1954 (eg., Lindstrom, 1958)
the orientation of fold axes was used as a criterion. In 1950 McIntyre had
emphasised style of deformation and in 1954 Weiss published a detailed
account of the tectonic style in a marble-quartzite complex in Cali-
fornia, again based on concepts introduced by Sander and Wegmann
and emphasised the micro-and meso-fabric features that defined the
tectonic style of the complex Weiss, 1954.
This work was followed in 1955 by Weiss et al. (1955) specifically
designed to portray the contrasting styles which characterise the Ord
Ban exposures in the Scottish Highlands. Even though no overprinting
relations were seen the conclusion is that two phases of folding exist
because of the contrasted styles. In the same year, King and Rast (1955)
distinguished Main (or Caledonian) folds and Cross folds in the Scottish
Highlands mainly on the basis of orientation.
Following these papers considerable attention was given to styles of
deformation in conjunction with detailed geometrical analysis in which
sub-areas are delineated with homogeneous orientations of one fold
axis or another. The gradual increase in importance of style coupled
with overprinting and geometrical analysis is expressed in King and
Rast (1956), Sutton and Watson (1956), Ramsay (1956), Clifford
(1957), Johnson (1957), Weiss and McIntyre (1957), Ramsay
(1958a,b), Sutton and Watson (1958), Fleuty (1960) and Clifford
(1960). By now the criteria for recognising multiple episodes of folding
were well established and perhaps is most clearly expressed by
McIntyre and Weiss (1957, p576):
(1) Structures of similar style and with similar patterns of preferred or-
ientation (not necessarily with the same orientations) are assumed to be
of the same generation (2) Structures of consistently dissimilar style and
with consistently different patterns of preferred orientation are ascribed
to separate generations and (3) where structures of one style and with
one pattern of preferred orientation consistently overprint structures with
another style and another pattern of preferred orientation the former are
B.E. Hobbs
considered to have formed later than the latter.”
One shortfall in some of these studies is that preserved sedimentary
structures were often neglected as a tool to unravel structural geometry.
To some workers transposition was used as an excuse with the claim
that this process made the use of sedimentary structures unreliable. The
recognition of facing as an important concept and tool was emphasised
by Shackelton (1958).
Finally, the geometry of superimposed fold systems was placed on a
firm geometrical foundation by Weiss (1959) and Ramsay (1960) al-
lowing variations in fold orientations to be put on a rational basis.
Much of this development is discussed in Turner and Weiss (1963).
This work was synthesised in Ramsay (1967) that made outstanding
contributions to our understanding of the geometry of deformed rocks.
Ramsay's contribution focuses essentially on the distribution of strain in
deformed rocks and is distinguished by an emphasis on careful ob-
servation of field examples ranging from the hand specimen to regional
map-scale structures rather than being model based with a reliance on
theoretical postulates or concepts derived from other fields such as
material science. In particular Ramsay is one of the first to widely apply
finite strain theory to rock deformation and to develop ways of esti-
mating such strains. One should however be aware of the work of Heim
(1920, p88). Ramsay's work shows an uncanny insight and “feel” for the
strain fields that are possible in rocks deformed by structures such as
folding and boudinage. This approach differs from but forms a strong
foundation for subsequent developments by others that concentrate on
the kinematics of deformation. His contribution extends to a detailed
analysis of the geometry of single folds, the geometry that develops due
to the interference of more than one set of folds, and the geometrical
patterns developed during the deformation of early linear structures.
2.6. Buckling theory
It is of note that two fundamental aspects of structural geology,
namely experimental rock deformation and folding theory were in-
itiated by two people who worked closely together, namely Theodore
von Kármán and Maurice Biot. von Kármán (1911) was one of the first
to examine the influence of hydrostatic pressure on the ductility of
marble although the experiments of Adams and Nicholson (1901) pre-
ceded von Kármán. The two authored a book: Mathematical Methods in
Engineering (von Kármán and Biot, 1940) which was a classic in its time
and was devoted to various ways of solving linear differential equations
with applications to engineering problems. This association is im-
portant because it allows one to appreciate the linear approach that Biot
applied to folding (Biot, 1937) and the consequent notions that line-
arisation and Fourier methods were important approaches to the
folding problem. This linear way of thinking (unfortunately) has per-
sisted to the present day in the geological literature. Whereas von
Kármán was quite familiar with the consequences of nonlinear pro-
blems (von Kármán, 1939) and Biot published papers on finite dis-
placements and the nonlinear consequences (Biot, 1938, 1939), Biot
elected (as was the standard procedure at the time) to linearise the
equations so that they became tractable but at the same time removing
all of the nonlinear behaviour. These days most of the nonlinear pro-
blems can be treated with five lines of code in MATLAB. Biot elected to
advance the subject by developing a thermodynamic approach to re-
acting deforming systems with fluid flow and not to develop the non-
linear theory of folding which to some extent is hinted at in von Kármán
(1939). By the time the first volume of JSG was published, Biot's theory
of chemically reacting-deforming systems (in both open and closed
systems), which has enormous potential for understanding deforming
metamorphic systems, was well established (Biot, 1979). This was de-
veloped further in Biot (1984) but has not been developed in Structural,
Metamorphic or Hydrothermal Geology whereas Biot's linear theory of
folding is followed in an almost cult fashion in Structural Geology. It is
fascinating to contemplate the advances that would have been made if
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
von Kármán and Biot had continued to work together on nonlinear
systems.
The theory of finite buckling of thick plates was discussed by von
Kármán (1910). He presented a system of nonlinear coupled equations
for which there was no analytical solution. These equations are dis-
cussed again in von Kármán (1939) emphasising the problems in ad-
dressing nonlinear problems in mechanics. Even if the material com-
prising the plate is linear elastic, the large deflections introduce
nonlinearities introducing difficulties that occupied the time of great
mathematicians such as Euler, Lagrange and Kirchhoff. von Kármán
(1939) shows that approximate solutions to these equations can be
obtained for certain shaped plates and boundary conditions but the
solution for a thick rectangular plate had not been obtained at that
stage although linearised solutions for large deflections of thin plates
were available (Biot, 1938). One way of approaching the problem for a
thick plate is to postulate a strain distribution within the plate during
buckling; this approach is somewhat ad hoc but is the classical approach
taken by Kirchhoff (1877), Reissner (1945), and Timoshenko and
Woinowsky-Krieger (1959).
An approach to the buckling of a plate that removes all of the
nonlinearities and does not involve an assumption for the strain dis-
tribution is to assume that the plate is thin (so that the strain dis-
tribution across the layer does not need to be considered) and that the
deflections are small. Even then the problem only becomes tractable
(given the ways available of solving differential equations in the 1930's
and 1940's) if one assumes that the resisting force normal to the plate
during buckling is a linear function of the deflection. This is the route
taken by Biot (1937) and in many subsequent publications. The pro-
blem now is completely linear (for small deflections) and the solution to
the resulting equation is that the deflection is sinusoidal. However
because the system is linear, an infinite sum of sine-waves with dif-
ferent frequencies and amplitudes is also a solution. Biot's fundamental
contribution was to show that one wavelength grows faster than all
others so that the resultant fold pattern is sinusoidal and depends on the
layer thickness together with the ratios between the mechanical prop-
erties of the layer and its surrounding material. However the analysis is
only valid for small deflections. The answer to the question: how small is
small? was not answered until Burke and Knobloch (2007) and we re-
turn to this topic in Section 4.
As indicated, the original analysis of Biot (1937) assumed that the
resistance to buckling is a linear function of the deflection. This means
that strictly the analysis holds for a plate embedded in a linear elastic or
viscous material. The analysis was carried out for (nonlinear) power
law viscous materials by Fletcher (1974), Johnson and Fletcher (1974)
and Smith (1977, 1979). One procedure is to make the nonlinear pro-
blem linear by expressing the nonlinear resistance as a power series and
retaining only the linear terms. As expected for a linear problem the
solutions are sinusoidal and scale with the layer thickness. Again the
results are true only for small deflections and again we return to this
issue in Section 4.
One should also note the progressive evolution of analogue mod-
elling of folding. Many followed Hall in such modelling and a major
step forward came with a scaling theory for analogue modelling of
geological processes, provided by Hubbert (1937). This approach con-
verted analogue modelling from a descriptive tool to a quantitative
technique. Prior to 1979 there existed a large number of analogue ex-
periments on folding many of them involving layers of plasticene (for
example, Cobbold, 1975, 1976; Cobbold et al., 1971; Watkinson, 1976).
In all of these experiments the folds develop sequentially rather than
simultaneously as predicted by the linear Biot theory; such sequential
behaviour is a feature of the much later nonlinear theory involving
large deflections (Burke and Knobloch, 2007; Knobloch, 2008).
In a series of papers, Ramberg (1963, 1964) and Ramberg and
Strgmgard (1971) developed a theory of folding based on fluid dy-
namics theory and with an emphasis on multilayer folding. A similar
fluid mechanics approach was followed by Smith (1977, 1979). The
B.E. Hobbs
results are compatible with those of Biot (1965). Ramberg and
Strgmgard (1971) develop some ideas around multi-wavelength am-
plifications (leading to parasitic folds) but these ideas have never been
adequately explored.
2.7. Experimental deformation
The history of deformation apparatus development up until the
early 1980's is given by Paterson (1978) and by Hubbert (1981). Fol-
lowing Adams and Nicholson (1901), von Kármán (1911) developed a
triaxial room temperature deformation apparatus in which stress strain
behaviour could be investigated and showed again that increases in
confining pressure resulted in a transition from brittle to plastic beha-
viour in marble. In these experiments von Kármán constructs the Mohr
failure envelope for marble and compares the results to Coulomb's
linear theory. Intra-granular deformation mechanisms are also dis-
cussed using thin sections.
The modern era of experimental rock deformation began with ex-
periments by Griggs (1936) at Harvard (in Bridgman's laboratory) using
kerosene as a confining medium at room temperature. Confining pres-
sures of 1.3 GPa were achieved with deformation in compression, tor-
sion and extension. Plastic stress strain curves were recorded for marble
and calcite twin plane orientations were measured at 24% shortening
showing a strong development of oriented twin planes due to de-
formation. No plastic deformation of single crystals of quartz was
achieved despite many attempts.
By 1960, under the encouragement of E. B. Knopf, considerable
progress had been made by Griggs and Heard (at UCLA) using argon as
a pressure medium and temperatures up to 800 °C had now been added
to the experimental conditions. Deformation laboratories had been es-
tablished at Shell Laboratories in Houston by Handin and in the US
Geological Survey by Robertson. Paterson (1958) developed a room
temperature apparatus using kerosene as confining medium with
pressures to 1 GPa at ANU in Canberra and reproduced the experiments
of von Kármán (1911); this was followed by a high temperature gas
apparatus and then ultimately by the Paterson torsion apparatus that
has been so influential in experimental rock deformation. Murrell
(1958) developed a triaxial apparatus at Imperial College, London, later
developed by Rutter (1976) to examine pressure solution amongst other
studies. Much of the progress to 1960 is reported in Griggs and Handin
(1960).
This work lead to documentation of the deformation mechanisms
and CPO development in calcite and is summarised in Turner and Weiss
(1963). Additional work on calcite followed in Paterson's gas apparatus
with the documentation of grain boundary sliding by Schmid (1976)
and Schmid et al. (1977) along with the determination of constitutive
parameters for power law creep.
After approximately 30 years of attempting to plastically deform
quartz, Griggs finally succeeded using a solid pressure medium de-
formation rig. Carter et al. (1964) achieved plastic deformation and
recrystallisation of quartz and soon after, Griggs and Blacic (1965) and
Griggs (1967) reported hydrolytic weakening in quartz. Sub grain ro-
tation was described by Hobbs (1968). A detailed study of quartzite
deformation mechanisms, recrystallisation, CPO development and flow
laws finally appeared in Tullis et al. (1973). The rapid progress in de-
formation of silicates is illustrated by comparing the two reviews by
Carter (1971) and Tullis (1979).
2.8. Deformation mechanism maps
Deformation mechanism maps were suggested by Weertman (1968)
and introduced by Ashby (1972) in a form where deformation regimes
dominated by a single deformation mechanism (dislocation motion,
grain boundary diffusion of bulk diffusion) are defined in grain-size-
temperature space or some other combination of constitutive variables.
They were suggested for deformation of single phase rocks by Elliot
8
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
(1973) and applied by Etheridge and Wilkie (1979) for quartz.
Mohamed and Langdon (1975) introduced two regimes of grain
boundary sliding which are now called Rachinger and Lifshitz
(Rachinger, 1952–53; Lifshitz, 1963) grain boundary mechanisms (see
review by Langdon, 2006). The Rachinger grain boundary sliding re-
gime was incorporated into a deformation mechanism map for quartz
by Etheridge and Wilkie (1979) although they did not use that term.
Grain boundary sliding in fine grained marble was demonstrated by
Schmid (1976) and Schmid et al. (1977). Etheridge and Wilkie argued
against the proposal made by White (1976, 1977) that grain size re-
duction due to dynamic recrystallisation is responsible for localised
shear zone development but supported the proposal of Twiss (1977)
that a steady state grain size develops as a function of stress (a piezo-
meter). Discussions concerning the role of grain size reduction and the
nature of piezometers continue to the present day (Holtzman et al.,
2018).
2.9. Microstructures and deformation
Although an interest in the microstructures of deformed rocks had
existed since Sorby (1853) this interest intensified in the two decades
before the first publication of JSG due to a number of influences. Zwart
(1960, 1962) rekindled the interest in the relation between deformation
and metamorphism and how this is expressed in the kinematics re-
corded in the microstructure. This coincided with Voll (1960), which
represents one of the earliest papers devoted to processes in deforma-
tion and metamorphism although such issues had concerned Harker
(1893). Voll built on the work of Smith (1948, 1953) who had em-
phasised the role of interfacial energy in controlling the microstructure
and also presented a number of original observations on the nucleation
and growth of grains during deformation.
The experimental production of recrystallisation after and during
deformation first expressed in calcite (see Griggs and Handin, 1960;
Turner and Weiss, 1963) and later in quartz (Carter et al., 1964; Hobbs,
1968; Green et al., 1970; Tullis et al., 1973) combined with observa-
tions at the TEM scale sparked widespread interest in identifying the
processes involved in natural deformation and were expressed in pub-
lications such as Hobbs et al. (1976) and Vernon (1976). This was
highlighted by the first direct observations of microstructural evolution
in analogue materials by Means (1977).
Part of the emphasis on microstructure was the proposal by Twiss
(1977) that both the subgrain and grain sizes evolved to a steady state
during deformation and are related directly to the stress. Thus the
piezometer concept was born and has occupied many pages in JSG.
In parallel with these papers was a series of microstructural studies
on naturally deformed rocks such as Bell and Etheridge (1973) on
mylonites and papers devoted to crenulation cleavage (Gray 1977a,b;
Gray and Durney, 1979a,b) where the role of “pressure solution” or
“solution transfer” was highlighted. This mechanism had been re-
introduced (following Sorby, 1863a,b) by Durney (1972). Williams
(1972) raised the alternative view that some metamorphic differ-
entiated crenulation cleavages arose from open-system behaviour
where through-going fluids preferentially dissolved quartz. Influential
papers on deformation via pressure solution are Rutter (1976), Rutter
and Mainprice (1978, 1979) and Rutter and White (1979).
Direct relations between deformation and metamorphic reactions
were highlighted by Wintsch (1975, 1978) and White and Knipe (1978)
who built upon concepts introduced by Carmichael (1969), De Boer
(1977), Fisher (1970) and Robin (1978). These direct links between
deformation and metamorphic reactions have evolved slowly since
1979 and a full theoretical development is considered in Section 4.1 as
one of the Grand Challenges for the future.
2.10. Dislocations and transmission electron microscopy
Up until about 1964 the concept that dislocations actually exist in
B.E. Hobbs
silicates was in contention in the geological literature although slip
planes had been reported from experimental observations by Carter
et al. (1964) and Twiss (1976) and there had been much speculation
since Schmidt (1927). Christie et al. (1964) proposed a model for de-
formation lamellae in experimentally deformed quartz that consisted of
arrays of edge dislocations but at that stage there was no direct evi-
dence in the geological literature that such defects existed in minerals.
However, unknown to Christie and co-workers, Lang (1959) had im-
aged dislocations in natural quartz and calcite using an X-ray technique.
In Lang and Miuscov (1967) dislocations were imaged in single crystals
of synthetic quartz and slip systems (0001) < a > and {101̄0 } < c >
were identified by diffraction contrast methods. McLaren and Phakey
(1965) imaged dislocations in quartz using transmission electron mi-
croscopy (TEM) within thin wedges of broken quartz and Baeta and
Ashbee (1969a,b) considered the slip systems in synthetic quartz de-
formed at atmospheric pressure confirming the existence of slip on the
basal plane and first order prisms and in addition {101̄1} c ± a and
{101̄1} < a > were recorded. Ion beam thinning techniques were de-
veloped (Heuer et al., 1971; Gillespie et al., 1971; see Tighe, 1964 for a
chemical thinning method) and these techniques form the basis for
modern TEM investigations of minerals. The first report of dislocations
in naturally deformed quartz is McLaren and Hobbs (1972), in olivine
in association with microfractures, Boland and Hobbs (1973), and in
kyanite, Boland et al. (1977). Much of the history of the application of
TEM to deformation mechanisms is in Boland (1993).
2.11. CPO development and kinematics
Although Schmidt (1927) had satisfactorily explained the common
CPO patterns that exist for deformed quartzites on the basis that the
assumed slip systems aligned with the dominant foliation and with a
slip direction in that foliation, there had been no evidence to suggest
that these slip systems (namely, (0001) < a > , {0110} < a > ,
{1010} < c > , {1011} < a > and {1011}< c ± a>) actually existed for
quartz. This situation changed when these systems were identified in X-
ray tomographic and TEM images. The opportunity arose then to use
the models developed by Taylor (1938) and Bishop and Hill (1951) to
simulate CPO development in quartz (Lister et al., 1978). The modelling
was made possible by the advent of sufficient computing power to
handle the linear programming requirements and computer plotting
facilities to make the modelling tractable. Such developments also al-
lowed many kinematic scenarios (pure shearing, simple shearing and
combinations of both) to be handled efficiently.
The Taylor-Bishop-Hill approach assumes that the strain is homo-
geneous from grain to grain in the aggregate and that five independent
slip systems (Paterson, 1969) are available. These studies confirmed the
proposals of Schmidt and Sander that the kinematics (the movement
picture) controls the CPO development and not simply the strain. Also
fabric transitions were expected as the ratios of the critical resolved
shear stresses for the various slip systems changed presumably due to
temperature, strain rate and/or water content. Models with relaxed
constraints (flat grains) showed that different CPO's could develop
(Ord, 1988).
The requirement for five independent slip systems assumes that
compatibility of deformation between adjacent grains is accommodated
solely by plastic distortions produced by slip. If elastic distortions are
also allowed and/or if compatibility can be accommodated by diffusion
or grain boundary sliding then fewer than five independent slip systems
can be sufficient to produce the imposed deformation. These ap-
proaches were developed in the form of self-consistent theories after
1979.
2.12. The thermodynamics of deformation
The basis for the thermodynamics of deforming systems was set
down by Thompson and Tait (TT, 1867) who wrote down (p 242) the
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
expression for the work done in deforming an anisotropic elastic solid
and stipulated that this work must be positive. TT also gave an ex-
pression for the stress in terms of the energy. A general theory of
thermodynamics was presented by Gibbs (1878) with an almost ex-
clusive emphasis on equilibrium states and almost exclusively devoted
to fluids. His amazing contributions need to be understood in terms of
the then current scientific environment where solid state diffusion had
not been widely accepted. Although alloying was an ancient art, sys-
tematic studies of solid state diffusion had to wait until Roberts-Austen
(1896). However, solid state diffusion in rocks was considered by
Harker (1893).
In his theory of hydrostatic equilibrium Gibbs begins (his equation
(1), page 332) with a general equation for a fluid, or for a solid under
hydrostatic stress, that links an increment of internal energy, du, within
the system with increments in entropy, ds, and volume, dv, at constant
temperature, T, and pressure, p:
du = T ds p dv (1)
From this he derives (his equation (91) page 87) the famous equa-
tion for the molar chemical potential, μ, in terms of the molar quan-
tities, the internal energy, u, the entropy, s, and of the volume, v, the
temperature, T, and the hydrostatic pressure:
µ=u Ts + pv (2)
To be clear, all of the quantities in (2) refer to a system under hy-
drostatic pressure, p. These quantities have distinct physical meanings.
In particular, pdv in (1) is the work done by the hydrostatic pressure in
a volume change dv. We have used modern terminology whereas Gibbs
had his own terminology. In particular we would call the quantity (u
–Ts) the molar Helmholtz energy, ψ, in the hydrostatic case.
One of the few applications of thermodynamics to solids by Gibbs
involves the dissolution of a stressed isotropic solid in an adjacent fluid
which has the same composition as the solid. Later in the treatise Gibbs
relaxes the requirement that the fluid is the same composition as the
solid. Gibbs first defines the deformation gradient tensor (his equation
(354) page 185) and then the conditions for stress equilibrium (his
equation (374) page 190; this is Cauchy's first law). On pages 201 to
214 Gibbs derives the Fundamental Equations for a solid and points out
(page 203) that the Helmholtz energy is a function of 11 independent
quantities derived from the 21 quantities: the nine components of stress
gradient, the nine components of the deformation gradient tensor and
the internal energy, temperature and entropy, a functional relation
classically recognised today (Houlsby and Puzrin, 2006, p78). For a
solid Gibbs points out that such a relationship is useful for expressing
the composition of a body only if the body is “capable of continuous
variation” (that is, in modern terms, solid state diffusion is possible).
Gibbs (his equation (386) page 196) derives an expression for the
chemical potential, μstressed, of a single component stressed solid dis-
solved in an adjacent fluid of pressure pF. This, written in molar form
and using the superscript, stressed, to denote quantities in the stressed
state, is
µ stressed = ustressed Ts stressed + p F v stressed (3)
This expression is identical in form to the hydrostatic expression,
(2).
In order to define the change in chemical potential between a hy-
drostatic and stressed state, Gibbs writes (his equation (397) page 196):
µ µ stressed = (u ustressed ) T (s s stressed ) + p F (v v stressed ) (4)
Gibbs points out that the terms, (u ustressed) T (s s stressed) in (4),
represent “the work spent upon the solid in bringing it from the state of
hydrostatic stress to the other state without change in temperature”. These
2
Page numbers for Gibbs refer to the Dover edition: The Scientific Papers of
Willard Gibbs (1961), Dover Publications, New York.
B.E. Hobbs
quantities are pertinent solely to the solid and the fluid plays no role
except that for mechanical equilibrium, the fluid pressure is equal and
opposite to one principal stress in the solid. Gibbs states that the
quantity, p F (v v stressed ) “evidently denotes the work done in displacing a
fluid of pressure pF surrounding the solid during the operation”. The
quantity p F (v v stressed ) is pertinent solely to the fluid even though it
contains a contribution from the work done, p F v stressed , on an element of
the stressed solid volume once that element is dissolved in the fluid.
Gibbs showed that the extra energy in the solid arising from deforma-
tion increases the solubility of the solid in the fluid so that the fluid
becomes super-saturated with respect to the solubility of the unstrained
solid. These arguments are repeated in modern terminology in Sekerka
and Cahn (2004).
The above arguments, taken directly from Gibbs, show that equili-
brium occurs when the molar Helmholtz energies of the solid and the
fluid differ by p F (vmF vm ), the work done against pF by the molar vo-
lume change, (vmF vm) , at constant fluid pressure, accompanying dis-
solution. When the solid dissolves in the fluid ψstressed is the molar en-
ergy lost from the solid and μF is the molar energy gained by the fluid.
The molar entropy of the solid, sstressed is added to the fluid at constant
temperature.
All of these arguments are straightforward and show that the hy-
drostatic and non-hydrostatic cases are identical in principle and differ
only in the magnitudes of the hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic molar
Helmholtz energies and molar volumes. Notice also that (3) and (4)
contain no reference to the normal stress, σN, acting on the interface
between the solid and the fluid. In the geological literature, since for
mechanical equilibrium σN = −p, (3) is rewritten as
µF = + N vm (5)
m
Such an expression, although algebraically correct in a one dimen-
sional system, obscures the physics behind the process of dissolution
because it substitutes a quantity, σN, that pertains solely to the solid for
a quantity, pF, that pertains solely to the fluid; at no place in Gibbs
(1878) or in Kamb (1959, 1961) does expression (5) appear despite the
claims of many. Thus, as established by Gibbs, the increased solubility
of the stressed solid in the fluid arises from the increase in the Helm-
holtz energy and from the change in molar volume of the solid due to
deformation, not from the normal stress on the solid/fluid interface.
Gibbs explored a model where fluids at three different pressures
abut a deformed solid and reached the conclusion that a unique che-
mical potential could not be defined for the solid. His argument stems
from the observation that the chemical potentials of the solid dissolved
in the three fluids are different and hence, at equilibrium, three dif-
ferent chemical potentials exist at the solid/fluid interfaces. As we have
seen, Gibbs was unaware of solid state diffusion and so could not see
how communication was possible in the bulk of the solid. Gibbs (1878,
pp. 62–63) made it clear that in order to define a chemical potential in
“any homogeneous part of a given mass,” the energy of the part must be
capable of “variation for any possible variation in the composition and state
of this part”. This result from Gibbs was taken by the geological com-
munity to mean that a chemical potential and hence a Gibbs energy
could not be defined for the interior of a stressed solid and could only
be defined at the surface of the stressed solid. The incorporation of solid
state diffusion solves this problem and also recognises that gradients in
chemical potential can exist within a stressed solid.
Controversy arose in the application of the theory of Gibbs (1878)
for the dissolution of a non-hydrostatically stressed solid in an adjacent
fluid. This clearly has application to “pressure solution” but was applied
by Kamb (1959) to the development of CPO in elastic minerals under
non-hydrostatic stress. This paper was followed by considerable dis-
cussion which is summarised in Kamb (1961). We do not discuss those
issues here but comment on the developments in the subject after Kamb
and up to 1979.
The equilibrium solubility in a fluid of pressure pF of a single phase
solid in contact with the fluid at the same pressure as the fluid is a
10
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
function of temperature, T, and of the fluid pressure, pF. For a hydro-
statically stressed solid this relation is commonly expressed in term of
the chemical potential of the solid dissolved in the fluid as
µ = µ 0 (T , p F ) + RT ln(a) (6)
This same expression holds for the non-hydrostatic case except that
μ and a are replaced by their stressed counterparts.
Paterson (1973) develops a model whereby a solid in contact with a
fluid is deformed by a “notional permeable loading frame” that enables
a stress state to develop in the solid such that σN ≠ pF (compression
taken as positive) so that the system is not in mechanical equilibrium. Al-
though Paterson acknowledges that there may be problems with this
model with respect to mechanical equilibrium he proceeds to derive the
expression:
uL TsL + p F vL = uS TsS + N vS (7)
where subscripts L and S refer to the liquid and solid respectively.
The left hand side of this equation is the chemical potential of the
solid dissolved in the fluid, µL = uL TsL + p F vL . For equilibrium this
should be equal to the chemical potential of the solid. But
uS TsS + N vS is not the chemical potential of a non-hydrostatically
stressed solid as discussed below.
Moreover if one explores the Paterson model for mechanical equi-
librium (by assuming σN = pF, compression positive) then equation (7)
of Paterson becomes
uL TsL + p F vL = uS TsS + p F vS
which is the standard expression for equilibrium between the solid and
the fluid for the non-hydrostatic case at solid and fluid pressure, pF, as
considered by Gibbs In other words, at mechanical equilibrium (and
only at mechanical equilibrium) the Paterson model agrees with Gibbs
(1878, equation 407 and subsequent discussion) but the algebraic
equality of fluid pressure with normal stress obscures the physics of the
process.
However this paper by Paterson has been influential within the
geological community in establishing the concept that σN plays the only
role in controlling the dissolution of a stressed solid (for example,
Wheeler, 1987, 2014) rather than the increased Helmholtz energy and
the change in the molar volume of the solid arising from deformation.
We return to this issue in Section 4.
Coe and Paterson (1969) performed a definitive experiment in-
vestigating the influence of non-hydrostatic stress on the α – β transition
in quartz. This remains the only experiment that demonstrates, in a
quantitative manner, the influence of stress on a phase transition. The
effect is small but significant.
3. Advances in structural geology in the period 1979 to 2018
By the time the first issue of JSG appeared most of the fundamental
concepts that are the foundation of Structural Geology as a scientific
discipline had been developed. So what has happened over the past 40
years? How has the science evolved?
3.1. Kinematics
One clear trend is the move from an emphasis on strain as a dom-
inating concept in interpreting fabrics at all scales to an emphasis on
kinematics. This represents a reversion to the Sander concept of a
movement picture. The emphasis on strain was centred on the approach
of Ramsay (1967) which stipulated that foliations are expressions of a
principal plane of strain and that mineral lineations are expressions of a
principal axis of strain so that the strain states in a deformed rock can
be gauged from the foliation and lineation and that these micro-
structural features can be used (with other markers) as constraints on
quantitative measures of strain.
The new emphasis on kinematics can be traced to Zwart (1960) and
B.E. Hobbs
particularly Zwart (1962) who described microstructures that indicated
sense of shear with respect to the dominant foliation. Zwart encouraged
and developed a strong school devoted to microstructural analysis at
Leiden University with an emphasis on looking at thin sections cut
parallel to the lineation rather than normal to the lineation as had
become the custom for a decade or so before 1960. It was clear that in
many deformed rocks the foliation was close to a shear plane and a host
of kinematic indicators were ultimately identified (see the special issue
of JSG devoted to kinematic indicators: Cobbold et al., 1987 and,
Passchier and Trouw, 2005, 2010). Thus one clear trend over 40 years
of JSG is a decrease in the number of papers devoted to strain analysis
and an increased emphasis on kinematics. A much neglected paper is
Passchier (1997) where it is indicated that in simple shearing the shear
direction is an eigenvector of the velocity gradient tensor and that this
acts as an attractor for fabric elements. Extensions of such arguments
are in Iacopini et al. (2010) and Hobbs and Ord (2015). These argu-
ments put microstructural development on a firm footing in mechanics
and indicate that the kinematic framework is a fundamental influence
on microstructural evolution. Such conclusions are supported by in-
terpretations of CPO fabrics as discussed below. However, in these in-
terpretations the dominant foliation is not a plane of shear strain as
proposed by Sander, the dominant foliation appears to be a principal
plane of strain but is almost parallel to a plane with high shear strain.
The common habit of drawing kinematic diagrams with shear sense
arrows precisely parallel to the foliation is misleading. There is still
room for clarification here. For instance, are the high shear strains
parallel to a slaty cleavage apparent in Weber (1981) the result of ro-
tation and pressure solution or is there actually a shear strain parallel to
the slaty cleavage as seems to be the case at first glance?
A way of quantifying the relative importance of simple shearing and
of shortening normal to the shearing plane was introduced by Means
(1980) in the form of a kinematic vorticity number. This is a non-objec-
tive measure (in that its value depends on the coordinate system se-
lected) and only has meaning for a homogeneous and steady de-
formation history but the concept found wide application in describing
some deformation histories. It cannot be used to compare kinematic
histories in two systems unless care is taken to define the coordinate
axes in both systems.
3.2. Developments in CPO modelling
The move to kinematic interpretations was encouraged by the first
modelling of CPO development based on the Taylor-Bishop-Hill ap-
proach by Lister et al. (1978), Lister and Williams (1979), Lister and
Hobbs (1980) and Lister and Paterson (1979). These papers showed
that kinematics were the control on CPO development and symmetry.
Thus a CPO that develops in a simple shearing deformation history has
monoclinic symmetry with respect to the maximum principal plane of
strain whereas a CPO that develops in a pure shearing deformation
history has orthorhombic symmetry.
The interpretation of CPO in terms of kinematics was strengthened
by the increased emphasis on the determination, using X-Ray diffrac-
tion, of the complete crystallographic orientations (inverse pole figures)
associated with the CPO rather than (for quartz) just the c-axis or-
ientation. One of the first examples is Schmid and Casey (1986) who
showed that CPO's are commonly characterised by a dominant crys-
tallographic slip plane oriented in a plane at a low angle to the foliation
and a dominant crystallographic slip direction lying in that slip plane.
These applications of x-ray diffraction represent one of the major ad-
vances in Structural Geology over the past 40 years and have been re-
inforced by developments in electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD)
technologies (see Prior et al., 1999 for a review).
From Schmid and Casey (1986) onwards descriptions of CPO con-
centrated on the dominant slip systems responsible for the CPO fabric
so that people spoke of fabrics produced by “basal-a”, “prism-c” and
“rhomb-(c+a)” fabrics rather than seek the contribution from five
11
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
independent slip systems as is the requirement for a strict Taylor-
Bishop-Hill approach. This of course is a complete reversion to the
approach of Schmidt (1927).
The strict Taylor-Bishop-Hill approach has been largely replaced by
self-consistent approaches (Molinari et al., 1987; Tomé et al., 1991;
Lebensohn and Tomé, 1993) whereby each grain is represented by a
visco-plastic elliptical inclusion embedded in a visco-plastic matrix
whose behaviour is the average behaviour of the polycrystal. The grain
also interacts with the matrix and the degree of interaction governs
whether the embedded grain is constrained to have five independent
slip systems or to deform with fewer systems. Each grain deforms by
dislocation motion or by twinning.
3.3. In situ experiments
The development of “see-through” experimental deformation of
analogue materials is another major advance post 1979 and was in-
stigated by Means (1980, 1981, 1983), Urai et al. (1986), and Urai
(1983a,b). Similar analogue experiments were conducted on ice
(Wilson, 1981). Using these techniques all of the deformation me-
chanisms and dynamic recrystallisation processes have been observed
in situ during active deformation so that the evolution of such struc-
tures with known states of strain and kinematic boundary conditions
can be better understood. In addition somewhat unexpected processes
such as grain migration and wholesale rigid transport of domains along
weak layers have been documented. The influence of fluid phases (in-
cluding melt) on microstructural development has also been studied
(Rosenberg and Handy, 2000) with localisation of melt in shear zones
documented. An example of the use of such experiments in confirming
and expanding upon known deformation processes is Urai et al. (1986).
3.4. ELLE
Elle (Bons et al., 2008) is a versatile software framework for the
simulation of microstructure evolution during deformation and meta-
morphism. It is capable of high strains and in principle any deformation
or mineral reaction process can be incorporated. It has excellent vi-
sualisation capabilities and can be interfaced with other codes that
might explicitly handle constitutive relations of various kinds. Two of
the earliest papers using ELLE are Hilgers et al. (1997) and Bons et al.
(1997). A list of publications in the period 1979 to 2017 is on the ELLE
website at http://elle.ws/.
3.5. Mechanisms of localisation
Localisation of deformation is a topic of continuing interest in the
deformation of rocks. For localised deformation to occur the work done
in a narrow zone of deformation must be less than in distributed shear
(Hobbs et al., 1990). This is commonly interpreted to mean, in the
geological literature, that some form of softening is required. The no-
tion that some form of geometrical or constitutive softening has been
well accepted since White (1976, 1977) and probably much earlier. The
mechanics of localisation in visco-plastic materials was summarised in
Rice (1976) who pointed out that in materials with no volume change,
localisation requires softening as a necessary condition but softening
alone is not sufficient to initiate localisation (see also Anand et al.,
1987; Hobbs et al., 1990). Estrin and Kubin (1991) show that the
softening must exceed a critical value for localisation to nucleate and
grow and so form a shear band. The softening in a power law viscous
material with stress exponent greater than one must be sufficient to
overcome the intrinsic hardening that occurs in such materials ac-
companying an increase in strain rate.
Many mechanisms for softening have been proposed including grain
size reduction, reaction softening, growth of voids, introduction of (OH)
during deformation, connection of a percolating soft phase across the
aggregate and CPO (texture) softening. The important point is that
B.E. Hobbs
although all of these mechanisms can induce softening the softening
may not be sufficient for a localised layer to grow and one needs to
demonstrate that the softening is sufficient to cause localisation. That is,
one needs to demonstrate that the stress strain curve for the material
has a (softening) slope that exceeds a critical value such as that sug-
gested by Estrin and Kubin (1991). In most examples such a demon-
stration is lacking.
3.6. Flow laws
The collection of papers: Hirth and Tullis (1992), Hirth et al. (2001),
Stipp et al. (2002), Moralesi et al. (2011) represent the documentation
of quartz microstructures and CPO development in natural examples
and the integration of microstructure and CPO development with
temperature and kinematic boundary conditions. These studies provide
considerable confidence in interpreting natural deformation fabrics in
terms of environmental conditions.
Flow laws for most minerals have now been established for crustal
conditions and in some instances for mantle conditions. Summaries are
given by Kohlstedt and Hansen (2015), Karato (2013) and Karato and
Wenk (2002). Notable gaps in constitutive parameters are for the alkali
feldspars (particularly K-rich) and micas (where the data probably need
revisiting). There is still no adequate treatment of the rheological
properties of poly-mineralic rocks and this is considered in Section 4.
3.7. Flow by pressure solution
The observational and experimental background for the stress en-
hanced dissolution of a solid into an adjacent fluid is well established
together with the viscous deformation of aggregates arising from so-
lution transfer.(for reviews see Gratier et al., 2013; Revil, 2001; Lehner,
1995, 2009; Lehner and Bataille, 1985). Much has been published since
the seminal paper by Rutter (1976) including Rutter (1983) and
Shimizu (1992) but the models proposed have become more compli-
cated rather than simpler with an emphasis on the physical and elec-
tronic structure of the interface between the solid and fluid (Cox and
Paterson, 1991; Revil, 2001; Gratier et al., 2013). However the theo-
retical underpinning needs some attention since most discussions in-
volve expressions for the equilibrium solubility of the solid in the fluid
when in reality, the processes being modelled are non-equilibrium
phenomena; dissipation arising from dissolution and transport is gen-
erally not addressed. Most workers agree that the constitutive relation
describing isothermal deformation is of the form ij = f ( ij/, p F , k, k )
where ij is the strain-rate tensor, ij/ = ij ij p is the effective stress
F
tensor, δij is the Kronecker delta, pF is the fluid pressure and ξk comprise
a set of state variables that describes the structure of the fluid/solid
interface; k represents the time evolution of this microstructure. The
fluid pressure appears here in two ways; one influences the effective
stress and the other controls the equilibrium solubility of the stressed
solid. Any effective treatment of the problem must involve non-equili-
brium thermodynamics but attempts to do this (see Lehner, 2009 for a
discussion) have so far assumed Gibbs' expression for the equilibrium
solubility of the stressed solid in the fluid and have involved only
simple microstructures and for the most part, one dimensional loading.
The development of a thermodynamically consistent model is a Grand
Challenge for the future (Section 4).
3.8. Time in structural geology. Geochronology, tectonics and
microstructures
Time is a concept of importance across all the scales of tectonics
ranging from issues to do with magnitudes of natural strain rates,
timing of metamorphic events, relative timing of deformation events
and relative timing of microstructures at the micro-and nano-scales.
Reviews of some aspects of the issues involved are Mattinson (2013)
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
and Oriolo et al. (2018). Fundamental questions are what is the time
scale for deformation and metamorphic events and are they continuous or
episodic (Bell and Hayward, 1991) as might be expected from nonlinear
dynamics theory? Suggestions of episodic behaviour at the regional
scale have been made by Lister et al. (2001), Wintsch and Yeh (2013)
and Viete et al. (2018) and short lived pulses (5–10 my) of meta-
morphism are documented by Viete and Lister (2017). These are issues
that need much greater study not only from an observational point of
view but theoretically as well. Some examples of dating at the micro-
scale or with microstructural constraints are McWilliams et al. (2013)
and Wintsch et al. (2010). Forster and Lister (2008) propose that dif-
ferent sequences of structural development may occur at different times
and different places in an orogeny. This perhaps is what one would
expect where folds and associated structures form sequentially in a fold
belt rather than simultaneously everywhere. Clearly considerable study
is needed including associated detailed geochronology.
4. Some Grand Challenges for the future
Below I lay out ten Grand Challenges facing Structural Geology in
the immediate future. I expect that by the 50th birthday of JSG these
challenges will have been met and it will be an exciting decade.
4.1. Unified theory of deformation and metamorphism
The truly outstanding issues to be addressed in the deformation of
rocks are the role of metamorphic mineral reactions on deformation
processes and the inverse problem of the influence of deformation on
mineral reactions. The problem is clearly quite complicated since it
involves first order coupling between deformation, many chemical re-
actions and heat production and transport. Extra complications are
introduced for mineral reactions that involve the production/con-
sumption of fluids or for systems that are open to the flow of fluids.
At the crystal defect level mineral reactions in a deforming system
presumably involve the migration of grain boundary steps on newly
growing grains. These are called disconnections (Massalski et al., 2006)
which are linear crystalline defects that, similar to dislocations that
mark the boundary between slipped and un-slipped regions of a crystal,
mark the boundary between that part of a crystal that has and has not
undergone a phase transition. The general disconnection involves dif-
fusion to and from the disconnection site during the growth of a new
mineral phase. Disconnections have been imaged in simple alloys (see
Hobbs and Ord, 2015, pp 302–305) but not so far in mineral aggregates.
The relations between dislocations, disclinations and disconnections are
discussed in Sun et al. (2018).
Just as the motion of edges on a grain or sub-grain boundary driven
by stress can result in rotation (Alabort et al., 2016) the motion of
disconnections presumably not only is a mechanism for phase change
but is also a deformation mechanism that results in rotation and hence
CPO development. Just as there is a regime where grain boundary
sliding is a dominant deformation mechanism are there deformation
regimes where different forms of disconnection motion dominate?
There is considerable opportunity for experimental approaches com-
bined with high resolution TEM studies.
Since many metamorphic reactions involve both chemical reactions
and diffusion they are presumably described by reaction-diffusion
equations. Such equations were considered extensively by Ortoleva
(1994) but there has been very little application in Structural or Me-
tamorphic Petrology of such an approach since Ortoleva. The equations
involved are very similar to situations where mass transport is by ad-
vection in a moving fluid. Since most of these equations can now be
solved efficiently with codes such as MATLAB and MATHEMATICA the
opportunity is ripe to revisit this field to understand mineral reaction-
deformation coupling in greater detail. Such an approach is also ap-
plicable to studies of metamorphic differentiation.
At a high level view of coupled metamorphic-deformation processes
B.E. Hobbs
the issue is well suited to a non-equilibrium thermodynamic approach
similar to that developed by authors such as Gurtin et al. (2010),
Rambert et al. (2007) and Zhang and Zhong (2017). These treatments
so far only deal with simple systems and a much deeper analysis is
necessary.
4.2. Progressive development of structures
Although the approach to analysing deformed areas was developed
and honed up until 1979, and has been further developed in the last 40
years there has always been an underlying concern that what are
identified as distinct periods of deformation might in fact be part of a
continuum of progressive deformation. This is exemplified in papers
such as Park (1969), Zwart (1960), Williams (1970), Potts and Reddy
(1999) and Forster and Lister (2008). The subject has been discussed in
Fossen et al. (2018) where the case is made that in many areas what
might be identified as a large number of deformation phases may in fact
be the result of a continuous evolution of deformation. The issue is
important and will benefit from further study. Perhaps there is benefit
in drawing analogies with mixing theory (Ottino, 1989) where pro-
gressive deformation is characterised by successive and superimposed
periods of stretching and folding resulting in structures that resemble
superimposed fold systems. The application of the kinematic theory
behind mixing may help place some order on the complex geometries
observed in natural systems. This may particularly be relevant to mig-
matite complexes.
4.3. Unified theory of folding, boudinage, foliation, lineation development
As indicated in Section 2, most theories of folding derive from Biot's
approach and associated assumptions viz., thin layers, infinitesimal
displacements and linear resistance to buckling (Biot, 1965). Even
where nonlinear constitutive relations are considered, the equations are
truncated so that the problem becomes linear. The result is that only
sinusoidal solutions arise. Moreover the layer buckles simultaneously
everywhere. The dominating approach in the geological literature is to
disregard these limitations and postulate that the results apply to thick
layers with finite displacements and nonlinear constitutive equations.
However natural folds are not sinusoidal in profile and all finite am-
plitude analogue experiments result in the sequential rather than si-
multaneous development of folds along the layer.
The development of fold systems is better explained by the non-
linear, finite amplitude theory developed by Burke and Knobloch
(2007) who show that soon after buckling begins (where the Biot so-
lution holds) a bifurcation occurs and the energy of the system is re-
presented by two energy surfaces that intertwine with each other. As
the shortening continues the system jumps from one of these surfaces to
the other depending on which surface represents the lowest energy
configuration for that strain. The folds develop sequentially and may
evolve into a sequence of periodic folds or may develop localised fold
packets.
Theories of folding concentrate on buckling of the competent layers
and pay little attention to the behaviour of the incompetent layers and
the structures that develop within them. This contrasts with discussions
in the literature prior to the preoccupation with Biot's work (see for
instance, Hills, 1953: Turner and Weiss, 1963; Ramsay, 1967) where
shear folding commonly dominates the discussion. This takes us back to
the Sorby-Becker controversy which is still pertinent today.
Many observations (see Wood, 1974) point to foliations (especially
slaty cleavage) being parallel to a principal plane of strain. In contrast
studies from kinematic indicators (Passchier and Trouw, 2005; Trouw
and Passchier, 2010) and from CPO studies reach the conclusion that
most foliations are (at least close to) planes of shear displacement. In-
deed the spectacular SEM images of the classical slates from the Rhei-
nisches Schiefergebirge) by Weber (1981) show well developed shear
displacements parallel to slaty cleavage even from the lowest of
13
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
metamorphic grades. The matter has not been resolved satisfactorily
and observational, experimental and theoretical analyses of foliation
development are needed.
The same comments apply to mineral lineations whether they are
comprised of the alignment of single grains or aggregates of grains
forming rods. These are commonly called “stretching” lineations with
the strong implication or direct statement that they are parallel to a
principal axis of strain. Yet kinematic indicators and CPO patterns in-
dicate they are (at least near to) parallel to shear displacements.
Markers such as deformed pebbles and oolites indicate such lineations
are parallel to a principal axis of strain. Such issues would benefit from
a detailed analysis of foliations and “stretching” lineations. Is Kamb's
theory of stress control relevant in some situations? Are foliations al-
ways parallel to principal planes of strain or sometimes do they act as
shear planes?
4.4. Mixed rheologies; stress strain curves
Most constitutive relations are derived for single phase aggregates
and, if there is a grain-size dependence, then for a single grain-size.
Most rocks are poly-mineralic and have a range of grain-sizes including
a bimodal grain-size distribution if recrystallisation is present. It is well
established in the materials science literature (see Dunne, 1998, Dunne
and Kim, 1999b as examples) that the mechanical behaviour (including
conditions for localisation) of polycrystalline aggregates is strongly
influenced by the grain-size distribution. If the grain-size distribution is
broad enough it is possible for different deformation mechanisms to
dominate corresponding to different grain-sizes (Ghosh and Raj, 1986;
Ter Heege et al., 2002, 2004). Hence the Grand Challenge is to derive
relations for the constitutive behaviour of rocks comprised of a variety
of minerals with different grain-size distributions in which a variety of
deformation mechanisms operate. This has been done to some extent
using finite element modelling of specific microstructures (Gerbi et al.,
2015, 2016) and that work shows that earlier attempts to model such
behaviour (Tullis et al., 1991) are close to the results of finite element
modelling for two phase assemblages. The finite element modelling also
does not reproduce simple mixing laws that assume simple series or
parallel coupling between processes. Rajagopal and Tao (1959) show
that up until 1959 there was no basis for a thermodynamically con-
sistent mixing law. Hence the derivation of constitutive mixing laws
would not only be a major advance but would enable one to calculate
stress-strain curves for any mixture of minerals and grain-size dis-
tributions as that mixture evolves during deformation, recrystallisation
and metamorphic reactions without resort to one-off large finite ele-
ment simulations.
4.5. Grain scale deformation. Sub-grain rotation and disconnections.
Influence on CPO
The basic mechanisms of deformation at the grain scale: dislocation
motion, grain boundary sliding, grain boundary diffusion and inter-
granular diffusion, have been established and used widely in Structural
Geology over the past 40 years. However several relatively recent de-
velopments have not been examined in detail as possible deformation
mechanisms. These include: (i) Coupled grain boundary shear and mi-
gration whereby the crystal undergoes a shear strain parallel to the
grain boundary as the grain boundary moves (Cahn and Mishin, 2009;
Alabort et al., 2016; Thomas et al., 2017). (ii) Disclination motion
(Cordier et al., 2014). Disclinations have a component of rotation as-
sociated with their migration through a crystal (iii) Disconnection
motion.
All three of these mechanisms produce a rotation of the grain (or
subgrain) and so presumably act both as a deformation mechanism and
as a contributor to CPO development. These mechanisms need to be
introduced into deformation mechanism maps if we are to understand
the constitutive behaviour of poly-mineralic rocks with wide grain-size
B.E. Hobbs
distributions deforming whilst recrystallisation and metamorphic re-
actions are proceeding.
4.6. The role of water: dissolution/precipitation mechanisms
Fluids clearly play an important role in deformation; they influence
the effective stress and at least (OH) plays a fundamental role in the
hydrolytic weakening of silicates and in influencing the kinetics of
mineral reactions. The importance of creep mechanisms facilitated or
rate controlled by dissolution, transport in fluids and precipitation has
been emphasised in many papers including Wintsch and Dunning
(1985), Wintsch and Yi (2002), Wintsch and Yeh (2013) and Gratier
et al. (2013). Two models that are probably at extreme ends of a
spectrum of behaviour have been proposed for the dissolution/pre-
cipitation process. One (Merino and Canals, 2011) proposes atom by
atom dissolution for both dissolution and precipitation at constant vo-
lume. The other (Putnis and Austrheim, 2010) proposes that the dis-
solution process takes place by the motion of a porosity interface pro-
duced by dissolution with precipitation later occupying the porosity;
again the process takes place at constant volume. The physical and
chemical descriptions of these two processes are quite different and so
good experiments and/or observations on natural rocks are necessary to
produce better models. Some dissolution/precipitation processes are
not constant volume replacement processes (Wintsch and Yeh, 2013)
and consist of precipitation in geometrically convenient places such as
boudinage necks or fractures. The Grand Challenge is to develop an
integrated theory of metamorphic reactions coupled to deformation
involving dissolution and precipitation that gives an understanding of
why some reactions of this type are constant volume replacement re-
actions and others are not. For the constant volume reaction type, what
constrains the mineral growth to be constant volume if the mechanism
is one of diffusion as opposed to porosity interface migration? These
types of processes are all mechanisms of deformation so how are they
expressed as constitutive equations and where do they appear on de-
formation mechanism maps?
4.7. Thermodynamics of coupled systems
Thermodynamics was initially applied to fluids and hence the
stresses involved were hydrostatic (see history and comments up until
1960 by Truesdell and Toupin, 1960) and the thermodynamics of
equilibrium systems was emphasised by Gibbs (1878) with passing
treatment of the solubility of a stressed solid. Truesdell and Toupin
discuss the deformation of a variety of fluids and elastic solids. Up until
1968 the non-equilibrium thermodynamics of deforming inelastic solids
had not been developed, the reason being that the state of the material
was strongly history dependent so that identical materials taken over
different loading paths to the same final strain and temperature have
different dislocation densities or microstructures. This history depen-
dent final state was not a property of most fluids. Kestin (1968), Kestin
and Rice (1970) and Rice (1971, 1975) finally developed an approach
which proposed that variables such as dislocation density, grain size or
fracture density are treated as state variables and this enabled an in-
ternally consistent non-equilibrium thermodynamic framework to be
developed. The basic features of such theories are in Gurtin et al. (2010)
and Houlsby and Puzrin (2006); some of the development is in Hobbs
and Ord (2015) and a recent example is Holtzman et al. (2018). The
Grand Challenge is to develop a theory that enables the coupling of all
deformation processes in a thermodynamically consistent manner.
4.8. Fracturing, jointing, vein systems
One of the most important unsolved problems in Structural Geology
is to understand the mechanisms behind the formation of joint and vein
systems. Recent review articles are Bons et al. (2012), Labuz et al.
(2018) and Anders et al. (2014). Although fracture and damage
14
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 3–19
mechanics are now well advanced and much has been written on the
scaling of joint spacing with bed thickness and on the kinematics of vein
systems these are essentially discussions of the geometry and kine-
matics of such systems. The mechanics of the formation of joint and
vein arrays has hardly been considered. The origin of single fractures
and the growth of a single fracture in a stress field are well studied.
There is no theory that covers the formation and evolution of joint and
vein systems, of the accommodation mechanisms that must exist in the
rock mass between opening veins, and the interactions between dif-
ferent joint/vein sets in a given rock mass. Do veins and joints develop
simultaneously in a rock mass or do they develop sequentially as seems
to be the case for fold and thrust systems?
4.9. Molecular dynamics and mechanisms of deformation
It is not possible to conduct laboratory deformation experiments at
geological strain rates and so far it has proved difficult to conduct ex-
periments where metamorphic reactions are taking place during de-
formation. One way over these difficulties is to undertake molecular
dynamic simulations. Examples include Cordier et al. (2014) and Sun
et al. (2018). As computing power and theoretical approaches to mo-
lecular dynamics improve such modelling becomes feasible for large
assemblages of atoms and these studies are now commonplace in ma-
terials science and biology. Verification of the results of such modelling
is far more difficult for geological models than for these other sciences
but the results do provide avenues for new observations on naturally
deformed and metamorphosed rocks. For instance if we knew the likely
structures of a disconnection involved in the reaction of biotite to
produce garnet then high resolution TEM or other atom-resolution
techniques could be used to verify the calculations and so gain con-
fidence in applying constitutive parameters derived from the calcula-
tions to natural conditions. If one is to understand the deformation of
poly-mineralic rocks undergoing deformation then it seems molecular
dynamics simulations are an essential part of the future tool-box.
4.10. The data explosion. Learning processes from data
We are witnessing an explosion in the amount and quality of
structural data that is being collected. These data sets involve as ex-
amples:
• Satellite radar and GPS time series of surface tectonic displacements.
• Airborne geophysics of multifractal distributions of density and
magnetic susceptibility.
• Drone data on structural geometry.
• Laser scanning and 3D photogrammetry of structural geometry.
• EBSD and micro-analytical techniques at the microscale giving di-
gital information on CPO and spatial distributions of mineralogy,
chemical composition, CPO, grain size/shape and microstructural
relations.
• Synchrotron chemical and fabric data at the nanoscale.
These data sets are expressions of coupled nonlinear processes op-
erating at an enormous range of spatial and temporal scales ((O)1015 in
spatial scales and (O)1030 in temporal scales). In principle these data
sets contain all of the information required to derive the processes that
operated to produce them. This concept is the basis of a new science,
enabled by new algorithms and increased computing power. The
background concept, heavily embedded in the theory of nonlinear dy-
namical systems, is that no matter how complex these systems are,
many evolve both in space and time on a relatively low dimensional
attractor which is expressed as the patterns we observe. The mathe-
matical techniques involved resemble principal component analysis
whereby the behaviour of a multidimensional system is represented in a
lower dimensional space where most of the variance resides.
Hence instead of attempting to understand and incorporate every
B.E. Hobbs
process that potentially operates in a system of interest, many systems
can be reduced to a parsimonious system that displays most of the
qualities of interest. Instead of analysing these systems using standard
statistical techniques which are parametric in nature (that is an un-
derlying statistical distribution, such as Gaussian or log-normal, is as-
sumed) the new techniques are non-parametric and are entirely data
driven (for an example, see Kutz et al., 2016). In many cases, the un-
derlying equations that describe the processes that produced the data
can be derived directly from the data. This is the foremost Grand
Challenge for Structural Geology whereby we derive a mathematical
description of the processes involved in deformation and meta-
morphism either directly from the data, or combined with some insight
into the underlying physical, chemical and geological principles in-
volved. Such an approach not only provides a new understanding and a
basis for prediction and testing of hypotheses but prompts suggestions
for new ways of looking at deformed rocks and for new observations
and experiments at all scales that otherwise would not be obvious. This,
to me, represents one of the most exciting future developments in
Structural Geology.
5. Concluding statement
The past 40 years has seen considerable progress in our under-
standing of the processes involved in rock deformation. Although most
of the concepts that form the basis for modern Structural Geology had
been developed by the time the first issue of JSG appeared there has
been very significant progress since then in the kinematics of rock de-
formation, the detailed mechanisms of deformation of most of the mi-
neral groups, the development of EBSD and its integration with TEM
studies, the development of modelling packages such as ELLE and CPO
modelling with the use of deformation mechanism maps. The Journal of
Structural Geology has played a significant role in developing and
disseminating these concepts and is poised to contribute to the Next
Grand Challenges.
Acknowledgements
I want to thank Jorn Kruhl, Win Means, Manish Mamtani, Alison
Ord, and Fried Schwerdtner for help in understanding some of the
historical relations. It is a pity there is not room to include all their
information.
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