part Il PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSchapter 7 Special Curve Problems 7-1. Foreword.—In a subject as utilitarian as route survey- ing, there is hardly a strict division between basic principles and practical applications. Though these headings are used in this book, many practical features have already been re- ferred to in Part I; moreover, some problems involving addi- tional theory will be found in Part II. Nevertheless, Part I is complete in itself; it does not require this additional material in order to understand and apply the theory to any practical problem met in route surveying. Part II contains specific applications of basic theory to some of the common problems and survey procedures found in practice. It is not a detailed compilation of instructions covering field and office work; such instructions are well taken care of in the manuals published by most state highway de- partments and various other organizations for the guidance of their chiefs of party. Part IT is in the nature of a supple- ment to such manuals. Technical knowledge of route survey- ing being assumed, the explanations are briefer than those given in Part I and the simpler proofs are omitted. In practice, special curve problems occur in such great variety that it is not possible to include a large number of them in the space allotted to this chapter. Doing so, if possible, would have questionable merit, since the “textbook type” of problem is less apt to occur than some perplexing variation of it, To serve the purpose, a few of the more common problems will be described and general methods of approach will be outlined. ‘These, combined with a thorough grounding in the basic principles of Part I, should enable the engineer to develop the skill needed for solving any special curve problem, 7-2. Methods of Solution.—In solving special curve prob- lems there are four general methods of approach: (1) an exact geometric or trigonometric solution, (2) a cut-and-try calcula 169170 Special Curve Problems tion method, (3) a graphical method, and (4) a cut-and-try field method. Generally the first method is preferred. However, if the solution cannot be found or is very complicated, cut-and-try calculation often provides a fairly quick solution. In case a problem is not readily solvable by either of these methods, the unknowns may sometimes be scaled from a careful drawing; the scale must be fairly large to give adequate precision. Some problems are adaptable to cut-and-try solution in the field (see Art. 3-14 for an example previously described), Addi- tional examples of these methods of solution follow. OBSTACLE PROBLEMS 7-3. P.L, Inaccessible.—Simple Curve: This problem is of frequent occurrence. Conditions are shown in Fig. 7-1. The problem is to locate the curve points A and B. Fig. 7-1 Find any convenient. line. XY_ cutting the established tangents. . Measure distance XY and deflection angles x and y. Angle I=zty. Calculate XV and VY by using the sine law. Subtract their values from T’ (or T,), giving the required distances to the beginning and end of the curve. Compound Curve, Fig. 7-2: In this case the cut-off line is chosen so as to establish the T.C. and C.T. at X and Y, OneObstacle Problems 71 more variable must be known. Assume Rs, since the maxi- mum D is often fixed by specifications. Thus, the four known values are XY, Rs, and the angles x and y. Use the closed traverse shown by heavy lines and solve by the traverse method described in Art. 3-6. Angle I=z-+y From 2 latitudes: R,—-XY sin z—Rs cos I—(Ri—Rs) cos I,=0 Fig. 7-2 If the hint preceding equation 3-3 in Art. 3-6 is used, this relation reduces to ea % a sin 2—Rs vers es 1s ae (7-1) Similarly, the relation based on ¥ departures reduces to . XY cos z—Rs I sin Jp=2 5 Saas (7-2) ‘When equation 7-1 is divided by 7-2, the result is XY sin 2—Re vers I tan t12""2Y cos s— Resin T 8) Solve equation 7-3 for Iz. Then obtain Rz—Rs from equation 7-1 (or 7-2). Finally, I=1—I. Use the same method if Rz, were assumed; the final relations differ only in signs and subscripts,172 “a Special Curve Problems 7-4. T.C. or C.T. Inaccessible-—In Fig. 7-3, assuine B to be the C.T. The problem is to stake the computed curve and to check the work for alignment and stationing: Sct a check point F on the forward tangent by measuring VF, using right-angle offsets to get around the obstacle. Sta. F=Sta. C.T.4+VF-T. Fig. 7-3 Stake the curve from A to a station (as P) from which a sight parallel to the forward tangent would clear the obstacle. Ocoupy P and deflect angle I—5 (é.e., angle I minus the tabulated deflection for the station occupied), thereby placing the line of sight parallel to the tangent. Set pc:nt Z on this Tine by measuring PE=Sta. F—Sta, B+R sin (I—a), Occupy E, turn 90° from EP, and check the distance and direction to F. The offset EF should equal ? vers (Ia). (If EF is small, it may be computed by slide rule from formula 2-30, in which are PB is used for s.) While the transit is at A (or P), set stakes on the curve for cross-sectioning between P and the obstacle, leaving one stake at the plus point marking the beginning o° the obstacle, If B were the T.C., run in the part AP of the curve back- ward from the C.T. The rest of the process is similar in principle to that just described. If the curve is spiraled and the S.T. or T.S. is made inacces-Obstacle Problems 173 sible, such as by the obstacle at position 1 in Fig. 7-4, the field procedure is the same but the computations differ somewhat. In the general case, assume that the line of sight from the CS,, pointed parallel to the forward tangent, would be cut off by the obstacle at the S.T. As before, run in the layout toa station P onthe circular arc, a being the central angle (twice the deflection difference) between P and the CS, at C. Fig. 7-4 Occupy P, turn the line of sight parallel to the forward tangent, and measure the distance P# to any convenient point beyond the obstacle. Point K is the offeet C.". (KJ =0; BJ=X:). The offset PQ (= EF) =0-+4 (PK)? D, the value for PK being taken equal to the difference in stationing between P and C plus } L.. If the offset is large, compute it from the relation PQ=0+R vers (a+). For checking out on the tangent, the relation is: sta. F=sta, P+PO+CB+BF or sta, Pasta, P+™9241,4[PE—Xo—R sin (a+4)] If both the P.I. and the T.C. (or CT.) are inaccessible, a combination of the foregoing procedures will provide the solu- tion.174 Special Curve Problems 7-5. Obstacle on Curve.—For methods of by-passing obstacles preventing sights to curve points or obstacles on the curve itself, see Arts. 2-11 and 2+14 along with Figs. 2-8 and 2411. If the obstacle cuts the spiral and the tangent but does not obstruct the S.T. (or T.S.), as at position 2 in Fig. 7-4, first run in the layout to the C.S. (or S.C.). Then set up at the C.S. (or S.C.) and locate stakes on the spiral which are needed for cross-sectioning between the set-up and the obstacle. Finally, check the position of the S.T. (or T.S.) and the direction of the main tangent, by measuring the spiral coordinates X and Y and turning the necessary right angles. An alternate procedure, which may be used if the obstacle interferes with the sight from C pointed parallel to the main tangent, is to place the line of sight on the local tangent at C and to measure the spiral short tangent to a point X on the main tangent. The field work may then be checked by occupying point X, deflecting angle A from a backsight to point C, and measuring (possibly using right-angle offsets around the obstacle) the spiral long tangent to a check at the S.T. (or TS.) of the layout. 7-6. Obstacle on Tangent.—For the general method of by-_ passing an obstacle on a tangent at a point unaffected by a curve, see Art. 9-13. Examples of obstacles spanning both a tangent and a curve are given in Arts. 7-4 and 7-5. Special problems affecting tangent distances of curves have infinite variety. Fig. 7-5 represents a case in which it was required to run a spur track to a proposed warehouse. Con- ditions (not shown) fixed the warehouse location as indicated. ‘It was impossible to run in a simple curve AB without inter- fering with existing buildings and a turnout track, The solu- tion was a compound curve APB’. See Prob. 7-9 for the numerical values involved. (CHANGE-OF-LOCATION PROBLEMS After part of the paper-location alignment has been staked, desirable minor adjustments often become apparent (see Art. 1-12). Frequently the data obtained and the stakes alreadyChange-of-Location Problems 175 Fig. 7-5 set for the original curve can be used to advantage in making the revision, A few common cases coming under this heading are outlined in the following articles, More extensive adjust- ments are best made by locating the new P.I. and staking the revised curve irrespective of the original layout. If the line has been staked and cross-sectioned beyond a location change, it is necessary to determine and mark clearly the station equation at the point common to both layouts. 7-1. Practical Suggestions.—Skill in solving change- of-location problems does not come from memorizing certain “textbook solutions” but is developed by identifying the key steps in those solutions and applying them to the unusual prob Jems that arise in practice. The following practical hints, numbered for ease of reference, are helpful.176 * Special Curve Problems Hint 1: Draw a careful sketch, which is not necessarily to scale, Exaggerate small distances to make their effects clear, Preserve right angles. Do not make other angles close to 90°; otherwise, a special case might result. If only one graphical solution is possible when the known data are used, the problem is definite and determinate. Hint 2: If the problem involves a revision of some kind, such as the shift of a tangent, the solution must contain that known revision. Try to connect known revisions to known points on the original layout by simple geometric construction, especially by triangles. Considering a triangle containing curve centers or vertices often leads to the solution. Hint 3: A known linear revision may often be expressed as the difference between a known part of the original layout and a similar unknown part of the revised scheme. Also, an unknown linear revision may equal the difference between similar known parts of the two layouts, Hint 4: If a point is common to both layouts, perpendicu- lars dropped from that point to tangents or radii frequently disclose the key to the solution, Hint: Although there is only one correct set of numerical answers to a definite problem, there may be several correct geometric solutions. If a certain solution cannot produce adequate precision, determine the reason for the lack of preci- sion and search for a better solution, Hint 6: Ifa solution by means of simple construction can- not be found, recall that a solution by traverse is usually applicable. (See Art. 3-6.) 7-8. Simple Curve; New Parallel Tangent; Same D. Assume that the forward tangent is to be shifted outward parallel to itself a small distance p in order to reduce grading or to improve the approach to the next curve. In Fig. 7-6, the skew shift obviously equals AA’=00'= VV’=BB'. From a triangle at any one of these positions (ee Hint 2, Art. 7-7), itt =P skew shift== > (7-4)Change-of-Location Problems 177 Fig. 7-6 Tape the skew shift from A and B to locate hubs at the new curve points A’ and BY. For a tangent shifted inward, use A’B’ as the original curve. 7-9. Compound Curve; New Parallel Tangent; Same D's. ‘Thisis the same problem as the one in Art. 7-8, except that the curves are compounded at C and C’ (Fig. 7-7). Although a solution by construction is possible (Hints 3 and 4 being used), it may not be readily apparent. ‘Therefore, use the traverse method (see Hint 6). In the closed traverse bBO;0s0'1b, 2B departures = —Ri+(Ri—Rs) cos I, —(Ri—Rs) cos I'y+(Ri—p) =0178 Special Curve Problems from which cos I’, =cos nae (7-5) The distance bB needed for locating the new C.T. at B’ is found by setting 2 latitudes equal to zero and reducing. The result is B= (R1—Rs) (sin I'z—sin Iz) (7-8) (Observe that equation 7-6 also comes directly-from Hints 3 and 4 by dropping perpendiculars from Os to the radii.) ‘There are four variations of this problem, the solution depending on whether the layout starts with the sharper or flatter arc and on the direction (outward or inward) of the tangent shift. The final relations contain different signs and subscripts. 7-10. Simple Curve; Parallel Tangent; Same T.C.—In contrast to the situation in Art. 7-8, assume that the original T.C. must be preserved, thereby requiring a curve of new D, as indicated in Fig. 7-8. Fig. 7-8 From the triangle at the vertex (Hint 2), VV’=the skew shift==? 5, and the new tangent distance 7’ equals T+VV’. ‘Then D’ is found from Table VIII, or, if preferred (Hints 4 and 3), from Ye R+-—P = R as @-2)Change-of-Location Problems 179 For setting the new C.T. at B’, notice that B’ must lie on AB produced. Since angle BB’ equals 41, BB=sPo (7-8) ‘When the tangent is shifted inward, use AB’ as the original curve. 7-11. Simple Curve; New C.T. Opposite Original C.T.—If conditions do not permit moving the C.T. forward (as in Fig, 7-8), it may be kept on the same radial line opposite the original position, as in Fig. 7-9. Fig. 7-9 Fig. 7-10 For the triangle at the vertex (Hint 2), VX=p cot J, and the new tangent distance 7” equals T—VK. Then D’ is found from Table VIII, or (if preferred) BB’ = BX—B’X (Hint 3). That is, p=(R—R’) exsee I, from which aR Rar-—2S (7-9) For setting the new T.C. at A’, notice that AA’ does not equal VV’, Find AA’ from the triangle at the centers (Hint 2). This triangle gives AA'=(R-R’) tan I (7-10) When the tangent is chifted inward, use A’B’ as the original curve. 7-12. Simple Curve; New Direction From C.T.—Changing the direction of the forward tangent after a curve has been staked may place the alignment on more favorable groundRelocation Problems 181 becomes to tie the survey work closely to the original align- ment. Survey and design problems are closely related to those having to do with obtaining new right-of-way and abandoning old right-of-way. Two typical minor relocation problems are outlined in the following articles. References to some major projects are given in Chapters 9 and 10, 7-14. Replacement of Broken-Back Curve.—A “broken- back” curve consists of two curves in the same direction separated by a tangent shorter than the sum of the distances needed to run out the superelevation. Formerly, such align- ment was often used for reasons of economy, but present standards rarely justify the practice. When the entire lay- out is visible, it is very unsightly; even though obscured, it is apt to be dangerous (on highways). Elimination of the tangent between the curves is a common relocation problem. Occasionally it can be done by inserting asingle curve between the outer tangents of the existing curves. ‘A more general method is illustrated in Fig. 7-11, which shows the original tangent BC separating curves with centers at Os and O,. A new curve with its center at O is sprung between points A and D on the existing curves, thus forming a180 = Special Curve Problems than by shifting the tangent parallel to its original position, Fig. 7-10 represents a case in which the tangent is swung in- ward through a measured angle a, the C.T, at B being pre- served. The new central angle J’ equals +a, Using Hint 4, drop perpendiculars (not shown) from B to the tangent AV produced and to the radii OA and O'A’, Then, by inspection, R’ vers I’=R vers I, and se I aoe ean Also, from Hint 3, AA’=R sin I— R’sin I’ (7-12) If preferred, solve triangle VBV’ (Hint 2) for 7’, Thus, rat set (7-13) Then, obtain D’ from Table VIII. 7-13. Modification for Spiraled Curve.—In the preceding examples illustrating change-of-location problems, the curves were not spiraled. Spiraling complicates field adjustments to acertain extent. The best general method is to locate on the ground the positions of the offset T.C.’s and the offset P.I., thereby converting the problem to one involving unspiraled curves. In a simple problem it may not be necessary actually to stake the offset T.C.; but the calculations must then take the spiral into account. (See Fig. 7-4 for an example.) RELOCATION PROBLEMS Major relocations of existing highways are continually being made in order to bring them into conformity with modern standards. To a lesser extent, some large sections of railroad line are being relocated, especially in mountainous terrain where the amount of traffic originally expected did not warrant low grades and expensive alignment. In such work little, if any, use is made of the existing alignment records. Minor relocations, both on highways and railroads, are even more common; they will probably continue to outrank major relocation projects in total mileage and construction cost. The shorter the relocation the more convenient it182 . Special Curve Problems three-centered compound curve (Art. 3-9). The problem is to locate points A and D. If a value is assumed for the radius R of the new curve, the positions of A and D can be found by solving the right tri- angle OsHOz and the triangle Os00z, and then calculating the angles Zs and Iz, which locate A and D. The maximum offset PK between the original and revised layouts should be computed to see if it falls within the limit permitted by topography. PK =(R-Rs) vers Is (7-14) If spirals are required between the curves, the problem then becomes a special case of inserting spirals between arcs of a compound curve. The center O is preserved and the radius of the new curve is increased to R+KJ, where KJ = 01=02, The two spirals usually have different lengths, since the differences between the degrees of the new and original curves will rarely be the same, ‘The theory of the process is outlined in Arts. 5-16 and 5-20. Fig. 7-12 illustrates how a change in specifications some- times complicates a problem. The existing layout isa broken-Relocation Problems 183 back curve similar to that in Fig. 7-11, but field conditions require that the new curve start at A (the T.C. of the original shorter-radius curve) and end on the existing forward tangent atan unknown point X. The problem is to find the new radius R and the distance DX. No solution is possible by merely solving two triangles, as was the case in Fig. 7-11. To avoid more-intricate construction, the traverse method is used. (Hint 6, Art. 7-7). ‘The closed traverse DXOOsBCOzD is imagined to be oriented so that direction DX is 0° azimuth (Rule 2, Art. 3-6). ‘The data for the traverse are then as follows: Side Length Azimuth Dx DX o° xo R 270° 00s R-Rs 90°—I OsB Rs 90°=Ir, BC BC 180°— Ir, CO Ry _270°— Is, O.D Re 90° Setting © departures equal to 0 and reducing gives pHs (cos T1~cos 1)+BC sin In-+ Rx vers Tz vers I Similarly, setting 2 latitudes equal to 0 gives DX =(Ri—Rs) sin Iz—(R—Rs) sin 1+BC cos I, (7-16) As in Fig. 7-11, the maximum offset is expressed by formula 7-14, The foregoing formulas are solved quickly by calculating machine and Table XX, in which all needed natural functions appear in the same table. (See Prob. 7-5.) (7-15) 7-15. Replacement of Reverse Curve.—Fig. 7-13 shows an existing reverse curve ACB which is to be replaced by a new simple curve starting at the same T.C. at A. The problem is to find the new radius R and distance XB. The following solution is by the traverse method employed in Fig. 7-12, 0° azimuth being taken parallel to OX in the closed traverse OXB050,0. Angle I=Is—I1.184 & Special Curve Problems Fig. 7-13 Setting 2 latitudes equal to 0 and reducing gives = Rz (cos I—cos Is)+Rs vers Is z vers Mee Setting = departures equal to 0 and reducing gives XB=(Ri+R) sin I—(R,+Rs) sin Is (7-18) To find the maximum offset PX, first calculate angle a from the relation a tan a=7—p; (7-19) Then, Offset PK =(R—Rs) exsec a (7-20) (See Prob. 7-6.) 7-16. General Method for Major Relocation.—Even in the case of a long relocation supplanting several curves and their intervening tangents, it is useful to tie the survey to the exist~ ing alignment and to compute the resulting closed traverse by means of the old alignment data on file. ‘This not only gives a check on the field work without extra surveying but also provides the coordinates needed for drawing a map of the two layouts. Relocations often result in surprisingly simple alignment. Fig. 7-14" shows a case in which a single 1° curve and two * Concrete Highways, Vol. XX, No. 1, Jan.-Feb., 1939.T Miscellaneous Problems 185 ~ Aa Begin ~~. sf Orb LocaTion relocation “(3.8 miks;/T cures) Fig. 7-14 tangents replaced seventeen curves having total central angles of more than 900°. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 7-17. Curve Through Fixed Point.—A curve may be made to pass through (or close to) a fixed point either by trial methods or by an exact geometric solution. ‘A method of accomplishing the result by a trial field method from a selected T.C. was described in Art. 2-14 under the heading of chord offsets. This problem is more intricate where the P.I. and the directions of the tangents have been established. In this situation a trial field method is apt to be unduly time-con- suming. Fither a trial calculation or an exact geometric method is better. Fig. 7-15 shows this situation, P being the point fixed by ties to the P.I. The tie measurements may be the distances VP” and P’P or the distance V P and the angle a. Either pair of values may be obtained from the other by computation, ‘The problem is to find the unknown radius J, after which all remaining data are easily computed, ‘The key to the trigonometric solution is the triangle OPV (the interior angles of which are denoted by 9, p, and »). Although only one side (PV) and one angle (v) are known, the relation between the two unknown sides is known; there- fore, the triangle can be solved. ‘The ratio of the unknown sides OP and OV is R:R sec 3, which equals cos #7. Therefore, the law of sines can be186 . Special Curve Problems ‘ \ ‘ \ ‘ zI1to are —— Fig. 7-15, used in the key triangle, giving sin p:sin v=OV:OP, from which sin p=——> (7-21) Gait Since all angles of the triangle are now known, R may be found from the sine law. However, if angles » and 0 are very small, R may not be calculable to sufficient precision owing to the rapid variation in the sines of the angles (see Hint 5, Art. 7-7). In this case, solve for R from the relation eek sin (I+a) "vers (+0) ea The problem just described may be used to illustrate how ‘a quick slide-rule solution by a trial calculation method often gives results close enough for the purpose. For example, sup- pose that ]=28°16', VP’=150 ft, and P’P=20 ft. It is required to find D to the nearest 10 minutes. Te (Table VIII) =1,442.7 Try D=s° AV ART sat ve’ =150 AP'=diffl. =331 T.0..° (Table I) =2.62 and PP'° =3.31? X2.62 = 28.7 (PP? may be checked by formula 2-30.) Since PP’)? exceeds 20 feet, the correct D is greater than 3°.Miscellaneous Problems 187 Try D=4° From a similar process, PP’ =15.4 Hence, by interpolation, the required value of D is approxi- mately equal to 34-82 x60’ = 3°30! (say 3°40'). ‘The 3°40/ curve will not pass exactly through point P. If a closer value of D is required, interpolation between another pair of values for D=3°30' and 3°40! should give D to the nearest minute. 7-18. Intersection of Straight Line and Curve.—Fig, 7-16 represents a more general case of Fig. 7-15 in which a straight Tine XP” cuts the tangent AV of a given curve. ‘The problem Fig. 7-16 is to locate the intersection of the line and the curve at P. Among other places this problem occurs in right-of-way work, as in defining the corner of the piece of property shown shaded. All curve data are known and the survey notes also provide the angle a and the distance AP’ (or P'V). ‘This information being given, the problem could be con- verted to the preceding one by drawing another tangent (not shown) from P’ to the curve, thereby making P” correspond to188 Special Curve Problems point V in Fig. 7-15. The problem could also be converted to one in analytic geometry (see Art. 7-19) by finding the equations of the line and of the circle and solving them simultaneously. However, the traverse solution is more direct. If 0° azimuth is assumed in the direction PP’, setting = departures equal to 0 in the traverse PP’AOP gives cos (a+c) = (7-23) from which the central angle c and the stationing of P may be computed. From 3 latitudes =0, PP'=Rsina+P'A cosa—R sin (a+c) (7-24) This is the type of problem which is solved readily by graphical methods, For example, if AP’ is known, the exact tangent offset at P’ is computed and laid off at right angles to a line representing the tangent.AV. A large scale should be used (say 1 inch=1 foot). Then, at a point 10 feet closer to A, another tangent offset is computed and laid off parallel to the previous one and 10 inches away. A spline fitted to three such points is used for drawing in the curve, and the line XP’ is then drawn to the intersection at P. Finally, the required distance P’P is scaled to the nearest 0.01 inch, the ground distance thus being determined with an error hardly greater than 0.01 foot. In the case of a field problem, rather than one met in the office, the point P may be found by setting two points close together on the curve either side of where the straight line comes through. Point P is then located by “string intersec- tion.” 7-19. Solutions by Analytic Geometry.—When a curve problem cannot be solved readily by any other method, recourse may be had to analytic geometry. This procedure relies on a basic mathematical tool and has the virtue that computations ean be arranged so as to be self-checking. Analytic geometry. is also the basis for the COGO system of programming problems for solution by electronic digital com- puter (Art. 13-5). Rcosa—P’A sina RMiscellaneous Problems 189 To review some of the principles of analytic geometry, the equation of a line cutting the Y-axis (as line 1 in Fig. 7-17) is YaNt55 (7-25) For a line cutting the X-axis (line 2), X=I,+Y tané (7-26) Fig. 7-17 To find the equation of a line from the coordinates of two points on the line, first find the bearing from 0= are tan % ifference, Then find I, or Tz by substituting the coordinates of one of the points in equation 7-25 or 7-26, When 0 falls between zero and 10°, equation 7-26 is preferred; between 80° and 90°, equation 7-25 is preferred. In either case, it is advisable to check the result by using the coordinates of the second point in the same equation. ‘The equation of a circle, as shown in Fig. 7-18, is (X—h)+(¥ —k} = Rt (7-27) Any of the problems previously solved by the traverse method might have been solved by analytic geometry. In fact, analytic geometry can also be applied to computing the190 ". Special Curve Problems S peel locations of critical points along a simple-curve or spiraled- curve layout. This method is particularly useful where all details of a route alignment are tied to a state plane coordinate system. Analytic geometry is especially adapted to solving a problem that requires finding the locations of points of intersection of straight lines or curves. The problem in Art. 7-18 is such a case. Fig. 7-19 illustrates the solution of this problem by analytic geometry for the general case where the coordinate axes are not rotated or translated so as to simplify the solution. ‘The same basic data are known as in the traverse solution of Art. 7-18. These data are the coordinates of V (or A), the bearings of the tangents, all geometric-curve data, the distance VP'(or AP’), and the bearing 6, of the intersecting line. To find the desired coordinates of the intersection P, proceed as follows: Solve for the unknown constants h and k from h=Xa+ R sin 6, and k=Y4—R cos 6. The equation of the simple curve (formula 7-27) is then known. Commence with the given coordinates of V (or A) and find the coordinates of P’. ‘This fixes the coordinates of one ee on the intersecting line. Find the value of J, from Jy=Yp" fees ‘The equation of ache the intersecting line (formula 7-25) is then known, Finally,Miscellaneous Problems 191 Fig. 7-19 obtain the required coordinates of P by solving the equations of the curve and the intersecting line simultaneously. For additional applications of analytic geometry to practical problems, see “Analytic Geometry in Highway Design and Layout,” Proceedings ASCE, Vol. 86, Paper 2548, July, 1960 and “Drafting-Room Problems Solved by Analytic Geometry” by S. L. Goldberg, Civil Engineering, Vol. 30, No. 12, December, 1960, pp. 68-70. PROBLEMS 7-1. Simple curve with P.I. inaccessible (Fig. 7-1). Find: sta. T.C. (A), sta. C.T. (B), and distance YB. (a) Sta, X=73+50; XY =708.55; x=32°48'; y=25°24'; D.=4°30'. Answers: sta. T.C. =66 +41.32; sta. C.T.=79+ 34.65; YB =257.06.192 : Special Curve Problems (6) Sta. X=275+25; XY =588.62; z=21°36'20' 15°21'10"; R =2,000. 7-2. Compound curve with P.I. inaccessible (Fig. 7-2). Find: sta. C.T. (¥), 11, Is, and the missing radius. (@) Sta. T.C. (X)=84+00; X¥=3,048.27; 2=31°11'; y=49°52'; Rs=1,500. Answers: sta. C.T.=117+04.64; 11 =30°56'34”; 1s =50°06'26"; Ri =3,690.08. (®) Sta. T.C. (X)=268+50; XY =1,800.00; z=29°00'; y=35°18"; D, (are def.) =5°. 7-3. Change-of-location problems. Find: the station of the new C.T. and the distances needed to set hubs at the new T.C. and C.T. by taping from their original positions. (a) Fig. 7-6: Sta. A =24+13.44; 1 =39°12'; D. =4°; p=15. (b) Fig. 7-8: Sta. A=37+79.08; J=28°45'; R=2,000; p=12. (c) Fig. 7-9: Sta. A =64+21.82; 1=51°10'; D.=6°; p=8. (@) Fig. 7-10: Sta. A=73+09.67; /=52°34'; D.=5°; a=3°. 7-4. Broken-back eurve (Fig. 7-11). Find: PK and the station equation at point D. (a) Sta. B=27+18.94; Rs=400; Ri. =800; R=1,200; BC =642.81. Answers: PK =96.95; sta. D39+70.25 revised = 39+30.67 original. (6) Sta. B=18+19.17; Rs=500; R,=600; R=1,000; BC =510.24. 7-5. Broken-back curve (Fig. 7-12). Find: R, the maxi- mum offset, and the station equation at point D. (a) Sta. A =12+41.83; Ds=10°, Di =8° (both are def.); Ts =42°48'20"; I, =32°30'10"; BC =264.37. Answers: R= 793.346; max. offset =58.70; sta. D 23+71.34 revised =23+ 40.54 original. (b) Sta. A=41+82.07; Rs=400; Rp=700; Is=47°10'; 1, =36°42'; BC =670.52. 7-6. Replacement of reverse curve (Fig. 7-13). Find: R, PK, and the station equation at point X. (a) Sta. T.C. (A) =18+52.34; D, =1°35' and Ds =4°25' (both are def.); [,=16°42'; 1=75°26'. (Note: This is the’ _ Miscellaneous Problems 193 reverse curve used in Prob. 3-6.) Answers: R=4,031.47; PK =528.97; sta. X 59+84.96 revised =63+96.13 original. (b) Sta. T.C. (A) =63 +21.86; R,=1,200; Rs =600; I= 26°18"; [s=57°10'. 7-7. Curve through fixed point (Fig. 7-15). Find: D. and Sta. T.C. (A). Verify D, by trial calculation. (a) Sta. P.I. (V) =37+25.4; 1=53°40'; VP’ =297.2; P’P = 28.8. Answers: De=5°19'22”; sta. T.C. =31+80.9. (6) Sta. P.I. (V) =57+18.6; J =62°05’; VP =300; a=5°. 7-8. Intersection of line and curve (Fig. 7-16). Find: distance P’P, sta. P, and the coordinates of P by the method of Art. 7-18. Verify answers by the method of Art. 7-19. (a) Sta. T.C. (A)=73+24.32; coordinates of A=N 5,475.47, E 7,182.63; bearings AV=S 71°47'W, VB=8S 12°43E, XP=S 74°30'E; lengths AP’ =960.82, R =1,200. Answers: PP’ =358.98; sta. P=80+25.81; coordinates of A=N 5,079.17, E 6,615.89. (b) Sta. P.I. (V) =46 +19.57; coordinates of V=N 4,210.17, E 4,781.73; bearings AV =S 83°56'E, VB=S 19°18'E, XP’ = 8 3°05’E; lengths VP’ =721.42, R =3,000. The remaining problems are “original” in the sense that no fei formulae for solving them appear in this book. The suggestions found in Arts. 7-2 and 7-7 are ee pertinent. Problems appear in the order of increasing diticulty; Answers are purposely omitted as a chal- Tenge to the computer to verify his work by a different method.) 7-9. Fig. 7-5. Given: angles XVA=100°, VXP=36°, VAP =22°; distances VA=1,200, AOs=1,000; sta. A=12+4 00. Find: sta. B'(along curve APB’) and distance VB’. 7-10. A 400-ft vertical curve joining gradients of —4% and +6% ends at elev. 127.86. The 6% gradient must be lowered, but drainage requirements preclude any horizontal shift in the low point of the curve. Find the length of the revised vertical curve and the elevation of its low point. 7-11, Connect the center lines of two parallel roadways 200 ft apart with a crossover consisting of equal turnout curves separated by a 400-ft tangent. Find the central angle of the turnout curves. 7-12. Given: a simple curve with [=38°24'; D, =6°; sta.194 & Special Curve Problems T.C.=64+488.27. Replace it by a symmetrical 3-centered compound curve, flattened at the tangents, which passes through the same mid-point. It is required that Ds=6°40" and that the sta. of the new T.C.=64+00. Find: Dz and sta. of new T.C. 7-13. Given two independent simple curves: Curve 1, R=1,000; sta. T.C.=35+42.76; coordinates of T.C.=N 5,280.64, E 6,178.51; bearing of initial tangent =N 68°28’E, final tangent =N 6°05’W. Curve 2, R=2,000; sta. T.C.=18+71. T.C.=N 6,980.11, E 8,821.27; bearing of 5°58’W, final tangent =N 62°30'E. A common tangent is to be run from point X on curve 1 to point Y on curve 2. Find: length and bearing of XY, sta. X on curve 1, and sta. Y on curve 2. 7-14. Reverse curve between non-parallel tangents. Given: angle between tangents at P.I.=30°28'; T's (P.I. to T.C.) = Tr (PI. to C.T.) =2,169.43; sta. T.C.=39-+57.46. ns require that both ares have the same radius. Find: R, sta. of point of reversal, and sta. of C.T. coordinates of ial tangent =Nchapter 8 Curve Problems in Highway Design 8-1. Foreword.—Because of the public nature of highway traffic, highway curves have a greater effect upon safety of operation than do curves on railroad lines. Railways, operating over fixed track on private right-of-way, are able to control the volume and spacing of traffic and to enforce slow orders on dangerous curves. Such restrictions are not practicable on the public highway. Consequently, it is neces~ sary to “build safety into the highways” by proper location and design, It would be difficult enough to meet this require- ment if conditions were statie, but the continuous improve- ments in vehicle design and in highway construction, both of which encourage ever-increasing speeds, make safety the high- way designer's paramount engineering problem—as yet unsolved in several important respects. The importance and variety of curve problems in highway design warrant devoting a separate chapter to aspects of these problems not fully covered in the preceding chapters. Though certain physical and geometric principles are reasonably well established, the numerical recommendations controlling design are in many cases only tentative, Illustrative examples are taken from recent research or from current design “policies” or “standards.” Revision of policies and standards can be expected as conditions change and as research discloses facts not yet known. Until recently the various elements entering into highway- alignment design had been fixed largely by rule-of-thumb methods, and there was little agreement among State highway departments. This difference in practice was partly due to the mushroom growth of traffic, which forced the highway engineer to concentrate upon meeting the resulting demands quickly by any methods that seemed adequate at the time. However, the principal reason was lack of basic_research concerning the human and mechanical factors which con- tribute to safe operation at high speeds, Research during 195196 Curvé Problems in Highway Design the decade preceding World War II supplied much of the missing information; from time to time additional research continues to reveal new facts needed to bring all design ele- ments into harmony with a chosen design speed. ©. M. Noble has listed'*the design elements affected by speed as follows: (1) Over-all Width of Highway (a) Median strip, width and treatment () Shoulders, width and treatment (©) Paved lane width (2) Sight Distance (a) Vertically (®) Horizontally (c) Determination of proper friction factor and reac tion time (3) Minimum Radius for Horizontal Curvature (4) Rates of Superelevation for Horizontal Curves (a) Determination of proper friction factor (un- balanced centrifugal ratio) (®) Correlation of superelevation rate with require- ments of slow and fast vehicles (5) Length of Spiral Curves (6) Length of Superelevation Runout Beyond Spiral (7) Length of Profile Tangents (8) Distance Between Horizontal Curves (a) Same direction (6) Reverse direction (9) Spacing of Points of Access and Exit (10) Length of Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes at Points of Access and Exit (11) Design of Turnouts at Points of Exit (12) Signs (a) Size of letters (b) Maximum number of words in sign message “Superscript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter,Sight Distance 197 (©) Reftectorization @ Position (13) Type of Pavement Of the items in the foregoing list, those from (2) to (8) inclu- sive come-logically within the scope of this chapter; the others belong more properly to the field of highway construction and tion. “Special Committee _on Administrative Design Policies.” Within a few years seven brochures on various aspects of geometric design were approved by the member States after thoughtful research and discussion. They played an impor- tant role in the gradual replacement of rule-of-thumb methods by scientific design based on research. In 1954 this material was revised, expanded, and brought up to date in the form of a single volume? entitled “A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways.” This volume, which came to be known as the blue book, was a monumental work that has exerted a major influence on highway design. It was further revised and up-dated in 1965. In the following articles, references to the blue book are denoted by AASHO Policy. SIGHT DISTANCE 8-2. Speeds.—Speed and sight distance are closely related. Several definitions of speed are used in the AASHO Policy. is the speed over a specified section of highway, being the distance divided by the over-all travel time, ‘The term running speed refers to the distance divided by the time the vehicle is in motion. In either case, the average speed for all traffic, or component thereof, is the summation of distances divided by the summation of running (or over-all travel) times. The most useful concept of speed is design speed, which is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. 8-8. Definitions.—Two definitions of sight distance are ip »198 Curve Problems in Highway Design Stopping sight distance should be long enough to permit a vehicle traveling at the assumed design speed to stop safely before reaching a stationary object in its path. At horizontal curves and at erest vertical curves, the height of the driver's eye is assumed to be 3.75 feet, and the height of the object is taken as 6 inches (AASHO Policy). At no point on a high- way should the sight distance be less than the stopping value. Passing sight distance on a tangent is the shortest distance required for a vehicle safely to pull out of a traffic ane, pass a correct lane without interfering either with the overtaken vehicle or with opposing traffic. At horizontal curves and at crest vertical curves, passing sight distance is the length of road that must visibly be free of obstructions in order to permit a vehicle moving at the design speed to pass a slower-moving vehicle. For these cases the height of eye is taken as 3.75 ft; height of object, as 4.5 ft (AASHO Policy). Highways on which passing must be accomplished on lanes that may be occupied by opposing traffic should be provided with fre- quent safe passing sections on which the sight distance is not less than the passing value for the assumed design speed. Sight distances on overlapping horizontal and vertical curves are determined independently for each type of eurva- ture. The critical sight distance at any point is then taken as the smaller of the two. 84. Stopping Sight Distance.—Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1) that traversed during perception plus brake reaction time; (2) that required for stopping after brakes are applied. ‘Numerous scientifically controlled tests have been made to determine perception time and brake reaction time. As might be expected, the results vary according to vehicle speed, age and natural aptitude of the driver, and the conditions accom- panying the test. Brake reaction time is assumed to be 1 second, this having been found to be the value sufficient for most drivers; perception time is selected as slightly greater than that required by most drivers, and is assumed to be 1.5 seconds (AASHO Policy).Sight Distance 199 For a speed of V miles per hour and perception plus brake reaction time of t seconds, the total reaction distance in feet is (D=147 Vt / (1) (The conversion factor 1.47 may be recalled more readily by means of the exact relation: 60 mph =88 ft per sec.) Braking distance may be determined from fundamental principles of mechanics. ‘The force causing a vehicle to stop after application of the brakes equals mass times decelera- tion, or Ww F=Ma as If the coefficient of friction f is assumed to be uniform during deceleration, F =W f; hence, a=f g. Since the distance trav- ree indecleratng from a velocity to rest is, the brak- ing distance is 5%. ‘When g is taken as 32.2 ft per sec?, and ‘the speed is converted to V in miles per hour, the braking dis- tance in feet reduces to ye Daag (8-2) Actually the coefficient of friction is not constant during deceleration, but assuming it to be constant introduces no error so long as the proper equivalent uniform value is assumed to fit the speed in effect at the beginning of the operation. The coefficients of friction used in the AASHO Policy apply to normal clean wet pavements that are free of mud, snow, or ice. In Table 8-1 (AASHO Policy), design speeds of 75 and 80 mph are applicable only to highways with full control of access. The speed for wet conditions is taken to be slightly less than the design speed so that the greater proportion of traffic, traveling at yet lower speeds, will enjoy an additional safety factor. If the full design speed were used along with the coefficients of friction for dry pavements (almost double the tabulated values), the required stopping sight distances would be somewhat less than those for the assumed wet con-200 Curvé Problems in Highway Design ditions. Therefore, the critical design values are those in Table 8-1. TABLE 8-1 MINIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE—WET PAVEMENTS Bxasassss | Theoretically, stopping distances are affected slightly by grades. If G@ is the per cent grade divided by 100, the formula for braking distance becomes DESH es In practice the sight distance is usually longer on down- grades than on upgrades, a fact that automatically compen- sates for the greater braking distances on downgrades required by formula 8-3. Exceptions would be one-way lanes on divided highways having independent profiles for the two roadways. 8-5. Passing Sight Distance.—In the AASHO Policy the minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is theSight Distance 201 sum of the following four distances which are shown in Fig. 8-1: d,=distance traversed during the preliminary delay period (the distance traveled during perception and reaction time and during the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane). d:=distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies any part of the left lane. d,=distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle. d,=distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, or 3s. ‘The preliminary delay period dy is a-complex-one. For purposes of analysis it may be broken into two components: (1) time for perception and reacti an interval dur- ing which the driver accelerates his vehicle fro al speed V—m to the passing speed V at th to the rosie aT Ua point ieaneesahe ment on the left lane. ‘The distance traversed is expressed as dnld7h (v-m+3 (84) The distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane is h=1.47 Vie (8-5) Reference to Fig. 8-1 shows that during the first part of the passing maneuver the driver can still return to the right lane if he sees an opposing vehicle. From experience, this “uncommitted” distance is about 4d:. Since the opposing and passing vehicles are assumed to be traveling at the same speed, dy= fds. Basie data used in establishing the design curves in Fig. 8-1 are summarized in Table 8-2. The values of a, t,, fs, ds, and. average passing speed come from a report? on extensive field observations of driver behavior during passing maneuvers. ‘The average value of m is taken as 10 mph.202 Curve Problems in Highway Design 2,000) z Bi 3 i = 1000 500} xn Cy 40 0 ‘Average Speed of Passing Vehicle—mph ‘Fig. 8-1, Passing sight distance (2-lane highways)" Sight Distance 203 TABLE 8-2 ELEMENTS OF SAFE PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE— ‘2-LANE HIGHWAYS: Speed Group, mph 60-70 Average Passing speed, mph 62.0 Initial maneuver: a=avg. acceleration, mph per second 1.50 ty=time, seconds 45 d, =distance traveled, ft 370 Occupation of left lane: t=time, seconds 11.3 d,=distance traveled, ft 1,030 Clearance length: d; = distance traveled, ft 300 Opposing vehicle: d,=distance traveled, ft 680 Total distance, dy t+dtdstdy ft 2,380 TABLE 8-3 ‘Minimum Passing Sight Distance, {t204 Curve Problems in Highway Design Table 8-3 contains a summary of passing sight distances determined from the foregoing analysis. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 8-6. Superelevation Theory.—Fig. 8-2 shows the forces W (weight of vehicle) and F (centrifugal force) acting through the center of gravity ¢ of a vehicle traveling at a speed v around a curve of radius R, when the pavement is super- elevated at an angle @ with the horizontal (@=tan~ e). Possible directions of resultant Fig. 8-2. Superelevation theory In order to simplify the analysis, the two forces are resolved into their components normal and parallel to the pavement. The resultant of the forces must take one of three possible general directions: (1) When W,=F,, the resultant is perpendicular to the pavement and no centrifugal sensation is felt by the occupants of the vehicle. The speed which produces this effect is called “equilibrium speed.” (2) When W,>F,, the resultant is inclined to the pavement down the slope. Consequently, there is a tendency for the vehicle to slide inward, and this tendency is resisted by a lateral force acting up the slope at the contact between theHorizontal Alignment 205 wheels and the road surface. Obviously, there is also a clockwise overturning moment causing the vehicle to tilt inward. (3) When W,F; (or V is less than equilibrium speed), as ITE R-II (6-10) When W» centrifugal force. There is no| (Formula 8-7) side friction. (2) V-Equilibrium speed ve Side friction and superelevation | 7gR7 ¢ + f assist each other in counter-|_¢— _» > balancing centrifugal force. (Formula 8-11) Fig. 8-3 (b)—Adverse crown Only one possible case regardless] f = e +n of speed. Side friction alone holds ear on road. el a ciao ree Dynamics of Vehicle Operation on Curves.—On_a. there ieee ep curve. At this speed W,=Fp, and the value of f is zero. At other than equilibrium speed, equations 8-10 and 8-11 seem to indicate that safe operation around a given curve is entirely within the control of the driver. He has only to adopt any desired speed and rely upon the automatic develop- mentof whatever valueof fis needed tomake up for the lack of balance between ¢ and 7! 7. However, the matter is not so simple as this. On the contrary, it is very complex; and further research is required before curve design for high-speed operation can be placed upon a sound scientific basis.208 Curvé Problems in Highway Design When W,+F,, the car tends to creep out of the traffic lane. To offset this tendency the driver must exert force at the steering wheel and must steer slightly toward or away from the center of curvature, the direction depending on whether V is greater or less than equilibrium speed. As a result, each pair of tires must “slip” across the surface at a definite angle between the path of travel and the longitudinal axis of the wheels. Fig. 8-4 illustrates the normal condition when V exceeds the equilibrium speed. Fig. 8-4. Understeering action Front and rear slip angles are rarely equal. When the front slip angle is greater than the rear slip angle, the car-is said to be “understeering,” as in Fig. 8-4; when the reverse is true, the car is “oversteering.”” Whether a car understeers or oversteers depends principally on its design and partly on factors within the control of the operator. For example, research at the General Motors Proving Ground® shows that it is possible to make a car either highly oversteering or highly understeering by merely varying front and rear tire pressures within certain limits. ‘The understeering car is somewhat more stable and sus- ceptible to control than the oversteering type. Perhaps this is true because an increase in speed on a curve requires an increase in the steering angle of the understeering car (an operation that is instinctively natural), whereas a decrease inHorizontal Alignment 209 the steering angle is necessary in the case of the oversteering car. Above a certain critical speed the front wheels of the understeering car start to slide off the road, but by careful braking the driver can generally regain control and return to a fairly fixed course at a speed below the critical value. It is more difficult to hold an oversteering car on a fixed path even at moderate speeds. Above a certain critical speed the rear end of the car starts to slide off the road, and any slight application of brakes is apt to put the car into a spin. ‘At the same time at which a car develops certain slip angles in rounding a curve, there is some tilt or “body roll.” The roll angle is a linear function of f, at least up to the limits of f considered safe. Roll angles are not large. Tests show that, when f=0.20, body-roll angles vary between 1.8° and 3.5°, the value depending on the make and model year of the ear. ‘Though body roll has less effect upon a car’s general “road- ability” than do the slip angles, it is a factor that must. be allowed for in the accurate use of the ball bank indicator (see Art. 8-8). Valuable research on the relation of slip angles, steering angles, and body roll to safe speed on curves has been pub- lished by Fox* (low-speed tests) and by Stonex and Noble? (high-speed tests on the Pennsylvania Turnpike). ‘The facts brought out show why all ears do not handle alike on the same curves. Information is also available on the special problems involved in test-track design.** 8-8. Side Friction Factors.—The value of f at which side skidding is imminent depends principally upon the speed of the vehicle, the condition of the tires, and the characteristics of the roadway surface. Moyer’s work* indicated maximum values of f of about 0.50 at relatively low speeds, with a reduction to approximately 0.35 at high speeds. The tests at very high speed on the Pennsylvania Turnpike’ (speeds up to 105 mph) showed maximum values as low as 0.30, even though the cars were driven by skilled test drivers. An important problem in curve design—especially on curves to be marked with safe-speed signs—is to determine the percentage of the maximum side friction that can be