Academic writing: figures and tables
Figures and tables can be used to describe complex or large amounts of information. At the moment you realize that
words will be unable to convey your message (or you would need many words), take this as a sign that you have to
introduce a figure or table. You can also use tables and figures to draw attention to particular findings (e.g., a
relationship between variables.
Description
Figures and tables are intended to clarify complex
information to the reader. We distinguish two
types of information:
 Quantitative information: graphs and tables can
clarify relationships between different
variables;
 Qualitative information: figures (photos,
drawings, diagrams) and tables can clarify or
order methods and concepts.
Guidelines – general (figures and tables)
1. Think about how you want to present your
data: what is the aim? Quantitative data can be
shown in a table or figure, depending on the
aim. Choose a table if you want to show the
actual values, but choose a figure (e.g., line
chart) if you want to emphasize a pattern or
relations between variables, e.g., an interaction
or a change in values over time. Do not present
the same information in both a figure and a
table.
2. Carefully select your figures and tables: only
include them when they are needed for your
story. Additional figures or tables can be put in
appendices.
3. Carefully construct your figures and tables:
figures that are OK to explore your data during
research are usually not appropriate to include
in your report.
4. Figures and tables are positioned close to
where their information is used, but they are
not part of a sentence - they should ‘float’
(usually to the top or bottom of the page).
5. Figures and tables should be positioned and
numbered in the order that they appear in the
text. Numbering of figures and tables are
separate, i.e. the first table is called Table 1,
even if there is already a Figure 1. In a report,
illustrations may be numbered by chapter (e.g.
“Figure 2.1”). Use the automatic numbering
option of your word processor to ensure
synchronization of the numbering of
illustrations and the numbers occurring in the
references in the text.
Academic skills – Academic writing – Figures and tables
(contact: arnold.moene@wur.nl)
6. If a figure consists of sub figures (panels) those
are numbered ‘a’, ‘b’ etc (e.g. Figure 4a). The
sub figure letter should be displayed in, above,
or to the left of the sub figure. In the caption
each sub figure should be referenced.
7. All types of figures (including photos, graphs,
drawings) are called ‘Figure’ and follow the
same numbering.
8. All figures and tables need captions. The
caption starts with the illustration type (‘Figure’
or ‘Table’) followed by the number.
Spend one sentence to clarify the function of
the figure/table: what does it represent and
why did you include it. Spend the other
sentence(s) to give information about how to
read the figure, for example: "Winter data are
plotted in the figure a) and summer data in
figure b).". A reader should be able to
understand the figure without reading the
report. The caption does not contain
interpretation and analysis. Captions are
placed below figures and above tables.
9. Each figure or table should be referenced in the
text at least once. When referring to figures,
use “Figure 1” at the beginning of a sentence,
otherwise “Fig. 1”. "Table" cannot be
abbreviated.
10. Inform the reader about what the figures and
tables demonstrate: they never speak for
themselves. Do not ‘dump’ figures and tables.
However, do not repeat the contents of the
tables and figures in the main text.
11. When interpreting (discussing) the figure or
table in the text, do not repeat the information
in the illustration. Rather, use it as a reference
to make statements, e.g. “Southern wind is the
dominant wind direction (Fig. 4a).”. This
indirect citation is more concise than “From Fig.
4a we can conclude that…” or Fig. 4a shows...”
Discuss or highlight trends, remarkable results
and results vs. expectations. The amount of
text devoted to a figure should be in line with
the complexity of the figure.
12. If you use figures from others, first ensure that
their figure really conveys the exact
information you need (no more, no less). If not,
v1.2 • Wageningen University
 consider to make your own. If you still decide
to use theirs, put a reference in the caption
(“(from Smith et al., 2018)”). If you use
someone else’s figure as inspiration for your
own, reference as well (“(after Smith et al.,
2018)”).
Figure 1: Example of a line plot. Points are connected
because the independent variable is continuous. The
line types are sufficiently different and font size is
comparable to that of text.
Guidelines – graphs (quantitative)
Use graphs when:
 presenting values that follow a pattern or
trend (or do not follow a trend, contrary
to your hypotheses); adding a trend line
may help to clarify the trend.
 the exact values are not important.
1. Select the appropriate type of graph:
a. Line graph: shows the relation between a
continuous variable on the x-axis and a
characteristic variable on the y-axis. Line
graph are often used to emphasize patterns
such as an interaction or time course, see
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b. Scatter plot: shows the relation between
two variables in a dataset (Figure 2);
c. Bar graph: shows the distribution of a data
set for categorical variables (discontinuous
or countable, e.g. annual sums); often used
to compare groups or conditions. Special
case: histograms show the frequency of
occurrence of given values;
d. Contour plot: shows the dependence of a
variable on two independent variables;
special cases are horizontal maps (e.g.
elevation maps) and vertical cross sections
(also: filled contour plots in which colours
are assigned to values);
e. Pie chart: shows the relative contribution of
categories to the total.
Academic skills – Academic writing – Figures and tables
(contact: arnold.moene@wur.nl)
Figure 2: Example of a scatter plot. Dots are sufficiently
large, y-axis starts at zero to put trend into perspective.
2. Each axis should have a label. The label should
contain (1) the quantity displayed, and (2) the
units. In the case of a contour plot, contours
should be labelled and the units of the label
should be indicated in the caption. In the case
of a filled contour plot, a colour bar should be
included that indicates quantity and unit of the
dependent variable.
3. Carefully select axis limits:
 if you expect a one-to-one relationship in a
scatter plot: same limits for x-axis and y-axis
(and make the plot window square);
 if a zero-value has a clear interpretation,
consider to include the zero in the axis,
even if the data do not come close to zero;
 if you have multiple graphs with
comparable data, use identical x-ranges and
y-ranges for them.
4. Limit the number of datasets shown in a single
graph; ensure that the reader can distinguish
them.
5. In case of multiple datasets in one graph:
include a legend.
6. Carefully select symbol types and line types:
 distinct to enable recognition (preferably
with colours that are distinguishable when
printed in black/white;
 large/thick enough to enable visibility;
 small/thin enough to prevent overlap;
 be aware that around 5% of males suffers
from red-green colour blindness, so avoid as
much as possible a combination of these
colours. Blue-yellow colour blindness exists
as well, but is less common.
7. If a graph (also holds for other figures) consists
of multiple panels, indicate them clearly. This is
always done with small letters in the figure, and
each panel is explained in the figure caption.
When referring to a panel in the figure, use for
example “Fig. 1a”.
v1.2 • Wageningen University
8. Use approximately the same font size for the
caption, text in the figure and the written text.
9. Do not add a title above a graph. The
information on what is shown in the graph
should be clear from the axis titles and the
caption.
Figure 3: Example of a conceptual figure (in this case to
illustrate the macroscopic processes related to
photosynthesis).
Guidelines – figures (qualitative)
Use qualitative illustrations to:
 clarify concepts and theory;
 clarify methods and instruments;
 summarize findings.
1. Select the appropriate type of figure:
a. Photo: shows part of reality in full detail
(e.g. field conditions, non-standard
equipment, a sample);
b. Drawing: shows essentials of a part of
reality; advantage over photos is that
drawings allow to remove details,
emphasize important parts, make cross
sections;
c. Conceptual picture: a schematic depiction
of a phenomenon or process; it can contain
drawings, text, numbers, boxes, arrows etc.
(see Figure 3 for an example);
d. Flow chart: shows the steps in a process
using boxes and arrows (e.g. to visualize
data analysis, research procedures, decision
trees).
e. Pie chart: shows the relative contribution of
categories to the total. Try to avoid pie
charts as they do not allow for easy
comparison
between datasets; rather use a bar chart.
2. Make sure that the information in the figure is
consistent with the contents of your report
(e.g. in terms of terminology, symbols,
numerical values, level of simplification).
Academic skills – Academic writing – Figures and tables
(contact: arnold.moene@wur.nl)
Table 1: Example of table with quantitative information;
rows ordered by clay content; columns indicate both
quantity and unit.
Soil type Porosity Saturated
conductivity
cm3/cm3 cm/d
Light clay 0.42 1.17
Medium clay 0.60 5.26
Heavy clay 0.55 15.46
Guidelines – tables (quantitative)
(based on Schultz, 2009)
Use quantitative tables when:
 data are too repetitive/complex to discuss
in text;
 presenting multiple related variables;
 exact values are important.
1. Structure the table in a way compatible with
how the reader will use it (usually: a quantity
per column, one instances/sample per row). It
is easier to compare columns than rows.
2. Put the columns that are most important to
compare close to each other.
3. Each columns must have a heading indicating
the content of the column. If the column
contains values for a quantity, indicate the
units (usually on a separate line in the
heading).
4. Columns may be grouped when they have
something in common; this common property
is indicated with an additional line in the
column heading (e.g. when you have 3
variables both for winter and for summer: 2
times 3 columns).
5. Order rows in some logical way, e.g.
alphabetically, by location, time, magnitude
(see Error! Reference source not found.
for an example).
6. Align numerical contents of cells by the
decimal point.
7. In large tables, indicate to the reader which
are the most important data (e.g. using
boldface, shading).
8. Remove repetitive elements (indicate that
they are identical to values is the row or
column before). Remove a row or column
when all values in it are the same. Constants
should be described in the note under the
table.
9. Explain abbreviations and symbols in a
footnote under the table.
10. Try to fit a table on one page.
v1.2 • Wageningen University
Guidelines – tables (qualitative) Recommended format for numbers that include
decimal points:
Use qualitative tables to:
 organize important points that are spread  As a general rule, numbers usually contain
out over the text; two decimal places. However, the precision
 summarize textual information in an of the measurement sometimes requires
ordered way (e.g. when reviewing additional decimal places, for example p =
extensive literature); .002.
 summarize characteristics of instruments,  Pseudo-exactness should be avoided. Do not
sites or experiments. use more decimals than your method can
1. Qualitative tables also need column headings. justify. E.g., an average of 52.358 kg suggests
In case the table contains a mix of qualitative that you can weigh up to the gram. If you
and quantitative data, the units must be given measured in kilos, report an average of 52 kg.
for the quantitative data.  Be consistent: don't vary the number of
2. Consider if rows or columns can be ordered in decimal places within a variable or table.
a logical way (e.g. by size, time, alphabet).  A leading zero is the zero placed before a
decimal point. Use the leading zero only if
the number can (theoretically) exceed 1.0
(for example, 0.5 hours). If the number can
Table 2: Example of qualitative table (in this case to never exceed 1.0 (for example p = .08), you
summarize the use of various illustration types. should not include a leading zero (McAdoo,
Illustration type Useful to... 2010).
Figure  In English texts, use a point as decimal
– Graph show relation between separator; in Dutch texts use a comma.
variables
– Qualitative clarify complex concepts,
processes or methods
Table Reference and further reading
– Quantitative present multiple related
Schultz D.M. (2009) Figures, Tables, and Equations. In: Eloquent
variables where exact values Science. American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA
are important (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-935704-03-4_11)
– Qualitative summarize complex textual
information McAdoo T. (July 1, 2010). A post about nothing. Retrieved from
https://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2010/07/a-post-about-
nothing.html Last accessed on 16-08-2019

Academic skills – Academic writing – Figures and tables v1.2 • Wageningen University
(contact: arnold.moene@wur.nl)
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