Lesson 1
Augustine
Philosophical Perspectives
Socrates
- Philosophy's goal: "Know thyself."
- Wisdom is in knowing others, while
enlightenment comes from knowing oneself.
- Self-mastery requires strength, not force.
- Self-knowledge eradicates misery and leads
to the highest bliss.
- Self-knowledge is achieved through the
Socratic Method, a dialogue between the soul
and itself or a student and their teacher.
- Socrates emphasizes self-improvement as
essential for a meaningful life.
Plato
- Dualist perspective: Believes in both an
immaterial mind (soul) and a material body.
- The soul knows the forms and exists before
birth and after death.
- Prioritizes caring for the soul over the body.
- Describes the soul as consisting of reason,
appetite (physical urges), and will (emotion,
passion, spirit).
- Mental conflict arises when these aspects are
not in harmony.
- Uses the charioteer analogy to explain the
interaction of these three parts of the self.
Aristotle
- Defines the soul as the core essence of a
living being.
- Rejects the idea of a separate, immortal soul.
- Views the soul as an activity of the body,
making it inseparable from the body.
- States that the soul is the "first activity" of a
living body and a potential for further activity.
- Uses the example of a knife's cutting to
illustrate the concept of the soul.
St.
- Expands on the concept of self-identity.
- Achieves identity through self-presentation
and self-realization.
- Believes that happiness and completeness
can only be attained in the presence of the
Omnipotent and Omniscient.
Descartes
- Views the self as a thinking thing separate
from the body.
- Famous principle: "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I
think, therefore I am").
- Emphasizes the mental independence of the
mind and body, even though they are
physically connected.
Lesson 2
Sociological Perspective on Self
Charles Cooley
- Cooley introduced the "looking glass self"
theory, which suggests that our self-perception
is shaped by three key elements:
1. Imagining how we appear to others.
2. Imagining how others judge our
appearance.
3. Experiencing self-feelings, such as pride or
shame, based on these imagined judgments.
- Essentially, our self-esteem and self-concept
are influenced by our perception of how others
see us.
- People often adjust their behavior and self-
presentation based on how they believe others
perceive them.
- This theory emphasizes the
interconnectedness between individuals and
society, with self-concept being socially
constructed through interactions.
George Herbert Mead
- Mead's theory of the social self is rooted in
the idea that the self emerges from social
interactions and processes. Several key
activities contribute to the development of the
self:
1. Language: enables individuals to
communicate and convey attitudes and
opinions. Emotions are expressed through
language, impacting one's self-concept.
2. Play: involves taking on different roles,
pretending, and understanding the perspectives
of others. It enhances self-consciousness
through role-playing.
3. Games: teach individuals to follow rules
for success, fostering an understanding of
societal expectations.
- Mead introduced the distinction between the
"I" and the "me":
- The "I" represents the individual's impulses
and acts as the knower.
- The "me" represents the accumulated
understanding of how one's group perceives
them and serves as the known.
- The "I" is an individual's response to the
attitudes of others, while the "me" comprises
the organized attitudes of others that an
individual assumes.
Reflections on the Looking Glass Self
- Cooley's theory challenges the notion of the
individual and society as separate entities,
asserting that they are mutually influential.
- It highlights how individuals may adjust their
behavior and presentation to fit societal norms
and expectations.
- The theory suggests that we are products of
our cultures, environments, and social
interactions.
Lesson 3
Self From the Perspective of Anthropology
Key Concepts:
- Holism: Anthropologists take a
comprehensive approach to understand the
entirety of the human experience,
encompassing aspects like archaeology to
explore ancient human lifestyles and cultures.
- Culture: Anthropologists study the concept
of culture and its role in human life across
different times and places. They examine other
societies to gain insights into their own and
use the past to interpret the present.
- Diversity: Anthropology allows us to
comprehend the reasons behind human
behavior and the remarkable diversity in the
ways different groups live in various
environments.
- Identity: Anthropologists often use the term
'identity' (self) to describe the uniqueness and
individuality that distinguishes one person
from another.
- Self-Abandonment When individuals
disconnect from their true selves and fail to
nurture their spiritual connection, they create
an emotional void. This void, born from self-
abandonment, may compel individuals to seek
love and validation from others.
- Cultural Anthropology: This subfield
of anthropology exposes individuals to diverse
ways of life, challenging their understanding
of the world. It highlights how people from
various cultures have developed distinct yet
fulfilling ways of living.
Impact of Culture on the Concept of Man:
- Anthropologists have identified several key
premises related to the concept of culture and
its impact on human nature:
1. Culture encompasses various aspects of
human societies, including marriage,
economy, religion, and more.
2. It emphasizes the differences between
cultures, highlighting their uniqueness rather
than uniformity.
3. Culture is the cumulative set of symbolic
patterns that manifest in different societies.
 4. It influences what individuals are capable
of and how they behave, thereby contributing
to our understanding of human nature.
Lesson 4
Self from the Perspective of
Psychology by William James
I Self and Me Self:
- The "I Self" represents the aspect of the self
that relates to external actions and behaviors. It
reflects what individuals perceive themselves
doing in the physical world, such as walking,
eating, or writing.
- The "Me Self," on the other hand, is a
more subjective and psychological
phenomenon. It involves individuals'
reflections about themselves, including
characteristics they ascribe to themselves, such
as being athletic, smart, or cooperative.
- James further divided the Me Self into three
components:
1.Material Self: This includes tangible
objects or possessions that individuals collect
for themselves.
2.Social Self: It encompasses how
individuals interact with and portray
themselves within different groups, situations,
or in the presence of different individuals.
3.Spiritual Self: This component relates to
internal dispositions and characteristics.
Characteristics of Thoughts by William
James five characteristics of human
thoughts:
1. All thoughts are attributed to some personal
self.
2. Thoughts are constantly changing and never
static.
3. There is continuity in thoughts as they shift
focus from one object to another.
5. Consciousness can focus on particular
objects and not others.
Duality of Self: Me-Self vs. I-Self:
- Me-Self: This aspect of the self is the
object of knowledge. It consists of all the
qualities that make an individual unique,
including physical, psychological, and social
aspects. It represents the self as perceived by
others.
- I-Self: The I-Self is the knower and actor. It
is separate from the surrounding world,
remains the same over time, has a private inner
life, and controls its own thoughts and actions.
Real Self vs. Ideal Self:
- Real Self: This represents who we actually
are. It encompasses how we think, feel, look,
and act. The real self is reflected in our self-
image, which includes physical descriptions,
social roles, personal traits, and existential
statements.
- Ideal Self: The ideal self is how we aspire
to be. It is the image we develop over time
based on what we have learned and
experienced. It includes components derived
from parental teachings, admiration for others,
societal influences, and personal beliefs about
our best interests.
Lesson 5
Self from the Perspective of Psychology: Self
as Proactive and Agentic
Albert Bandura:
- Albert Bandura is a prominent psychologist
known for his work on self-efficacy and social
cognitive theory.
- He defined human agency as the capability of
individuals to intentionally influence their
functioning and life circumstances through
their actions.
Four Core Properties of Human Agency:
1. Intentionality:
- Intentionality involves the formation of
intentions that include action plans and
strategies for realizing them.
- It refers to the deliberate process of setting
goals and intentions for one's actions.
2. Forethought:
- People anticipate likely outcomes of their
actions, guiding and motivating their efforts.
- It provides direction, coherence, and
meaning to one's life by projecting actions and
outcomes.
3. Self-Reactivity:
- Self-reactivity goes beyond planning and
foresight and includes self-management and
self-motivation.
- It involves the translation of plans into
successful courses of action by managing
thought processes, maintaining motivation in
the face of challenges, setbacks, and
uncertainties.
- Emotional states that may undermine self-
regulation are also considered in this aspect of
agency.
4. Self-Reflection:
- Self-reflection refers to the introspective
nature of human agency.
- Through self-awareness, individuals reflect
on their personal efficacy, the soundness of
their thoughts and actions, and the meaning of
their pursuits.
- If necessary, they make changes to existing
life course patterns based on their reflections.
Lesson 6
Western Thought of Self
Individualist Self:
- In Western thought, the individualist self
prioritizes personal needs over the group.
- Values independence and self-reliance.
- Psychological distancing from others is
common.
- Group membership is optional.
- Often associated with men and urban
settings.
Principium Individuationis (Principle of
Individuation):
- Describes how something is identified as
distinct.
- Carl Jung emphasized individuation as a
transformative process bringing the
unconscious into consciousness.
Cognitive and Social Construction of Self:
- The self is viewed as a cognitive and social
construction.
- Self-conceptualization is based on personal
experiences, body image, and labels.
- Psychologist Ulric Neisser
distinguished between direct perception of
experience (ecological self and interpersonal
self) and reflections on experiences (extended
self, private self, conceptual self).
Social Construction of the Self Arguments:
- The self is shaped by perceptions, thoughts,
and interactions in the environment.
- Cultural and societal factors define individual
identities.
- The self is considered a social construct
influenced by social practices and cultural
paradigms.
Lesson 7
Eastern Thought of Self
Collectivist Self:
- Identity is largely tied to group membership
and roles, such as family or work teams.
- Individual well-being relies on the group's
survival and success, achieved by considering
others' needs and feelings.
- Emphasis on harmony and interdependence
within the group.
- Group members are emotionally close to
each other but distant from those outside the
group.
- Often associated with women and rural
settings.

Collectivism:
- Values group cohesion over individual
interests.
- Prioritizes common values and goals.
- Views the individual's life as belonging to the
group or society.
- Suggests individuals are valuable in their
service to the group's greater good.

Confucius's Perspectives:
1. Personality (self) is not considered
inherently existing but is formed through
upbringing and environment.
2. Every person is born with four beginnings,
representing potential aspects of the self:
a. heart of compassion – leads to Jen
b. heart of righteousness – leads to Yi
c. heart of propriety – leads to Li
d. heart of wisdom – leads to Chih
3. In Confucian thought, personality (self) is
an achieved state of moral excellence, not an
innate human condition.
4. The concept of self is deeply rooted in
family and society, evolving within this
context.