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Revisiting the Picky Eater Phenomenon: Neophobic

Behaviors of Young Children
a a
Betty Ruth Carruth PhD, RD & Jean D. Skinner PhD, RD
a
Nutrition Department, College of Human Ecology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tennessee
Published online: 14 Jun 2013.

To cite this article: Betty Ruth Carruth PhD, RD & Jean D. Skinner PhD, RD (2000) Revisiting the Picky Eater
Phenomenon: Neophobic Behaviors of Young Children, Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 19:6, 771-780, DOI:
10.1080/07315724.2000.10718077

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2000.10718077

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 Original Research

Revisiting the Picky Eater Phenomenon: Neophobic

Behaviors of Young Children

Betty Ruth Carruth, PhD, RD, and Jean D. Skinner, PhD, RD

Nutrition Department, College of Human Ecology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
Key words: neophobia, picky eater, problem eater, novel foods, unfamiliar foods

Objectives: To compare picky eater behaviors (food neophobia) of children as toddlers and at 42 to 84
months of age and to assess their mothers’ neophobic behaviors.
Methods: In a follow-up study of toddlers’ picky eater behaviors, trained interviewers conducted four
Downloaded by [Florida State University] at 21:09 28 December 2014

in-home interviews with mothers (n ⫽ 71) when their children were 42, 60, 72 and 84 months of age. Mothers
reported children’s diets (1 weekend day and 2 week days, 12 days total) and their behaviors; weight and height
were measured. An additional interview at 48 months involved only mothers’ behaviors. Nutritionist IV
software, correlations, t tests and repeated measures ANOVA were used to determine nutrient intake, behavioral
relationships and differences by picky eater status. Mothers’ descriptions of the children’s food neophobia and
bothersome behaviors were analyzed by qualitative methods.
Results: Mothers reported children’s neophobic behaviors at all ages. Mothers’ and children’s behaviors
were significantly and consistently correlated for number of attempts before deciding an unfamiliar food was
disliked (p ⬍ 0.01) and trying unfamiliar foods away from home (p ⬍ 0.01). Other behavioral associations were
significantly related for some ages but not for all the children’s ages. There were no significant differences by
picky eater status for nutrient intake or height and weight at any age. Mothers most frequently attempted
unfamiliar entrees away from home because of social setting/relationships. About 20% of mothers attempted
unfamiliar foods or new recipes just because they were different.
Conclusions: Findings suggest that some neophobic behaviors of children did not improve with maturity.
Mothers’ perceptions about their children’s picky eater status were inconsistent over time.

INTRODUCTION
The young child’s acceptance of unfamiliar foods is influ-
enced by parents and siblings in the home [1, 2], peers [3], the
social context of eating occasions [4] and the praise or negative
response for consuming certain foods [4, 5]. For some types of
foods, media and advertising strategies impact on how the child
views and selects certain foods [6 – 8]. Those children who
accept only a limited number of foods and are unwilling to try
unfamiliar foods may be labeled as neophobic, problem eaters
or picky eaters [4, 9, 10].
Children eating a variety of foods, rather than limiting the
number consumed, is important because current guidelines for
dietary adequacy are more likely to be met when more types of
foods are consumed on a regular basis. Dietary variety also
relates to willingness of children to taste unfamiliar foods that
are defined as safe by their culture [11, 12]. Several investiga-
tors have studied infants, preschool and school-age children to
determine factors that influence a child’s acceptance of unfa-
miliar and different types of foods [13–19] and the overall
effect of picky eater behaviors on dietary variety [10].
Based on a longitudinal study of white, healthy children (2
to 84 months), the authors found that in the 24-to-36 month
period, children who were perceived as picky eaters compared
to non-picky eaters had significantly less dietary variety [10].
Mothers reported that their toddlers exhibited repetitive behav-
iors, such as “eats only peanut butter and jelly” and “will not
eat anything green” (vegetables). Studies of preschool children
have shown that multiple exposures to unfamiliar foods en-
hanced their acceptance [14]. Some of the food-related behav-
iors found in toddlers may relate to developmental issues such
as independence [18]. However, as children mature they have
more opportunities for eating occasions apart from the family

Address reprint requests to: Betty Ruth Carruth, PhD, RD, Nutrition Department, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-1900. E-mail: bcarruth@utk.edu

Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 19, No. 6, 771–780 (2000)
Published by the American College of Nutrition

771
 Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children
setting, and potentially they have more exposures to unfamiliar
foods which could lead to fewer dietary restrictions. In addi-
tion, the children’s dietary adequacy could be enhanced if they
consumed a greater variety of foods.
This study revisited the picky eater phenomenon and other
food-related behaviors that were investigated in a group of
toddlers, 24 to 36 months of age [10]. The research purposes
were to contrast mothers’ perceptions about their children’s
picky eater behaviors (food neophobia) at 24 to 36 months with
those perceptions held when their children were 42 to 84
months. We proposed that the limited food acceptance reported
for the toddler age would continue in the 42-to-84 month
period, although, as the children matured, they could have more
exposures to novel and unfamiliar foods at home and away
from home. It was hypothesized that how mothers rated their
own food-related behaviors would be significantly related to
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how mothers rated their children’s. Also, it was postulated that
the children’s food neophobia, i.e., picky eater status, at each
age (42, 60, 72 and 84 months) would be significantly and
negatively related to dietary adequacy based on current recom-
mendations.
METHODS
Sample
The study sample was composed of 71 mothers whose
children were participating in an ongoing longitudinal study
from 2 to 96 months of age. The families were of middle and
upper socioeconomic status [19]. The major focus of the lon-
gitudinal study was to determine dietary intake and growth
patterns in white, healthy children [20]. The sample was pur-
posively recruited to study children in a home environment
which was characterized by educated parents, adequate food
availability and access to health care.
Interviews
As part of the longitudinal study, in-home interviews were
conducted with mothers when the study children were 42, 48,
54, 60, 72 and 84 months of age. In this report on picky eaters
revisited, data collected at 42, 60, 72 and 84 month interviews
will be presented. Some of the behavioral questions specific to
the child were not asked at 48 and 54 month interviews.
Children’s Picky Eater Behaviors
In the initial study of children’s picky eater behaviors (24 to
36 months), a questionnaire developed by Pelchat and Pliner
[9] and modified for the longitudinal study [10, 19] was used to
assess the mother’s perceptions about her child’s eating behav-
iors. The same questionnaire was repeated in this study. It
contained 10 items that required mothers to rate their children
on a 1–7 point scale which indicated the degree that certain
772
behaviors were observed, such as “How willing is your child to
try new and unfamiliar foods?” (1 ⫽ almost never, 7 ⫽ ex-
tremely willing, Table 1). Other behaviors of children involved
the variety and amounts of foods eaten, unfamiliar foods tried
at home and when offered, the mothers’ use of persuasion/
reward and special foods, the degree that mothers were both-
ered by their children’s behaviors, and whether the children
were considered problem eaters. These data were collected
when the children were 42, 60, 72 and 84 months of age.
In addition, mothers also reported the following informa-
tion: the number of times children were exposed to unfamiliar
foods at home and away from home (five time periods, weekly
to yearly), the number of times that a new food was attempted
before mothers decided their child liked or disliked it, and if
foods served to the family reflected the children’s preferences
or the mothers’ preferences.
At each of the interviews, mothers responded to open-ended
questions about whether they considered their children to be
picky eaters (yes/no) and described their children’s picky eater
behaviors. The yes answers at each interview were used to
classify the child as a picky eater. In a non-sequential section of
the same interviews, all mothers were asked to describe any-
thing about their children’s current behavior which bothered
them (apart from whether they considered their children to be
picky eaters). This process of asking mothers to verbally de-
scribe the children’s behaviors as well as rate their behavior
provided a basis for the investigators to better interpret quan-
titative ratings (1–7 point scales) over time (42 to 84 months).
Mothers’ Food Neophobia
When the children were 48 months old, mothers rated their
own food-related behaviors, using seven questions comparable
to those questions asked about their children (aged 42, 60, 72
and 84 months). Using an open-ended question format, mothers
also indicated if they had tried new recipes, the occasion and
time and reasons for doing so. Similarly, information was
collected about the time and occasion for mothers trying an
unfamiliar food or unfamiliar foods, identity of the food or
foods and their reasons for trying a new food or new foods. The
open-ended questions were used to get further behavioral data
about mothers and to relate these results to how mothers
described/rated their children’s behaviors.
Children’s Diets
The children’s food intake, using 2-day food records and
one 24-hour recall (two week days and one weekend day), were
reported by the mothers at the 42, 60, 72 and 84 month
interviews. Foods consumed away from home, such as at day
care and in-home care, were obtained by mothers from the care
givers, and amounts were reported as part of the three days of
dietary intake at each of the four interviews. The same trained
interviewers (n ⫽ 2) who had collected data at 24 to 36 months
saw the same families from 42 to 60 months, and then one of
VOL. 19, NO. 6
 Downloaded by [Florida State University] at 21:09 28 December 2014

Table 1. Mothers’ Responses for Children Perceived as Picky Eaters and Non-Picky Eaters

34 months 42 months 60 months 72 months 84 months

Means ⫾ SD
Statement
P NP P NP P NP P NP P NP
(n ⫽ 28) (n ⫽ 42) (n ⫽ 34) (n ⫽ 37) (n ⫽ 35) (n ⫽ 36) (n ⫽ 25) (n ⫽ 46) (n ⫽ 21) (n ⫽ 50)
1. To what extent would you consider
your child to be a feeding problem?§ 2.9 ⫾ 1.6* 1.6 ⫾ 0.9 3.0 ⫾ 1.5* 1.9 ⫾ 1.1 —† —† 2.9 ⫾ 1.4* 1.9 ⫾ 1.1 3.2 ⫾ 1.6* 1.6 ⫾ 1.0
2. Overall, to what extent does your
child like a wide variety of foods
from those that you think he/she
should eat?§ 3.6 ⫾ 1.2* 5.5 ⫾ 1.0 3.4 ⫾ 1.2 5.6 ⫾ 1.0 4.0 ⫾ 1.5 5.2 ⫾ 1.3 3.4 ⫾ 1.2* 5.4 ⫾ 1.1 3.2 ⫾ 1.0* 5.4 ⫾ 1.0
3. Rank your child’s eating behavior as
a whole (extremely poor to
extremely good eater).£ 4.7 ⫾ 1.2* 5.8 ⫾ 0.9 4.6 ⫾ 1.0* 5.6 ⫾ 1.1 5.0 ⫾ 0.9 5.5 ⫾ 1.1 4.8 ⫾ 1.1* 5.8 ⫾ 0.6 4.9 ⫾ 1.0* 5.9 ⫾ 0.7
4. In general, at the end of the meal
how often has your child eaten the
amount you think he/she should
eat?¶ 4.0 ⫾ 1.4* 5.3 ⫾ 1.1 4.2 ⫾ 1.5 5.1 ⫾ 1.3 4.5 ⫾ 1.6* 5.5 ⫾ 0.9 4.5 ⫾ 1.4 5.3 ⫾ 1.2 4.9 ⫾ 1.2 5.6 ⫾ 1.1
5. How often do you attempt to
persuade your child to eat a food?¶ 4.5 ⫾ 1.8* 3.2 ⫾ 1.6 4.7 ⫾ 1.5* 3.4 ⫾ 1.5 4.9 ⫾ 1.5 4.0 ⫾ 1.7 4.7 ⫾ 1.3 3.8 ⫾ 1.8 4.4 ⫾ 1.5 3.4 ⫾ 1.4
6. How often do you provide a food
reward for eating a food you think

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION

your child should eat?¶ 2.3 ⫾ 1.7 2.1 ⫾ 1.5 3.0 ⫾ 1.7 2.3 ⫾ 1.5 2.7 ⫾ 1.6 2.1 ⫾ 1.3 2.8 ⫾ 1.8 2.5 ⫾ 1.8 3.2 ⫾ 1.8* 2.0 ⫾ 1.3
7. How often do you prepare a special
food for your child because she/he
does not like what the rest of the
family is eating?¶ 3.1 ⫾ 1.9* 1.7 ⫾ 1.1 3.4 ⫾ 1.9* 1.9 ⫾ 1.0 —† —† 3.2 ⫾ 2.0* 1.5 ⫾ 0.8 3.5 ⫾ 2.1* 1.6 ⫾ 0.7
8. How often does your child try new
and unfamiliar foods at home?¶ 2.1 ⫾ 0.8 2.3 ⫾ 0.8 2.1 ⫾ 0.9 2.5 ⫾ 0.9 2.4 ⫾ 0.8 2.3 ⫾ 0.6 1.8 ⫾ 0.7* 2.7 ⫾ 0.9 2.5 ⫾ 0.7 2.6 ⫾ 0.9
9. How willing is your child to try new
and unfamiliar food when offered?** 3.1 ⫾ 1.6* 4.7 ⫾ 1.3 2.6 ⫾ 1.2* 4.7 ⫾ 1.3 3.1 ⫾ 1.7 4.5 ⫾ 1.6 2.8 ⫾ 1.5* 4.5 ⫾ 1.6 3.1 ⫾ 1.2* 4.8 ⫾ 1.4
†
Questions 1 and 7 were omitted at 60-month interviews because of incomplete data.
§
Items 1 to 2 rated on 7-point scale with 7 ⫽ to a great extent and 1 ⫽ not at all.
£
Item 3 was rated with 7 ⫽ extremely good and 1 ⫽ extremely poor eater.
¶
Items 4 to 8 rated with 7 ⫽ always or almost always and 1 ⫽ never or almost never.
** Item 9 rated with 7 ⫽ extremely willing and 1 ⫽ almost never or never.
* Items that were significantly different (p ⱕ 0.005) by picky versus non-picky eater status at each time period.
Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children

773
 Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children
the interviewers conducted the yearly interviews at 72 and 84
months. Beginning at two months, mothers were trained in
keeping accurate records, and the interviewers probed for pos-
sible omissions or errors in the food records/recall data reported
by the mothers.
Anthropometry
The interviewer measured the child’s height (without shoes)
with a steel tape (nearest 0.1 cm) using a wall or doorway in the
home and a square (i.e., 2 boards attached at a right angle). The
weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 pound, using a standard
scale that was checked with standards of known weight (Model
707; SEA Columbia, MD).
Analyses of Children’s/Mothers’ Behaviors
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Statistical. To contrast mothers’ ratings of their children’s
behaviors (10 behavioral statements, 1–7 point rating scales),
group means [PROC MEANS, 21] were computed by picky
eater status at 34, 42, 60, 72 and 84 months. In the toddler year,
the 10 statements were administered twice with no significant
difference in mean responses by time period. Thirty-four
months represented the average age of children at the second
interview (28, 32 or 36 months) and was used in the analyses.
Significant mean differences for mothers’ ratings for 9 of 10
statements at each age and by picky eater versus non-picky
eater status were determined with t tests, and a significance
level of p ⫽ ⬍ 0.005 was used. Mothers’ responses for one
statement were incomplete at 60 months and were not used in
rating the analyses. The higher probability level (p ⫽ ⬍ 0.005)
was set in order to address problems associated with doing
multiple t tests and the potential for a Type 1 error.
To determine if trends in perceived picky eater behaviors
occurred over time for the group as a whole (n ⫽ 71 mothers),
mean responses to the nine statements at 34 months were
contrasted with mean responses at other time periods (42, 60,
72 and 84 months) using repeated measures ANOVA. A prob-
ability level of p ⫽ 0.05 was used for significant mean differ-
ences by time effect.
Mothers’ responses at 34 months to the nine statements
(Table 1) were factor analyzed using principal components
procedures. Three factors emerged with eigenvalues ⬎ 1.0 and
factor loadings ⬎ 0.50. One statement loaded equally on two
factors and was dropped from analyses. With eight statements
loading on three factors (eigenvalues ⬎ 1.0 and factor load-
ings ⬎ 0.60), the factors were named food neophobia, persua-
sion and exposure to unfamiliar foods. For the group of chil-
dren perceived as picky eaters at 34 months (n ⫽ 29, 39%),
children’s individual factor scores were calculated for the three
factors and group means computed for those considered picky
eaters versus non-picky eaters. For the same two groups, fac-
tors scores were also determined at 34, 42, 72 and 84 months of
age, and 2-tailed t tests were used to determine significant
group differences with a probability level of p ⫽ 0.05. Data for
774
the 60-month interviews could not be used to generate factor
scores because some of the questions were not asked at that
time period (Table 1).
For seven comparable questions, Pearson correlation coef-
ficients (p ⬍ 0.05) were used to determine significant relation-
ships between how mothers rated their own food-related be-
haviors at the 48 month interviews and the children’s behaviors
from 34 to 84 months. The content of these questions involved
the child’s or the mother’s willingness to try an unfamiliar
food, liking for a wide variety of foods, attempts (number of
tries) before deciding likes/dislikes for an unfamiliar food,
overall eating behavior, frequency of eating unfamiliar foods
away from home and likes/dislikes (of mother or child) were
reflected in foods served to the family.
Qualitative. For all interview periods (i.e., children’s ages),
qualitative analyses [22] were used to develop major themes
based on mothers’ responses to open-ended questions about
their children’s bothersome behaviors and mothers’ descrip-
tions about behaviors of picky eaters. The first author and a
research assistant categorized mothers’ responses into themes,
differences were discussed and a consensus reached. A rate of
⬎20 responses for each theme was arbitrarily established as a
cut-off point for inclusion of data for further analyses and
commentary. This rate represents ⬎28% of the 71 mothers
participating in the study. For the data related to mothers’
trying new recipes and unfamiliar foods, frequency counts were
made of the quantitative data, and qualitative analyses were
performed to develop thematic reasons for mothers trying new
recipes and unfamiliar foods.
Analyses of Dietary Data
Nutritionist IV software (Version 4.1, First Databank Divi-
sion, The Hearst Corporation, San Bruno, CA) was used to
calculate each child’s nutrient intake (2 days food record and
one 24-hour recall) at 34, 42, 60, 72 and 84 months of age. For
each age, mean nutrient intakes by group status (picky eater vs.
non-picky eater) were calculated, and t tests were used to
determine significant group differences. Nutrient intakes by
picky eater status were compared to Recommended Dietary
Allowances [23] and Dietary Reference Intakes [24, 25, 26].
Analyses of Anthropometry
Means were calculated by picky eater status for children’s
heights and weights at 34, 42, 60, 72 and 84 months. Height
and weight differences were determined with 2-tailed t tests
and p ⫽ 0.05 was established as a significance level.
RESULTS
Numerical Ratings of Children’s Behaviors
Mothers’ mean ratings of children’s behaviors at 34, 42, 60,
72 and 84 months of age and by picky (P) and non-picky (NP)
VOL. 19, NO. 6
 Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children

Table 2. Mothers’ Mean Responses (n ⫽ 71) to Behavioral Statements that Showed a Significant Time Effect

34 months 42 months 60 months 72 months 84 months

Statement
Means ⫾ SD
1. Rank your child’s eating behavior as a
whole.£ 5.3 ⫾ 1.1 5.1 ⫾ 1.1 5.2 ⫾ 1.0 5.4 ⫾ .94 5.6 ⫾ .93*
2. In general, at the end of the meal how often
has your child eaten the amount you think
he/she should eat?¶ 4.7 ⫾ 1.3 4.7 ⫾ 1.5 5.0 ⫾ 1.4 5.0 ⫾ 1.3 5.4 ⫾ 1.2*
3. How often do you attempt to persuade your
child to eat a food?¶ 3.7 ⫾ 1.8 4.1 ⫾ 1.6 4.5 ⫾ 1.7* 4.1 ⫾ 1.7 3.7 ⫾ 1.5
4. How often do you provide a food reward
for eating a food you think your child
should eat?¶ 2.2 ⫾ 1.5 2.6 ⫾ 1.6* 2.4 ⫾ 1.5 2.6 ⫾ 1.8 2.4 ⫾ 1.6
5. How often does your child try new and
unfamiliar foods at home?¶ 2.3 ⫾ .76 2.3 ⫾ .92 2.3 ⫾ .69 2.4 ⫾ .92 2.6 ⫾ .85*
6. How willing is your child to try new and
unfamiliar food when offered?* 4.1 ⫾ 1.7 3.7 ⫾ 1.6* 3.8 ⫾ 1.8 3.9 ⫾ 1.8 4.3 ⫾ 1.5
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£
Item 1 was rated with 7 ⫽ extremely good and 1 ⫽ extremely poor eater.
¶
Items 2 to 5 rated with 7 ⫽ always or almost always and 1 ⫽ never or almost never.
†
Item 6 rated with 7 ⫽ extremely willing and 1 ⫽ almost never or never.
* Significant differences by time (p ⱕ 0.05) effect in mothers’ responses.

eater status are shown in Table 1. The number of mothers who
perceived their children as picky eaters fluctuated over time.
Twenty-three (32%) children were never perceived as picky
eaters, whereas 33 (46%) children were considered to be picky
eaters ⬎3 times during the study period. Seven children (10%)
were considered picky eaters throughout the study. Of 12
(17%) mothers who considered themselves as picky eaters,
only 3 (4%) of their children were considered picky eaters at
each age.
In the toddler year (34 months), mean ratings for eight of the
nine behavioral items shown in Table 1 were significantly
different by picky versus non-picky eater status (p ⬍ 0.005). In
regard to a mother who considered her child to be a picky eater,
this status was significantly and consistently associated with
whether she considered her child to have a feeding problem and
whether she prepared special foods for the child. Over time
most of the mean ratings were significantly different by picky
eater status in regard to the child’s overall eating behavior,
willingness to try unfamiliar foods and eating a variety of
foods. Mean responses to other questions for each age were not
consistently and significantly associated with picky eater status
(items 4, 5, 6, 8).
Our findings indicate that six of nine behavioral questions
showed a significant time effect (p ⱕ .05) by contrasting mean
ratings for the study group (n ⫽ 71) at 34 months with means
at the other ages and without the children’s picky eater status in
the analyses (Table 2). At 84 versus 34 months, the children
were rated as better eaters, as trying more unfamiliar foods at
home and as eating the amounts of foods that their mothers
thought they should consume. At 60 months versus 34 months,
mothers were using persuasion more often, and at 42 months
children were less willing to try unfamiliar foods, and mothers
were providing rewards more often. Because only 12 of the 71
children were consistently reported as picky eaters from 34 to
84 months of age, the sample size was not adequate to do
analyses by individual data over time.
Factor Analyses of Mothers’ Responses by
Children’s Picky Eater Status
Three factors were generated from the mothers’ responses
to eight statements (Table 1): food neophobia, persuasion and
exposure. A higher factor score was associated with picky eater
status. For the food neophobia and persuasion factors, scores
were significantly different and higher for picky eaters at 34
months (p ⬍ 0.0001, p ⫽ 0.0298) and at 42 months (p ⬍
0.0001, p ⫽ 0.0178), respectively. At 72 months picky eaters
had significantly different food neophobia factors scores, and
there was a trend for the persuasion factor (p ⫽ 0.0558). Only
the food neophobia factor was different at 84 months (p ⬍
0.0001). The data suggest that mothers’ showed consistency in
perceiving their children’s food neophobic behaviors over time.
Correlations between Mothers’ and Children’s
Behaviors
For comparable questions where mothers numerically rated
their children’s (ages 34, 42, 60, 72 and 84 months) and their
own behaviors (48 months), five of seven items were signifi-
cantly correlated. Mothers and children’s scores for the number
of times an unfamiliar food was attempted before deciding it
was disliked were significantly correlated across all children’s
ages, (p ⬍ 0.0001 at 34 months, p ⬍ 0.0001 at 42, p ⫽ 0.0002
at 60, p ⫽ 0.0032 at 72 and p ⫽ 0.0031 at 84 months). An
average of fewer than three attempts was consistently reported
for both groups. For the number of times an unfamiliar food
was attempted before deciding to like it, the correlations were

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 775

 Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children
Table 3. Food-Related Behaviors of Children* Perceived as “Picky Eaters” by Their Mothers
Thematic Behaviors
} Unwilling to try new food (neophobia) and
refusal to eat unfamiliar foods when offered
} Limited number of acceptable foods/lack of
dietary variety
} Refusal to eat certain foods including
groups and types of foods within a group
* Mothers interviewed when children (n ⫽ 71) were 42, 60, 72 and 84 months old.
†
Qualitative analyses of mothers’ responses used to develop thematic behaviors of “picky eaters.”
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significant at 34 months (p ⫽ 0.0016), 60 months (p ⫽ 0.0004)
and 72 months (p ⫽ 0.0112). Significant correlations were
found for the extent that child or mother liked a wide variety of
foods at 60 months (p ⫽ 0.0284) and that foods served to the
family reflected (mother or child) likes/dislikes at 72 months
(p ⫽ 0.0203). Ratings of mother and child for the behavior of
trying new and unfamiliar foods away from home were signif-
icantly correlated at 60 (p ⫽ 0.0016), 72 (p ⫽ 0.006) and 84
months (p ⬍ 0.0001). The most consistent and significant
correlations between mothers’ and children’s behaviors were
the number of attempts before deciding an unfamiliar food was
disliked and trying new and unfamiliar foods away from home.
No correlations at any time period were significant for how
mothers rated their own eating behaviors as a whole and the
behavior of their children or whether a mother considered
herself a picky eater vs. perceiving the child as a picky eater.
Qualitative Themes about Mothers’ and Children’s
Behaviors
Children’s Food Neophobia. Three major themes emerged
from analyses of mothers’ responses when describing behav-
iors of a picky eater (Table 3). Their children were unwilling to
try new foods and refused to eat unfamiliar foods when offered.
These behaviors were described as food neophobia by Pelchat
and Pliner [11]. Picky eater behaviors included the children
limiting the number of acceptable foods and the lack of dietary
variety. Some mothers catered to their children’s list of accept-
able foods (Table 3). Picky eaters rejected specific food groups
or types of foods within a food group, e.g., vegetables, some
fruits and some types of meat products. Although the number of
mothers’ responses did not meet criteria (⬎20 responses/
theme) for some behaviors, there were trends for other themes
such as children’s not finishing food portions, the appearance
of food greatly influencing its acceptability and the develop-
ment by some of intractable mind sets toward specific foods.
Children’s Bothersome Behaviors. The number of moth-
ers who reported bothersome behaviors of their children de-
creased over time (n ⫽ 51 at 42, n ⫽ 47 at 60, n ⫽ 43 at 72,
776
Example of Mothers’† Responses
Not willing to try any new foods.
Very limited variety of foods that (child) will try.
If he sets his mind out to not eat a new item, he will not.
Mommy, I don’t like it-she hasn’t even tried it!
Really selective on what he’ll eat without an argument.
No variety, eats the same boring foods.
(Mother) cooks to cater because (he) only eats certain foods.
Eats maybe 10 things; all others she finds repulsive.
Won’t eat anything green.
Eats no vegetables and very few fruits.
Won’t eat any meat except turkey.
Refuses to eat certain food groups-no veggies, no milk.
n ⫽ 38 at 84 months, respectively). All study mothers had an
opportunity to answer the open-ended picky eater and bother-
some behavior questions at the same interview (42, 60, 72 and
84 months), but in non-sequential parts of the interview. As
shown in Table 4, five bothersome behavior themes emerged
from qualitative analyses of mothers’ responses, and several
bothersome behaviors were congruent with picky eater behav-
iors identified by mothers (42 to 84 months) shown in Table 3.
That is, whether or not mothers perceived their children as
picky eaters, a majority of mothers were bothered by the
children’s lack of dietary variety, unwillingness to try new
foods and/or refusing to eat unfamiliar foods when offered, and
limiting or rejecting certain groups of foods, e.g., vegetables
and fruits particularly.
About one-third of the mothers were bothered about the
quantity of foods consumed by their children. Both insufficient
and excessive food intakes were considered bothersome, and in
part these patterns involved children’s food preferences and
inconsistencies in their eating patterns, e.g., “he likes cereal,
eats only cereal one day and not the next.” As the children
matured, they indicated their food preferences by using both
verbal and physical behavioral tactics. For example, when the
children refused to eat and argued about foods that were pre-
pared for the rest of the family, mothers thought these actions
influenced meal preparations and the overall milieu of the
eating occasion.
Over time, mothers reported bothersome behaviors, such as
messiness and manners, that occurred around the eating occa-
sion. Children played with rather than ate foods offered, or, in
some cases, the children carefully dissected the foods, ate some
portion and smeared uneaten portions on the table or fed the
family pet. From 42 to 84 months, mothers increasingly com-
mented that children should be using forks and spoons instead
of their hands, should eat the food offered without being so
messy and should exhibit behaviors that were less offensive/
obnoxious (e.g., loud burping, placing feet on table).
Mothers’ Food Neophobia. The identity of new foods
attempted, the occasion and mothers’ reasons were categorized
VOL. 19, NO. 6

Table 4. Bothersome Food-Related Behaviors of Children* Reported by Their Mothers
Bothersome Behaviors†‡
} Picky/lack of dietary variety
} Limiting/refusing certain types of foods
} Non-food related behaviors associated
with eating occasions
} Quantity eaten
} Manners/messiness
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* Mothers interviewed when children (n ⫽ 71) were 42, 60, 72 and 84 months of age.
†
Behaviors based on qualitative analyses of mothers’ responses when asked “Is there anything about your child’s current eating behaviors that bothers you?”
‡
The number of mothers bothered by children’s behaviors: n ⫽ 51 at 42 months, n ⫽ 47 at 60, n ⫽ 43 at 72, and n ⫽ 38 at 84 months.
and are presented as summarized findings. Unfamiliar foods
cited most frequently by mothers included entrees, ethnic foods
and vegetables/fruits or combinations of salad ingredients,
whereas grain products, desserts and beverages were cited less
frequently. Reasons that mothers attempted unfamiliar foods
involved social settings and/or a relationship (e.g., husband,
office group, birthday), appearance/perceived goodness and
taste of foods or that the tried food was different. Some unfa-
miliar sea foods and ethnic-type dishes were reported as both
entrees and appetizers, e.g., sushi, smoked salmon, chicken
nachos. The mean time since they had tried an unfamiliar food
was 3.25 ⫾ 5.62 months, with one mother reporting no at-
tempts in the previous three years.
New recipes tried by mothers included entrees, fruits/veg-
etables (as salad ingredients and individually) and grain prod-
ucts. The major reason given by mothers involved convenience,
such as having ingredients on-hand, seeing recipes that looked
easy to fix or having chicken in the freezer or zucchini in the
garden. Mothers relied on magazines and cookbooks that pic-
torially displayed foods that looked good and mothers were
familiar with the ingredients of. As with trying unfamiliar foods
(primarily away from home), trying new recipes involved re-
lationships where a relative (e.g., aunt, mother-in-law), child or
the husband was associated with the occasion. About 20% of
mothers tried a new recipe because it was just different than
foods normally prepared. However, none of the unfamiliar
foods or recipes cited by mothers represented exotic or rare
foods. These results may be greatly influenced by the neopho-
bic behaviors of some children and the children’s age when
data were collected.
Picky Eaters’ Diets
The dietary intake of children designated as picky eaters at
34 to 84 months were compared to age-appropriate nutrient and
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION
Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children
Examples of Mothers’ Responses
Doesn’t drink enough milk.
Will not eat steak or roast, only chicken.
No veggies/no fruit.
He’s become Mr. Picky.
Very hesitant to try new things, especially fruits and vegetables.
She doesn’t like variety.
I wish he would not want to play, get off his seat, and talk so much at mealtime.
Eats it in layers (sandwich).
Picks off chocolate part of cake and lays it all over the table.
Doesn’t eat enough or drink enough.
Has a tendency to overeat-will keep eating and eating.
Eats minuscule bites, not enough quantity, not a good eater.
Uses her hands for things she should use a spoon or fork.
Loud burping and gagging. Messy.
Puts her feet on the table when she eats.
energy allowances/dietary reference intakes. As shown in Table
5, energy intakes for picky eaters approximated recommenda-
tions. Protein, magnesium, calcium and vitamins A, C, B6 and
B12 exceeded 100%, whereas zinc, vitamin D and vitamin E
were below 100% of the recommendations at 34, 42, 60, 72 and
84 months. Folate intake of children considered picky eaters
fluctuated over time but exceeded recommendations for three
of the five time periods. The lower longitudinal dietary intakes
of zinc, vitamins D and E of the study group have been reported
previously [19]. As percent of energy over time, fat ranged
from 31 to 32 percent and protein 13 to 15 percent. The
consumption of fortified grain products increased dietary fo-
late, iron, vitamin B6 and B12. Except for zinc, vitamins D and
E, picky eater status was associated with meeting the age-
appropriate dietary recommendations. Mean nutrient intakes,
using p ⫽ 0.001, by picky eater versus non-picky eater status
were not significantly different at any time period.
Height/Weight and Picky Eater Status
Results of t tests for comparing mean height and weight at
34, 42, 60, 72 and 84 months showed no significant difference
by picky eater status. Mean heights and weights were within
normal values for age and genders [27]. Mothers’ perception
about their child’s picky eater status was not indicative of mean
height and weight changes over time.
DISCUSSION
Our hypothesis that the children’s limited food acceptance
as toddlers would continue in the 42-to-84 month age period
was supported by descriptions of children’s food neophobia
and by some of the bothersome behaviors reported by mothers
who did not consider their children picky eaters. Comparisons
777
 Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children

Table 5. Children’s Nutrient Intake and Percent of Recommendations for Children Perceived as Picky Eaters

Mean Nutrient Intake ⫾ SD (% of Recommendation)

Nutrient RDA⑀/DRI† 34 months‡ 42 months§ 60 months§ 72 months§ 84 months§
(n ⫽ 28) (n ⫽ 34) (n ⫽ 35) (n ⫽ 25) (n ⫽ 21)
Energy (Kcal) 1300/1800 1468 ⫾ 318 (113) 1380 ⫾ 261 (106) 1716 ⫾ 426 (95) 1762 ⫾ 388 (98) 1812 ⫾ 338 (101)
Protein (g) 16/24 49 ⫾ 14 (306) 46 ⫾ 14 (192) 56 ⫾ 18 (233) 60 ⫾ 17 (250) 58 ⫾ 18 (242)
Fat (g) 0/0£ 53 ⫾ 15 (–) 45 ⫾ 13 (–) 61 ⫾ 21 (–) 62 ⫾ 15 (–) 64 ⫾ 16 (–)
Calcium (mg) 500/800 763 ⫾ 343 (153) 714 ⫾ 242 (143) 911 ⫾ 344 (114) 878 ⫾ 308 (110) 888 ⫾ 384 (111)
Iron (mg) 10 9 ⫾ 4 (90) 9 ⫾ 3 (90) 10 ⫾ 3 (100) 13 ⫾ 4 (130) 12 ⫾ 5 (120)
Magnes. (mg) 80/130 157 ⫾ 49 (196) 158 ⫾ 47 (197) 192 ⫾ 66 (148) 202 ⫾ 59 (155) 196 ⫾ 63 (151)
Zinc (mg) 10 6 ⫾ 3 (60) 7 ⫾ 3 (70) 8 ⫾ 3 (80) 9 ⫾ 2 (90) 8 ⫾ 3 (80)
Vit A (RE) 400/500 754 ⫾ 528 (188) 505 ⫾ 217* (101) 751 ⫾ 372 (150) 766 ⫾ 459 (153) 718 ⫾ 442 (144)
Vit D (mg) 5 4.0 ⫾ 2.6 (40) 3.9 ⫾ 2.2 (78) 4.3 ⫾ 2.3 (86) 4.5 ⫾ 2.3 (90) 4.8 ⫾ 2.6 (96)
Vit E (mg) 6/7 4.0 ⫾ 2.8 (66) 2.8 ⫾ 2.0 (40) 2.8 ⫾ 2.2 (40) 4.2 ⫾ 2.9 (60) 4.7 ⫾ 3.9 (67)
Vit C (mg) 15/25 88 ⫾ 74 (220) 67 ⫾ 49 (148) 68 ⫾ 38 (151) 75 ⫾ 39 (333) 88 ⫾ 54 (352)
Folate (␮g) 150/200 129 ⫾ 63 (86) 153 ⫾ 60 (102) 172 ⫾ 52 (86) 200 ⫾ 83 (100) 202 ⫾ 131 (102)
Vit B6 (mg) 0.5/0.6 1.1 ⫾ 0.4 (220) 1.1 ⫾ 0.4 (220) 1.3 ⫾ 0.4 (216) 1.5 ⫾ 0.6 (250) 1.5 ⫾ 0.6 (250)
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Vit B12 (mg) 0.9/1.2 2.8 ⫾ 1.4 (400) 2.9 ⫾ 1.4 (414) 3.7 ⫾ 1.4 (370) 4.0 ⫾ 1.7 (333) 3.7 ⫾ 1.8 (308)
⑀,†
Recommended Dietary Allowances (1989, Abridged) ages 1 to 3 and 4 to 6 years; Dietary Reference Intake (1997–2000) for children 1 to 3 and 4 to 8 years. For ages
24 to 42 months, values for 1 to 3 years used; ⬎42 months, values for 4 to 8 years.
‡
Mean intake (⫾ SD) based on average of two 24 hour recalls and four days of diet records for children 24 to 36 months old; 34 months represents average age of children
at second interview (28, 32 or 36 months).
§
Mean intake (⫾ SD) based on one 24 hour recall and two days of diet records for children at each age of 42, 60, 72 and 84 months.
£
No recommendation for fat.

of picky eaters’ factor scores at 34 months and over time also
indicate a continuance of some children’s food neophobic
behavior over time.
As the children matured, bothersome behaviors increasingly
related to non-food events, such as manners. Sanders et al.
reported that children with feeding problems exhibited higher
levels of disruptive behaviors at mealtime, e.g., food refusal,
playing with food and oppositional behavior [4]. As reported
previously [10], picky eaters in our study rejected entire groups
of foods, particularly vegetables, and foods within groups, such
as no red muscle meats. However, there are some positive
outcomes for the total study group at 84 months; mothers’
mean ratings for their children’s eating behaviors overall, will-
ingness to try unfamiliar foods and amounts of food consumed
were more favorable than at 34 months.
Non-food related behaviors in the toddler year may reflect
aspects of autonomy development [18]; however, data from the
later ages (60 to 84 months) showed that the children were
approaching eating occasions quite differently. Food prefer-
ences were strongly expressed (using verbal and physical tac-
tics), and some mothers perceived these actions as picky eater
behaviors of the children and other mothers reported them as
bothersome behaviors.
Several investigators have published methodologies which
provide operational definitions of neophobic behavior [12, 13].
In studies about neophobic traits of families and children,
behavioral measures, such as sampling novel (unfamiliar) foods
and mothers’ assessment of their children’s willingness to taste
unfamiliar foods, have been assessed [12, 13]. In 5-to-11-year-
old children, trait neophobic scores (pencil and paper assess-
ments) and behavioral scores of parents and their children were
significantly related [12]. In 57 Swedish families, higher food
neophobia score of mothers and their children were associated
with the mother serving fewer foods in the last six months from
a list of unfamiliar foods [13].
In our study, the significant correlation between mothers
and their children for the number of exposures to an unfamiliar
food before deciding that the food was disliked may involve an
expected sensory experience [28, 29], social expectations [15]
or the modeling of mothers or other adults in the child’s
environment [30]. Mothers and children in the current study
had an average of fewer than three exposures before deciding
they disliked an unfamiliar food. In the Birch et al. study of
3-to-5-year old children, 10 or 15 exposures were associated
with increased acceptance of a new food [14]. Although chil-
dren in our study may have avoided unfamiliar foods because
they feared a negative sensory food experience, food neophobia
of younger children compared to older children has been re-
ported by other investigators [1, 11, 13]. Our results clearly
show that the children were not given numerous and consistent
exposures to unfamiliar foods over time. As reported previ-
ously, food preferences of the study children as toddlers and
concordance with preferences of family members were as-
sessed [31]. The findings suggested that the most limiting
category related to foods consumed by the toddlers was that
foods were never offered to them.
Twelve study mothers rated themselves as picky eaters and
had a limited number of acceptable foods. Even among mothers
who did not consider themselves picky eaters, there were also
trends of attempting only certain types of new foods at home
and away from home. Unfamiliar foods attempted primarily
away from home were associated with social settings in which

778 VOL. 19, NO. 6


conformity may have been expected or the mothers attempted
new foods to avoid social rejection. Also unfamiliar foods
recommended by a significant other (relatives, friends) within
a social setting context implied that the unfamiliar foods were
culturally defined as acceptable [15]. Sixty percent of mothers
in our study tried unfamiliar foods of animal origin compared
to 40% who tried foods of vegetable/plant origin. This finding
is inconsistent with literature showing that unfamiliar foods of
animal origin may be less acceptable than those of vegetable/
plant origin [16].
The mothers’ modeling of food neophobia may have neg-
atively influenced the study children’s behaviors. Harper and
Sander [32] studied mothers or other adults who offered a food
to young children without tasting or first tasted the food and
then offered it to the children. The children’s willingness to
taste the offered food was positively influenced by the adults
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tasting the food before offering it to the children.
Growth patterns of the study children irrespective of their
picky eater status over time demonstrated they were receiving
adequate diets to achieve normal growth for age and gender
[27]. These findings also are compatible with the fluctuations
that mothers perceived their children to be picky eaters at one
age and not another age.
In addressing limitations of the study, longitudinal data have
an inherent strength that measurements of the same children are
made over time, and their environment and development can be
monitored to better explain research findings. However, the
participants may not be representative of the general popula-
tion. In our study, the children’s ages (34 to 84 months)
required that mothers’ report their perceptions about the chil-
dren’s food neophobia and dietary intake. In studies with older
children, they can respond to behavioral statements similar to
those used in our study, taste foods and/or rank foods [1, 13,
28]. With preschool children, tasting activities could be used to
validate mothers’ perceptions about their children’s food neo-
phobia. This may be considered a limitation of our study, but
the advantage of longitudinal data enabled the investigators to
study adult modeling and family environment factors that in-
fluence young children’s food neophobia.
CONCLUSION
Given that all study mothers described neophobic behaviors
of their children at various ages, what can be done to modify
these behaviors and increase the number of acceptable foods?
Would our findings be different over time if, beginning with the
toddler age, mothers had increased the number of new food
exposures (⬎ 10 exposures vs. ⱕ 6/year) at home and away
from home and had provided opportunities for tasting unfamil-
iar foods combined with positive adult role modeling? For
example, only 20% of the mothers tried a new recipe just
because it was different. The mothers’ neophobic modeling
may be influencing the minimal changes reported for the study
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION
Neophobic Behaviors of Preschool Children
children. In addition, the children’s food neophobia may reflect
the fact that over half of the children attended some type of day
care where institutional regulations would dictate the variety of
foods offered at meals and snack times. It is likely that chil-
dren’s positive sensory experiences at home were repeated in
eating occasions away from home, rather than the children’s
having an increased exposure and opportunity to taste an un-
familiar food.
Change strategies for children perceived as picky eaters
should include at a minimum, pencil and paper assessment of
the parents’ neophobia traits. It is unlikely that children will be
accepting of unfamiliar foods if the parents exhibit neophobia
traits. Educational strategies with young children must include
multiple opportunities to taste new foods within social contexts
that reinforce that food’s acceptability [11, 13, 14, 30]. Mothers
in our study received child feeding information from multiple
and concurrent sources throughout the 2-to-84-month study
[33]. Thus there are many educational venues (professionals,
relatives, friends and media sources) for reaching parents
whose children exhibit food neophobia.
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