STUDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM. IN SCHOOLS, A thesis submitted to the Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science (Information Technology), Universiti Utara Malaysia by. Mahfudzah bte. Othman ©Mahfudzah bte. Othman, 2002. All rights reservedSekolah Siswazah (Graduate School) Universiti Utara Malaysia PERAKUAN KERJA KERTAS PROJEK (Certification of Project Paper) Saya, yang bertandatangan, memperakukan bahawa (, the undersigned, certify that) MAHFUDZAH BINTI OTHMAN calon untuk Ijazah (candidate for the degree off) Master of Science (Information Technology) telah mengemukakan kertas projek yang bertajuk (has presented his/her project paper of the following title) STUDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN SCHOOLS: seperti yang tercatat di muka surat tajuk dan kulit kertas projek (as it appears on the title page and front cover of project paper) bahawa kertas projek tersebut boleh diterima dari segi bentuk serta kandungan, dan meliputi bidang ilmu dengan memuaskan. (that the project paper acceptable in form and content, and that a satisfactory knowledge of the field is covered by the project paper). Nama Tandatangan (Name) : Encik Fakhrul Anuar Aziz (Signature) : (Penyetia Utama Principal Supervisor) Nama (Name) : Prof. Madya Dr. Zulkhairi ‘Md. Dahalin (Penyelia Kedua/ Second Supervisor) PROF MADYA DR, ZULKHAIR MD DAHALIM Dekan Tarikh Sekolah Teknologi Maklumat (Date) : frees ___ Universiti Utara Malaysia 7GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITI UTARA MALAYSIA. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree from Universiti Utara Malaysia, 1 agree that the University Library may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by my supervisor(s) or, in their absence, by the Dean of the Graduate School. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission, It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to Universiti Utara Malaysia for any scholarly use which may be made of any material from my thesis. Requests for permission to copy or to make other use of materials in this thesis, in whole or in part, should be addressed to’ Dean of Graduate School Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul AmanABSTRAK Kajian ini dibuat untuk menghasilkan satu prototaip Sistem Pengurusan Pelajar Sekolah (Student Management System) berasaskan Web, Kajian ini dibuat memandangkan kurangnya penggunaan serta pendedahan mengenai sistem yang berasaskan Web yang dapat menguruskan hal-ehwal pelajar di sekolah-sekolah, Metodologi sistem yang digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah metodologi System Development Research. Prototaip sistem ini dibina menggunakan beberapa perisian seperti pangkalan data MySQL, PHP serta pelayan Web Apache. Faedah-faedah dan kelebihan dalam menggunakan perisian-perisian tersebut juga dibincangkan di dalam kertas kajian ini, Gabungan teknologi-teknologi tersebut telah berjaya membina sebuah sistem prototaip yang dapat meningkatkan taraf pengurusan pendidikan di sekolah-sekolah. iiABSTRACT The study was carried out in order to produce a Web-based application of Student ‘Management System in schools. This is done due to lack of online systems that can cater for students’ affairs in schools. ‘The System Development Research Methodology is the methodology used in the study. ‘The prototype of Student Management System is built using the MySQL relational database, together with PHP and Apache Web server. The benefits of these technologies are discussed in this paper. ‘The combination of these technologies makes the Student Management System featured with many benefits that are believed can enhance today’s educational system iiiACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to be thankful to Allah for giving me the courage and strength to complete my thesis. There are lots of efforts and supports that have been given by many people, whether individuals or organizations in completing this thesis. First of all, 1 would like to thank and give my warmest appreciation to Universiti Utara Malaysia and its staff especially those who from Information Technology School for giving me the opportunity to make my studies meaningful. My deepest gratitude to both my dedicated supervisors; Prof. Madya Dr, Zulkhairi Mohd. Dahalin, the Dean of Information Technology School and Encik Fakhrul Anuar Aziz, for giving me guidance and full supports in completing this thesis, To all the people from Sek. Men. (K) Syed Mohamed Al-Bukhary and Sek. (K) Sultanah Asma, thank you for your cooperation. To all my friends that have been helping and supporting me throughout the entire duration of this semester, thank you for your kindness. ‘They are Fiza and her husband, Abang Azmi, Kak Ina, Kak Bie, Kak Rohaiza, Kak Fariza, Kak Miza, Imah, Fishah and many others that I could not mentioned here. And, not forgetting my beloved parents, Tuan Haji Othman Ismail and Puan Hajah Sarah Awang. Thank you for always remembering me in your prayers.PERMISSION OF TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRAK ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 10 Ml ie 13 14 Introduction Problem Statement Project Significance Project Objective Project Scope CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 20 24 22 Introduction File-Processing Approach versus Database Processing Approach 2.1.1 The Pros and Cons of File-Processing Approach 2.1.2. The Pros and Cons of Database Processing Approach The Definition of Database Page ii iti iv xi xii Aue 10 B23 24 2.2.1 A Database is Self-Deseribing 2.22 A Database is a Collection of Integrated Records 2.23 A Database is a Model of a Model ‘The History of Database Processing ‘The Web-based Applications 24.1 — The Architecture of Web Applications ‘The Concept of Student Management System ‘Tools for Student Management System 2.6.1 About MySQL 2.6.1.1 The Pros and Cons of MySQL 2.6.2 PHP and Apache Web Server CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.0 31 Introduction System Development Research Methodology 3.1.1 Construct a Conceptual Framework 3.1.2 Develop System Architecture 3.1.3 Analyze and Design the System 3.14 Built the Prototype System CHAPTER 4: DATABASE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT 40 41 42 Introduction Construction of the Conceptual Framework System's Architecture Development 42.1 Student Online Registration vi 1B 14 4 15 18 20 24 28 30 31 35 37 38 40 43 44 46 30 50 58 6243 44 422 — Student’s Subject Selection 4.23 Student's Co-Curriculum Enrollment 424 Student's Attendance Record 4.25 Student's Discipline Record Analyze and Design the System 43.1 Data Modeling 43.2 Process Modeling Design and Built the Prototype System 44.1 Build the Student Management System Database 4.4.2 Develop the User Interface and PHP Scripts CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS 5.0 5.1 52 53 54 5.5 56 37 Introduction ‘The Login Form ‘The Main Menu Registration Menu Subject Selection Menu Co-Curriculum Menu Attendance Record Menu Discipline Record Menu vii 63 65 65 66 nD 84 84 88 92 92 92 93 o4 95 96 97CHAPTER 6: SYSTEM EVALUATION 6.0 Introduction 98 6.1 System’s Effectiveness and Efficiency 101 62 System’s User Interface 105 63 System’s Benefits 108 64 System's Weaknesses and Limitations 110 6.4.1 System's User Interface 110 6.4.2 System’s Efficiency and Effectiveness nn CHAPTER 7: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 7.0 Introduction 112 7.1 Recommendations 112 72 Conclusion 14 REFERENCES 1s APPENDIX 1: USER MANUAL FOR STUDENT MANAGEMENT 9 SYSTEM APPENDIX 2: SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 154 APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF SOURCE CODE FOR STUDENT 187 MANAGEMENT SYSTEM. viiiTable 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Table 6.8 Table 6.9 Table 6.10 Table 6.11 LIST OF TABLES Attributes Associated With Entities Attributes for Entities in First Normal Form Attributes for Entities in Second Normal Form Attributes for Entities in Third Normal Form Number of respondents involved in test session for each school Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 1 (ease-of-use of the system) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 7 (system can produce real-time outputs) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for system’s functionalities (Question 8) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for security control (Question 9) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for hyperlinks performance (Question 10) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 11 (system is easy to surf and explore) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 13 (the system promotes a more efficient Student Management System) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 14 (the used of user-manuals) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 15 (well organized system’ functions) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for Question 16 (system ix Page 61 70 70 nm 99 101 101 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 104Table 6.12 Table 6.13 Table 6.14 Table 6.15 Table 6.16 could improve users’ knowledge on Web-based applications) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for icons’ functionalities (Question 3) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for icons’ design and placement (Question 4) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for overall system’s design (Question 5) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for text used in the system (Question 6) Percentage of respondents’ feedbacks for system’s user interface’s background color (Question 12) 105 106 107 107Figure 2.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18 Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 Figure 4.22 LIST OF FIGURES Architecture of Web Applications A Process for System Development Research Methodology Sek. Men. (K) Syed Mohamed Al-Bukhary’s Organization Chart Sek. Men, (K) Syed Mohamed Al-Bukhary’s Organization Chart (Continued) Sek. (K) Sultanah Asma’s Organization Chart Entity Relationship Diagram for Sek. Men, (K) Syed Mohamed ‘AL-Bukhary Entity Relationship Diagram for Sek. (K) Sultanah Asma Entity Relationship Diagram for Student Management System Context Diagram for Student Management System Decomposition Diagram for Student Management System Data Flow Diagram Level 0 for Student Management System Data Flow Diagram Level | for Process 1.0 Data Flow Diagram Level 1 for Process 2.0 Data Flow Diagram Level 1 for Process 3.0 Data Flow Diagram Level 1 for Process 4.0 Data Flow Diagram Level | for Process 5.0 Creating database with MySQL in DOS prompt Creating table with MySQL in DOS prompt Example of phpMyAdmin interface to create a new database Example of phpMyAdmin interface to create a Student table Example of Student table with its attributes in phpMyAdmin Example of database Studsystem with its tables in phpMyAdmin Student Management System main menu Example of PHP script (dbconnect.php) that is used to connect to database Studsystem xi Page 59 68 74 76 78 1 80. 81 82 83 85 86 87 88 89 90COBOL COPPA CPU DBMS DFD ERD FAST GIF GPL. HTTP us LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Atomic, Consistent, Independent, Durable Active Server Page Computer-aided Systems Engineering Common Gateway Interface Common Business Oriented Language Children’s Online Privacy Protection Central Processing Unit Database Management System Data Flow Diagram Disk Operating System Entity Relationship Diagram Facilitated Application Specification Technique Graphics Interchange Format GNU General Public License Hypertext Markup Language Hypertext Transfer Protocol Internet Information Server xiiJSP LAMP LAN MMS MySQL. ODBMS ooP PHP PIECES PLL PowerSchool SIS RDBMS SASIxp SSL SQL UNIX VB www XML Java Server Page Linux, Apache, MySQL, P* (PHP, Perl, Phython) Local Area Network Modular Management System ‘My Structured Query Language Object-oriented Database Management System Object-Oriented Programming Hypertext Preprocessor Performance, Information, Economics, Control, Efficiency, Service Programming Language | PowerSchool Student Information System Relational Database Management System Schools Administrative Student Information Software Secure Sockets Layer Structured Query Language Uniplexed Information and Computing System Visual Basic World Wide Web Extensible Markup Language xiiiCHAPTER 1 TRODUCTION 1.0 Introduetion Currently, developing a Web-based application has become a priority to most organizations, be it corporate sectors, government or education institutions. Most of the corporate sectors have been using the Web-based applications to support their everyday business activities, such as the online service site of San Francisco-based mPower (www.mpower.com) and freeware and open source programmer content site Andover.net (Babcock, 2000). Moreover, pioneers such as Amazon.com, Dell and Federal Express have demonstrated success with Web-based businesses (Oppel, 1999). However, there are not many schools that have been developing Web-based applications to handle students’ activities in various areas such as registrations, attendances, co- curriculum enrollments, subject selections, examinations and many other activities that concer students (Media & Methods, 2000). Many benefits could be gained in having a Web-based Student Management System in schools. For example, The Sergeant Bluff-Luton School District has been implementing the Web-based Student Management System for the past three years (Media & Methods,2000). With this method, they manage to handle students’ records in more efficient ways, Before this, The Sergeant Bluff-Luton School District and most of the schools nowadays, have been using the old-custom ways where all the information such as student progress, attendances, co-curriculum enrollments and teacher lesson plans were all recorded on papers. This could be error-prone and loss of important and confidential information. However, according to Media and Methods (2000), after implementing the Web-based system in all areas of The Sergeant Bluff-Luton School District’s administration and teaching, it has improved the education level in the school. For instance, teachers can enter attendances into computers in each classroom and the student count can be sent instantaneously to the office and lunchroom. With this Web-based method, teachers can pull this information up at conference time and if a student has some attendance issues, the teacher can pull it up on the computer. Another example is the Modular Management System for Schools or MMS 2000 that has been developed by Computer Resources, LLC (Computer Resources, LLC, 1999). This administrative software is developed to support various students’ activities in school such as Attendance Reporting System, Student Scheduling System and Discipline Monitoring System, One of the advantages in using this system is that it is flexible and easy-to-use. Furthermore, this system could generate letters to parents or warning reports or even certificate of recognitions. All these specialties could help the schooladministrators to efficiently manage students’ activities and improve the school operations. Furthermore, PowerSchool System is another system, which had been using the Web- based application concept to enhance today’s education level. With the browser-based interface, it features various aspects that accommodate students’ activities in schools Like the MMS 2000 and Sergeant Bluff Luton School District's Web-based Student Management System, PowerSchool also features benefits that will not only receive by the school administrators, but also the students as well as their parents. 1.1 Problem Statement Nowadays, database systems have become the chosen altemative to overcome the limitations of file systems such as data isolation and duplication in many organizations (Kroenke, 1998). However, based on the researcher’s observations, most of the schools nowadays are still using manual systems to manage the students’ records. In most schools, the students? records are kept in different files and this situation would lead to the risks of lost, damage and duplication of data. In addition, the nature of the manual system would also lead to the difficulties in managing students’ records systematically. Therefore, this study is aimed to address the problem by introducing the implementation of database systems in schools. The implementation of database systems is hoped to help the schools’ administrators to manage students’ records more effectively and efficiently.Furthermore, the Web-based application on the other hand could permit more efficient, faster and easier access to the information by users. According to PowerSchool, (2001), with the Web-based application technique, data could be stored, retrieved and viewed by multi-users via the Web-browser simultaneously and this will improve information sharing among users. For this study, the development of the prototype system is hoped to give an initial assessment of the Web-based Student Management System’s effectiveness, In addition, this will promote further enhancement of a more comprehensive Web-based database systems in schools. 1.2 Project Significance One of the advantages of using database systems is its ability to eliminate data redundancy by integrating the files (Connolly & Begg, 1999), With the ability to eliminate or control the redundancy of data, it could reduce the risk of inconsistency. Furthermore, the integration of the operational data allows the organization to derive additional information from the same data source. Greenspan and Bulger (2001) claimed that the integration of a database system with the Web system could promote improvement in the functionality of the database itself. Furthermore, according to the authors, with the integration system, it could support various services such as data concurrency, referential integrity, security, data replication, optimization and many others.Greenspan and Bulger (2001) also claimed that the integration between Web applications and DBMS would become the next generation of DBMS technology. In addition, according to Jepson (2001), the new technique of client scripting languages will promote a new generation of the Web-based applications over the next few years 1.3 Project Objective The objectives of this project are * To promote the use of database systems in schools where it could help the schools’ administrators to manage students’ records more systematically * To promote the use of Web-based application technologies that feature various benefits such as improving information sharing among users in dispersed locations. Furthermore, the Web-based applications technologies could also support multi-user simultaneously and facilitate quick response to queries, updates, reports and many other processes, The multi-user capability would allow schools’ administrators, teachers as well as students to log on and use the system simultaneously, not only from within the schools’ compounds but even directly from their homes (Media & Methods, 2000). ‘© To develop a prototype of Web-based Student Management System that could be used as a working model for the development of a more complete and ‘comprehensive Student Management System in the future.1.4 Project Scope In reality, there are many activities concerned students that the schools’ administrators. have to cater. For instance, the students’ examinations and academic evaluations, students’ discipline records, students’ attendances, students’ health records, students’ co- curriculum records, students’ registration records and many others However, the scope of this project will be limited into five areas only. This is due to the fact that the researcher has to face a limited time frame in order to complete the project. The five selected areas are the development of online students’ registrations system, students’ subject selections system, students’ co-curriculum enrollments. system, students’ attendance records system and students” discipline records system. MySQL will be chosen as the relational database management system that will collaborates with PHP (Hypertext Pre-Processor) as the programming language and Apache as the Web server to develop the online system.CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter will discuss about the comparison between conventional files or file processing approach and databases approach. This includes the database’s definition, its evolution, introduction to the Web-based applications and the concept of Student ‘Management System, This chapter will also discuss about the tools used in developing the Student Management System, which are the MySQL, PHP and the Apache Web server. 2.1 File-Processing Approach versus Database Processing Approach In the file environment, data storage is built around the applications that will use the files, In the database environment, applications will be built around the integrated database (Whitten & Bentley, 1998). Accordingly, the database is not necessarily dependent on the applications that will use it. In other words, given a database, new applications can be built to share that database. Each environment has its advantages and disadvantages.2.1.1 ‘The Pros and Cons of File-Processing Approach In most organizations, many or most existing information systems and applications are built around conventional files (Whitten & Bentley, 1998). The first business information systems stored groups of records in separate files and were called file-processing systems (Kroenke, 1998). Conventional files are relatively easy to design and implement because they are normally based on a single application or information system (Whitten & Bentley, 1998). One will only have to understand the end-user’s output needs for that system, then can easily determine the data that will have to be captured and stored to fulfill those needs and define the best file organization for those requirements. Historically, another advantage of using this approach is the processing speed. According to Whitten and Bentley (1998), with file-processing approach, they can be optimized for the access of a single application. At the same time, they can rarely be optimized for shared use by different tasks in an application, or different applications Although file-processing systems are a great improvement over manual record- keeping systems, they have important limitations. One of the limitations as discussed by Kroenke (1998) and Connolly and Begg (1999) is separation and isolation of data, It is more difficult to access data that should be available when data is isolated in separate files. According to Connolly and Begg (1999), theapplication programmer must synchronize the processing of two files to ensure the correct data is extracted. This difficulty is compounded if we require data from more than two files. ‘The next disadvantage of using the conventional approach is duplication of data. Due to the decentralized approach taken by each department, the file-based approach encouraged, if not necessitated, the uncontrolled duplication of data. Uncontrolled duplication of data is undesirable for several reasons. For instance, the data duplication is wasteful (Kroenke, 1998, Connolly & Begg, 1999). It costs time and money to enter data more than once. Furthermore, it takes up additional storage space, again with associated costs. Often, the duplication of data can be avoided by sharing data files. The other reason is that duplication of data can lead to loss of data integrity, where the data is no longer consistent. When results are inconsistent, the credibility of the stored data, and even the MIS function itself, comes into question. The data dependence issue is also one of the file-processing system’s limitations. With file-processing, application programs depend on the file formats, Usually in file-processing systems the physical formats of files and records are part of the application code (Kroenke, 1998). Moreover, Whitten and Bentley (1998), Kroenke (1998), and Connolly and Begg (1999) agreed that problems would ‘occur when changes are made in the file formats, the application programs also must be changed, which is more difficult to implement.Incompatible file formats also becomes the limitation of this conventional file approach, One of the consequences of program data dependency is that file formats depend on the language or product used to generate them. As a result, files cannot be readily combined or compared, Any conversion of files to a ‘common structure to combine records would be more time-consuming and, sometimes, difficult. Such problems grow worse as the number of files to be combined increases. Last but not least, the file-processing approach makes it difficult to represent data in the users’ perspectives. This difficulty arises because with file processing, relationships among records are not readily represented or processed. ‘Therefore, itis difficult to show data in a form that seems natural to users, where additional efforts are needed to extract, combined and present different files together. 2.1.2 The Pros and Cons of Database Processing Approach Database technology was developed largely to overcome the limitations of file- processing systems, File-processing systems directly access files of stored data. In contrast, database-processing systems use the Database Management System (DBMS) to access the stored data. This difference is significant because it makes the application-programming job easier; that is, application programmers do not have to be concerned with the ways in which data are physically stored (Kroenke, 1998) 10The first advantage of using database-processing system is data integration. Ina database system, all the application data is stored in a single facility called the database. An application program can ask the DBMS to access customer data or sales data or both (White, 2001), If both are needed, the application programmer specifies only how the data are to be combined, and the DBMS will perform the necessary operations to do it Next advantage is the control of data redundancy. The database approach attempts to eliminate the redundancy by integrating the files so that several copies of the same data are not stored (Connolly & Begg, 1999). However, the database approach does not eliminate redundancy entirely, but controls the amount of redundancy inherent in the database. Furthermore, by eliminating or controlling redundancy, the risk of data inconsistencies will be reduced and data integrity will be improved. Moreover, Kroenke (1998) and Whitten and Bentley (1998) mentioned that database-processing systems reduce the dependency of programs on file formats. All record formats are stored in the database itself, and they are accessed by the DBMS, not by application programs. Unlike file-processing programs, database application programs need not include the format of all the files and records they process. Instead, application programs must contain only a definition of each of the data items they need from the database. itProgram or data independence minimizes the impact of data format changes on application programs, Whenever data items are added, changed, or deleted from the database, only those programs that used these particular data items have to be modified. This can be considerable savings of time. Lastly, the database technology makes it possible to represent, in a straightforward fashion, the objects found in the user's world (Kroenke, 1998, Connolly & Begg, 1999). Any desired forms that meet users’ requirements can be easily generated from a database because the relationships among the records of data are stored as part of the database (Kroenke, 1998), However, database-processing approach also has its disadvantages. Whitten and Bentley (1998) and Connolly and Begg (1999) agreed that the database technology is more complex than file technology. Special software, called a Database Management System (DBMS), is required. Failure to understand the system can lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an organization, Other than that, the complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an extremely large piece of software. ‘The database technology also demands a significant investment. The cost of developing databases is higher because analysts and programmers must learn how to use the DBMS. And, they must also adhere to rigorous design principles to achieve the benefits of database technology. 12Another potential problem with the database-processing approach is the increased vulnerability inherent in the use of shared data, Backup and recovery as well as security and privacy become important issues in the world of databases. 2.2 The Definition of Database In general, all information systems create, read, update and delete data. And, this data is stored in files and databases, According to Whitten and Bentley (1998), files are defined as collections of similar records. Whereas, databases are defined as collections of interrelated files. Furthermore, Kroenke (1998) described database as “a self-describing collection of integrated records” Whitten and Bentley (1998) added that a database is not merely a collection of files, which means that the records in each file must allow for relationships to the records in other files. Moreover, Connolly and Begg (1999) described database, as a collection of logically related data and a description of data, where it is designed to meet the information needs of an organization. 2.2.1 A Database is Self-Deseribing When a database contains the user's source data, a description of its own structure, this shows that a database is self-describing. It is also known as a data dictionary or data directory or even metadata (Kroenke, 1998). In this sense, a database is similar to a library, which can be thought of as a self-describing collection of books. 13Furthermore, according to Kroenke (1998), any changes made to the structure of data in the database, for instance, adding new data items to an existing record, will only change the data dictionary. Few, if any, programs will need to be changed. And, in most cases, only those programs that process the altered data items will be changed. 2.2.2. A Database is a Collection of Integrated Records A database not only includes files of user data, but it also contains a description of itself in metadata. In addition, a database includes indexes that are used to represent relationships among the data and also to improve the performance of database applications. Finally, the database often contains data about the applications that use the database, The structure of a data entry form, or a report, is sometimes part of the database (Kroenke, 1998). This last category of data is known as application metadata, Therefore, a database contains the four types of data, which are files, of user data, metadata, indexes and application metadata (Whitten & Bentley, 1998), 2.2.3 A Database is a Model of A Model Again, according to Kroenke (1998), a database is a model of the users’ model. Furthermore, databases vary in their level of detail. Some are simple and crude. The degree of details that should be incorporated into a database depends on the 14information desired. Meaning that the more information that is wanted, the more detail the database must have. Deciding on the appropriate amount of detail is an important part of the job of designing a database. Kroenke (1998) added that the database model must be dynamic as businesses always change. As changes occur in everyday businesses, the data that represents the business also must be altered. If not, the data will become outdated and inaccurately represent the business (White, 2001), 2.3. The History of Database Processing Database processing was originally used in major corporations and large organizations as the basis of large transaction-processing systems. Later, as microcomputers gained popularity, database technology migrated to microcomputers and was used for single- user, personal database applications. Next, as microcomputers were connected together in work groups, database technology moved to the workgroup setting, Finally, databases are being used today for multimedia applications, some of which are shared on public and private networks, The limitations of file processing prevented the easy integration of data. Database technology, however, held out the promise of a solution to these problems, and so large companies began to develop organizational databases. According to Kroenke (1998), by the mid-1970s, databases could efficiently and reliably process organizational applications. Management turned its attention to finding new uses for this new huge pool of organizational data. Unfortunately, to meet the management's requirements, 15‘most of the applications had to be developed in procedural languages, such as COBOL and PL/I, but, of course, there was time constraints and lacked of expertise. But then, a new situation arises that set the stage for the next major development in database processing; the relational model. A paper produced by Codd (1970), which he applied concepts from a branch of mathematics called relational algebra to the problem of storing large amounts of data had led to the definition of the relational database model in the database community. ‘The advantage of the relational model is that data are stored in a way that minimizes duplicated data and eliminates certain types of processing errors that can occur when data are stored in other ways (Whitten & Bentley, 1998), According to Kroenke (1998), relational database systems require more computer resources, and so at first they were much slower than the systems based on earlier database models. To some extent, relational database management (RDBMS) products were impractical until the 1980s when faster computer hardware was developed and the price-performance ratio of computers fell dramatically (Kroenke, 1998). Then, the combination of microcomputers, the relational model and vastly improved user interfaces enabled database technology to move from an organizational context to a personal-computing context, When this occurred, the number of sites that used database technology exploded. According to Kroenke (1998), in 1980, there were about ten thousand sites using the DBMS products in the United States. And, today there are well over ten million such sites spread all over the globe. 16In the middle to the late 1980s, end users began to connect their separated ‘microcomputers using local area networks (LANs), These networks enabled computers to send data to one another at previously unimaginable rates (Kroenke, 1998), The LAN-based multi-user architecture is considerably different from the multi-user architecture used on mainframe databases. With a mainframe, only one central processing unit (CPU) is involved in database application processing, but with LAN systems, many CPUs can be simultaneously involved. Because this situation was both advantageous and more problematic, it led to a new style of multi-user database processing called the client-server database architecture. Database technology is being used today to store and process multimedia data such as pictures, sounds, movies and animations. This may seem surprising at first; however, it makes sense because a large portion of multimedia applications processing concerns keeping track of disparate files and relating them to each other. Distributed databases, according to Connolly and Begg (1999), combine various type of database processing by allowing personal, workgroup and organizational databases to be combined into integrated but distributed systems, The essence of distributed databases is that all of the organization's data are spread over many computers such as micros, LAN servers and mainframes that communicate with one another as they process the database. The goals of having the distributed systems are to make it appear to each user that he or she is the only user of the organization’s data and to provide the same 7