67 EXERCISE No. 10, Family 1. Introduction ‘The Phylum Cnidaria (hydras, jellyfishes, sea anemones, corals and their relatives) together with the Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies) comprise the branch Radiata, (animals with radial symmetry) one of the two major branches of the eumetazoans (animals with tissues), the other being the branch Bilateria (animals with bilateral symmetry), the parazoans, animals without true tissues are represented by the sponges. Radiate animals have an oral (mouth) side and an aboral side (opposite to the oral side) but no ‘head end and rear and no left and right. They are diploblastic (with ectoderm and endoderm only) in contrast to the triploblastic (with a third germ layer, the mesoderm) Bilateria. Cnidarians have a basic body plan that is sac-like with a central digestive compartment, the gastrovascular cavity opening to the outside by a single opening which functions both as a mouth and an anus. The gastrovascular cavity also acts as a hydrostatic skeleton against which contractile cells in the body wall can work when the mouth is closed allowing the animal to change shape, Movenient is coordinated by a nerve net. The members of the phylum are carnivores capturing prey with tentacles arranged in aring around the mouth, Cnidarians are mostly found in shallow marine habitats in warm temperatures and tropical regions. Some species are freshwater but there are no terrestrial froms. Generally regarded as originating close to the basic stock of the metazoan line, cnidarians are divided into four classes: the Hydrozoa (hydroids, fire corals, Portuguese man-of- war, ete), the Seyphozoa (“true” jellyfishes), the Cubozoa (box jellyfishes) and the largest class, Anthozoa (sea ‘anemones, stony corals, soft corals, ete.) A. Desoriptive Terminology for the Study of Corals ‘The body wall of cnidarians have three basic layers: an outer epidermis (ectodermis), an inner layer of cells, the gastrodermis (endodermis), lining the gastrovascular cavity (=coelenteron, an internal space for digestion opening to the outside by the mouth or stomodaeum) and between the two, the mesoglea layer which may be a thin, noncellular membrane or a thick, fibrous, jellylike, mucoid ‘material with or without wandering amoebooytes (Fig. 10a). The mesoglea is not homologous to the mesoderm which give rise to muscles. The epidermis in all cnidarians contains specialized cells known as cnidocytes which contain nematocysts stinging structures characteristic of cnidarians and shared only by one species of ctenophore, Cnidarians have two different structural types, the polyp which is sessile and the medusa which is free-swimming (Fig. 10a). The pblyp is tube-shaped and consists of a basal (pedal or aboral) disc which is attached to the substrate, a body column, and an oral disc beating the mouth and tentacles. The medusa is essentially an unattached upside-down poly, the medusoid body resembling a bell or an umbrella, Here the basal disc and body become the convex (and upper) exumbrella, the oral disk the concave (and lower) subumbrella. The tentacles hang down from the margin of the bell. The ‘medusoid stage is completely absent in the anthozoans (corals and sea anemones) which are polyps with two growth forms, solitary (of a single polyp) or colonial (of a group ar colony of polyps) and are all marine. In anthozoans, the gastrovascular cavity is divided by more than four longitudinal gastrodermis-lined sepia or mesenteries into radiating compartments. The mesenteries are organized into pairs of mesenterial couples. Unlike the sea anemones, the stony corals produce an exoskeleton of calcium carbonate crystallized as fibrous aragonite. In general, the coral skeleton (Fig. 10a) is composed of a basal plate separating the basal disc from the substratum. Radiating vertical partitions68 or septa (=sclerosepta) rise from the basal plate corresponding to the mesenteries with various attendant structures. At its outer edge, the basal plate continues as a more or less vertical epitheca ‘marking the outer limit of the oral disc or of the edge-zone (the part of the polyp column wall that lies ‘over the skeletal wall). The distal parts of the septa may be united by the epithelia or by a wall or ‘theca (which later assumes the function of epitheca), or by both. The costae are the extrathecal (outer side of wall) continuations of the sclerosepta, ‘The corallum is the entire skeleton deposited by a single polyp (in solitary corals) or by a colony of polyps (in colonial corals). In colonial forms, the skeleton formed by an individual polyp is the corallite whose upper open end is the calice which is usually concave and deepest in the center or fossa, the depression bounded by the inner edges of the septa. The columella, a central axial structure formed fiom the inner ends of the sclerosepta may be present in the fossa. ‘The peritheca or intercalinical area is the extrathecal skeletal support in between individual corallites laid down by the coenosarc, the part of the coral colony lying outside the theca or skeletal wall. The colline is a ridge between a series of corallites formed off their walls and sclerosepta. The dissepiments axe more or less horizontal structures deposited regularly across the lower part of the polyp separating it from the lower part of its calyx, the tissue of which dies. Intrathecal dissepiments are called endotheca and extrathecal ones are called exotheca. Some corolla may not possess all of ‘these secondary supporting and connective structures. The septa alternate in position with the mesenteries which they parallel. The structural unit of the septum is the sclerodermite. Sclerodermites are arranged in vertical series into traberculae. Thes are simple when composed of a series of single sclerodermites and compound when composed of a series of bundles or fascicles of sclerodermites. Each septum is composed of a series of traberculae ‘more or less united in one or more fan systems to form a sheet and are laminar when without intervening openings between the traberculae and fenestrate when with pores ot perforations between the traberculae. Septa are exsert when they rise abive the theca, Dentitions or teeth are formed along the upper margin of the septum when the trabecular axis Projects beyond the connective structure. Teeth may be headlike when rounded or granular, acule ‘when sharp and pointed, lacerate when cut into imegular lobes or hirsute when the lobes are hairlike. ‘Synapticulae are rods or bars that connect opposing faces of adjacent septa while the /oculus is the space between adjacent septa. ‘The septa are arranged in cycles, those of the primary cycles being widest, the secondary ele next in prominence, etc. The primary plan like that of the mesenteties is hexameral, the first six septa appearing simultaneously, form the first cycle. Two of the primary septa on opposite sides may ‘appear prominent over the rest and are called directives. The second cycle consists of six septa lying between the segments formed by the first cycle. The third cycles is composed of 12 septa, the 4" of 24, and so on. There are exceptions to this basic plan (e.g, 8-8-16-32 or 10-10-20). Tehs epta of the second or third cycles usually do not appear until the previous cycles have been completed but this does not hold true fro the higher cycles especially in forms having an elongate shape. A cycle may be complete when the full complement of septa for that eycle are formed or incomplete when one ot ‘more septa of the full complement are lacking, Sclerosepta may or may not reach the columella and they may be well developed or rudimentary, or may even be reduced to spines. The Pourtales plan of septal arrangement of the higher cycles of enfosepta (septa formed within enfocoeles, the space between members of a mesenterial couple) within the chambers formed by the exosepta (septa formed within exocoels, the space between neighbouring mesenterial couples) is typical of Dendrophylliidae. But in some members of the family, the fusion of the inner ends of the septa may occur only in the earlier stages, the ends becoming free and normal later. The columella is parietal when formed by the intermingling of the trabeculae projecting from the inner margins of the sclerosepta, essential when it stand more ot less separately from the OO69 sclerosepta and lamellar when vertical and lying horizontally in the long axis of elongate or compressed corallites. Pall (sing, palus) are vertical lamellae or pillars lying in front of the intemal edges of certain septa while paliform lobes are pali-like structures formed by one or more detached trabeculae or offSets fom the inner edge of a septum. In form, simple (=solitary) coralla may be discoid when with horizontal theca, turbinate when conical in shape, patellate when flattened conical, cupoloid when with flat base and highly convex ‘upper surface, or cuneiform when wedge-shaped. ‘The form of the colony of the colonial corallum (Fig. 10a) may be encrusting when froming thin continuous sheets adherent almost throughout to the substrate, foliaceous or frondose when consisting of thin, expanding, overlapping sheets with small basal attachment, reniform when foliaceous and kidney-shaped, massive when forming more or less thick masses or heads, ramose (arborescent) when branching like a tree, caespitose when with branches of unequal height forming, clumps or tufts and corymbose when the branchlets are almost parallel and reaching almost the same height.70 Wanee i en ee Hs | Cc "ig: 102. Longitudinal section through Hydra, «hydeant of a Colonial hydraid polyp and a hydromedusae (A); a | Young polyp and corallum of a stony coral (B); and the branching forms ofthe colonial coral (C), | Fil the blanks with the ollowing: 1. pda, 2. hydraath, 3 hydromedusa, 4, pharynx, 5. costae, 6, feria, 7. sclerosepts, 8. basal plate, 9, theca, 10. polyp and Corallum, 11, caespitose,12. Encrusting 13, foliaceous, 14, massive, and 15, ramose, According to the arrangement of Corallites (Fig. 106), the colonial corallum is cerioid when ip Pidtatic coralites closely appressed and united to each othe, by their walls, Aynophoroid when with71 corallites arranged around conical hillocks or monticules (collines), meandroid when with corallites froming winding series from each other by more or less undercut peritheca, thamnasteriod when with corallites lacking definite boundaries the septa confluent, reptoid when with corallites arising from a creeping stolon or expansion from older ones, dendroid when branching with each branch a single corallite, and phaceloid when with corallites in the ftom of parallel or subparallel branches forming clumps or tufts, the corallites reaching almost the same height Meandroid corolla with single continuous slightly contorted or straight linear series of corallites are flabelloid Small, low side branches of the corallum are ramiculi and short protuberances of the branches bearing several corallites are verrucae. The distribution of corallites may be crowded when the corallites are separated by peritheca less than the calicinal diameter of the big corallites and dis‘ant when they are one or more calicinal diameters apart. In position, corallites are immersed when below the level of the surface, level or flush when on the same level as the surface, protruding or exsert when rising above the level of the surface, and subimmersed when slightly below the level of the surface. Accroding to the direction, protruding corallites and associated structures are adnate when one side is attached to the surface, ascending when projecting at an acute angle, corallites pointing toward the apex, erect when projecting at right angles to the surface and imbricate when overlapping. Corallites are sinuous when winding, bending in and out, In form, protruding corallites are conical when basal diameter is wider than apical diameter, oplindrical when round in ctoss section, dimidiate when upper half of calicinal wall is missing, Jabellate when lower wall is projecting and flat while upper wall is missing or underdeveloped, ‘spout-shaped (gutter-form) when similar to labellate but the lower lip folded longitudinally into a trough-like structure, nariform when nose-shaped, tubular when like a tube, spiniform when sharp and pointed like a spine and truncate when the end or tip is square or evenly cut. Corallites are verruciform when the wall is slightly elevated all around, costate when with costae or ribs on the outer surface of calicinal wall and vesicular when with blisters. Stony corals undergo sexual and asexual reproduction, The latter ocours when new polyps (or stomodaea) are produced either as wholly separate new individuals or to form colonies with or ‘without loss of organic continuity between the parent and daughter polyps. Asexual reproduction may occur by intratentacular (= intracalicinal) budding by the development of two or more stomodae within the same tentacular ring and one or more couples of mesenteries between every two neighboring stomodaea or by extratentacular ( extracalicinal) budding by the development of the stomodae outside the tentacular ring In some octocorals calcareous spicules may be found into vertical, parallel tubes jointed by horizontal platforms, or a calcareous skeleton is formed with two kinds of pores, larger pores (Corallites) with narrow septa not arranged in cycles, and tiny pores without septa among papillae (Conical projections on the surface) found all over the peritheca. Some hrydrozoans form exoskeletons like those of the stony corals but with two kinds of pores without septa — largergastropores which in life lodged the nutritive gastrozooids and smaller dactylopores which lodged the protective dactylozooids are arranged in cyclosystems. A cyclosystems consists of one gastropore surrounded by several dactylopores whose cavities do not connect with the gastropore or may be confluent with the gastropore forming a star-shaped system and giving the semblance of septa to the gastropore, In some forms of the dactylopores are in two rows flanking median row of gastropores. Gastropores may have a style (calcareous projection) at the bottom of the ‘fossa. The pores may be large or required magnification.Fig. 10b, Forms of the colonial corallum according to the arramgement of corallites; Fill the blanks with the following: 1. cerioid, 2. dendroid, 3, hyduophoroid, 4. meandroid, 5. phaceloid, 6. plocoid, 7. thamnasterioid, and 8. reptoid,73 TL Specimen: Tooth Coral IIL, Procedure Place the specimen provided by the teacher on a dissecting place or a Potri dish. Follow the instructions below. 1. Sketch, a. Portion of the colony, side view, x2. b. A group of three corallites (showing different shapes and cycles of septa), top view, x 2 c. A portion of a septum, x 10. Study a portion of a septum under the microscope. Describe the specimen (see guide below). Key out the specimen to the species level (refer to the key on page 75). Classify the species. Give the family characteristies of the specimen. Complete the title of the exercise, EXERCISE NO. 10A. Family IL Specimen: Fire Coral TIL Procedure Place the specimen provided by the teacher on a dissecting plate or a Petri dish, Follow the instructions below. 1. Sketeh: ‘a. Portion of the colony, side view, x 2 b. One cyclosystem, top view, x5. 2. Describe the specimen (see guide below) a Examine features of the specimen under the microscope. Are the corallites tiny or microscopic? Are septa present? b.Are the corallites arranged in cyclosystems? Do the dactylopores surround or flank the gastropores? Are the pores of the dactylopores separate or confluent with the pores of the gastropores? 3. Key out the specimen to the species level (refer to the key on page 75). 4. Classify the species. 5. Give the family characteristics of the spécimen. Complete the ttle of the exercise, GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTION OF CORALS GROWTH FORM: solitary or colonial, free or attached CORALLUM: For solitary = Form: discoid, cupoloid, etc.; Shape: circular, oval, etc. For colonial corals = Colony form: encrusting, massive, ramose, caespitose, et. Describe manner of branching and form of branches if present. Arrangement of corallites (fro encrusting, foliaceous, massive forms): plocoid, cerioid, ete. ‘Note presence of verrucae, papillae and tubercles. CORALLITE: Distribution: distant, crowded (For arborescent forms, describe the following for the axial and radial corallites) Position: protruding or exsert, flush, immersed, et. ‘TFexsert, Form: cyclindrical, conical, tubular, dimidiate, nariform, otc74 Direction: adnate, erect, imbricate, ete.; Height above surface: mm, Diameter: of smallest and largest corallite: mm. For hydrozoan coral: pores flush with surface or raised on an elevation. Dactylopores: Diameter; Separate or confluent with gastropores, flanking or surrounding gastropores; Number: (of dactylopores surrounding gastropores). Gastropores: Diameter, Style at bottom of fossa present or absent. CALICE: Shape: round, oval, elongate, lobed, etc. ‘Number of calicinal centers: (for caespitose corolla, per branch). Antangement of calcinar centers: for discoid or elongate colonial forms, in irregular or parallel rows, or scattered? SCLEROSEPTA: present or absent; well developed or rudimentary (reduced to spines?) ‘Number of cycles: Note which cycles reach the columella, which are exsert. ‘Note differences in thickness, Note if directives distinct. Note if a cycle is incomplete. Length (for eycles not reaching columella): 1/3R, 1/2R, ete ‘Upper Margin: smooth or dentate; Form of teeth: spiny, granular, beaded, lobulate, etc. Surface: laminar or fenestrate, Note presence of pali and patiform lobes. COLUMELLA: present or absent; well developed or not; Form: SYNAPTICULA: present or absent ‘WALL (Theca or epitheca): Thick or thin; solid or porous; spiny, costate, vesiculate. PERITHECA: solid or porous, vesiculate (vesicles open or closed), spiny, etc. BUDDING: Type: PHYLUM CNIDARIA (Note: The name Cnidaria is preferable over the older name Coelenterata since the latter may also be a label for Cnidaria and Ctenophora together, and it also originally included Porifera.) Solitary or colonial, sessile or swimming, mostly marine diploblastic animals considered the _most primitive eumetazoans, from which the bilateral animals derived. Body of two epithelial layers, ectoderm and endoderm (= gastroderm) between which is the mesoglea, a thin to very thick, acellular to rather cellular, gelatinous connective tissue. Body basically a sac with a single opening, the mouth, exhibiting primary radial symmetry about an oral-aboral axis. Gastrovascular cavity (coelenteron) sole body space, may be subdivided by radially arrayed mesenteries or septa. ‘Typically, mouth surrounded by solid or hollow tentacles, their cavities continuous with the gastrovascular cavity. Body forms of two types: polyp and medusa. Polyp erect, cylindrical, typically attached to a firm substratum at aboral end and has thin mesoglea. Polyp solitary (e.g. sea anemones) or forming colonies (e.g, mostly hydroids) by asexual proliferation (budding), may build chitinous or calcareous intemal or external skeleton, or both types. Medusa typically solitary, pelagic, and discoid with mouth ‘on undersurface, Lacking skeletal support, commonly known as jellyfish due to gelatinous mesoglea ‘Young medusa (-ephyrac) may be released by polyps by budding (strobilation). In many cnidarians, the medusa is the sexually reproducing, dispersal stage producing gametes. Zygote develops into planktonic larva (typically a planula) which attaches to a firm substratum and develops into a polyp. Typical cnidarians Tif cycle consists of alternating asexual polypoid and sexual medusoid generations; however, one or the other may be suppressed or absent so that polyps often reproduce sexually. Caidarians are distinguished by their possessions of nematocysts in special cells (cnidocytes) ‘which function in defense and capture of prey. Nematocysts may inject a poison (penetrant), entangle the prey (volvent) or anchor the body (gtutinant). Each nematocyst fires only once, All cnidarians are carnivorous, generally capturing prey with tentacles studded with nematooysts, but, many formsEE EEEEEEISS'S'sSzs~-- 75 possess symbiotic intracellular, usually endodermal, algae (zooxanthellae or zoochlorellae, or both). Graptolites, an entirely fossil group of pelagic, colonial animals that had chitinous exoskeletons, are ‘now considered to have belonged to this phylum. The phylum has 10,000 species in four classes Key to the Classes of Cnidaria 1. Medusae present, bell square in transverse section; polyp when present, without skeleton . —— on CUBOZOA 1. Medusae present or absent, bell not square in transverse section; polyp present, with or without chitinous, horny or stony skeleton ....... - . ~ 2 2 Gastrovascualr cavity of polyp or medusa partitioned by four or more longitudinal septa: When present, the exoskeleton may consist of calcareous spicules (sclertes) embedded in : {he mesoglea or inthe coenenchyme (thick cellular mesoglea) connecting the polyps, or the sclerites may be fused into closely spaced parallel, rigid, red tubes, or the calcareous exo- skeleton has one type of pore (coralites) with septa or, if pores of two sizes, skeleton is Trade of aragonite crystals usually blue in color with monomorphic polyps occupying the larger pores (which have septa) and solenia (endoderm-iined diverticula ‘of coclenterons) occupying the smaller pores (which lack septa); horny axial and erystalline skeleton present or absent : ———— 3 2. Gastrovascular cavity of polyp or medusa not partitioned by septa; calcarcous exoskeleton (Corallum) when present, not blue, with two types of pores (coralites) lacking slerosepta, larger gastropores and (usually smaller) dactylopores arranged usually in eyclosystems, or the dactylopores are arranged in two lateral rows flanking a median row of gastropores, cexallites (gastropores and dactylopores) may be tiny or iicroscropic; chitinous exoskeleton usually present . +tsseeeHYDROZOA 3. Polyp and medusa present, medusa predominant; coclenterons divided by four JTongitudinal septa; exoskeleton (chitinous periderm) present only in polyp of one genus . - : . sss SCYPHOZOA 5. Polyp present, medusa absent; coelenterons divided by more than four longitudinal septa {mesenteries); homy or calcareous exoskeleton present or absent ANTHOZOA Class HYDROZOA Asexual, attached, benthic polypoid generation altemates with sexually reproducing, Planktonic medusoid generation; hydromedusae generally small and transparent, polyp usually more conspicuous! one or the other generations may be suppressed or lacking, Coelenteron not partitioned, stomadaeum lacking, tentacles may be solid or hollow in both generations Hydropolyps radially symmetrical, mostly colonial. Most species with typically chitinous but sometimes calified exoskeleton. When present corallum surface with two types of pares (corslites), Jarger gastropores and smaller dactylopores, both pores tiny or microscopic, lacking septa, Medueg believed to be definitive adult and original form of cnidarians, but medusa stage eliminated in mene advanced hydrozoans. Seven orders with 2,700 species mostly marine, Order Milleporina Polyps. forming massive, erect or encrusting calcareous exoskeleton are dimorphic, gastrozooids with 3-7 short, capitates tentacles around central mouth and, occasionally one or two on the upper column; the usually smaller, more numerous, mouthless protective dactylozouids have 2.7 capitate fentacles around the distal end and, in some cases, up to 40 tentacles in indistinct cycles ound the column. Four to eight dactylozooids (dactylopores) around each gastrozooid (gastropore) form a cyclosystem, but pattern may be indistinct, cyclosystems seattored all over corallum, never arranged in rows on each side of the branches. Pores (corallites) lack septa or style at bottom of fossa and dactylopores not confluent with gastropores. The small, free-swimming medusa formed in cavities (ampullae) of colony, lack a velum, mouth, tentacles and digestive system. One family,76 Milleporidae and a single genus, Millepora commonly called fire coral because of its powerful sting, In coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific and the Carribean, Family Milleporidae Blainville — Characters of the order. One genus, Millepora Linnaeus. Key to the Phillipine Species of Millepora 1. Corallum massive or encrusting, or of erect tall plates usually connected by cross pieces, Surface nodulous . woe 2 1, Corallum branching ...... 3 2. Skeleton massive or encrusting; pores in pits, singly or in series of 2 or 3; nodules without pores M, platyphylla 2, Skeleton of thick, erect, tall plates; pores in distinct eyclosystems; nodules with pores . _M. foveolata 3. Corallum branching closely reticulate -M. dichotoma 3. Corallum branching not reticulate ae . - 4 4. Branches of corallum short, stout, vertical . coon M. exaesa 4, Branches of corallum tall, usually slender coe 5 5. Pores bome on elevation M, crust 5. Pores flush with surface ...... sons 6 6, Branches subeylindrical, distantly coalescent ......... M. intricata 6. Branches flattened, coalescent or not... ne 7. Pores distinct, corallum broad, palmate fronds formed by fusion of neighboring branches; tips of branchlets not parallel ..... M. tenera 7. Pores indistinct; corallum a crowded mass of flattened but not palmate branches; tips of termi- nal branchlets tending to be parallel so M. murrayi Class ANTHOZOA Solitary or colonial, all marine, mostly benthic polyps; body a hollow cylinder, gastrovascular cavity divided by longitudinal, radially arrayed mesenteries (septa) topped by an oral disk bearing hollow tentacles (usually 8 or multiples of 6) that communicate with the gastrovascular cavity, ‘Medusoid stage absent; polyp reproduces sexually, and in most species asexually by budding, fission, fragmentation and a variety of other means; dispersal mostly by pelagic larvae, typically planulae, Gametes broadcast but both external fertilization known. Class contains about two-thirds of known extant cnidarians species, Fifteen orders in three subclasses. Subclass ALCYONARIA \CTOCORALLIA) ‘Mostly colonial benthic anthozoans. Polyps cylindrical, monomorphic or dimorphic; tentacles 8, hollow, marginal, tapering, nearly always pinnate; mesenteries 8; siphonoglyph 1. Calcareous spicules embedded in mesoglea of polyp’ or the stolons of both, or in coenenchyme (thick cellular mesoglea) connecting polyps, spicules may be fused; homy axial and crystalline aragonite skeletons present in Hlelioporacea. Many species with symbiotic zoochlorellae or zooxanthellae. Mostly in shallow tropical seas with some deep- and cold-water forms. Fight orders. Order HELIOPORACEA (=COENOTHECALLIA) Polyps monomorphic and retractile. Colonial skeleton resembles skeleton of millepores and stony corals, a rigid, calcareous skeleton of aragonite crystals (instead of fused spicules) anchored basally or attached by stolon, Two families. Family Helioporidae Mosely ~ Colony digitate, clavate, flabellato (meandroid) or encrusting; skeleton blue, of tabulate circular corallites evenly disposed. Separated by wide peritheca; septa narrow but distinct, not arranged in cycles; peritheca covered all over with evenly distributed papillae of even ee7 height with sharp pointed or fimbriated tips; tiny spores without septa, found evenly distributed among papillae, Single species, Heliopora coerulea Blainville. Commonly called, blue coral, due to color of the skeleton, In coral reefs of tropical Indo-West Pacific. Very common in the Philippine reefs. (Order STOLONIFERA ‘Simple cylindrical polyps from a creeping ribbonlike stolon forming a sheet or meshwork, or from connecting tubes or platforms joining adjacent polyps. Colonies generally small but some forms large. In shallow tropical seas; temperate forms exist. Three families. Family Tubiporidae Milne-Edwards and Haime ~ Ongan-pipe coral. Skeleton of colony fused sclerites froming closely spaced parallel rigid tubes connected by transverse platforms containing solenia; iron salts in skeleton color it deep red which is retained in death; polyps gray to green. Tropical Indo- Pacific coral reefs only. Single variable species, Tubipora musica Linnaeus. Mactan Is., Bohol, Cagayan de Oro. Very common. Subclass ZOANTHARIA (HEXACORRALLIA) Solitary or colonial; calcareous exoskeleton produced by some forms, corallites possessing sclerosepta. Cylindrical polyps have coupled and paired mesenteries usually in multiples of six (the ‘two mesenteries of a pair typically of equal size and are added beside one another; a couple consists of two pairs added more or less simultaneously 180° apart maintaining biradial symmetry. Tentacles hollow. Colonies develop asexually, usually from a single, sexually derived founder. Five orders. In all depths, latitudes, and benthic marine environments. + Order SCLERACTINIA Bourne, 1900 (MADREPORARIA) ‘True or stony corals, Solitary or colonial with calcareous exoskeleton secreted by ectodermal body layer. Some forms solitary but most species form encrusting, arborescent, or massive colonies in ‘which the polyps are united by the coenosares extending between the polyps. Growth of colonies by ascxual reproduction, either through intratentacular or intracalicinal budding resulting in branching or in linear groups of polyps with tentacles mainly on outer edges of the row, or by extratentacular or extracalicinal budding. Gonochoristic (dioecious) and hermaphroditic species known; metamorphosis follows after the planula settles onto a firm substratum after which it begins to socrete a skeleton. Tentacles loaded with nematocysts or mucus strands are used to ensnare prey. Greatest abundance and diversity in tropics between 30° N and 30° S (roughly the 22°C isotherm) where they form bioherms (reefs) in about 50 m deep waters although reefs may extend to about 100 m in very clear waters. This is the largest zoantharian order with about 2500 extant species in 23 families and 5 suborders. Close to 500 species, 60 genera and 15 families in the Philippines. Key to the Suborders of Scleractinia 1, Septa laminar or rudimentary consisting of relatively few simple (rarely compound) trabeculae strongly inclined from axis of divergence; synapticulae absent ASTROCOENIIDA 1, Septa laminar or fenestrate, consisting of numerous simple or compound trabeculae slightly inclined from the axis of divergence; synapticulae present or absentt 2 2. Synapticulae present; septa fenestrate Oerereeecerere 3 2. Synapticulae absent or rare; septa laminar, non-porous 4 3, Septal margin strongly dentate or regularly beaded FUNGUDA 3, Septal margin entire or irregularly beaded -.DENDROPHYLIDA 4, Septal margin entire - - sess see seen nen CARYOPHYLIDA, 4, Septal margin strongly dentate FAVIDASuborder Astrocoeniida Vaughn and Wells, 1942 78 Mostly colonial corals; primary sclerosepta relatively few (usually six); septa laminar reduced to spines or obsolete; peritheca when present, spinous. Key to Selected Philippine Families and Genera 1, Corallites distant; peritheca extensive 1. Corallites crowded; peritheca narrow or absent 2. Peritheca porous, reticulate ........ 2, Peritheca non-porous, solid or vesicular 3, Axial corallite present 3. Axial coralite absent 4, Peritheca with few pores, almost solid 4. Peritheca very porous .. 5. Calice large, ca. 2 mm across 5. Calice small, 1 mm or less across 6. Corallites in distinct rows on branches 6. Corallites not in rows . Septa well developed Septa rudimentary or absent 2 Fam. Astrocoeniidae: Stylocoeniella Fam. Acroporidae 3 Fam. Pocilloporidae. 6 . Acropora conn -Anacropora 5 Astraeopora Montipora ..Serlatopora eevee Stylopora Pocillopora Suborder Fungtida Duncan, 1884 Solitary or colonial; septa fenestrate at least in younger stages, often appearing laminar in later stages, synapticulae or across basr simple or compound, margins beaded or denticulate. Key to Selected Philippine Families and Genera 1. Synapticulae simple; septal margins beaded or denticulate 2 1. Synapoulae usually compound; septal margins usually seongly dentate 1 6 3 2. Septa laminar or sparingly porous 2. Septa porous or reduced to spines 3, Budding extra-tentacular; corallite wall distinct; calices rarely in series ....Fam. Poritidae....4 4.Septa well developed 4, Septa rudimentary, in form of spines Corallites with septa in3 cycles 5. Corallites with septa in 2 cycles 6, Septa with few pores, some branched 6. Septa laminar, not branched : 7. Budding extratentacular; corallum black 7. Budding intratentacular 8. Columella absent 8. Columella present Corallum cerioid Corallum leaf-like 10, Septa confluent into the calices; walls absent 10. Septa parallel; walls developed in collines LL. Wall vertical; corallum plocoid, colonial 11. Wall horizontal; corallum free in adult, solitary or colonial .. 12, Corallum colonial... 12. Corallum solitary 13, Wall perforate; septal teeth quite large Budding extra- or intra-tentacular, corallite wall absent, calices in series Fam, Siderastreidae: Coscinaraea eeccseeeed Alveopora Goniopora Porites Fam. Thamnasteriidae: Psammocora Fam, Agariciidae 7 Oulastrea 8 9 10 Coeloseris Leptoseris -Pavona Pachyseris ‘Fam. Agathiphyliidae: Diploastrea Pam, Fungiidae .....12 . 14 13 -Fungia13, Wall imperforate; septal teeth generally fine Cyeloseris, 14, Corallum free at least in adults, discoid or elongate 16 14, Corallum fixed, foliaceous 15 15. Wall perforate . Podabacia 15. Wall imperforate ........ sonnei . . Lithophylion 16, Corallum elongate, narrow ... 19 16. Corallum circular or elongate, broad 7 17. Primary coastal spines branched, very granulate Parahalomitra 17. Primary costal spines not branched 18 18, Costal spines tall, simple Halomitra 18. Costal spines blunt, spinulous Zoopilus 19. Central furrow distinct; septa high, radiate «0... — ‘Herpolitha 19. Central furrow indistinct; septa low, not radiate a Polyphyllia Suborder Faviida Vaughan and Wells, 1942 Solitary and colonial; septa laminar and imperforate, septal margins more or less regularly dentate; synapticulae absent; dissepiments well developed. Key to the Philippine Families and Selected Genera 1. Corallum reptoid eon senses ora. Rhizangidas:Clila 1. Corallum not reptoid - 2 2. Septal teeth prominent; inta- and/or extracalicinal budding present 4 2. Septal teeth minute; extracalicinal budding dominant Fam. Oculinidae 3, Corallum ramose; corallites protruding Acrhelia 3. Corallum massive, plocoid; coralltes tall cylinders oe Galecxea 4, Columella poorly developed or absent, septal dentation irregular, or if columella prominent, Septal dentation coarse and lobulate 18 4, Columella spongy, or papillose, rarely absent; septal dentation regular but never coarse and Lobulate ‘Fam. Faviidae, 5 5. Intracalicinal budding dominant 8 5, Extracalicinal budding dominant co 26 6. Corallum foliaceous; peritheca spinose : Echinophora 6. Corallum plocoid; peritheca spinose or costat 7 7, Columella spongy; peritheca spinose . co soosstsnsseenesa neon CYphastrea 7. Columella papillose; peritheca costae .......... . Leptastrea 8, Corallum phaceloid or subdendroid . 9 8, Corallum not phaceloid or subdendroid - 10 9. Branching dichotomous, phaceloid . Caulastrea 9. Branching evident in many coralltes, subdendroid Bikiniastrea 10. Corallum plocoid or cerioid 15 10. Corallum hydnophoroid or meandroid .....0..csseseeeusseseeeee : 11 11. Corallites arranged around conical collines . ‘Hydnophora 11. Corallites in series within the same walls 12 12. Columella absent or poorly developed; corallum massive, valleys deep, wide ...Coelogyra 12. Columella distinct, spongy or lamellar; corallum massive or flabelloid, valleys narrow or wide ..... eoel3 13, Valleys narrow, long, sinuous; columella lamellar Leptoria 13. Valleys wide, corallum flabeloid or if valleys narrow massive; columella spongy, prominent = cesedd 14. Paliform lobes prominent; flabelloid \.Trachyphyllia 14. Paliform lobes not prominent; massive seven Platygyra 15, Corallum plocoid cent 715, Corallum cerioid ..... sosceee seen 16 16, Paliform lobes very prominent; massive Goniastrea 16, Paliform lobes absent or poorly developed; massive or encrusting...........s....Favites 17. Budding intracalicinal only; massive encrusting or foliaceous .... eee Pavia 17. Budding intra- and extracalicinal; massive ..... see Plesiastrea 18, Columella small or absent; septal dentation irregular... - 20 18. Columella prominent; septal dentations coarse, lobulate .....Fam, Mussidae 19 19. Corallum phaceloid or submeandroid; walkfree . seeeseveesLobophyllin 19. Corallum meandroid; walls fused to form collines ........ osnee Symphyllia 20. Calicinal centers joined by papillae; ramose or foliaceous ... Fam. Merulinidae: Merulina 20. Calicinal centers joined by plates; foliaceous or explanate ...Fam. Pectiniidae ............21 21. Collines very high, thin, foliaceous, often bearing lateral calices foliaceous, usually crowded clump ..... a . Pectinia 21. Collines low or absent a senescence DD 22. Peritheca vesiculate a . seceevevse cee 3 22, Peritheca not vesiculate, perforate... ne sons OXYpOra 23. Corallites superficial; foliaceous, broadly explanate . sePhysophyllia 23. Corallites protruding; foliaceous, explanate or encrusting 24 24, Calices horizontal; septocostae confluent; explanate, creeping or encrusting ‘Echinophyllia 24, Calices nariform, ascending septocostae almost ‘paral, sxplanate a flanoons - : _Mycedium 80 Family Oculinidae Gray, 1847 — Colonial; budding extracalcinal; Corallum ramose or massive, dendroid, rarely plocoid; calices highly exsert, united basally by usually non-costate Peritheca: sclerosepta exsert, margin finely toothed, laterally granular or spinulose; pali may be present ; columella papillose or parietal or absenr. Two genera, Acrhelia and Galaxea in the Philippines. Genus Galaxea Oken, 1815 — Corallum massive, plocoid; corallites costate, in form of tall cylinders piercing through a creeping vesiculate, spinose, non-costate Peritheca; sclerosepta very exsert; columella, poorly developed or absent; endotheca thin and feeble. Key to the Philippine Species of Galaxea 1, Calices, primarily the large ones, lobed; costae limited to extreme upper portion of wall G. lawisiana 1. Calices not lobed; costae extending entice length of corllte or absolescent on lower portion — 2 2. Sclerosepta in 3 cycles; columella prominent vo -G. clavus 2. Sclerosepta in 4 cycles; columella poorly developed - G. fascicularis Galaxea lawisiana (Nemenzo) ~ Corallum pin-cushion-shaped; large corallites distinctly lobed, costae almost uniformly thicker than septa, limited to upper part of wall, lower part smooth, septa in 4 cycles, primaries and secondaries thick, exsert, reaching columelia; columella distinct in young corallites, obsolete in adults; perithecal vesicles large, mostly closed. Cebu. Rare, Galaxea clavus (Dana)- Corallum convex; corallites to 12 mm above surface; calices mostly circular or oval, few distorted or flattened; costae smooth, usually extending entire length of corallite; septa in 3 cycles, primaries and secondaries reaching columella, exsert, slightly thicker at wall, margin netire or finely denticulate; columella prominent; peritheca with large open vesicles, Hundred Is., Quezon, Batangas, Or. Mindoro, Cebu, Cagayan de Oro. Very Common, Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus) ~ Corallum pin-cushion-shaped; corallites to 14 mm above surface; calices subcircular, oval or elongate; costae distinct on apper part, obsolescent on lower part of wall; septa in 4 cycles, primaries and secondaries very exsest, reaching columella, tips narrowed into —— eee81 rounded points, slightly thicker at wall; columella poorly developed, septa from opposites overlapping across columella in large corallites; Peritheca with small open or closed vesicles. Or, Mindoro, Bohol, Cebu, Mactan Is., Sumilon Is. Very common but endangered. EXERCISE NO. 11 Family _ {L Introduction Molluses are bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented animals usually with a definite head, a muscular foot used chiefly for locomotion, with a dorsal visceral mass containing most of the internal organs and the dorsal body wall forming the mantle which encloses the water-filled mantle cavity and secretes a calcareous shell of 1 to 8 pieces (shell absent in some groups). The mantle cavity houses the gills or lungs, anus and excretory pores. A rasping organ called a radula is usually present. The circulatory system is open (mostly closed in cephalopods) and the nervous system has cerebral ganglia and two pairs of longitudinal ‘body cords. Most mollusks are dioecious with some forms hermaphroditic, Fertilization is mostly extemal with transfer of spermatophores in cephalopods and some gastropods. ‘The life cycle includes a ciliated trocophore larva which is also characteristic of marine ‘annelids. There is strong embryological evidence that mollusks are related to annelids. ‘Molluscs range in size from almost microscopic to the largest invertebrate, the 18 m long, almost 2,000 kg giant squid Architewthis harveyi, The shells of some of the giant clams (e.g, ‘Tridacna) of the Indo-Pacific coral reefs reach 1.5 m in length and weigh over 225 kg but 80% of all mollusks are less than 5 cm in shell size, With over 150,000 estimated species (Campbell ef al, 1999), mollusks are the second most abundant group next to the arthropods. Dating back to the Precambrian 570 Mya (million years ago) mollusks live in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters and on land, A few are intemal parasites. ‘The classification of the higher taxa of mollusks is still unsettled. The scheme used here follows Boss, K.J. in Parker, 1982 which assigns mollusks to eight classes. Two small groups, Candofoveata and Solenogastres (both formerly placed together in the class Aplacophora) are ‘wormlike with no shells while the Scaphopoda possess a tubular shell open at both ends. ‘The Monoplacophora, thought to consist only of Paleozoic (570-249 Mya) shells until living specimens of Neopilina were dredged up from the ocean bottom near the west coast of Costa Rica ip 1952 are limpetOlike marine forms with a single shell and pseudometamerism. The Polyplacopbe are common marine forms with shells in a longitudinal series of eight plates. The mostly 1m Gastropoda, the most successful and largest class of mollusks have asymmetrical bodies usu” coiled shell (uncoiled or absent in some) with characteristic torsion of the body bringing the ‘mantle cavity overt the head in the adult ‘The Class Bivalvia (Pelecypoda) are marine and fresh-water and have the “ left and right valves joined by a dorsal elastic ligament and held together usw” posterior adductor muscles. The Class Cephalopoda are the most complex mr often reduced or absent, the head is well developed with arms or tentacles, is modified into a funnel, and the nervous system has well developed gr brain,\ aL rounded points, slightly thicker at wall; columella poorly developed, septa from opposites overlapping \, across columella in large corallites; Peritheca with small open or closed vesicles. Or. Mindoro, Bohol, Cebu, Mactan Is., Sumilon Is, Very common but endangered. EXERCISE NO. 11 Family I Introduction Molluscs are bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented animals usually with a definite head, a muscular foor used chiefly for locomotion, with a dorsal visceral mass containing most of the internal ‘organs and the dorsal body wall forming the mantle which encloses the water-filled mantle cavity and secretes a calcareous shell of | to 8 pieces (shell absent in some groups). The mantle cavity houses the gills or lungs, anus and excretory pores. A rasping organ called a radula is usually present. The circulatory system is open (mostly closed in cephalopods) and the nervous system has cerebral ganglia and two pairs of longitudinal body cords. Most mollusks are dioecious with some forms hermaphroditic. Fertilization is mostly extemal with transfer of spermatophores in cephalopods and some gastropods. ‘The life cycle includes a ciliated trocophore larva which is also characteristic of marine annelids. There is strong embryological evidence that mollusks are related to annelids. ‘Molluscs range in size from almost microscopic to the largest invertebrate, the 18 m long, almost 2,000 kg giant squid Architeuthis harveyi. The shells of some of the giant clams (e.g. Tridacna) of the Indo-Pacific coral reefs reach 1.5 m in length and weigh over 225 kg but 80% of all mollusks are less than 5 cm in shell size. With over 150,000 estimated species (Campbell et al., 1999), mollusks are the second most abundant group next to the arthropods. Dating back to the Precambrian 570 Mya (million years ago) mollusks live in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters and on land. A few are internal parasites. The classification of the higher taxa of mollusks is still unsettled. The scheme used here follows Boss, K.J. in Parker, 1982 which assigns mollusks to eight classes. Two small groups, Caudofoveata and Solenogastres (both formerly placed together in the class Aplacophora) are ‘wormlike with no shells while the Scaphopoda possess a tubular shell open at both ends. ‘The Monoplacophora, thought to consist only of Paleozoic (570-249 Mya) shells until living specimens of Neopilina were dredged up from the ocean bottom near the west coast of Costa Rica in 1952 are limpetOlike marine forms with a single shell and pseudometamerism. The Polyplacophora are common marine forms with shells in, a longitudinal series of eight plates. The mostly marine Gastropoda, the most successful and largest class of mollusks have asymmetrical bodies usually in a coiled shell (uncoiled or absent in some) with characteristic torsion of the body bringing the anus and mantle cavity overt the head in the adult. ‘The Class Bivalvia (Pelecypoda) are marine and fresh-water and have the shell divided into left and tight valves joined by a dorsal elastic ligament and held together usually by anterior and posterior adductor muscles. The Class Cephalopoda are the most complex mollusks with the shell often reduced or absent, the head is well developed with arms or tentacles, eyes and a radula, the foot is modified into a funnel, and the nervous system has well developed ganglia centralized to form a brain,Ne A. Anatomical Directions Several sets of terms are used to indicate the direction or position when describing the relative position of the various body parts of an organism with bilateral symmetry. The following are some of the more important ones. 1. Anterior portion — part of the body bearing the head; portion of any part that is toward the head end, Posterior portion — part of body opposite the anterior end. Dorsal side or dorsum — top or upper side of the body or its parts Ventral side — part opposite the dorsal side; underside or lower side of the body. Median, meson ~ the longitudinal center line (antero-posterior) of the body, projected on either the dorsal or ventral aspect, or any point in between. Lateral portion — side portion of body or one of its parts. Base ~ point or area of attachment of an appendage or outgrowth of the body. ‘Apex ~ part of appendage farthest from its attachment, Proximal — nearest to a body axis. (0, Distal - farthest from a body axis. wren B. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of Shells ‘The members of the Gastropoda and Bivalvia are commonly called shells due to their characteristic calcareous exoskeleton. A widely adapted system of shell taxonomy is based primarily on shell characters, which are the most available information in the fossil record of the group. These together with the structure of the radula, include shell shape and size, sculpture (surface omament of ‘he shell) color, texture and number of whorls in the protoconch, character of the aperture, character of the columella (curvature and sculpture), presence and character of the umbilicus, structure of the operculum, structure of the ligament, hinge teeth and internal muscle scars. ‘The molluscan shell is composed of three layers: an outer organic periosiracum made of homy conchiolin protein secreted by a fold of the mantle edge, which may wear away in older parts of the shell; a middle prismatic layer composed of calcium carbonate prisms in a protein matrix secreted by the margin of the mantle and like the periostracum grows only at the shell margin; and, an inner nacreous layer composed of caleium carbonate sheets laid down over a thin protein matrix secreted continuously by the mantle surface and becoming thick with time. In many marine forms, the periostracum is relatively thin or absent but in fresh-water mollusks it is thick as protection against the acids produced in water by the decay of leaf litter. The features of a gastropod shell is usually shown with the shell’s spire up and the aperture facing the observer (Fig. 11a). The coiling of the shell is usually dextral (right handed) with the aperture to the observer's right. Occasionally the aperture is to the observer’s left and the shell is sinistral (lefi-handed) and is prized by collectors. The greatest vertical distance from the apex of the spire is the length and the greatest distance from the side is ftom side to side is the width.83 Qo QR AO 3 Fig 11a. Gastropod shell and operculum. Fill in the blanks with the following: 1, Nuclear whorls or protoconch, 2, Pitted sculpture, 3. Spiral striae, 4. Varix, 5, Carinate spiral ridge, 6. Spine, 7 Sutures, 8. Node, 9. Parietal lip, 10. Parietal shield or callus, 11. Columellar plicae, 12 Selenizone, 13. Umbilicus, 14. Siphonal canal, 15. Boss, 16. Beaded sculpture, 17. Reticulate soulpture, 18. Spiral ridges, 19. Spiral costae, 20. Axial costae, 21. Spiral thread, 22. Sutural canal, 23. Anal canal, 24. Outer lip, 25. Sinus, 26. Palatal lip, 27. Columellar lip, 28. Spiro, 29. Body whorl, 30. Gastropod shell, 31. Paucispiral, 32. Geniculate, 33, Multispiral, 34 Concentric, and 35. Types of gastropod opercula,84 In bivalves, the head and radula have disappeared. Two symmetrical mantle flaps enclose the whole body, opening posteriorly via the exhalant (upper) and inhalant (lower) siphons. The left and right valves of the shell secreted by the mantle, are joined by the elastic ligament at the hinge line on the dorsal side along a line parallel to the length of the body (Fig. 116). The ligament is located between the two beaks or tanbones (sing, Umbo), the rounded or pointed extremity at which the shell began to grow. Usually, the shorter longitudinal distance from the beak is the anterior end. ‘The side opposite the ligament is the ventral side, The greatest antero-posterior distance is the length, the greatest dorso-ventral distance from the umbo is the height and the greatest side to side distance is the diameter or breadth. The ligament is external when extemal to the hinge, visible when the valves are closed, and internal when ventral to the hinge, parivincular when elongate and cylindrical, alivincular when not elongated and located in a pit between the cardinal teeth below the umbones, multivincular when it is in a series of pits in the hinge plate and duplivincular when with lamellar component repeated as a series of bands, each with its two edges inserted in narrow grooves in the cardinal areas, the flat or slightly concave, commonly triangular surface between beak and hinge margin wholly or partly occupied by ligament, of the respective valves. The ligament is prosodetic when it extends in front of (anterior to) the umbones, amphidetic when it extends both in front and behind (posterior to) the umbones and opisthodetic when it extends posterior to the umbones only. The hinge line may be straight or arched. ‘The beaks or umbones are prosogyrous when pointed anteriorly, opisthogyrous when pointed posteriorly and orthogyrous when they face each other. The beak may be anterior, median (central) or ‘posterior in location along the dorsal side. The shell is equivalve when the two valves are of the same shape and size and inequivalent when of different shape and size. According to the location of the beak, the shell is equilateral when the beak is central or median, the anterior and posterior ends of each valve being of equal size, and inequilateral when the beak is not central, the anterior and posterior ends of each valve unequal. Rotund or swollen shells of thin structure are said to be inflated. ‘The lumule, a flat heart-shaped area, may be found on the outside of the shell along the hinge line anterior to the umbones, and the escufcheon, a depressed, smooth or otherwise set-off elongate area on the shell on both sides of the extemal ligament, encompassing the ligament and usually differing from the rest of the shell in omament and/or color, may be found posterior to the umbones. Ear-shaped anterior and posterior projections of the beaks are called ears or auricles, while longer projections along the hinge line are called wings and the shell alate, The shape or outline of the shell is trigonal when triangular, quadrafe when more or less squarish or rectangular, rhomboidal when with four sides, the opposite sides parallel, only the opposite sides are equal and without any right-angled comers and trapezoidal when quadrate in outline with one longitudinal dimension greater than the other and only two sides more or less parallel, The shell may also be orbicular, oval, oblong, ovate, pyriform (pear-shaped), elongate, ete, ‘The shape of the anterior and posterior ends may be rounded, obtuse, pointed, truncate, ot rostrate, the latter when the end is drawn out into a beaklike process. ‘The periostracum may be of various color and may be hairy or pilose in some forms. The surface of the shell may be smooth or may possess various omaments of raised or depressed markings referred to as sculpture, In direction, these may be radial when ruming from the umbo to the shell margin or concentric or commarginal when running parallel with the growth lines. These markings include ribs or costae, round0 or flat-topped elevated ridges of moderate width and prominence; pleats, wide, flat-topped ridges; threats, smaller, finer than a rib and striae, narrow lines or grooves. One or more of these markings may be present together ranning parallel or crossing each other.Mig. 11b. Extemal view (A) and dorsal view (B) of bivalve shell. Fill the blanks with the following: 1. Height, 2. Foot, 3, Length, 4, Ventral ‘margin, 5. Beak or umbo, 6. Siphons, 7. Amtetior, 8. Lunule, 8. Beak or umbo, 10. Fscutcheon ant cy Ligament.86 The sculpture is striate (with striae); irate (with threads) or ribbed (with ribs); costate when ‘with radial ribs; divaricate when with bifurcating or branched ribs, often forming chevrons: cancellate ‘when with intersecting radial and concentric ribs, threads or striae; plicate when with radial pleats, fluted when with a series of elongated, slightly projecting channels and ridges along a margin; Beaded ‘when with beadlike projections; nodulose when with small tubercles, knobs or projections, and spinose when with spines or thornlike protuberances. The shell margin is entire when a contiguous even line, toothed when with teeth, scalloped when with regular flutings, bordered by a series of rounded or angled projections and crenulate when finely scalloped, Sharp, slightly or strongly raised ledges often found on a tib are called scales. ‘The valves can be tightly closed by retraction of the adductor muscles and open when the adductor muscles relax due to tension on the external ligament and/or compression of the internal ligament (also called resilium or cartilage). The line of attachment of the mantle to the shell shows a scat line, the pallial line which may be distinct or obscure, entire (continuous) or discontinuous, and the indentation of the line left by the fice lobe of the siphonal area is called the pallial sinus which is always in the posterior end (Fig. 11c), ‘The adductor muscles leave adductor muscle scars where they were attached to the interior of the shell. The scar appears as differentiated area generally striated, depressed or outlined (Fig. 11c) The shell is dimyarian when with two (anterior and posterior) adductor muscle scars and ‘monomyarian when with only one adductor muscle scar. It is isomyarian when with the two scars are approximately equal in size and anisomyarian when the two scars are of different sizes, usually the Posterior one larger. The hinge may be edentate, without teeth, or dentate, with teeth. Hinge teeth which are shelly Projections on the hinge line are of two groups: cardinal or umbonal teeth, the main central teeth located directly below the umbones and usually transverse to the hinge, and lateral ‘eeth, projections that are almost parallel to the hinge line located anterior or posterior or both tothe cardinal teeth (Fie 11). Crurae are inegular dentiform ridges on the hinge, apophyses or myophores are projecting structures on the inside of the bivalve shell below the umbones to which muscles are attached, The extemal Tigament may be supported by nymphs, thickened projections along the hinge line and the intemal ligament or tesilium may be supported by a socket-like resilfer. A large spoon-shaped resilifer is a chondrophore ‘The different types of hinge dentition are: taxodont, with alternating teeth and sockets mostly similar in form, in a series of varying length; heferodont, with small teeth of different sizes with both cardinal and lateral teeth; actinodont, with teeth radiating outward fiom the umbones; schizodont With actinodont teeth with denticulated edges; isodons, with one pair of teeth and one pair of pits on one valve that articulate with two pits and two teeth on the other valve; desmodont, with teeth very reduced or absent with accessory ridges lying along the margin to take their place; dysodons, with only small simple teeth near the edge of the valve; and paciyvdons, with one heavy, blunt, and shapeless hinge tooth, The interior of the shell is nacreous when isridescent and porcelaneous when white and ‘Wanslucent or opaque. The anterior margin may have a dyssal sinus through which the byssus, a bundle of fibrous strands of conchiolin secreted by the foot of some bivalves, passes to anchor the ‘animal to the hard substrate. TL Specimen: Are shell; heart shell; nmussel; or giant clam TIL Procedure Place the specimen provided by the teacher in a Petri dish or a dissecting plate. Follow the instructions below. (Use scale of reduction in parenthesis for the giant clam.)87 1. Sketch: a. Left valve, extemal side, dorsal side up, anterior end of the left, x 1 (x 1/3) ». Right valve, internal side, dorsal side up, anterior end to the left, x 1 (x 1/3) 2. Describe the specimen (see guide below). a. Examine features of the specimen under low magnification, 3. Key out the specimen to the species level (refer to the key on page 88). 4. Classify the species. 5. Give the family characteristics of the specimen, Complete the ttle of the exercise GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTION OF BIVALVES. SHELL: Shape: (orbiculay, trigonal, rhomboidal, quadrate, oval, oblong, elongate, etc) Lumule: present or absent; Estucheon: present or absent, Umbo: prosogyrous, opisthogyrous, orthogyrous; anterior, median, posterior Anterior end: Shape: rounded, truncate, pointed, rostrate; length relative to posterior end. Posterior end: Shape. ‘Ventral margin: Shape: straight, concave, convex; Type: entire, toothed, scalloped, etc. SCULPTURE: smooth, striate, lirate, or ribbed; plicate, costate, divaricate, or cancellate, Note the direction of striae, threads or ribs, PERIOSTRACUM: Color: Note if haity. HINGE LINE: straight, arched, Note if auricled, if so, ears equal or unequal; if unequal, which is longer, anterior or posterior ear? LIGAMENT: Position: external, intemal; Location: prosodetic, amphidetic, opisthodetic. Type: parivincular, alivincular, multivincular, duplivincular, ‘VALVES: equivalve or inequivalve (If inequivalve, shape and size of each valve); equilateral or inequilateral; Location of break: anterior, median, posterior. Hinge: edentate or dentate. Dentition: taxodont, heterodont, isodont, schizodont, actinodont, desmodont, dysodont, pachydont. If dentition not taxodont: Cardinal teeth: present or absent; if present, strong or weak Note if grooved, striate or denticulate, bifid or trifid. Lateral teeth (for anterior and posterior teeth): present or absent; if present, direction, Note if short or long, Note if distant from the cardinal teeth Pallial line: distinct, obscure; entire, discontisfuous; Pallial sinus: present or absent. Adductor or muscle scar; If dimyarian, relative size of anterior and posterior scars; isomyarian or ‘smisomyarian, If monomyarian, location of scar (central, anterior, posterior) Inner surface: nacreous, porcelaneous. Note if with ribs, threads, or striae. Margin: smooth, toothed, fluted, scalloped, crenulate MERISTICS: ‘When present, number of radial ribs or costae an external and internal surfaces, Teeth (for right and left valves) If dentition taxodont, number anterior fo umbones; number posterior to umbones. Tf dentition not taxodont, number of cardinal teeth; number of anterior lateral teeth; number of posterior lateral teeth, MEASUREMENTS: 0 EETa os ee 88 Shell: Height: cm/mm; Length: cm/mm; Diameter: cm/mm. ‘Auticles or wings: Anterior auricle Jength: cm/mm; Posterior auricle length: cm/mm. Phylum MOLLUSCA Unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical (bilateral asymmetry in some) soft-bodies metazoans with mantle covered by cuticular or calcareous secretions or both; with head with or without tentacles, a ventral muscular foot, reduced hemocoelic body cavity, usually with pharyngeal teeth (radula), complete digestive system, and ctenidia (gills) or lungs; circulatory system open or closed; nervous system with cerebral ganglia and two pairs of longitudinal body cords; sexes separate with some hermaphroditic forms. About 150,000 species in marine, fresh-water and terrestrial habitats, Key to the Classes of Mollusca 1. Body wormlike; shell absent cose soseseie 1. Body not wormlike; shell present, reduced or absent . 3 2. Radula usually present; mantle with chitinous cuticle and calcareous scales; mantle cavity posterior, with pair of gills; dioecious esse ee seeensCAUDOFOVEATA, 2. Radula present or absent; mantle usually covered with scales or spicules; mantle cavity postetior , with tue gills; hermaphroditic SOLENOGASTRES 3, Tentacles around mouth present; foot conical or modified into a funnel; shell I picce, tubular, coiled, reduced or absent ........ a 4 3. Tentacles around mouth absent; foot wedge-shape or flat shell I-8 pieces 5 4, Head absent; mouth with radula and tentacles; foot conical; shell tubular, open at both ends _SCAPHOPODA 4, Heead with radula, eyes and tentacles; foot modified into a funnel, shell coiled, reduced or Absent .... . cece CEPHALOPODA 5. Shell of I piece; foot broad ... cootistte snes G 5, Shell of 2-8 pieces; foot broad or wedge-shaped .. ceseeseteesetstesan 6. Body bilaterally symmetrical; shell uncoiled; gills 5 or 6 pairs ..... MONOPLACOPHORA 6. Body usually bilaterally asymmetrical; shell usually coiled; gills not more than one pair GASTROPODA 7. Foot wedge-shaped; shell of 2 pieces, joined by a dorsal ligament and usually enclosing all of of body... BIVALVIA 7. Foot broad and flat; shell of 8 pieces, not enclosing all of body POLYPLACOPHORA. Class BIVALVIA, Laterally compressed body, enclosed in a two-lobed mantle often extended to form incurrent and excurrent siphons; shell of two middorsally-hinged valves of variable size and form; head greatly reduced, mouth with Iabial parts; radula absent; ctenidia platelike; foot wedge-shaped to vermiform; burying in soft sediments or attached By byssus gland on foot to hard substrate. Five subclasses, 12 orders and 6,000 marine and 2,000 fresh-water species. Key to the Orders and Common Families (Note: Order names end in oida; Family names end in idae.) 1. Hinge dentition taxodont, with alternating more or less transversely. Pespendiclar test and sockets (teeth may be reduced to a few in some forms — 1. Hinge dentition not taxodont or hinge edentate .. 2. Ligament entirely or mostly external .. 2. Ligament internal, hinge teeth more than 8, on both sides of beaks ...... Nuculoida ..... 3. Hinge more or less arched with chevronlike taxodont teeth; ligament amphidetic, forming a e- silium resting in subumbonal chondrophores; shell porcelaneous or slightly iridescent within89 ; - - co NUCULANIDAE 3. Hinge with anterior and posterior rows of mote or less chevron-shaped teeth separated by subumbonal chondrophores, the longer row often extending partially over the chondrophore; ligament amphidetic, alivincular; shell very iridescent within NUCULIDAE 4. Ligament opisthodetic; hinge strong with numerous teeth continuous beneath the umbo; sculpture concentrig, inner margin not erenulate....Nuculoida - TINDARIIDAB 4. Ligament proso- opistho- or amphidetic; hinge usually has transverse, more or less perpen~ dicular denticulations; sculpture radial and/or inner margin cremulato .... Arcoida. 5 5, Hinge line arched with a series of more or less oblique taxodont teeth; ligament alivincular or in chevron-shaped grooves - — — 5. Hinge line more or less straight or slightly arcuated with numerous transverse, perpendicular, sometimes chevroned teeth, often diminishing in size medially; ligament proso- opistho- ot amphidetic - . . vs - so ARCIDAE 6. Ligament in chevron-shaped grooves, amphidetic or prosodetic; hinge line strongly arched, with perpendicularly transverse or chevroned teeth which diminish medially and distally along the anterior and posterior margins ...... esses GLYCYMERIDIDAB 6. Ligament alivincular, in a triangular pit under beaks; hinge line arched ..........LIMOPSIDAB 7. Dorsal margin with anterior and posterior triangular ears or ligament located in a series of pits (auultivincular) . . : eee 8 7. Dorsal margin without ears; ligament not located in a series of pits, may be irregularly multi, vinoular 2 B 8, Shell alate or spatulate; anterior adductor muscle smaller than posterior adductor muscle or absent; ligament alivincular, multivincular or elongate-opisthodetic . a 9 8. Shell not alate or spatulate ......... - . ie 9. Ligament alivincular, ina triangular pit . we soso 10 9. Ligament multivincular, in a parallel perpendicular grooves pr pits along dorsal margins: shell squarish or rounded to elongate and narrow .. -ISOGNOMINIDAE 10, Shell ovate to suborbicular, usually with anterior and posterior triangular alate projections (ears); umbo prosogyToUs ©... esses ; -PTERIDAE, 10. Shell irregular, usually with posteroventrally directed growth, hammer-shaped: umbo often Opisthogyrous eos peseeneee stuns sees ee sees MALLEIDAB 11. Bars small or absent; shell clongate-ovate, suborbicular or subtrigonal, often much higher than long; hinge usually straight and short Limoida... ee eecceseeoeeenetssteseenLIMIDAE 11. Bars large or one of ears large. Shell more or less as high as long ........Ostteoida --svves..12 12, Sculpture radial ribs with spines; hinge in adults straight with ball and socket arrangement of large curved or hooked isodont crural teeth and respective sockets in each valve; shell usually attached by right valve to substrate . 7 SPONDYLIDAE 12, Sculpture smooth or of radial ribs or folds and/or concentric lamellae without spines; hinge in adults with central cardinal isodont crural or lameallrtoeth; shell usually by right valve to substrate cece eeecenvesteae PECTINIDAE 13. Adductor muscle scars dimyarian, or if monomyarian in adult, IeRt valve with one and right valve with two posterior lateral teeth ~ 16 13, Adductor muscle scar monomyarian, located subcentrally . eee 14, Shell trigonal; periostracum not hirsute, shell large to 360 mm Pterioida PINNIDAE 14, Shell not trigonal . . es O8tCOd. ess sseeenel 5 15. Adductor muscle scar simple, with one central scar; ligament alivincular or irregularly multi ‘vincular; shell attached to substrate on left valve or free . OSTREIDAE 15. Adductor muscle scar complex, central area showing two or more scars: ligament alivincular; shell attached to substrate on right valve or free, rounded, very compressed, surface smooth .. — - PLACUNIDAE 16. Hinge simple, without conspicuous interlocking cardinal teeth, projecting chondrophores, ‘or myophores (may have inconspicuous denticles or a resilifer on hinge plate, or left valve may fit into lateral grooves in tight valves) ....... - 18 16. Hinge complex, with 2 or more interlocking cardinal teeth in ate least one vaive, or with a single cardinal tooth, or completely edentate but with either projecting apophysis inSco valve interior or a chondrophote supporting the resilial of ligament or both ........:neu17 17, Apophysis projecting into valve interior; hinge with one cardinal tooth or entirely edentate But with a chondrophore supporting the resilial clement of the ligament ..... Myoida...........39 17. Apophysis absent; hinge with two or more interlocking cardinal teeth in at least one valve; anterior and postetior adductor muscles subequal, mainly dimyarian ..... Veneroida .......22 18, Beaks anterior, prosogyrous in most; adductor muscle scars anisomyarian, anterior scar ‘Smaller, near beaks -Mytiloida ........ MYTILIDAE, 18, Beaks not anterior, not prosogyrous; adductor muscle scars isomyarian; periostracum if consepicuous, not produced well beyond margin eeseeeseeenseeneenee 9 19, Right valve cemented to substratum, strecida. .. DIMYIDAE 19. Right or left valve not cemented to substratum; shell porcelaneous within . 20. Shell valves gaping ventrally or anteriorly; pallial line continuous; pallial sinus deep ... Myoida ..... GASTROCHAENIDAE. 21 20. Shell valves closing tightly . _ _ 21, Pallial sinus distinct; umbos orthogyrous; left valve smaller... Pholadomyoida...... STHRACIDAE 21. Pallal sinus absent, radial ribs feeble or absent; ligament external, large, bulbous; hinge with 2 nonbifid, conical, and hooked cardinal teeth in each valve; left valve with one and right valve with 2 anterior lateral tecth, both valves with one posterior lateral tooth . Veneroida, seen CARDIDAB 22. Shell cemented to substratura by one valve; sculpture concentric or radial or both, some- ‘times drawn out into lamellae, spines, or folds; umbes spirally wound, ‘PrOsogyroUs .. (CHAMIDAE 22, Shell not cemented to substratum 23 23. Shell cylindrical, gaping at ends 24 23, Shell not cylindrical 25 24, Umbos anteriorly terminal or nearly so; anterior and posterior adductor muscles narrow. ly elongate and dorsally positioned; hinge with only one cardinal tooth in each valve; valves with or without intemal reinforcing ribs ....... s+stseene-SOLENIDAE 24. Umbos not anteriorly terminal, valves approximately equilateral; hinge usually with small anterior and posterior cardinal teeth, the posterior tending to be bifid; valves without in- ternal reinforcing ribs... TELLINIDAB 25, Sculpture of radial ribs over most of surface, showing as crenulations within, reduced in some to internal crenulations only ........ 25. Sculpture absent, commarginal, cancellate, or only weakly radial 26. Shell subquadrate, with deep Iunule; cardinal teeth 2 on left valve and 3 on right valve (the anterior being obsolete), the teeth usually transversely striate CARDITIDAE, 26, Shell suborbicular, to ovate to subtrigonal or subquadrate 27 21, Hinge with anterior and posterior lateral teeth rarely with posterior lateral teeth only . 27, Hinge without or with rudimentary lateral teeth, or with only an anterior lateral tooth; cardi nal teeth 2 on left and 3 om right valve (the anterior being obsolete) the eth usally transversely striate CARDITIDAE 28. Ligament entirely or partially internal 29 28. Ligament entirely extemal 30 29. Palial sinus present; ligament of a small external element which may be absent, and an inter- nal more or less subtriangular resilium set in excavated, oblique, projecting chondrophores in cach valve; sculpture smooth to commarginal; hinge with an inverted V-shaped cardinal in each valve’. essen MACTRIDAE 29, Pallal sinus absent; ligament in resilifer directly below umbones soulpture heavy, commar- ginal, sometimes confined to beaks only cece CRASSATELLIDAE 30. Pallial sinus conspicuous ... see 30. Pallial sinus absent or very shallow .. 31. Hinge with three cardinal teeth on one or both valves; ligament, opisthodeti, parivincular, generally deeply set in a groove .. .VENERIDAE 31. Hinge with 2 cardinal teeth in each valve, Tigament opisthodetic, parivincular, seated on91 nytaphs, or if resiial portion is sunken, set in a pit or chondrophore in the hinge plate .......32 32.Hinge line arched, with small anterior and posterior cardinal tecth, the posterior one ten ding to be bifid, lateral teeth if present generally better developed in right valve, shell rounded anteriorly, rostrate or elongate posteriorly; umb0s LOW .....+.-.-.....«.TELLINIDAE, 52. Hinge line straight, with two cardinal teeth, the strongest bifid, usually with anterior and posterior lateral teeth in right valve and corresponding sockets in left valve, lateral teeth sometimes reduced .... en -DONACIDAE, 33. Anterior adductor muscle scar narrower than posterior, its lower end detached from the pallial Line; hinge with 2 usually radial cardinal teeth, and one anterior and one posterior distal, horizontally disposed lateral tooth, teeth may be altered or reduced .......... LUCINIDAB 33. Anterior and posterior adductor muscle scars more or less equal in shape its lower end not detached from the pallial ine; hinge with cardinal teeth radial 34, Cardinal teeth 3 in one or both valves - eevee 35 34. Cardinal teeth 2 in each valve; anterior and posterior lateral teeth present ..... LUCINIDAB 35. Cardinal teeth 3 in each valve .. - (Chione) ....... VENERIDAE 35. Cardinal teeth 3 in right valve, 2 in left valve; hinge commonly with strong anterior and posterior lateral teeth which may be somewhat serrate and usually laminate and double in the right valve, and single in the left valve - 36. Cardinal teeth, small, tubercular 36, Cardinal teeth projecting . ee 37. Cardinal teeth usually one, oblique and lamellar in each valve; right valve with two posterior lateral teeth; sculpture of more or less rounded large ribs with or without scales; margin scalloped; length to over 1000 mm. ree _ ~TRIDACNIDAE 37. Cardinal teeth two in each valve, one of two teeth may be smaller or obsolete: right valve With one or two posterior lateral teeth; length about 30 mm to over 150 mm .. eee BB 38. Right valve with 2 anterior and one posterior lateral teeth, upper anterior lateral tooth tooth may be obsolete, lateral teeth in both valves usually short and distant from the cardinal teeth; cardinal teeth nonbifid, conical and hooked, left anterior and right pos- terior ones may be stronger; umbos usually orthogyrous; length to over 150 mm . 7 soc tees serta eon seeees CARDIIDAB 38, Right valve with two antetior and two posterior lateral teeth; cardinal teeth with anterior one strong in left valve and weak in right valve, posterior one weal in left valve and strong in right valve; length usually less than 30 mm ......... HEMIDONACIDAE 39. Hinge with one central tooth in right valve fitting into a socket of left valve and with a hori- zontally projecting chondrophore in left valve received into a socket in right valve 40 39. Hinge edentate, or valves with ventrally projecting chondrophore; shell gaping anteriorly, boring; anterior adductor muscle more or less reduced, inserted on preumbonal reflection of dorsal margin and covered by an accessory shelly plate, trimyarian PHOLADIDAE 40, Pallial sinus well developed, large; hinge edentate setenssestees sos seeemMYIDAE 40. Pallial sinus indistinct or absent; hinge degenerate, with one central tooth in the right valve fitting into a socket of the left valve, lateral teeth obscure ............... CORBULIDAE, 34 Family Arcidae Shell subtrapezoidal, oblong or ovate, more or less transversely inflated; equivalve and inequilateral; umbos anteriad; periostracum fibrous and pilose; sculpture usually radial with concentrio lirations forming a reticulate or costate surface; shell porcelaneous inside; anterior and posterior adductor muscles more or less subequal, the posterior adductor coextensive with the simple nonsinuate pallial line; hinge taxodont, teeth diminishing in size medially; ligament external, and prosodeti, opisthodetic or amphidetic, To less than 125 mm. Marine, estuarine, and rarely freshwater. About 200 species mainly in shallow tropical seas. Key to Common Philippine Species of Arcidae 1. Shell margin fluted and toothed internally; surface strongly ribbed, ribs flat topped, not beaded=} oe mO OOOO we es eS = mm a = 92 to grainy and almost beaded ees seeeoe(Anadard) 2 1. Shell margin not fluted and toothed internally; surface ribbed but not strongly ribs beaded (Barbatia) 4 2. Surface hairy, periostracum brownish, flat-topped ribs about 30-40; posterior end of shell rounded or obtuse 3 2. Surface hairless; flat-topped ribs grainy to almost beaded, about 20-23; posterior end obtuse to ‘truncate; to about 52 mm high, 65 mm long, 50-mm in breadth 2... A. granosa 43, Shell subtrapezoidal; ribs about 34-40; posterior end obtuse; to about 50 mm high, 77 mm long, 40, ‘mm in breadth eevee, antiquata 3. Shell ovate-orbicular; ribs about 30-32; posterior end rounded; to about 75 mm high, 82 mm long, 62 mim in breadth ..... sevens cepoides 4. Shell oblong and hairy, lightly beaded; whitish-green to yellowish inside; to about 22 mm High, 36 mm long, 16 mm on breadth B. obtusoides 4, Shell ovate, posteriorly extended, hairy and distinctly beaded; white; to about 22 mm high, 32 mm long, 18 mm in breadth seveessesecen ene. Hat Family Cardiidae Shell rounded-ovate to subtrigonal or subquadrate, equivalve, rarely equilateral, usually higher than long, umbos orthogyrous, often with a posterior umbo-to-ventral ridge; margins usually denticulated or undulate. Sculpture smooth to chiefly radially ribbed or striated, ribs sometimes spinose or scalloped. Periostracum usually inconspicuous and weak, rarely well developed; shell porcellaneous and nonnacreous internally, dimyarian, adductor muscles subequal; pallial line simple and nonsinuate. Hinge with two nonbifid, conical, and hooked cardinal teeth in each valve, anterior cardinal tooth larger in left valve and may be smaller in right valve; valves with one posterior lateral tooth, left valve with one and right valve with two anterior lateral teeth, the lateral teeth usually short and distant from the cardinal teeth, sometimes teeth obsolete or atrophied Ligament external, parivincular, opisthodetic, short, set in a groove, To over 150 mm in Iength or height, shallow, infaunal animals capable of jumping and swimming with their geniculate foot. About 200 species in practically all seas Key to the Common Philippine Species 1. Shell with umbo-to-ventral margin ridge on posterior side; posterior margin not toothed .......2 1. Shell ovoid, without umbo-to-ventral margin ridge; posterior margin toothed ............00.00-3 2. Radial ribs anterior to ridge few, wide and flat topped; shell yellowish-white outside, porce- Ianeous white inside with some reddish-brown spots, Hemicardium hemicardium 2. Radial ribs not wide and flat topped; shell yllow to rose, about 49 mm high, 12 mm long, 42 mm in diameter .......... Corculum cardissa 3. Lateral teeth very long; radial ribs about 26, cross striae froming spine-like lamellae atthe sides; shell white to pinkish brown outside; creamy white, shiny and pnk-odged inside, about 45 mm high, 43 mm long, 35 mm in diameter cone -Rigozora flava 3. Lateral teeth short; radial ribs about 28-39 _-Trachycardium .$ 4, Radial ribs about 28-32, sharp edged, cross striae froming spine-like lamellae at the sides and tops, the lamellae more prominent on the most anterior and the most posterior ribs: shell whitish to tawny-gray with patches of weak vellow. brown or dall purple externally; glossy. commonly brightly hued with salmon, reddish and purple intemally; to about 58 mm high, 49 mm long, 38 mm in diameter -T. egmontianum 4, Radial ribs ubout 34-39, flat topped, anterior ones with fine lamellae along the edges; shell yellowish-white, with reddish brown markings and often with pinkish-purple concentric ‘bands or blotches extemally, white internally; to about 108 mm hig, 82:mm lng, 65 mm in diameter T. pristipleura Family Glycymeridaeia I i l E E i i i i I I I i I I I i I i 93, Shell subciroular to subtriangular, generally slightly truncate or sub-angular posteriorl equivalve and more or less equilateral with submedian umbos which may be prosogyrous, orthogyrous or opisthogyrous; inner valve margins almost always crenulate; periostracum velvety. sculpture smooth to strongly radial; anterior and posterior adductor muscles subequal; hinge plate broad and strongly arched, taxodont, the teeth diminishing in size medially and distally along the anterior and posterior margins, larger teeth commonly crenulate; ligament amphidetic or prosodetio. Generally less than 100 mm. Genera 4, species 50 worldwide. Glycemeris reve Mayer Shell rounded,w ith coarse radiating ribs which are made up of minute, thin concentric riblets, chestnut brown to dark with dispersed white spots extemally, dark brown inside; 16 mm high,19 mm long, 13 mm in breadth, Family Malleidae Shell irregular, generally with posteroventrally directed growth, elongate, rather thin, and often ‘with both anterior and posterior alations; valve margins commonly gaping or irregularly wrinkled or notched posteriorly; shell inequivalve, subequilateral to inequilateral; umbos anterior often ophistogyrous; mostly monomyarian as adults, anterior adductor muscle reduced, posterior adductor muscle arcuate, its posterior ventral margin tangential to the obsolete, nonsinuate, somewhat discontinuous pallial line; hinge more or less elongate, ligament alivincular, large, triangular set in a median triangular pit. To over 250 mm in length. Species less than in two cosmopolitan genera, the bysally attached Malleus and the sponge commensal Vulsella, Key to the Common Philippine Species of Malleus 1. Shell hammer-shaped; white; ca. 227 mm high, 180 mm fong, 30 mm in breadth .....V6 albus 1. Shell hammer-shaped; dark reddish-brown to bluish-black with white to creamy blotches; ca, 170 mm high, 215 mm long, 65 mm in breadth ....... vee . M. malleus Family Mytilidae Shell generally equivalve, subpyriform, rounded or elongate and thin; usually strongly incquilateral, anterior end often narrowed and pointed; umbos anterior, prosogyrous; sculpture smooth or radial; periostracam conspicuons, frequently hirsute, often black, blue, brownish or green; suisomyarian, rarely monomyarian; anterior adductor nmscle small, displaced ventrally, rarely absent, Posterior adductor muscle has postero-ventral margin coincident with pallial line; pallial line simple, catire, rarely with shallow posterior concavity: hinge edentate or has slight crenulations before and/or after the ligament which is alivincalar or elongate-opisthodetic. To about 100 mm, Marine, estuarine, and rarely fresh-water. Species about 250 worldwide. Key to Common Philippine Species of Mytilidae 1. Shell subpyriform, compressed, inflated, anterior end pointed or narrowed .. . 2 1. Shell cyclindrical, elongate, tapering posteriorly; periostracum yellow-brown; about 27 mn high, 98 mm long, 27 mm in breadth ..... eevee 1 -0sse.ccithophaga hancocki 2. Periostracum deep green; shell slightly falcate, swollen evenly; hinge dysodont, hinge line forms a shallow rounded angle with the posterior end; about 120 mm high, 48 mm long, 32 ram in breadth... secsssssssnseee ———— Mytilus smaragdinus 2. Periostracum shining yellow-brown, darker dorsally with a pale brand below, shell most swollen mediall; hinge edentate; hinge line forms a distinct angle with posterior end. V7_—_ Bin 105.2 Systema Es FED Sysfe